An introduction to Earthquake engineering

An Introduction to Earthquake Engineering (BEG 454CI)

B.E civil IV/I
Acme Engineering college
(Purbanchal University)

Er. Adarsha Thapa

Acme Engineering College

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An introduction to Earthquake engineering

Chapter one
Introduction
1.1 Effects of earthquakes (on buildings)
An earthquake event can create different hazards for a structure. The effect that is of
primary interest to a designer is the inertial response of structures to ground acceleration that
occurs during an earthquake.
Ground shaking during an earthquake generates inertial forces in the structure. This
inertial force is in response to the self weight of the structure undergoing acceleration from an
initially rest position. (Newton's second law of motion).
Earthquake induced ground motions create inertial forces significantly in the lateral
direction by shaking the structures back and forth.

Horizontal and vertical shaking

Earthquake causes shaking of the ground in all three directions - along the two horizontal
directions (N-S, E-W) and the vertical direction (up-down).
 Structures are primarily designed to carry gravity loads(vertical loads), i.e. they are
designed for a force equal to the mass (this includes mass due to self weight and
imposed loads) times the acceleration due to gravity in the vertical downward
direction.

 The vertical acceleration during ground shaking either adds to or subtracts from the
acceleration due to gravity. Since factors of safety are used in the design of structures
to resist the gravity loads, usually most structures tend to be adequate against vertical
shaking.

o However, horizontal shaking along the N-S, E-W directions is usually of

major concern to the designer. Structures designed for gravity loads, in
general, may not be able to safely sustain the effects of horizontal earthquake
shaking. Hence it is often necessary to design a structure for resisting the
significant lateral loads that can arise during an earthquake.

1.2 Theories and criteria of earthquake design

General as well as specific theories (principles) and criteria for earthquake design are
given in IS 1893(part I) 2002 -'Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of structures'. Other
additional criteria are also given by design codes such as; IS4326- 'Earthquake resistant
design and construction of buildings', IS13920- 'Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete
structures' etc.

Some of the important principles(theory) and criteria given in IS1893(section 6) are;

I. The design philosophy adopted in the code is to ensure that structures possess at least
a minimum strength to;
i. resist minor earthquake (<DBE*) which may occur frequently, without
damage;

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ii.resist moderate earthquake (DBE) without significant structural damage,

though some non-structural damage may occur
iii. resist major earthquake (MCE*) without collapse
*(Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) is defined as the maximum earthquake that reasonably can
be expected to be experienced at the site once during the lifetime of the structure. The
earthquake corresponding to the ultimate safety requirements if often called as Maximum
Considered Earthquake (MCE). DBE and MCE are classified based on probability.)
II. Actual forces that appear on structures during earthquakes are much higher than the
design forces specified in the code. It is recognized that the complete protection
against earthquakes of all sizes is not economically feasible and design based alone on
strength criteria is not justified.
 The basic criteria of earthquake resistant design should be based on lateral
strength as well as deformability and ductility capacity of structure with
limited damage, but no collapse.
 Ductility in the structures will arise from inelastic material behaviour and
detailing of reinforcement in such a manner that brittle failure is avoided and
ductile behaviour is induced by allowing steel to yield in a controlled manner.
Hence the gap between actual and design forces is reduced by utilizing the
additional reserve strength available due to ductility of the structure.

III. The design lateral forces specified in the code shall be considered in each of the two
orthogonal directions of the structure. For structures which have lateral force resisting
elements in the two orthogonal directions only, the design lateral force shall be
considered along one direction at a time, and not in both directions simultaneously.

1.3 Basic requirements for earthquake resistant structures

The important characteristics that any earthquake resistant structure should possess are;
1) Adequate stiffness and strength
2) Ductility and toughness
3) Regularity
4) Continuous load path
5) Redundancy
6) Stable foundations
Adequate stiffness and strength: Strong earthquakes will induce both vertical and lateral
forces in a structure. The lateral forces that that tend to move structures horizontally have
proven to be particularly damaging. If a structure has inadequate lateral stiffness or strength,
these lateral forces can produce large horizontal displacements in the structure and potentially
cause instability.
o Hence a structure should possess adequate strength to resist both gravity and lateral
loads.
o The structure should also possess adequate lateral stiffness to limit the deflections.
Ductility and toughness: Ductility and toughness are structural properties that relate to the
ability of a structural element to sustain damage when overloaded while continuing to carry

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load without failure. These are extremely important properties for structures designed to
sustain damage without collapse.

o Most structural elements are designed to provide sufficient strength to support

anticipated loads without failure and enough stiffness so that they will not deflect
excessively under these loads. If such an element is subjected to a load substantially
larger than it was designed to carry, it may fail in an abrupt manner, losing load-
carrying capacity and allowing the structure to collapse.
o Masonry and concrete will crush when overloaded in compression and will crack and
pull apart when placed in tension or shear.
o Wood will crush when overloaded in compression, will split when overloaded in
shear, and will break when overloaded in tension.
o Steel will buckle if overloaded in compression and will twist when overloaded in
bending if not properly braced, but will yield when overloaded in tension. When steel
yields, it stretches a great deal while continuing to carry loads, and this property
allows it to be used in structures of all types to provide them with ductility and
toughness.
Regularity: A structure is regular if the distribution of its mass, strength, and stiffness is such
that it will sway in a uniform manner when subjected to ground shaking. Hence for a regular
structure the lateral movement in each storey(elevation), and on each side of the structure
(plan) will be about the same.
o Regular structures tend to dissipate the earthquake's energy uniformly throughout the
structure resulting in relatively light but well distributed damage.
o In an irregular structure, however, the damage can be concentrated in one or a few
locations, resulting in extreme local damage and a loss of the structure's ability to
survive the shaking.
Continuous load path: It is very important that all parts of a building or structure, including
non-structural components, be tied together to provide a continuous path that will transfer the
inertial forces resulting from ground shaking from the point of origination to the ground.
If all the components of a building or structure are not tied together in this manner, the
individual pieces will move independently and can pull apart, allowing partial or total
collapse to occur.
Redundancy: If all of a structure's strength and resistance is concentrated in only one or a
few elements, the structure will not have any residual strength if these elements are seriously
damaged and it could collapse.
If a structure is redundant, a relatively large number of elements participate in providing a
structure's strength and, if only a few are badly damaged, the remaining elements may have
adequate residual strength to prevent collapse.
Stable foundations: In addition to being able to support a structure's weight without
excessive settlement, the foundation system must be able to resist earthquake induced
overturning forces and be capable of transferring large lateral forces between the structure
and the ground.
On sites that can be subjected to liquefaction or lateral spreading, it is important to provide
vertical bearing support for the foundation beneath the liquefiable layers of soil.

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Chapter 2.0
Fundamental of Earthquake Engineering
Causes of Earthquakes
Ground motion generated by sudden displacement within the earth's crust is called an
earthquake.

Earthquakes may result from a number of natural and human-induced phenomenon.

Natural causes include meteoric impact, and volcanic activity. Human related activities that
can cause earthquakes are underground nuclear explosions, rock stress changes induced by
the filling of large reservoirs, and excavation in mines.

However, the vast majority of damaging earthquakes originate at, or adjacent to, the
boundaries of crustal tectonic plates, due to relative deformations at the boundaries.

Plate tectonics: According to the widely accepted theory of plate tectonics, the crust and
upper part of the mantle of the earth, called the lithosphere, is about 50Km thick under the
deepest oceans and 150Km thick under the highest mountains. The lithosphere is subdivided
into tectonic plates, which moves as rigid bodies on a relatively soft asthenosphere due to the
convection currents that circulate as a result of the temperature and pressure difference
between the core and the crust.

Tectonic plates

Because of the relative displacements between the two adjoining plates, high stresses
are induced in the bedrock materials within the affected zones. In the case where the stresses
exceed the material strength, or the frictional capacity at the plate interface, the accumulated
strain energy is released in the form of earthquake shock waves.

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There are three different types of plate boundaries:

1. Divergent (constructive)
2. Convergent (destructive)
3. Transform(conservative)

Mechanism of earthquakes (Elastic rebound theory)

The Elastic rebound theory helps to explain the mechanism of an earthquake.
According to this theory, the strain energy is accumulated in a rock material along a fault due
to relative deformation of the adjacent rocks. After a long period of time, between two
earthquakes, the strain energy reaches its ultimate limit after which the rock fractures and
slips back towards a stress-free state. This slippage releases the tremendous amount of strain
energy that had accumulated due to the distortion in the rock.

Elastic rebound theory

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Faults: A fault is defined as a fracture or crack in the rock along which some definite
movement has taken place. Earthquakes are mainly caused due to sudden slip at faults which
results in shaking of earth. This sudden slip results in release of large amount of energy.

Based on fault movement, faults can be classified into four main categories,

1. Normal dip-slip fault

2. Reverse dip-slip fault
3. Strike-slip fault
4. Oblique slip fault

Focus (Hypocenter) of an earthquake: The place of origin of earthquake in the interior of

the earth is known as the focus or hypocenter of an earthquake. The focus is the rupture point
within the earth's crust and it represents the source of emission of energy.

Epicenter: The point on the earth's surface that lies vertically above the focus is called the
Epicenter.

 Focal depth is the depth of the focus below the Epicenter.

 Focal distance is the distance from the focus to a given reference point.
 Epicentral distance is the distance from the Epicenter to a given reference point.

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Seismic Waves: The large amount of energy released during an earthquake causes radial
propagation of waves within the earth. These waves are called seismic waves which transmit
energy from one point to another through different layers of soil and rock. The waves reflect
and refract on their way to the earth's surface.
Seismic waves can be classified into two main categories:
1. Body wave
2. Surface wave

Body waves: Body waves are generated at the rupture zone and they propagate within the
earth's interior. There are two types of body waves;
i. Primary waves(P-waves)
ii. Secondary Waves (S-waves)

Primary waves: These are longitudinal waves which vibrate in the same direction as the
propagation of the wave. They travel in a push-pull manner similar to sound waves. The
main characteristics of P-waves are ;

 P-waves travel faster than S-waves and are thus first to arrive at a recording
station
 They travel through all forms of matter (Solid, liquid, and gas)
 The velocity of P-waves depend on the density and compressibility of the
medium

Secondary waves (S-waves): These are transverse or shear waves which cause particles to
vibrate in perpendicular direction to the propagation of the wave. They are slower than P-
waves and hence arrive at a recording station after P-waves. Other important characteristics
of S-waves are;

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 S-waves travel only through solids and not through fluids (liquid and gas)
since fluids do not have any shear resistance.
 Their velocity depends on the density and shear strength of material through
which they pass.

Surface waves: Surface waves are the result of reflection and refraction of P and S-waves
during propagation in stratified formation of the earth's crust. They travel along the surface of
the earth and are of two types;

i. Love waves
ii. Rayleigh waves

Love waves: They vibrate in a horizontal plane parallel to the earth's surface and
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
 Love waves travel faster than Rayleigh waves and cannot travel through fluids
 Love waves along with S-waves cause more damage to structures

Rayleigh waves: These are surface waves that vibrate in an elliptical orbit in the vertical
plane.

Measure of earthquakes (quantification)

The size of an earthquake is measured by determining its magnitude and intensity.
Magnitude: The magnitude of an earthquake is determined on the basis of the amount of
energy released at the earthquake focus. Hence, magnitude is a quantitative measure of an
earthquake.
 One of the widely used magnitude scale is the Richter scale, proposed by Charles
Richter in 1935.
 A single earthquake event can have only one magnitude an hence the magnitude of an
earthquake is independent of the location at which the measurement is obtained.

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Intensity: An earthquake can also be measured based on its effect on people, built
environment, and the natural environment. This observed effect on the surface of the earth's
crust during and after an earthquake event is known as intensity of an earthquake.
 Hence, Intensity is a qualitative measure of an earthquake.
 For the same magnitude earthquake, the intensity can vary widely at different
locations.
 One of the most widely used intensity scale is the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale
(MMI). Other Intensity scales include European Macroseismic scale(EMS),
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK).
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale (MMI scale)
Intensity Acceleration(cm/s2) Damage Potential
I Less than 1 only instruments can record
II Over 1 felt only on upper floors
III Over 2.5 felt by people at rest and indoor
IV Over 5 felt by people in motion, glass panes of window rattle.
V Over 10 (0.01g) cracking of plaster, people are disturbed
people panic and run outdoors, perceptible damage to
VI Over 30
buildings
VII Over 100 (0.1g) well-designed and well constructed structures are affected
well-designed and well constructed buildings are badly
IX Over 300
damaged
destruction of large number of well-designed and well-
X Over 650 constructed buildings, damage to roads and rails, cracks in
grounds, sliding of slopes, liquefactions
most of the buildings are destroyed, damage to bridges and
XI Over 1000 (g)
dams
total destruction, waves seen on ground surface, rivers
XII Over 3000
courses altered, large amount of rocks may move

Types of Earthquakes (classification)

Earthquakes can be classified on the following basis;
1. Based on depth of focus:
Shallow earthquakes - Depth < 70 Km
Intermediate earthquakes - Depth between 70-300 Km
Deep earthquakes - Depth>300 Km
2. Based on Magnitude:
Great if M>8.0
Major if M = 7.0-7.9
Strong if M = 6.0 - 6.9
Moderate if M= 5.0-5.9
Light if M = 4.0-4.9
Minor if M = 3.0-3.9
Micro if M <3.0

3. Based on location:
Inter-plate - earthquakes that occur along the tectonic plate boundaries

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Intra-plate- earthquakes occurring away from plate boundaries

4. Based on epicentral distance (Δ):

Local earthquake - Δ < 1 degree
Regional - Δ < 1 to 10 degrees
Teleseismic - Δ > 10 degrees

Measuring magnitude of an earthquake using different available methods

I. Richter magnitude (ML) : The Richter magnitude is also known as local magnitude.
The scale was defined by Charles Richter in 1935. According to Richter, the
magnitude of an earthquake M is given by a logarithm of a maximum displacement
amplitude A (in µm), recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismograph located at exactly
100Km from the Epicenter.
 The standard Wood-Anderson seismograph has a natural frequency of 1.25
Hz, a critical damping ratio of 0.8 and amplification factor of 2800.

𝑀𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴0
𝐴
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐴0

where, A is recorded earthquake displacement amplitude in µm

A0 is amplitude for zero magnitude earthquake (equal to 1 µm

for epicentral distance of 100Km)

II. Body Wave Magnitude (mB): The body wave magnitude is based on amplitude of P-
waves and can be expressed as;

𝐴
𝑚𝐵 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 𝜎(∆, ℎ)
𝑇 𝑚𝑎𝑥

where, A is ground displacement amplitude in µm for P-wave

T is time period of P-waves in seconds
Δ is epicentral distance in degrees
h is focal depth of the location of seismograph recording

III. Surface wave magnitude (Ms): The Ms scale is used to quantify stronger
earthquakes. It is based on the recordings of amplitudes of surface waves with a
period T of 20±2 seconds.
A commonly used equation for computing Ms of a shallow focus (<50km) earthquake
from seismograph records between epicentral distances (20° < ∆< 160°) can be
given as;

𝐴
𝑀𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑠 ) + 1.66 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ∆ + 3.3
𝑇 𝑚𝑎𝑥

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where, As is the displacement amplitude of surface wave in µm

T, is the period of surface waves in seconds
Δ is the epicentral distance in degrees

IV. Moment magnitude scale (MW): The ML, mB,and MS scales are all based on using
the maximum recorded amplitude of seismic waves to determine the magnitude of an
earthquake event. These three scales have been found to under-estimate the energy
released during a very large earthquake event. Hence, seismologists have developed a
standard magnitude scale, known as the moment magnitude scale, which can be more
accurate for large earthquakes. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is calculated
using the amount of moment released during an earthquake.

 The seismic moment released depends on the physical dimension of the

rupture (A), shear strength of the rock(µ), and the average displacement of the
fault plane(d). Hence, the seismic moment is given by;
𝑀0 = 𝜇. 𝐴. 𝑑

 The moment magnitude, MW, can be determined using the following equation;
2
𝑀𝑊 = [ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑀0 (𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒. 𝑐𝑚) − 16.0 ]
3

(note: 1 Nm = 107dyne.cm, or 1N=105dyne)

# An earthquake causes an average of 2.6m strike-slip displacement over a 75km long, 22km
deep portion of a transform fault. Assuming the rock along the fault has an average rupture
strength of 180KPa, estimate the seismic moment released and hence the moment magnitude
of the earthquake.

Solution:

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Average fault displacement , d = 2.6 m

Length of fault, L = 75 Km

Depth of fault, D = 22 Km

Average rupture strength, µ = 180 KPa = 180×103 N/m2

We have, Seismic moment released, 𝑀0 = 𝜇. 𝐴. 𝑑 = (180×103)×(75×22×106)×2.6

= 7.72×1014 Nm = (7.72×1014)×107

= 7.72×1021 dyne-cm
2
Hence, Moment magnitude, 𝑀𝑊 = [ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑀0 − 16.0 ]
3

2
= [ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (7.72 × 1021 ) − 16.0 ]
3

= 3.93

∴ 𝑀𝑊 = 3.93

# A seismograph located 1200 Km from the Epicenter of an earthquake, records a maximum

ground displacement of 15.6mm for surface waves having a period of 20 s. Based on these
assumptions, determine the surface wave magnitude of the earthquake.

Solution:

We have, maximum ground displacement amplitude, As = 15.6mm = 15.6×103 µm

Time period of Surface waves, T = 20 s

Total circumference of the earth = 40,076 Km

Hence, 40076 𝐾𝑚 → 360°

360°
1200 𝐾𝑚 → × 1200 = 10.78°
40076

Epicentral distance in degrees, ∆=10.78°

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𝐴
Surface magnitude, 𝑀𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑠 ) + 1.66 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ∆ + 3.3
𝑇 𝑚𝑎𝑥

15.6×103
𝑀𝑠 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 1.66 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10.78°) + 3.3
20

∴ 𝑀𝑆 = 7.9

Time history (response history)

The time history is the ground motion record that is, plot of the acceleration, velocity, and
displacement, of a point on the ground surface as a function of time for the entire duration of
earthquake.

The maximum amplitude of the recorded acceleration is termed as the peak response
acceleration. Similarly the peak response velocity, and the peak response displacement, are
the maximum amplitude of the recorded velocity and displacement respectively.

1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, Taiwan. recorded ground acceleration history (NS-component)

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Displacement response history

Response Spectra

The response spectrum is a standard method of representation of the response of structures to

ground acceleration. It is the summarisation of response histories in terms of the peak
response of all SDOF systems with different natural periods.

Hence, the response spectrum is a plot of peak value of a response quantity such as
acceleration, velocity, or displacement of an SDOF system as a function of natural vibration
period Tn of the system with a particular damping ratio. Several such plots for different
values of damping ratios can be included to cover the range of damping values included in
actual structures.

Acceleration response spectra from 1985 Chile earthquake

Design Response Spectrum

The response spectrum for actual ground motion is quite irregular and hence the
individual spectrum is not convenient for use in design. The design response spectrum is
based on the statistical analysis of the response spectra for the ensemble of ground motions
which is smooth and representative. The design response spectrum is not intended to match

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the response spectrum of any particular ground motion, but it represents the average of
response spectra of several ground motions.

The design response spectrum is supposed to cover the wide range of natural periods
and the practical range of damping values so that it provides the peak response of all possible
structures. The design response spectrum is presented in the seismic standards. In the Indian
standard, the acceleration response spectrum is presented for 5% damping with the
modification factors for other values of damping.

IS 1893 (2002) - Design Response Spectrum for 5% damping

Earthquake force parameters

The ground motion characteristics at a location during an earthquake is useful in
assessing the seismic demand on structures built near the location. The strong motions are
measured by accelerographs. The record or time history of ground acceleration gives the
accelerogram. The accelerographs are generally influenced by the type of seismic action,
focal distance, path of wave propagation, orientation of the site with respect to the fault line,
local site conditions and topography.

The peak values of ground acceleration, velocity, and displacement, are known as
amplitude parameters. These amplitude parameters give an idea of the severity of shaking at
a site.

Peak Ground Acceleration

The peak horizontal acceleration (PGA) is the most commonly used measure of
strength of ground shaking at a site. PGA relates directly to the maximum inertial forces
generated in the structure. PGA is normally expressed as a fraction of gravitational
acceleration; for example, the PGA of 0.981m/s2 is expressed as 0.1g (where g is acceleration
due to gravity).

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The horizontal component of ground acceleration, PHA, is taken as the largest

absolute value of the horizontal acceleration recorded at a site.

 Horizontal component of acceleration is primarily used to report ground

motion as structures are designed for vertical loads and margin of safety in the
vertical direction are usually adequate for earthquake induced vertical load.

Attenuation
The reduction in vibration of earthquake waves as they travel further away from their
Epicenter is called attenuation.

Attenuation Laws: A mathematical description of the behaviour of characteristics of

earthquake ground motion as a function of the distance from source of energy is known as
attenuation law. Attenuation relationships are usually derived from analysis of small and
moderate earthquakes.
Several different attenuation laws have been proposed in literature. Amplitude parameters
(PGA) have been used to express vibration loss as earthquake waves travel away from their
source. The amplitude parameters for a site are given as varying according to the magnitude
of the earthquake and the focal distance of the site.
This can be stated as PGA = f(M,R) , where M is the magnitude of earthquake in
Richter scale and R is the focal distance.

Esteva (1969) proposed the following attenuation law for earthquake effect at a site with firm
ground,
5600.𝑒 0.8𝑀
𝑎̃ = where, 𝑎̃ is PGA in cm/sec2
(𝑅+40)2

32.𝑒 𝑀
𝑉̃ = where, 𝑉̃ is PGV in cm/sec2
(𝑅+25)2

200 𝑉 ̃2
𝑑̃ = (1 + 0.6 ) . ̃ where, 𝑑̃ is PGD in cm
𝑅 𝑎

Cornell et.al (1979) proposed the following relationship,

ln[PGA(cm/sec 2 )] = 6.74 + 0.859M − 1.8 ln(R + 25)

# Find the maximum possible PGA at a site 29Km from an earthquake source that is capable
of producing a maximum of 7.6 magnitude earthquake in Richter scale. Use the attenuation
law proposed by Cornell et.al.

solution: We have, focal distance, R = 29 km

max magnitude of earthquake, M = 7.6

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Using Cornell et.al proposed attenuation law,

ln[PGA(cm/sec 2 )] = 6.74 + 0.859M − 1.8 ln(R + 25)

ln[PGA] = 6.74 + 0.859 × 7.6 − 1.8 × ln(29 + 25)

ln[PGA] = 6.088

PGA = e6.088 = 440.64 cm/sec 2

440.64
PGA = = 0.449g cm/sec2
981

Seismic risk and seismic zoning

Seismicity is the geographic and historic distribution of earthquake as recorded from different
Epicenter location on the earth's surface.

A seismic zone is designated where areas with similar seismicity are classified in the same
zone. Hence a seismic zone can be an area of similar seismicity sharing a common factor, e.g.
the Himalayan belt that lies between the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian Plate.

 The goal of seismic zoning is to mark and separate regions of similar probable
intensity of ground motion in a country. This helps in providing a guideline for
earthquake resistance design in constructed facilities.

 Hence, a seismic zoning map provides the probable PGA in a region based on
the history of earthquakes within an area. The map can also indicate the
magnitude, intensity, and recurrence interval or frequency of earthquakes in
the area where a structure is to be designed.

Seismic hazard: It is the probability that an earthquake will occur in a given geographical
area, within a given window of time, and with ground motion intensity exceeding a given
threshold.

Seismic Risk: It is estimated based on the seismic hazard in a given area and the risk factor
calculated can be used in building codes, planning infrastructure projects, and determining
insurance rates. In addition, seismic risk also depends on susceptibility of the structure to
damage and the consequences of damage.

Earthquake hazards: Earthquakes pose several hazards to our natural and built environment
such as;

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1. Ground shaking - seismic waves cause damage to structures

2. Ground failure - soil liquefaction, landslides, ground settlement etc
3. Tsunami - long period sea waves produced by sea floor movement
4. Life-line hazards - destruction of water supply system, communication and electricity
grid etc.

Liquefaction: The phenomenon in which the soil liquefies and the strength of soil is
drastically reduced to the point where the soil is unable to support the structure. Liquefaction
mainly occurs in sandy soil with high water table.

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Chapter3
Introduction to Structural dynamics
Dynamic loading: A loading which changes in direction and/or magnitude with respect to
time is a dynamic loading. Hence, earthquake loads, blast impacts, mechanical vibrations, all
have to be considered as dynamic loads in order for their effects on structures to be
understood.
Response of structures to vibration: Structural responses are the effects due to the dynamic
loading on the structure. The structural responses such as displacements and velocities for a
structure under dynamic loading will also be dynamic, i.e. they will vary with time.
Hence structural dynamics involves finding the responses of a structure to dynamic
loading. Two different approaches can be used to carry out dynamic analysis. The choice of
method used depends upon how the loading is defined.
1. Deterministic approach: The analysis of the response of any specified
structural system to a prescribed dynamic loading is defined as a deterministic
analysis.
 Prescribed dynamic loading: A loading for which the time
variation is fully known, even though the load may be highly
oscillatory or irregular in character, is known as a prescribed
dynamic load.

2. Non-deterministic approach: The analysis of response of any specified

structural system to a random dynamic loading is known as a non-
deterministic loading.
 Random dynamic loading: A loading for which the time
variation is not completely known but can be defined in a
statistical sense is termed as a random dynamic loading.
Types of prescribed dynamic loadings
Prescribed loads can be classified into two categories ;
1. Periodic loading
2. Non-periodic loading
1. Periodic loading: A periodic loading has the same loading pattern or time variation for a
large number of loading cycles. The simplest periodic loading is the sinusoidal variation,
which is also known as simple harmonic loading.
2. Non-periodic loading: Non-periodic loads do not have a consistent repeating pattern as
shown by a periodic load. Non-periodic loads may either be short duration impulsive loads,
or longer duration general forms of loads.

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Simple Harmonic motion: A motion for which the acceleration of the system is directly
proportional to its displacement from a mean position and is directed to that mean position
can be said to be in simple harmonic motion. e.g. a pendulum.

Simple harmonic motion of a pendulum

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Damping: The property of a structural system primarily due to its material and structural
arrangement, by which free vibration steadily diminishes in amplitude is called damping. The
simplest model of damping in a system is the viscous damping model.

 For viscous damping, the velocity of the system is directly proportional to the
damping force. The proportionality constant is the damping coefficient 'C'.
Hence, damping force,
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶. 𝑉
where, 𝐹𝐷 is the damping force acting on the system
C is the damping coefficient
V is the velocity of the system

Degree of freedom: The number of independent co-ordinates required to fully describe the
motion of a structural system is known as its degree of freedom.

For instance, the motion of a single pendulum shown below can be described using the
deflection angle 𝜃. Hence it is a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system.

SDOF system

On the other hand, the double pendulum shown below requires at least two deflection angles
𝜃1 and 𝜃2 to describe its motion. Hence the system has two DOF's.

𝜃1

𝜃2

MDOF system

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Free vibration: A structure is said to be undergoing free vibration when it is disturbed from
its static equilibrium position and then allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic
excitation (force).

Hence a free vibration is initiated by giving the system some initial displacement u(0) and
velocity v(0) when time t is zero.

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Ch 3.0- Structural Dynamics (part-II)

Single degree of freedom systems (SDOF)
Any system having its mass concentrated at one location can be modelled as a SDOF
system. A mass-spring -damper system can be used to represent a SDOF system as shown
below.

Where, K is elastic stiffness coefficient

C is damping coefficient

m is mass

P(t) is dynamic force

u(t) is dynamic displacement

SDOF mass-spring-damper system

For e.g. an equivalent single storey model that can be represented by the mass-spring-
damper system given above is shown below. (Note: k = k1 + k2 )

single storey shear building

Newton's Equation of motion

Using Newton's second law of motion, the equation of motion can be derived for the
SDOF system. From the equation of motion the displacement response of the system the
dynamic loading can be determined.
Total applied force - total resistant forces = net force

𝑃(𝑡) − 𝐹𝐷 − 𝐹𝑆 = 𝑚. 𝑎

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑚. 𝑎 + 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝑆
𝑑2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑚. + 𝑐. + 𝑘. 𝑢 = 𝑃(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑚. 𝑢̈ + 𝑐. 𝑢̇ + 𝑘. 𝑢 = 𝑃(𝑡) ..........(i)

equation (i) is the general equation of motion

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P(t) is externally applied dynamic force

𝐹𝐷 is damping force
𝐹𝑆 is elastic spring force
a is acceleration of mass m

Undamped free vibration (𝑷(𝒕) = 𝟎, 𝒄 = 𝟎)

For undamped free vibration, the external load P(t) is zero since there is no load
acting after the initial displacement is imparted. In addition the damping force 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑐. 𝑣 is
also zero for the undamped case, i.e. damping coefficient, c=0.

Also, free vibration is initiated by disturbing the system from its static equilibrium
position by imparting the mass some displacement u(0) and velocity 𝑢̇ (0) at time zero.

Hence, the undamped free vibration equation can be formulated and solved as follows;

𝑚. 𝑢̈ + 𝑐. 𝑢̇ + 𝑘. 𝑢 = 𝑃(𝑡)

𝑚. 𝑢̈ + 𝑘. 𝑢 = 0 ......(i) (since for free vibration, C=0, P(t) =0)

The solution to equation (ii) has the form, 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , where the constant s is unknown

Substituting 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 into eq(i), we get, ( 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 0 ,

the exponential 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 cannot be zero, 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 ≠ 0,

so the characteristic equation is, 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0

𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0
−𝑘
𝑠2 =
𝑚

𝑘
𝑠 2 = −𝜔𝑛2 (∵ 𝜔𝑛2 = )
𝑚

𝑠1,2 = ±𝑖. 𝜔𝑛 (where 𝑖 = √(−1)

∴ The general solution of the equation of motion is, 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1.𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2.𝑡

Substituting S1 and S2,

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖.𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑖.𝜔𝑡 , where A1 and A2 are constants to be determined

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
Using de Moivre's theorem, 𝑥 = , s𝑖𝑛𝑥 =
2 2𝑖

we have, 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ..........(ii)

A and B are constants to be determined

Differentiating eq(ii) we get, 𝑢̇ (𝑡) = −𝜔𝑛 𝐴. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜔𝑛 𝐵. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ......(iii)

Evaluating eq(ii) and eq(iii) at time t=0, we can determine constants A and B,
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from eq(ii), u(t) = u(0) = A ( where u(0) is initial displacement)

∴ 𝐴 = 𝑢(0)

from eq(iii) , 𝑢̇ (𝑡) = 𝑢̇ (0) = 𝜔𝑛 . 𝐵 (𝑢̇ (0) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)

𝑢̇ (0)
∴𝐵=
𝜔𝑛

Substituting A & B into eq(ii) gives the solution as,

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝑢̇ (0)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢(0). 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
𝜔𝑛

𝑢(0)𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0

𝑉(0) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡 = 0

𝑢0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑇𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜔𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The motion described by equation (iv) is shown in the figure above and is known as a
simple harmonic motion.

The undamped system oscillates back and forth between the maximum displacement
𝑢0 and minimum displacement −𝑢0 . The magnitude 𝑢0 is called the amplitude of the motion,
is given by;

𝑢̇ (0) 2
𝑢0 = √[𝑢(0)]2 + [ ]
𝜔𝑛

Hence the amplitude 𝑢0 depends on the initial displacement u(0) and the initial
velocity 𝑢̇ (0) given to the system at time t=0.

Damped free vibration response (P(t)=0, C≠ 𝟎)

The general governing equation of motion is given by;

𝑚. 𝑢̈ + 𝑐. 𝑢̇ + 𝑘. 𝑢 = 0

Dividing the equation by m gives,

𝑢̈ + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑢̇ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑢 = 0
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𝜉 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝐶𝑐𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑐 𝑐
𝜉= = , 𝑐𝑐𝑟 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 = 2√𝑘. 𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑟 2𝑚𝜔𝑛

Based on the damping ratio 𝜉 acting on a system there can be three types of systems,

1. Critically-damped systems (𝜉 = 1)
2. over-critically damped systems (𝜉 > 1)
3. Under-critically damped systems (𝜉 < 1)

1) Critically-damped systems (𝝃 = 𝟏): When the value of the damping coefficient C is

equal to the critical damping coefficient Ccr the system returns to its equilibrium position
without oscillating.

i.e. if 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐𝑟 , 𝐶 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 then the system will be critically damped

𝐶
In terms of damping ratio, 𝜉 = =1
𝐶𝑐𝑟
Hence critical-damping in a system represents the smallest amount of damping for
which no oscillation occurs in the free-vibration response.

2) Over-critically damped systems (over damped)

If C >𝐶𝑐𝑟 , or 𝜉 > 1 the system does not oscillate and returns to its equilibrium position at
a slower rate than a critically damped system.

Free vibration response for systems with critical and overcritical damping

3) Under-critically damped systems (underdamped)

If the damping coefficient c is less than the critical damping 𝐶𝑐𝑟 , the system oscillates
about its equilibrium position with a progressively decreasing amplitude
i.e. if C <𝐶𝑐𝑟 , or 𝜉<1 the system will be underdamped

Majority of structures such as buildings, bridges, dams, nuclear power plants, offshore
structures etc are underdamped (𝜉<1), with their damping ratio typically less than
10% or 𝜉<0.10.

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The response for an undercritically (underdamped) free vibration system can be determined
as follows;

Governing differential equation is, 𝑢̈ + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑢̇ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑢 = 0 ....(i)

The solution to the differential equation has the form, 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡

Substituting into eq(i), (𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 )𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 0,

The equation is satisfied for all values of t if, 𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0 (characteristic
equation)

The characteristic equation has two roots, 𝑠1,2 = 𝜔𝑛 (−𝜉 ± 𝑖. √1 − 𝜉 2 )

Hence the general solution is, 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝐷𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝐷𝑡 ) .........(ii)
where 𝐴1 & 𝐴2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑,
𝜔𝐷 is the damped natural frequency, 𝜔𝐷 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2

eq (ii) can be written in terms of trigonometric functions,

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (𝐴. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝐵.Sin𝜔𝐷 𝑡) ..........(iii)
(A,B are constants to be determined)
Using the initial conditions the particular solution can be found,
𝑢 = 𝑢(0), 𝑢̇ = 𝑢̇ (0)

for 𝑡 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑢(0) 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞(𝑖𝑖𝑖), 𝑢(0) = 𝐴

𝑢̇ (0)+ 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑢(0)
for t=0, 𝑢̇ = 𝑢̇ (0) in eq(iii), 𝐵 =
𝜔𝐷

Substituting A and B into eq(iii) we get,

𝑢̇ (0)+ 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑢(0)

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 [𝑢(0). 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + . Sin𝜔𝐷 𝑡] ..........(iv)
𝜔𝐷

Equation (iv) gives the response u(t) for an underdamped free vibration system
Damping lowers the natural frequency from 𝜔𝑛 to 𝜔𝐷 , hence lengthens the natural period
from 𝑇𝑛 to 𝑇𝐷 .
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑇𝑛
𝑇𝑛 = , 𝑇𝐷 = , 𝑇𝐷 =
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝐷 √1−𝜉 2
𝑇𝐷 is damped natural period
𝜔𝐷 is damped natural frequency

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eq(iv) indicates that the displacement amplitude decays exponentially with time. The
𝑢̇ (0)+ 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑢(0) 2
envelope curve is ±𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 as shown in figure above. 𝜌 = √(𝑢(0))2 + ( )
𝜔𝐷

Logarithmic decrement
The damping in a system can be evaluated from the record of free vibration. The decay of
successive amplitudes of motion which is expressed by the logarithmic decrement is related
to the damping ratio.
The logarithmic decrement for a system is defined as the natural logarithm of any two
successive amplitudes in free vibration.
From the equation to the exponential curve above,
𝑢1 = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑢2 = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 (𝑡+𝑇𝐷)
𝑢
The logarithmic decrement is given by, 𝛿 = 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 )
𝑢2
𝑢1
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = (−𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑡) − [− 𝜔𝑛 𝜉(𝑡 + 𝑇𝐷 )]
𝑢2
2𝜋
= 𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑇𝐷 = 𝜔𝑛 𝜉 ( )
𝜔𝐷
2𝜋𝜉
∴𝛿=
√1 − 𝜉 2
If 𝜉 is very small (0.02-0.2) then √1 − 𝜉 2 ≅ 1

Hence, logarithmic decrement can be approximated using, 𝛿 = 2𝜋𝜉

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Multi-degree of freedom systems (MDOF)

MDOF modelling
For most civil engineering structures, the dynamic response cannot be described accurately
using a SDOF model. Instead, MDOF modelling has to be carried out to obtain a more
accurate response of the structural system to a dynamic loading.

One of the most common models used for a multi-storey building is the shear building model.
The assumptions made in constructing a shear building model are;

1) The total mass of the structure is concentrated at the levels of the floors.
2) The girders on the floors are infinitely rigid as compared to the columns. Hence
the floors only undergo only rigid lateral displacement.
3) The deformation of the structure is independent of the axial forces present in the
columns.

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fig.1 Shear building model

Advantages and disadvantages of SDOF and MDOF models

SDOF MDOF
1. Modelling cost is low 1. Modelling cost can be high
2. SDOF models are not 2. More accurate than SDOF models
accurate for most structures
3. Difficult to assess the 3. Greater number of DOF's provide better approximation but
reliability of results obtained using two to three DOF's can also give good results

The equations of motion for a MDOF system can be formulated using dynamic equilibrium
condition. The four types of forces that need to be considered for dynamic equilibrium at any
point are;

1) Externally applied load - 𝑃(𝑡)

2) Inertia force - 𝐹𝐼
3) Damping force- 𝐹𝐷
4) Elastic force- 𝐹𝑆

Therefore for each degree of freedom (DOF) the dynamic equilibrium can be expressed as;

𝐹𝐼1 + 𝐹𝐷1 + 𝐹𝑆1 = 𝑃1 (𝑡)

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𝐹𝐼2 + 𝐹𝐷2 + 𝐹𝑆2 = 𝑃2 (𝑡)

𝐹𝐼3 + 𝐹𝐷3 + 𝐹𝑆3 = 𝑃3 (𝑡)

....................................
....................................

𝐹𝐼𝑁 + 𝐹𝐷𝑁 + 𝐹𝑆𝑁 = 𝑃𝑁 (𝑡)

The equilibrium equations can be expressed more conveniently in matrix form as,

[𝑭𝑰 ] + [𝑭𝑫 ] + [𝑭𝑺 ] = [𝑷(𝒕)] ........... eq (i)

𝐹𝐼1 𝐹𝐷1 𝐹𝑆1 𝑃1 (𝑡)

𝐹𝐼2 𝐹𝐷2 𝐹𝑆2 𝑃2 (𝑡)
Where, [𝑭𝑰 ] = .. , [𝑭𝑫 ] = .. , [𝑭𝑺 ] = .. , [𝑷(𝒕)] = ..
{𝐹𝐼𝑁 } {𝐹𝐷𝑁 } {𝐹𝑆𝑁 } {𝑃𝑁 (𝑡)}

Also, we have, [𝑭𝑰 ] = [𝒎]. {𝒖̈ } where, [𝒎] is the mass matrix, {𝒖̈ } is the acceleration
vector

[𝑭𝑫 ] = [𝒄]. {𝒖̇ } [𝒄] is the damping matrix, {𝒖̇ } is the velocity vector

[𝑭𝒔 ] = [𝒌]. {𝒖} [𝒌] is the stiffness matrix, {𝒖} is the displacement
vector

Substituting into eq(i), we get

[𝒎]. {𝒖̈ } + [𝒄]. {𝒖̇ } + [𝒌]. {𝒖} = {𝑷(𝒕)} .......... eq(ii)

Equation (ii) is the equation of motion for MDOF systems in matrix format

The three storey shear building (see fig.1) can also be represented using the MDOF mass-
spring system as shown below;

MDOF mass-spring system

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The equations of motion can be derived for each mass using Newton's law.

Hence, for mass 𝑚1 ,

𝑃1 (𝑡) − 𝑘1 𝑢1 + 𝑘2 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) − 𝑚1 𝑢1̈ = 0

𝑚1 𝑢1̈ + 𝑘1 𝑢1 − 𝑘2 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) = 𝑃1 (𝑡)

𝑚1 𝑢1̈ + 𝑘1 𝑢1 − 𝑘2 𝑢2 + 𝑘2 𝑢1 = 𝑃1 (𝑡)

𝑚1 𝑢1̈ + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ). 𝑢1 − 𝑘2 𝑢2 = 𝑃1 (𝑡) .........(i)

For mass 𝑚2 ,

𝑃2 (𝑡) − 𝑘2 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑘3 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) − 𝑚2 𝑢2̈ = 0

𝑚2 𝑢2̈ + 𝑘2 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) − 𝑘3 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) = 𝑃2 (𝑡)

𝑚2 𝑢2̈ + 𝑘2 𝑢2 − 𝑘2 𝑢1 − 𝑘3 𝑢3 + 𝑘3 𝑢2 = 𝑃2 (𝑡)

𝑚2 𝑢2̈ − 𝑘2 𝑢1 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑢2 − 𝑘3 𝑢3 = 𝑃2 (𝑡) .........(ii)

For mass 𝑚3 ,

𝑃3 (𝑡) − 𝑘3 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) − 𝑚3 𝑢3̈ = 0

𝑚3 𝑢3̈ + 𝑘3 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) = 𝑃3 (𝑡)

𝑚3 𝑢3̈ − 𝑘3 𝑢2 + 𝑘3 𝑢3 = 𝑃3 (𝑡) .........(iii)

Hence, for masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , and 𝑚3 from eq(i), (ii), and (iii) ,

𝑚1 𝑢1̈ + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ). 𝑢1 − 𝑘2 𝑢2 = 𝑃1 (𝑡)

𝑚2 𝑢2̈ − 𝑘2 𝑢1 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑢2 − 𝑘3 𝑢3 = 𝑃2 (𝑡)

𝑚3 𝑢3̈ − 𝑘3 𝑢2 + 𝑘3 𝑢3 = 𝑃3 (𝑡)

Organizing the three equations in matrix format,

𝑚1 0 0 𝑢̈ 1 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) −𝑘2 0 𝑢1 𝑃1 (𝑡)

[0 𝑚2 0 ] . {𝑢̈ 2 } + [ −𝑘2 (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) −𝑘3 ] . {𝑢2 } = {𝑃2 (𝑡)}
0 0 𝑚3 𝑢̈ 3 0 −𝑘3 𝑘3 𝑢3 𝑃3 (𝑡)

or, [𝒎]. {𝒖̈ } + [𝒌]. {𝒖} = {𝑷(𝒕)}

where, [𝒎] is the mass matrix, {𝒖̈ } is the acceleration vector

[𝒌] is the stiffness matrix, {𝒖} is the displacement vector

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{𝑷(𝒕)} is force vector

Free vibration analysis of undamped MDOF systems (P(t) = 0)

The equations of motion for an undamped MDOF system under free vibration is given
by,

[𝒎]. {𝒖̈ } + [𝒌]. {𝒖} = {𝟎} ..........(i)

eq(i) can be expressed as, ([𝒌]. −𝜔2 [𝒎]). {𝝓} = {𝟎} ........(ii)

Eq (ii) is known as an eigenvalue problem. The quantities 𝜔2 are the eigenvalues or

square of free-vibration natural frequencies, while the corresponding displacement vectors
𝜙 express the corresponding shapes of the vibrating system and are called eigenvectors or
mode shapes.

The non-trivial solution to eq(ii) is given by, |[𝒌]. −𝜔2 [𝒎]| = 0

Expanding the determinant will give an algebraic equation of nth degree for the frequency
parameter 𝜔2 for a system having n degrees of freedom. The n roots of this equation
(𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 , … . . , 𝜔𝑛 ) represent the frequencies of n modes of vibration which are possible in
the system. The mode having the lowest frequency is called the first mode or fundamental
mode. The next higher frequency is second mode etc.
 The vector made of the entire set of modal frequencies, arranged in sequence, is called
the frequency vector {𝜔}
𝜔1
𝜔2
{𝜔} = .
.
{𝜔𝑛 }
 The mode shape vector {𝝓} represents the shape of the vibrating system for various
modes. {𝝓} is a dimensionless vector which is expressed for mode n as ;

𝜙1𝑛
𝜙2𝑛
{𝝓} = . where, n is mode number, N is no of DOF's
.
{𝜙𝑁𝑛 }

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Chapter 4
Lateral load resisting systems for buildings
Lateral force-resisting systems
A structural system must be selected by the designer to resist the lateral loading that
my act on the building. Aspects of structural configuration, symmetry, mass distribution, and
vertical regularity may need to be discussed between the architect and the structural engineer.
Important criteria such as adequate strength, stiffness, and ductility must also be considered
for the building to have satisfactory response during an earthquake.
The lateral load in a building is transferred as follows;
 Horizontal seismic inertia forces are developed in the structure when subjected to
earthquake loading. These inertial forces are generated at the various floor levels.
 The floor and roof slabs are also called diaphragms and have high in-plane rigidity
when made of concrete (RCC)
 The diaphragms transfer the inertial load to the vertical load resisting elements.
 In the case of wall systems, the shear walls are the primary vertical members
which resist most of the lateral loading from the diaphragms.
 In the case of RC frame the columns resist the lateral loading.
 The vertical elements transfer the loads to the foundation and hence the load path is
completed at the bearing soil underneath the foundation.
Hence, the floor and roof diaphragms, along with the shear walls and columns together
work as the lateral load resisting system in a building. A well-designed and well-built
building has a reliable load path, established by design. This load path transfers the lateral
forces over the full height of the building from the roof to the foundation.

Lateral force resisting systems can generally be divided on the basis of structural systems
1) Structural frame system
2) Structural wall system
3) Dual frame-wall systems
These three categories can be further subdivided as given in table 7 of IS1893:part1 (2002).

1. Structural frame system

Structures of multi-storey reinforced concrete buildings often consist of frames.
Beams, supporting floors, and columns are continuous and meet at nodes, often called rigid

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joints. Such frames are capable of carrying gravity loads while providing adequate resistance
to horizontal forces, acting in any direction.

2. Structural wall system

Structural walls are the key structural components that resist the lateral forces due to
earthquake in a load-bearing masonry building. Gravity load effects on masonry structural
walls are usually not of significance considering design. Hence, if necessary, only the lateral
load resistance of shear walls may have to be checked during design. A shear wall system has
lower redundancy and has less inelastic response capacity. Hence in IS1893 the response
reduction factor for a shear wall system is less when compared to a frame or dual system.

3. Dual System
This system consists of reinforced concrete frames and RC or masonry walls,
interacting together to provide the required resistance to lateral forces. Each structural system
also carries its appropriate share of gravity load in proportion to its lateral stiffness. Dual
system is also known as hybrid or wall-frame system. A dual system is also designed so that
the moment frame independently resists at least 25% of the design base shear due to the
earthquake. A dual system is more redundant and hence has a higher value for response
reduction factor 'R' in IS1893.

Effects of irregularities on buildings

A building that lacks symmetry and has discontinuity in geometry, mass, or load
resisting elements is called as irregular building. The structure should have a robust and
continuous lateral load path in order to safely transfer the seismic forces to the ground.
In general structural irregularities can be grouped into vertical irregularities and plan
irregularities.
1. Vertical irregularities:
 stiffness irregularity
 mass irregularity
 vertical geometric irregularity

2. Plan irregularities:
 Torsional irregularity
 Re-entrant corners
 Non-parallel systems
 diaphragm discontinuity
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Vertical irregularity
Vertical irregularity occurs due to sudden and significant change of strength, stiffness,
geometry, and mass over the height of a building.
Stiffness irregularity: According to IS-1893(2002) a soft storey is that in which the lateral
stiffness is less than 70% the lateral stiffness of the storey above or less than 80% of the
average lateral stiffness of the three stories above.

 Extreme soft storey is defined as having a lateral stiffness less than 60% the lateral
stiffness of the storey above or less than 70% of the average lateral stiffness of the
three storeys above.

The upper storey moves as a single rigid unit and hence accumulative deformation due to
earthquake lateral loading occurs mainly in the ground storey. The soft storey can fail if
plastic hinges are formed on the soft storey columns.

Mass irregularity

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From IS 1893(2002) mass irregularity can be said to exist where the seismic weight of
any storey is more than 200% of that of its adjacent storeys. The seismic weight a floor is its
full dead load plus a percentage of its imposed load as specified in the code.

Vertical geometric irregularity

It can be considered to exist where the horizontal dimension of the lateral force-resisting
system in any storey is more than 150% of that in its adjacent storey.

Vertical discontinuities in load path

A discontinuous load path in a structure can contribute significantly to structural damage
during an earthquake. Structural elements that are part of
the load path must all be tied together in order to have a
load path that efficiently transfers the lateral seismic forces
to the ground. Irregularities in load path includes
discontinuous columns, shear walls, bracing, and frames.

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Lateral strength irregularity: A weak storey is one in which the storey lateral strength is
less than 80% if that in the storey above. The storey lateral strength is the total strength of all
seismic force-resisting elements sharing the storey shear in considered direction.

Rigid Floor diaphragms

Rigid floor diaphragms have high in-plane stiffness compared to vertical members such as
columns and walls. Hence rigid diaphragms are assumed to be infinitely rigid for in-plane
bending, which means that the diaphragm will undergo only rigid body translation in the
horizontal x-y plane and rigid body rotation in the vertical z-axis.

 Rigid diaphragm distributes the horizontal forces to the vertical resisting elements in
direct distribution to their relative rigidities (stiffness). This is based on the
assumption that the diaphragm does not deform itself and will cause each vertical
element to deflect the same amount.
 Reinforced concrete slabs and composite steel deck are rigid diaphragms, whereas
timber flooring is a flexible diaphragm.
Center of mass: It is the point where the entire mass of a system can be thought to be
concentrated. The resultant of the earthquake force acts through the center of mass. For a
system with uniform density the center of mass is located at its geometric center (centroid).

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 During an earthquake, acceleration induced inertia forces will be developed at each

floor level, where the mass of the entire storey may be assumed to be located. The
resultant of the lateral inertial force will act through the center of mass of the floor.
 In regular buildings the positions of center of floor masses will differ very little from
floor to floor. However, irregular mass distribution over the height of the building
may result in variations in location of center of masses.

Center of rigidity ( center of stiffness): It is the point through which the resultant of the
resisting forces developed in the system passes. Hence, center of rigidity is also the point on
the diaphragm where the application of lateral force will cause only rigid body translation and
no rigid body rotation.

Moment resisting frames (MRF)

Any frame having a beam with a finite stiffness (EI) value and a rigid beam-column joint can
be called a moment resisting frame. A moment resisting frame resists lateral earthquake
forces primarily by flexure. The joints between the beams and columns are designed to be
rigid. The rigid joint in the frame maintains a constant angle (90°) between the beam and
column under load application.

 This rigid joint ensures that the ends of beams and columns meeting joints must rotate
by same amount. However, since the beam is infinitely rigid, it cannot deform and
hence, the joint itself is not allowed to rotate. In this case, the bending moment in the
column is reduced to half of that frame without rigid (flexible) joint.
 Inelastic deformability is achieved by specially detailing the beams, columns, and the
beam-column joints. The structural detailing in moment resisting frames must ensure
that ductile failure of frame members occur before shear or brittle failure.
 The lateral stiffness of moment frames are comparatively less than the shear wall and
braced systems. Hence, the lateral deflections can be relatively large for the frame
system.

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The main advantages of moment resistant frames over frames with flexible joints are;
i. Some of the overturning moment caused by the lateral load is transferred to the
ground by means of axial force couple in columns. This helps to significantly reduce
bending moment in the columns.
ii. The lateral storey displacements reduces significantly.
iii. In case of multi-storey buildings both of the above advantages are very significant
which reduces the cost of structure. As the number of storey increases it is more
effective to design special moment resisting frames with ductile detailing.

According to IS13920 Moment frames can be classified into two types;

1. SMRF (Special moment resisting frames): moment frames that are specially
detailed to provide ductile behaviour as specified by IS13920. SMRF have
good earthquake resistance compared to OMRF.
2. OMRF (ordinary moment resisting frames) : Moment frames that do not meet
the special detailing requirements of SMRF can be classified as OMRF.

Lateral load analysis of MRF

There are two approximate methods available for lateral load analysis;

I. Portal frame analysis

II. Cantilever frame analysis

Portal frame method: The basic assumptions for the portal frame analysis are:

i. The degree of static indeterminacy is 3mn where m is the number of bays and n is the
no of storey.
ii. The point of contra flexure in the column is at mid height of column.
iii. The point of contra flexure in the beam is at mid span of the beam
iv. The axial forces in the internal column in zero.

Cantilever method: assumptions (i) and (ii) are same as that for portal frame method.
iii. The axial force in the column is approximated by assuming that the frame behaves as
a cantilever beam.
iv. The axial stress in columns is assumed to vary linearly from the neutral axis.

Shear Wall
Shear walls are vertical elements of the lateral load resisting systems. A well-designed shear
wall starts at foundation level and is continuous throughout the height of the building. Shear
walls are equivalent to columns with a large depth and a small width. Hence shear walls are
very rigid in their own plane and flexible in the perpendicular plane. Due to the high rigidity
shear walls can help limit lateral displacement of floors during earthquakes.

A shear wall can transfer the lateral forces in its own plane by developing both bending
moment and shear resistance. Since the moment of inertia of a wall section is large for force
acting parallel to its plane, the reinforcement required to resist the moment and shear is not
excessive. Depending on the height to length ratio of a wall (H/L) the following behavior can
occur;

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𝐻
 If ≤ 1 , then the wall behaves like a shear beam where only shear
𝐿
deformation occurs
𝐻
 If > 3 , then the wall behaves like a bending beam where bending
𝐿
deformation is significant
𝐻
 If 1 < < 3, the wall acts like an intermediate beam where both shear and
𝐿
bending deformation occurs

Provision for design of shear wall:

 Shear walls are provided along both orthogonal directions
 Door or window openings may be provided in shear walls, but these should be small
in size and symmetrically located.
 The shear walls should be symmetrically placed.
 Reinforcing steel bars should be provided in vertical and horizontal grids in shear
walls.
 Minimum area of reinforcement should be 0.025 times the cross-sectional area along
each horizontal and vertical direction.
Classification of shear walls:
 Simple shear wall
 rectangle shear wall
 coupled shear wall
 rigid frame shear wall
 core type shear wall

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