Green’s Theorem

P. Sam Johnson

November 25, 2019

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Curl and Divergence

A two-dimensional vector field is a vector-valued function

F : R2 → R2
that one can visualize with a field of arrows.
For example, the below graph is a visualization of the vector field
F(x, y ) = (y , x).

A 2D circulating vector field

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Curl and Divergence

One can think of such a vector field as representing fluid flow in two
dimensions, so that
F(x, y )
gives the velocity of a fluid at the point (x, y ).
In this case, we may call F(x, y ) the velocity field of the fluid.
With this interpretation, the above example illustrates the clockwise
circulation of fluid around the origin.

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Curl and Divergence

The same interpretation is possible for a three-dimensional fluid flow with

velocity represented by a vector field
F : R3 → R3 .
In this case, F(x, y , z) is the velocity of the fluid at the point (x, y , z), and
we can visualize it as the vector F(x, y , z) positioned a the point (x, y , z).
For example, F(x, y , z) = (y /z, −x/z, 0) can be viewed as fluid circulating
around the z-axis.

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Curl and Divergence

The connection between the fluid’s boundary behavior and its internal
behavior is made possible by the notions of divergence and curl.
The divergence of a fluid’s velocity field measures the rate at which fluid is
being piped into or out of the region at any given point.
The curl measures the fluid’s rate of rotation at each point.

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Green’s Theorem in the Plane

Green’s theorem in the plane can be used to describe the relationship

between the way an incompressible fluid flows along or across the
boundary of a plane region and the way it moves inside the region.
Two forms of Green’s theorem
Flux-Divergence or Normal Form
Green’s theorem states that, under conditions usually met in practice, the
outward flux of a vector field across the boundary of a plane region equals
the double integral of the divergence of the field over the interior of the
region.
Circulation-Curl or Tangential Form
Green’s theorem states that, under conditions usually met in practice, the
counterclockwise circulation of a field around the boundary of a region
equals the double integral of the curl of the field over the region.

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Green’s Theorem in the Plane

Green’s theorem is one of the great theorems in calculus.

It is deep and surprising and has far-reaching consequences.
In pure mathematics, it ranks in importance with the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus.
In applied mathematics, the generalizations of Green’s theorem to
three dimensions provide the foundation for theorems about
electricity, magnetism, and fluid flow.

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Green’s Theorem

Green’s theorem applies to any vector field satisfying certain mathematical

conditions. It does not depend for its validity on the field’s having a
particular physical interpretation.
However, we discuss the theorem in terms of velocity fields of fluid flows
because fluid flows are easy to picture.
Greens theorem (general form) states that a line integral around the
boundary of a plane region R can be computed as a double integral over
R. More precisely, if R is a “nice” region in the plane and C is the
boundary of R with C oriented so that R is always on the left-hand side as
one goes around C (this is the positive orientation of C ), then
I ZZ 
∂N ∂M 
M dx + N dy = − dx dy
C R ∂x ∂y

if the partial derivatives of M and N are continuous on R.

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

The flux density of a vector field at a point, which in mathematics is called

the divergence of the vector field. We obtain it in the following way.
Suppose that
F(x, y ) = M(x, y )i + N(x, y )j
is the velocity field of a fluid flow in the plane and that the first partial
derivations of M and N are continuous at each point of a region R.
Let (x, y ) be a point in R and let A be a small rectangle with one corner
at (x, y ) that, along with its interior, lies entirely in R.

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

The sides of the rectangle, parallel to the coordinate axes, have lengths of
∆x and ∆y .
The rate at which fluid leaves the rectangle across the bottom edge is
approximately

F(x, y ).(−j)∆x = −N(x, y ) ∆x.

This is the scalar component of the velocity at (x, y ) in the direction of

the outward normal times the length of the segment.
For example, if the velocity is in meters per second, the exit rate will be in
meters per second times meters or square meters per second (m2 /s).

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

The rates at which the fluid crosses the other three sides in the directions
of their outward normals can be estimated in a similar way.
We have
Top : F(x, y + ∆y ).(−j)∆x = N(x, y + ∆y ) ∆x
Bottom : F(x, y ).(−j)∆x = −N(x, y ) ∆x
Right : F(x + ∆x, y ).(i)∆y = M(x + ∆x, y ) ∆y
Left : F(x, y ).(−i)∆y = −M(x, y ) ∆y .
Combining opposite pairs gives
Top and bottom : N(x, y + ∆y ) − N(x, y ) ∆x ≈ ∂N



∂y ∆y ∆x

Right and left : M(x + ∆x, y ) − M(x, y ) ∆y ≈ ∂M

∂x ∆x ∆y .

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

Adding the above relations gives :

∂M ∂N


Flux across rectangle boundary ≈ ∂x + ∂y ∆x ∆y .
We now divide by ∆x ∆y to estimate the total flux per unit area or
flux density for the rectangle :

Flux across rectangle boundary  ∂M ∂N 

≈ + .
Rectangle area ∂x ∂y

Finally, we let ∆x and ∆y approach zero to define what we call the flux
density of F at the point (x, y ).
We call the flux density, the divergence of F and it is denoted by div F.

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

The flux density or divergence of a vector field

F = Mi + Nj

at the point (x, y ) is

∂M ∂N
div F = + .
∂x ∂y

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

Intuitively, if water is flowing into a region through a small hole at the

point (x0 , y0 ), the lines of flow would diverge there (hence the name) and,
since water would be flowing out of a small rectangle about (x0 , y0 ), the
divergence of F at (x0 , y0 ) would be positive.

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Flux Density at a Point : Divergence

If the water is draining out instead of flowing in, the divergence would be
negative.

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Circulation Density at a Point : Curl

The circulation density of a vector field at a point, which in mathematics

is called the curl of the vector field. We obtain it in the following way.
Suppose that F(x, y ) = M(x, y )i + N(x, y )j is the velocity field of a fluid
flow in the plane and that the first partial derivations of M and N are
continuous at each point of a region R.
Let (x, y ) be a point in R and let A be a small rectangle with one corner
at (x, y ) that, along with its interior, lies entirely in R.

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Circulation Density at a Point : Curl

The sides of the rectangle, parallel to the coordinate axes, have lengths of
∆x and ∆y .
The counterclockwise circulation of F around the boundary of A is the
sum of flow rates along the sides.
The rate of flow (flow rate) along the bottom edge is approximately

F(x, y ).i∆x = M(x, y ) ∆x.

This is the scalar component of the velocity F(x, y ) in the direction of the
tangent vector i times the length of the segment.
The rates of flow along the other sides in the counterclockwise direction
are expressed in a similar way.

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Circulation Density at a Point : Curl

In all, we have
Top : F(x, y + ∆y ).(−i)∆x = −M(x, y + ∆y ) ∆x
Bottom : F(x, y ).(i)∆x = M(x, y ) ∆x
Right : F(x + ∆x, y ).(j)∆y = N(x + ∆x, y ) ∆y
Left : F(x, y ).(−j)∆y = −N(x, y ) ∆y .
Combining opposite pairs gives
Top and bottom : − M(x, y + ∆y ) − M(x, y ) ∆x ≈ − ∂M



∂y ∆y ∆x

Right and left : N(x + ∆x, y ) − N(x, y ) ∆y ≈ ∂N

∂x ∆x ∆y .

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Circulation Density at a Point : Curl

Adding the above relations and dividing by ∆x∆y gives an estimate of the
circulation density for the rectangle :

Circulation around rectangle  ∂N ∂M 

≈ − .
Rectangle area ∂x ∂y

Finally, we let ∆x and ∆y approach zero to define what we call the

circulation density of F at the point (x, y ).
We call the circulation density, the curl of F and it is denoted by curl F.

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Circulation Density at a Point : Curl

The circulation density or curl of a vector field F = Mi + Nj at the point

(x, y ) is curl F = ∂N ∂M
∂x − ∂y .

If water is moving about a region in the xy -plane in a thin layer, then the
cirulation, or curl, at a point (x0 , y0 ) gives a way to measure how fast and
in what direction a small paddle wheel will spin if it is put into the water
at (x0 , y0 ) with its axis perpendicular to the plane.

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Two forms of Green’s theorem

Flux-Divergence or Normal Form

Green’s theorem states that, under suitable conditions, the outward flux of
a vector field across a simple closed curve in the plane equals the double
integral of the divergence of the field over the region enclosed by the curve.
Green’s Theorem (Flux-Divergence or Normal Form)
The outward flux of a field F = Mi + Nj across a simple closed curve C
equals the double integral of divF over the region R enclosed by C .
I I
F.n ds = M dy − N dx
ZZ 
∂M ∂N 
= + dx dy .
R ∂x ∂y

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Two forms of Green’s theorem

Circulation-Curl or Tangential Form

Green’s theorem states that, under conditions usually met in practice, the
counterclockwise circulation of a vector field around a simple closed curve
is the double integral of the curl of the field over the region enclosed by
the curve.
Green’s Theorem (Circulation-Curl or Tangential Form)
The counterwise circulation of a field F = Mi + Nj around a simple closed
curve C in the plane equals the double integral of curlF over the region R
enclosed by C .
I I
F.T ds = M dx + N dy
ZZ 
∂N ∂M 
= − dx dy .
R ∂x ∂y

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Assumptions for Green’s theorem to hold

When we wish to apply Green’s theorem, we need two kinds of

assumptions for Green’s theorem to hold.

1. We need conditions on M and N to ensure the existence of the

integrals.
The usual assumptions are that M, N, and their first partial
derivatives are continuous at every point of some open region
containing C and R.
2. We need geometric conditions on the curve C . It must be simple,
closed, and made up of pieces along which we can integrate M and N.
The usual assumptions are that C is piecewise smooth.

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Calculating Area with Green’s Theorem

Green’s Theorem Area Formula : If a simple closed curve C in the

plane and the region R it encloses satisfy the hypotheses of Green’s
Theorem, the area of R is given by

I
1
Area of R = x dy − y dx
2
C

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George Green

George Green (1793-1841) was a self-taught scientist in Nottingham,

England.

Green’s work on the mathematical foundations of gravitation, electricity,

and magnetism was published privately in 1828 in a short book entitled
“An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to Electricity and
Magnetism.”

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George Green

The book sold all of fifty-two copies (fewer than one hundred were
printed), the copies going mostly to Greeen’s patrons and personal friends.
A few weeks before Green’s death in 1841, William Thomson noticed a
reference to Green’s book and in 1845 was finally able to locate a copy.
Excited by what he read, Thomson shared Green’s ideas with other
scientists and had the book republished in a series of journal articles.
Green’s mathematics provided the foundation on which Thomson, Stokes,
Rayleigh, and Maxwell built the present-day theory of electrogagnetism.

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Exercises
Exercise
In the following exercises, verify the conclusion of Green’s Theorem for the
field F = Mi + Nj. Take the domains of integration in each case to be the
disk R : x 2 + y 2 ≤ a2 and its bounding circle C : r = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j,
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
1. F = −y i + xj
4. F = −x 2 y i + xy 2 j

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Solution for Exercise 1

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
In the following exercises, use Green’s Theorem to find the
counterclockwise circulation and outward flux for the field F and curve C .
6. F = (x 2 + 4y )i + (x + y 2 )j
C : The square bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1
8. F = (x 2 − y 2 )i + 2xy j
C : Boundary of the region formed by the curves y = x 2 and x = y 2
13. F = (x + e x sin y )i + (x + e x cos y )j
C :The right-hand loop of the lemniscate r 2 = cos 2θ
14. F = tan−1 yx i + ln(x 2 + y 2 )j

C : The boundary of the region defined by the polar coordinate

inequalities 1 ≤ r ≤ 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

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Solution for Exercise 2

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
In the following exercises, use Green’s Theorem to find the
counterclockwise circulation and outward flux for the field F and curve C .
9. F = (xy + y 2 )i + (x − y )j

11. F = x 3 y 2 i + 12 x 4 y j

12. F = x
1+y 2
i + (tan−1 y )j

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Solution for Exercise 3

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
15. Find the counterclockwise circulation and outward flux of the field
F = xy i + y 2 j around and over the boundary of the region enclosed by
the curves y = x 2 and y = x in the first quadrant.
16. Find the counterclockwise circulation and the outward flux of the field
F = (− sin y )i + (x cos y )j around and over the square cut from the
first quadrant by the lines x = π/2 and y = π/2.

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Solution for Exercise 4

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
17. Find the outward flux of the field
 
x
F = 3xy − i + (e x + tan−1 y )j
1 + y2

across the cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ), a > 0.

18. Find the counterclockwise circulation of F = (y + e x ln y )i + (e x /y )j
around the boundary of the region that is bounded above by the
curve y = 3 − x 2 and below by the curve y = x 4 + 1.

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Solution for Exercise 5

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
[20.] Find the work done by F = (4x − 2y )i + (2x − 4y )j in moving a
particle once counterclockwise around the curve
C : The circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = 4.

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Solution for Exercise 6

1. fdfdfd

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Using Green’s Theorem
Exercise
Apply Green’s Theorem to evaluate the integrals in the following exercises.

(y 2 dx + x 2 dy )
H
21.
C
C : The triangle bounded by x = 0, x + y = 1, y = 0.
H
23. (6y + x) dx + (y + 2x) dy
C
C : The circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4.

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Solution for Exercise 7

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
Use the Green’s Theorem area formula given above to find the areas of the
regions enclosed by the curves.
26. The ellipse r(t) = (a cos t)i + (b sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
28. One arch of the cycloid x = t − sin t, y = 1 − cos t.
29. Find the area of the region bounded by y 2 = 4x and x 2 = 4y by
Green’s theorem.

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Solution for Exercise 8

1. fdfdfd

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Integral dependent only on area
Exercise
[30.] Show that the value of
I
xy 2 dx + (x 2 y + 2x) dy
C

around any square depends only on the area of the square and not on its
location in the plane.

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Solution for Exercise 9

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
31. What is special about the integral
I
4x 3 y dx + x 4 dy ?
C

Give reasons for your answer.

32. What is special about the integral
I
−y 3 dy + x 3 dx?
C

Give reasons for your answer.

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Solution for Exercise 10

1. fdfdfd

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Exercises
Exercise
33. Area as a line integral : Show that if R is a region in the plane
bounded by a piecewise smooth, simple closed curve C , then
I I
Area of R = x dy = − y dx.
C C

34. Definite integral as a line integral : Suppose that a nonnegative

function y = f (x) has a continuous first derivative on [a, b]. Let C be
the boundary of the region in the xy -plane that is bounded below by
the x-axis, above by the graph of f , and on the sides by the lines
x = a and x = b Show that
Z b I
f (x) dx = − ydx.
a
C

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Solution for Exercise 11

1. fdfdfd

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Area and the centroid
Exercise
[35.] Let A be the area and x the x-coordinate of the centroid of a region
R that is bounded by a piecewise smooth, simple closed curve C in the
xy -plane. Show that
I I I
1 2 1
x dy = − xy dx = x 2 dy − xy dx = Ax.
2 3
C C C

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Solution for Exercise 12

1. fdfdfd

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Maximizing work
Exercise
38. Among all smooth, simple closed curves in the plane, oriented
counterclockwise, find the one along which the work done by
 
1 2 1 3
F= x y + y i + xj
4 3

is greatest. (Hint: Where is (curl F)·k positive?)

42 Curl component of conservative fields : Can anything be said
about the curl component of a conservative two-dimensional vector
field? Give reasons for your answer.

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References

1. M.D. Weir, J. Hass and F.R. Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th

Edition, Pearson Publishers.
2. R. Courant and F.John, Introduction to calculus and analysis, Volume
II, Springer-Verlag.
3. N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I & II (Translated
by George Yankovsky).
4. E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Wiley Publishers.

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