Radio-frequency identification 

(RFID) is a technology that uses communication via radio waves to

exchange data between a reader and an electronic tag attached to an object, for the purpose of
identification and tracking.

RFID technology was first used in World War II for identification, friend or foe (IFF) systems, and
has been available in one form or another since the 1970’s. There is no one definitive “RFID
technology”; there is a wide range of technical solutions ranging from simple, inexpensive, and
common to those with more functionality, performance and cost. RFID is part of our daily lives –
in car keys, toll tags, access cards…

It is possible that by 2030, RFID technology will have inserted itself into our daily lives the way that
bar code technology wrought unobtrusive but remarkable changes when it was new.

RFID technology makes it possible to give each product in a grocery store its own unique identifying
number. Compare that to the situation today, with bar codes, where it is only possible to identify the
brand and type of package. Furthermore, RFID tags can be read if passed within close enough
proximity to an RFID tag reader. It is not necessary to "show" them to it, as with a bar code.

Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. The
application of bulk reading enables an almost-parallel reading of tags.

Radio-frequency identification involves interrogators (also known as readers), and tags (also known

as labels).

Most RFID tags contain at least two parts: one is an integrated circuit for storing and processing
information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized
functions; the other is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.

Fixed RFID and Mobile RFID: Depending on mobility, RFIDs are classified into two different
types: fixed RFID and mobile RFID. If the reader reads tags in a stationary position, it is called fixed
RFID. On the other hand, if either the reader or the tag is mobile when the reader reads tags, it is
called mobile RFID. Last, the RFID is classified into mobile RFID for the case that both the reader and
the tag are mobile.
There are three types of RFID tags: passive RFID tags, which have no power source and require an
external electromagnetic field to initiate a signal transmission, active RFID tags, which contain
abattery and can transmit signals once an external source ('Interrogator') has been successfully
identified, and battery assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags, which require an external source to wake up
but have significant higher forward link capability providing greater range.

RFID Tag Technology Description

In its simplest form in common use today, an RFID system consists of four elements, as
shown in Figure 3‐1. The RFID tag element consists of an antenna integrated with a
microchip. The RFID reader and antenna transmit an electromagnetic RF signal. This
signal is received by the RFID tag via the tag’s antenna. The energy in the received
signal provides the power to the tag that allows the microchip to operate. This is
referred to as a “passive” tag.

This data from the microchip is then added to an RF signal that is “reflected” by the tag back to
the reader through the reader antenna. This process is referred to as passive backscatter. The
reader contains the electronics to receive this signal from the tag, extract the RFID tag’s code
from the signal, and return it to its digital form, and provide that returned code to a host
computer.
Passive tags systems are reader talk first. The tags are mute until a signal is received
from a reader. Also, only one reader at a time can energize a passive tag; if more than
one reader tries to “light up” a passive tag a condition known as “reader collision”
occurs.
Passive RFID systems can read multiple tags at once. In a process called “singulation,”
the reader will rapidly cycle through tags and determine which ones are present. There
are many methods of singulation, but the principle of identifying a single tag is the
same. This is very important when trying to quickly identify all tags in the reader’s
field, and is also important when trying to speak to specific tags.

The simplest passive RFID tags have microchips that contain a single bit. These tags are referred
throughout the world as electronic article surveillance (EAS) tags and are used to prevent
shoplifting. Other tags contain a simple read‐only numeric code or serial number. The code,
which is stored in memory on the microchip, can be written to the tag at the time of first use or
applied at the time the RFID tag is manufactured. The code is used to reference information
stored elsewhere, such as in a database. Several tag coding standards exists.
Generally speaking, the more functionality embedded on a tag, the slower it is, the
shorter the range and the higher the price. There are RFID tags that have greater
amounts of memory, storage and functionality. For instance, some tags have separate
areas for different users to access. Other tags have encryption and security features. Still
other tags include microchips whose serial number is written to the chip by the user
rather than at the point of RFID tag fabrication. This permits greater flexibility in the
information that is written to the tag and when it is written. There are tags for almost
every application – indeed, there are several thousand tag types in existence at this time.
However, it is not possible today to get low cost, long range, high speed passive RFID
tags with encryption and high security.
In terms of cost, passive RFID tags range from $0.25 up to $10.00, depending on
functionality, packaging, and application. Serial number, read‐only tags tend to be the
least expensive. The prices of passive RFID tags are highly dependent on the volume of
tags ordered – the prices mentioned here are for large orders (in the tens of millions).
Lower volumes will generally lead to much higher per tag prices. There is potential for
even lower prices for simple tags as standards solidify and as larger numbers of tags are
used in the industry. Some preliminary research from sources such as Advanced
Marketing Resources, Gartner and RFID Journal indicate that a passive tag with read‐
only serial number will approach $0.05 by 2008.

In a common application of RFID technology today, RFID tags are combined into an adhesive
label that can be applied to packaging for products in the consumer packaged goods supply
chain. As the products are moved from manufacturer to warehouse to retailer, the products can
be tracked to aid in supply chain management and inventory control. Rapid uptake of RFID in
the retail supply chain is driving standards across all industries and is also pushing the cost of
RFID down.
More advanced tags are also available. These tags may include small batteries. These “active”
tags, as depicted in Figure 3‐2, allow them to broadcast a stronger signal thatcan be received at
greater distances than the “passive tags” powered only by the signal received from the
reader/antenna system. A key differentiator between active and passive tags is the style of
communications. An active tag talks first – that is, it beacons. Since the tag is not depending on a
reader to be energized, and because signal processing technology is so powerful, active tags can
be read at much greater ranges than passive tags. Active tags can also be used for positioning –
determining the XYZ location of the tag – through a process of triangulation.

Since there is a communications channel involved, active tags can be integrated with
sensor devices, such as temperature, location or motion sensors. These devices can take
samples from the sensors, store them, and send them back to the reader along with the
standard beacon signal.
A third class of tags exists, alternately referred to as semi‐active, semi‐passive, or battery
assist tags. These tags are akin to passive tags in that they are reader talk first. A battery
is present though for one of two reasons. Either it is providing a “boost” for the tag,
allowing it to be read and respond in difficult RF environments, or it is used to power a
sensor. Such sensors can collect data even when the tag is not powered. This data is then
transmitted back to the reader when the tag is read. This is a much slower read process
than standard tag reading. The battery and sensor portions of semi‐passive tags can
drive costs into the $5.00‐10.00 range.

1.2 RFID Reader Technology Description

The second major component of RFID systems is the reader. For passive tags, readers
energize the tags with energy, receive the results and frequently handle the low‐level
anti‐collision algorithms that allow readers to read more than one tag at a time. For
active tags, readers are responsible for listening for the tags’ beaconing, and for
communicating with other readers to determine positioning.
Readers are generally controlled via a software application programming interface
(API) that is provided by the reader manufacturer. Generally, the API also allows for
configuring the reader’s read cycle, power or other settings. The API software libraries
for a given reader may be priced separately for the reader, although many providers
bundle the software.

1.3 RFID Antennae Technology Description

Antennae are the third major component of and RFID system. These can range greatly in
cost, depending on functionality, application and base operating frequency. Whether it
is a shelf, mat, portal, wand or directional antenna, different antennae are required for
different applications.
Depending on how many antennae are required, one or many multiplexers may be
necessary. A multiplexer allows many antennae to be physically connected to a reader.
A configuration using multiplexers may also require an additional communications
card such as an RS‐485. Many readers contain built in multiplexers, and external
varieties are also available.
Cabling for the systems is an important aspect of performance. Although there are
generally fewer limits on the distance between reader and host computer, there are
signal degradation effects in the cables connecting readers and antennae. High‐grade
RF cables for this purpose can be expensive, and can have distance limitations.
The combination of the reader, antennae, and multiplexer setup is sometimes referred
to as a “read point.”

1.4 Host Controller

The host controller is generally a desktop or laptop computer, positioned close to the
readers. This controller serves two main functions. First, it is receiving data from the
readers and performing data processing such as filtering and collation. Secondly, it
serves as a device monitor, making sure the reader is functioning properly, securely and
with up to date instructions. Host controllers are connected to readers through
networking technologies such as Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) or sometimes through serial connectivity. Generally speaking, one controller
can manage several readers, with the ratio being dependent on the data volume from
those readers.

1.5 RFID Middleware

RFID middleware is software that facilitates communication between RFID readers and
enterprise systems. It collects, filters, aggregates and applies business rules on data
received from readers. Middleware is also responsible for providing management and
monitoring functionality ‐ensuring that the readers are connected, functioning
properly, and are configured the correct way. Middleware may also contain a localized
data store for archival of read events.
USVISIT-APMO-CONTHSSCHQ04D0096T006-RPT050010-F D-4 Smart Border Alliance RFID Feasibility
Study Final Report
Host computers and readers may communicate with each other via the EPCglobal
Reader Protocol 1.0 standard, although this is not common as of yet. Each middleware
vendor must provide firmware for all supported readers. Deployed either centrally or
locally, middleware can be managed through user‐friendly interfaces, similar to a
standard software application. Also, middleware differs in its implementation style ‐
middleware may be implemented on a host computer, a central server, or on intelligent
readers.

There are a variety of groups defining standards and regulating the use of RFID, including
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC),ASTM International, the DASH7 Alliance and EPCglobal. (Refer to Regulation and
standardization below.)

RFID has many applications; for example, it is used in enterprise supply chain management to
improve the efficiency of inventory tracking and management.

RFIDs are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items. For example, in 2009 researchers at Bristol
University successfully glued RFID micro-transponders to live ants in order to study their behavior.
[10]
 This trend towards increasingly miniaturized RFIDs is likely to continue as technology advances.

Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05mm x 0.05mm. The Mu chip tags are 64
times smaller than the new RFID tags.[11] Manufacture is enabled by using the silicon-on-
insulator(SOI) process. These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit Read Only
Memory (ROM).[12] A major challenge is the attachment of the antennas, thus limiting read range to
only millimeters.

Potential alternatives to the radio frequencies (0.125–0.1342, 0.140–0.1485, 13.56, and 840–
960 MHz) used are seen in optical RFID (or OPID) at 333 THz (900 nm), 380 THz (788 nm), 750 THz
(400 nm).[13] The awkward antennas of RFID can be replaced with photovoltaic components and IR-
LEDs on the ICs

Current uses
In 2010 three key factors drove a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased cost of equipment
and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 99.9% and a stable international standard around
UHF passive[clarification needed]. At RFID Journal Live 2010 in Orlando, Airbus detailed 16 active projects
being conducted by ODIN technologies, IBM and — most recently added to the team — CSC. The
two other areas of significant use are financial services for IT asset tracking and healthcare with more
than 60% of the top medical device companies using passive UHF RFID in 2010. RFID is becoming
increasingly prevalent as the price of the technology decreases. The Japanese HIBIKI initiative aims
to reduce the price to 5 Yen (4 eurocents). In January 2009 Envego announced a 5.9 cent tag,[citation
needed]
 and in March 2010 a Korean laboratory successfully created a printed chip using carbon
nanotubes that would halve the price of a passive UHF RFID tag to about three cents by late 2011.

Complement to barcode
RFID tags are often a complement, but not a substitute, for UPC or EAN barcodes. They may not ever
completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and the advantage of multiple data
sources on the same object. Also, unlike RFID labels, barcodes can be generated and distributed
electronically, e.g. via e-mail or mobile phone, for printing and/or display by the recipient. An example
is airline boarding passes. The new EPC, along with several other schemes, is widely available at
reasonable cost.

The storage of data associated with tracking items will require many terabytes. Filtering and
categorizing RFID data is needed to create useful information. It is likely that goods will be tracked by
the pallet using RFID tags, and at package level with Universal Product Code (UPC) or EAN from
unique barcodes.

The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, despite special choice of the
numbering scheme. RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individual tag will have a unique
code, while current bar codes are limited to a single type code for a particular product. The
uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may be tracked as it moves from location to location,
finally ending up in the consumer's hands. This may help to combat theft and other forms of product
loss. The tracing of products is an important feature that gets well supported with RFID tags
containing a unique identity of the tag and also the serial number of the object. This may help
companies to cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also contributes to
concern about tracking and profiling of consumers after the sale.

It has also been proposed to use RFID for POS store checkout to replace the cashier with an
automatic system which needs no barcode scanning. In the past this was not possible due to the
higher cost of tags and existing POS process technologies. However, Industry Standard, a couture
shop and recording studio in Ohio has successfully implemented a POS procedure that allows faster
transaction throughput.[76]

An FDA-nominated task force concluded, after studying the various technologies currently
commercially available, which of those technologies could meet the pedigree requirements. Amongst
all technologies studied including bar coding, RFID seemed to be the most promising and the
committee felt that the pedigree requirement could be met by easily leveraging something that is
readily available.

RFID can be used in a variety of applications,[73][74] such as:

 Access management
 Tracking of goods and RFID in retail
 Tracking of persons and animals
 Toll collection and contactless payment
 Machine readable travel documents
 Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)

 Tracking sports memorabilia to verify authenticity

 Airport baggage tracking logistics

Deliberate destruction of RFIDs in clothing and other items

According to an RSA laboratories FAQ, RFID tags can be destroyed by a standard microwave oven;
[116]
 however some types of RFID tags, particularly those constructed to radiate using large metallic
antennas (in particular RF tags and EPC tags), may catch fire if subjected to this process for too long
(as would any metallic item inside a microwave oven). This simple method cannot safely be used to
deactivate RFID features in electronic devices, or those implanted in living tissue, because of the risk
of damage to the "host". However the time required is extremely short (a second or two of radiation)
and the method works in many other non-electronic and inanimate items, long before thermal buildup
(fire) problems become of concern

RFID SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS: