MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL

EDUCATION

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

(0018)

Program Name and Code : __________________________

Course Name and Code : APPLIED MECHANICS
Academic Year : 2018-19
Semester : SECOND
A MICRO PROJECT
ON
AERODYNAMICS
Submitted on 2018-19 by the group of 6 students
Sr. Roll Enrollment
Name of student Seat No.
No. No. No.
1. 22. KIRAN CHAUDHARI 180018050
3
2. 23. MOHAN CHAUDHARI 180018050
4
3. 24. MUKESH CHAUDHARI 180018050
5
4. 26. KOMAL CHAVHAN 180018051
6
5. 27. GAURAV DEORE 180018050
8
6. 28. RENUKA DESHMUKH 180018049
9
 Project Guide
Miss . PUJA SONAR MADAM

MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF

TECHNICAL EDUCATION

-:CERTIFICATE:-

This is to certify that Master /Ms.………………………………………………

Roll No. ……... of ……. Semester of Diploma in ……………………

Engineering of Institute, Government Polytechnic, Jalgaon (Code:0018) has
completed the Micro Project satisfactorily in the Subject Applied
Mechanics for the Academic Year 2018- 2019 as prescribed in the curriculum.

Place: Jalgaon Enrollment No: …………………………

Date: …../…../……… Exam. Seat No: …………………………

Subject Teacher Head of the Department

Principal

Seal of
Institution
 GOVTERNMENT POLYTECHNIC
JALGAON

-SUBMISSION-

I (Full Name) …………………………………………………………

Roll No./Seat No. …………………… as a student of …………. Sem /Year of
the Program …………………………………………….. humbly submit that I
have completed from time to time the Practical/Micro-Project work as described
in this report by my own skills and study between the period from
……………………… to …………………….. as per instructions/guidance of
Miss. Puja Sonar Madam
And that following students were associated with me for this work,
however, quantum of my contribution has been approved by the Lecturer.
And that I have not copied the report on its any appreciable part from any
other literature in contravention of the academic ethics.

Date: ……/…../2019 Signature of Student

 Evaluation Sheet for the Micro Project

Academic Year: 2018-19 Name of the Faculty: Miss. Puja madam

Course: BCC Course code: 22009

Semester: II Title of the project: AERODYNAMICS

COs addressed by Micro Project:
A. Communicate effectively by avoiding barriers various formal and
informal situation.
B. Communicate still fully using non-verbal methods of communication.
C. Give presentation by using audio visual aids.
D. Write reports using correct guidelines.
E. Compose E-mail & formal business letter.

Comments/suggestions about team work /leadership/inter-personal

communication (if any)
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………
Marks out of Marks out of
6 for 4for
Roll Student Name performance performance Total out
No in group in oral/ of 10
activity presentation
(D5 Col.8) (D5 Col.9)
 -:INDEX:-
SR. NO. POINT DISCRIPTION
1) Introduction

2) History of Aerodynamics

3) Fundamental concepts

4) Flow classification

4.1) Subsonic flow

4.2) Transonic flow

4.3) Supersonic flow

4.4) Hypersonic flow

5) Continuum assumption

6) Conservation laws

7) Branches of aerodynamics

Incompressible aerodynamics

compressible aerodynamics

8) Associated Terminology

9) Boundary layers

10) Turbulence

11) Engineering design

12) Environmental design

13) Ball-control in sports

14) Aerodynamics in Sports Car

15) Down force

WEEKLY PROGRESS REPORT

 SR.NO. WEEK ACTIVITY PERFORMED SIGN OF GUIDE DATE
Discussion and finalization
1. of topic

2. First Preparation and submission

of Abstract
3. Week Literature Review

4. Collection of Data

5. Editing of Data

Second Discussion and outline of

6. Content
Week
7. Formulation of Content

8. Proof Reading of
Content
9. Compilation of Report And
Presentation
10. Seminar

11. Third Viva voce

Week Final submission of Micro
12. Project

Sign of the student Sign of the faculty

INTRODUCTION:-
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual
deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it
corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for
example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity can be conceptualized as quantifying the frictional
force that arises between two adjacent layers of fluid that are in
relative motion. For instance, when a fluid is forced through a tube,
the fluid flows more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly
near its walls. In such a case, experiments show that
some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of
the tube) is needed to sustain the flow through the tube. This is
because a force is required to overcome the friction between the
layers of the fluid which are in relative motion: the strength of this
force is proportional to the viscosity.

A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as

an ideal or in viscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at very low
temperatures in super fluids. Otherwise, the second law of
thermodynamics requires all fluids to have positive viscosity; such
fluids are technically said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a
relatively high viscosity, such as pitch, may appear to be a solid.

DEFINATION:-
Simple definition:-

Illustration of a planar Coquette flow. Since the shearing flow is

opposed by friction between adjacent layers of fluid (which are in
relative motion), a force is required to sustain the motion of the
upper plate. The relative strength of this force is a measure of the
fluid's viscosity.

In a general parallel flow, the shear stress is proportional to the

gradient of the velocity.
In materials science and engineering, one is often interested in
understanding the forces, or stresses, involved in the deformation of
a material. For instance, if the material were a simple spring, the
answer would be given by Hooke's law, which says that the force
experienced by a spring is proportional to the distance displaced
from equilibrium. Stresses which can be attributed to the
deformation of a material from some rest state are
called elastic stresses. In other materials, stresses are present which
can be attributed to the rate of change of the deformation over time.
These are called viscous stresses. For instance, in a fluid such as
water the stresses which arise from shearing the fluid do not depend
on the distance the fluid has been sheared; rather, they depend on
how quickly the shearing occurs.
Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous
stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the
strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to visualize
and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow.
In the Coquette flow, a fluid is trapped between two infinitely
large plates, one fixed and one in parallel motion at constant
speed  (see illustration to the right). If the speed of the top plate is
low enough (to avoid turbulence), then in steady state the fluid
particles move parallel to it, and their speed varies from  at the
bottom to  at the top. Each layer of fluid moves faster than the one
just below it, and friction between them gives rise to a force resisting
their relative motion. In particular, the fluid applies on the top plate
a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but
opposite force on the bottom plate. An external force is therefore
required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed.
In many fluids, the flow velocity is observed to vary linearly
from zero at the bottom to  at the top. Moreover, the magnitude  of
the force acting on the top plate is found to be proportional to the
speed  and the area  of each plate, and inversely proportional to
their separation  :The proportionality factor  is the viscosity of the
fluid, with units of  (pascal-second). The ratio  is called the rate of
shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid
speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates (see illustrations to
the right). If the velocity does not vary linearly with , then the
appropriate generalization is
where , and  is the local shear velocity. This expression is
referred to as Newton's law of viscosity. In shearing flows with planar
symmetry, it is what defines . It is a special case of the general
definition of viscosity (see below), which can be expressed in
coordinate-free form.
Use of the Greek letter mu  for the viscosity is common among
mechanical and chemical engineers, as well as physicists. However,
the Greek letter eta  is also used by chemists, physicists, and
the IUPAC. The viscosity  is sometimes also referred to as the shear
viscosity. However, at least one author discourages the use of this
terminology, noting that  can appear in non shearing flows in
addition to shearing flows.
General definition:-
In very general terms, the viscous stresses in a fluid are defined
as those resulting from the relative velocity of different fluid
particles. As such, the viscous stresses must depend on spatial
gradients of the flow velocity. If the velocity gradients are small, then
to a first approximation the viscous stresses depend only on the first
derivatives of the velocity. (For Newtonian fluids, this is also
a linear dependence.) In Cartesian coordinates, the general
relationship can then be written as

where  is a viscosity tensor that maps the strain rate

tensor  onto the viscous stress tensor . Since the indices in this
expression can vary from 1 to 3, there are 81 "viscosity
coefficients"  in total. However, due to spatial symmetries these
coefficients are not all independent. For instance,
for isotropic Newtonian fluids, the 81 coefficients can be reduced to
2 independent parameters. The most usual decomposition yields the
standard (scalar) viscosity  and the bulk viscosity :
where  is the unit tensor, and the dagger  denotes
the transpose. This equation can be thought of as a generalized form
of Newton's law of viscosity.
 The bulk viscosity expresses a type of internal friction that
resists the shear less compression or expansion of a fluid. Knowledge
of  is frequently not necessary in fluid dynamics problems. For
example, an incompressible fluid satisfies  and so the term
containing  drops out. Moreover,  is often assumed to be negligible
for gases since it is  in a mono atomic ideal gas. One situation in
which  can be important is the calculation of energy loss
in sound and shock waves, described by Stokes' law of sound
attenuation, since these phenomena involve rapid expansions and
compressions.
It is worth emphasizing that the above expressions are not
fundamental laws of nature, but rather definitions of viscosity. As
such, their utility for any given material, as well as means for
measuring or calculating the viscosity, must be established using
separate and independent means.

Etymology:-
The word "viscosity" is derived from the Latin "viscum",
meaning mistletoe and also a viscous glue made from mistletoe
berries.
Dynamic and kinematic viscosity:-
In fluid dynamics, it is common to work in terms of
the kinematic viscosity (also called "momentum diffusivity"), defined
as the ratio of the viscosity μ to the density of the fluid ρ. It is usually
denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν) and has units :
Consistent with this nomenclature, the viscosity  is frequently
called the dynamic viscosity.
momentum transport:-
Transport theory provides an alternate interpretation of
viscosity in terms of momentum transport: viscosity is the material
property which characterizes momentum transport within a fluid,
just as thermal conductivity characterizes heat transport, and
(mass) diffusivity characterizes mass transport. To see this, note that
in Newton's law of viscosity, , the shear stress  has units equivalent
to a momentum flux, i.e. momentum per unit time per unit area.
Thus,  can be interpreted as specifying the flow of momentum in
the  direction from one fluid layer to the next. Per Newton's law of
viscosity, this momentum flow occurs across a velocity gradient, and
the magnitude of the corresponding momentum flux is determined
by the viscosity.
The analogy with heat and mass transfer can be made explicit.
Just as heat flows from high temperature to low temperature and
mass flows from high density to low density, momentum flows
from high velocity to low velocity. These behaviors are all described
by compact expressions, called constitutive relations, whose one-
dimensional forms are given here:
where  is the density,  and  are the mass and heat fluxes,
and  and  are the mass diffusivity and thermal conductivity.
The fact that mass, momentum, and energy (heat) transport
are among the most relevant processes in continuum mechanics is
not a coincidence: these are among the few physical quantities that
are conserved at the microscopic level in inter particle collisions.
Thus, rather than being dictated by the fast and complex microscopic
interaction timescale, their dynamics occurs on macroscopic
timescales, as described by the various equations of transport theory
and hydrodynamics.

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS:-

 Viscosity, the slope of each line, varies among materials.

Newton's law of viscosity is not a fundamental law of nature, but

rather a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law, Fick's law,
and Ohm's law) which serves to define the viscosity . Its form is
motivated by experiments which show that for a wide range of
fluids,  is independent of strain rate. Such fluids are
called Newtonian. Gases, water, and many common liquids can be
considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. However,
there are many non-Newtonian fluids that significantly deviate from
this behavior. For example:

 Shear-thickening liquids, whose viscosity increases with the

rate of shear strain.
 Shear-thinning liquids, whose viscosity decreases with the rate
of shear strain.
 Thixotropic liquids, that become less viscous over time when
shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
 Rheopectic (dilatant) liquids, that become more viscous over
time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
 Bingham plastics that behave as a solid at low stresses but flow
as a viscous fluid at high stresses.
The Trouton ratio or Trouton's ratio is the ratio of extensional
viscosity to shear viscosity. For a Newtonian fluid, the Trouton ratio
is 3.
 Shear-thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly,
described as thixo tropic.
Even for a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity usually depends on its
composition and temperature. For gases and other compressible
fluids, it depends on temperature and varies very slowly with
pressure. The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors.
A magnet rho logical fluid, for example, becomes thicker when
subjected to a magnetic field, possibly to the point of behaving like a
solid.
SOLIDS:-
The viscous forces that arise during fluid flow must not be
confused with the elastic forces that arise in a solid in response to
shear, compression or extension stresses. While in the latter the
stress is proportional to the amount of shear deformation, in a fluid
it is proportional to the rate of deformation over time. (For this
reason, Maxwell used the term fugitive elasticity for fluid viscosity.)
However, many liquids (including water) will briefly react like
elastic solids when subjected to sudden stress. Conversely, many
"solids" (even granite) will flow like liquids, albeit very slowly, even
under arbitrarily small stress. Such materials are therefore best
described as possessing both elasticity (reaction to deformation) and
viscosity (reaction to rate of deformation); that is, being visco elastic.
Indeed, some authors have claimed that amorphous solids,
such as glass and many polymers, are actually liquids with a very high
viscosity (greater than 1012 Pa·s).  However, other authors dispute
this hypothesis, claiming instead that there is some threshold for the
stress, below which most solids will not flow at all, and that alleged
instances of glass flow in window panes of old buildings are due to
the crude manufacturing process of older eras rather than to the
viscosity of glass.
Visco elastic solids may exhibit both shear viscosity and bulk
viscosity. The extensional viscosity is a linear combination of the
shear and bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic
material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers.
In geology, earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at
least three orders of magnitude greater than their elastic
deformation are sometimes called rheids.
MEASUREMENT:-
Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rho
meters. A rho meter is used for those fluids that cannot be defined
by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters
to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. Close
temperature control of the fluid is essential to acquire accurate
measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose
viscosity can double with a change of only 5 °C.
For some fluids, the viscosity is constant over a wide range of
shear rates (Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a constant
viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) cannot be described by a single
number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different
correlations between shear stress and shear rate.
One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic
viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.
In coating industries, viscosity may be measured with a cup in
which the efflux time is measured. There are several sorts of cup –
such as the Zahn cup and the Ford viscosity cup – with the usage of
each type varying mainly according to the industry. The efflux time
can also be converted to kinematic viscosities (centistokes, cSt)
through the conversion equations.
Also used in coatings, a Stormier viscometer uses load-based
rotation in order to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in
Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormier viscometers.
Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity.
Resonant, or vibrational viscometers work by creating shear waves
within the liquid. In this method, the sensor is submerged in the fluid
and is made to resonate at a specific frequency. As the surface of the
sensor shears through the liquid, energy is lost due to its viscosity.
This dissipated energy is then measured and converted into a
viscosity reading. A higher viscosity causes a greater loss of energy.
Extensional viscosity can be measured with various rho
meters that apply extensional stress.
Volume viscosity can be measured with an acoustic rho meter.
Apparent viscosity is a calculation derived from tests performed
on drilling fluid used in oil or gas well development. These
calculations and tests help engineers develop and maintain the
properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required.
UNITS:-
The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is Pa·s or kg·m −1·s−1. The CGS
unit is called the poise (P), named after Jean Leonard Marie
Poiseuille. It is commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards,
as centipoises (CP) since the latter is equal to the SI multiple milli-
pascal seconds (mPa·s).
The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m 2/s, whereas the CGS unit
for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St), named after Sir George
Gabriel Stokes. It is sometimes expressed in terms
of centistokes (CST). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the
singular form.
The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity, usually symbolized by  or ,
depending on the convention used, measured in reciprocal poise (P−1,
or cm·s·g−1), sometimes called the rho. Fluidity is seldom used
in engineering practice.
Nonstandard units include the rein, a British unit of dynamic
viscosity. In the automotive industry the viscosity index is used to
describe the change of viscosity with temperature.
At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring
kinematic viscosity by means of the Say bolt viscometer, and
expressing kinematic viscosity in units of Say bolt universal
seconds (SUS). Other abbreviations such as SSU (Say bolt seconds
universal) or SUV (Say bolt universal viscosity) are sometimes used.
Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be converted from SUS
according to the arithmetic and the reference table provided
in ASTM D 2161.
MOLECULER ORIGIN:-
In general, the viscosity of a system depends in detail on how
the molecules constituting the system interact. There are no simple
but correct expressions for the viscosity of a fluid. The simplest exact
expressions are the Green–Kubo relations for the linear shear
viscosity or the transient time correlation function expressions
derived by Evans and Morris in 1985. Although these expressions are
each exact, calculating the viscosity of a dense fluid using these
relations currently requires the use of molecular dynamics computer
simulations. On the other hand, much more progress can be made
for a dilute gas. Even elementary assumptions about how gas
molecules move and interact lead to a basic understanding of the
molecular origins of viscosity. More sophisticated treatments can be
constructed by systematically coarse-graining the equations of
motion of the gas molecules. An example of such a treatment
is Chapman–Enskog theory, which derives expressions for the
viscosity of a dilute gas from the Boltzmann equation.
 Momentum transport in gases is generally mediated by discrete
molecular collisions, and in liquids by attractive forces which bind
molecules close together. Because of this, the dynamic viscosities of
liquids are typically much larger than those of gases.
Gases:-
Kinetic theory of gases:-
Viscosity in gases arises principally from the molecular
diffusion that transports momentum between layers of flow. An
elementary calculation for a dilute gas at temperature  and
density  gives where  is the Boltzmann constant,  the molecular mass,
and  a numerical constant on the order of . The quantity , the mean
free path, measures the average distance a molecule travels
between collisions. Even without a priori knowledge of , this
expression has interesting implications. In particular, since  is
typically inversely proportional to density and increases with
temperature,  itself should increase with temperature and
be independent of density at fixed temperature. In fact, both of
these predictions persist in more sophisticated treatments, and
accurately describe experimental observations. Note that this
behavior runs counter to common intuition regarding liquids, for
which viscosity typically decreases with temperature.

In this case  is independent of temperature, so . For more

complicated molecular models, however,  depends on temperature
in a non-trivial way, and simple kinetic arguments as used here are
inadequate. More fundamentally, the notion of a mean free path
becomes imprecise for particles that interact over a finite range,
which limits the usefulness of the concept for describing real-world
gases.
Chapman– Enskog theory:-
A technique developed by Sydney Chapman and David
Enskog in the early 1900s allows a more refined calculation of . It is
based on the Boltzmann equation, which provides a systematic
statistical description of a dilute gas in terms of intermolecular
interactions As such, their technique allows accurate calculation
of  for more realistic molecular models, such as those incorporating
intermolecular attraction rather than just hard-core repulsion.
It turns out that a more realistic modeling of interactions is
essential for accurate prediction of the temperature dependence of ,
which experiments show increases more rapidly than the  trend
predicted for rigid elastic spheres. Indeed, the Chapman–Enskog
analysis shows that the predicted temperature dependence can be
tuned by varying the parameters in various molecular models. A
simple example is the Sutherland model, which describes rigid elastic
spheres with weak mutual attraction. In such a case, the attractive
force can be treated per turbatively, which leads to a particularly
simple expression for :
where  is independent of temperature, being determined only
by the parameters of the intermolecular attraction. To connect with
experiment, it is convenient to rewrite as
where  is the viscosity at temperature . If  is known from
experiments at  and at least one other temperature, then  can be
calculated. It turns out that expressions for  obtained in this way are
accurate for a number of gases over a sizable range of temperatures.
On the other hand, Chapman and Cowling argue that this success
does not imply that molecules actually interact according to the
Sutherland model. Rather, they interpret the prediction for  as a
simple interpolation which is valid for some gases over fixed ranges
of temperature, but otherwise does not provide a picture of
intermolecular interactions which is fundamentally correct and
general. Slightly more sophisticated models, such as the Lennard–
Jones potential, may provide a better picture, but only at the cost of
a more opaque dependence on temperature. In some systems the
assumption of spherical symmetry must be abandoned as well, as is
the case for vapors with highly polar molecules like H2O.
Liquids
Temperature dependence of liquid viscosity:-
In contrast with gases, there is no simple yet accurate picture
for the molecular origins of viscosity in liquids.
At the simplest level of description, the relative motion of
adjacent layers in a liquid is opposed primarily by attractive
molecular forces acting across the layer boundary. In this picture,
one (correctly) expects viscosity to decrease with increasing
temperature. This is because increasing temperature increases the
random thermal motion of the molecules, which makes it easier for
them to overcome their attractive interactions.
Building on this visualization, a simple theory can be
constructed in analogy with the discrete structure of a solid: groups
of molecules in a liquid are visualized as forming "cages" which
surround and enclose single molecules. These cages can be occupied
or unoccupied, and stronger molecular attraction corresponds to
stronger cages. Due to random thermal motion, a molecule "hops"
between cages at a rate which varies inversely with the strength of
molecular attractions. In equilibrium these "hops" are not biased in
any direction. On the other hand, in order for two adjacent layers to
move relative to each other, the "hops" must be biased in the
direction of the relative motion. The force required to sustain this
directed motion can be estimated for a given shear rate, leading to
where  is the Avogadro constant,  is the Planck constant,  is the
volume of a mole of liquid, and  is the normal boiling point. This
result has the same form as the widespread and accurate empirical
relation
 where  and  are constants fit from data. One the other hand,
several authors express caution with respect to this model. Errors as
large as 30% can be encountered using equation (1), compared with
fitting equation (2) to experimental data. More fundamentally, the
physical assumptions underlying equation (1) have been extensively
criticized. It has also been argued that the exponential dependence
in equation (1) does not necessarily describe experimental
observations more accurately than simpler, non-exponential
expressions.
In light of these shortcomings, the development of a less ad-
hoc model is a matter of practical interest. Foregoing simplicity in
favor of precision, it is possible to write rigorous expressions for
viscosity starting from the fundamental equations of motion for
molecules. A classic example of this approach is Irving-Kirkwood
theory. On the other hand, such expressions are given as averages
over multi particle correlation functions and are therefore difficult to
apply in practice.
In general, empirically derived expressions (based on existing
viscosity measurements) appear to be the only consistently reliable
means of calculating viscosity in liquids.

Mixtures, blends, and suspensions:-

 MIXTURES
Gaseous mixtures:-
The same molecular-kinetic picture of a single component gas
can also be applied to a gaseous mixture. For instance, in the
Chapman-Enskog approach the viscosity  of a binary mixture of gases
can be written in terms of the individual component viscosities , their
respective volume fractions, and the intermolecular interactions. As
for the single-component gas, the dependence of  on the parameters
of the intermolecular interactions enters through various collisional
integrals which may not be expressible in terms of elementary
functions. To obtain usable expressions for  which reasonably match
experimental data, the collisional integrals typically must be
evaluated using some combination of analytic calculation and
empirical fitting. An example of such a procedure is the Sutherland
approach for the single-component gas, discussed above.
Blends of liquids:-
As for pure liquids, the viscosity of a blend of liquids is difficult
to predict from molecular principles. One method is to extend the
molecular "cage" theory presented above for a pure liquid. This can
be done with varying levels of sophistication. One useful expression
resulting from such an analysis is the Leader- Roegiers equation for a
binary mixture:
where  is an empirical parameter, and  and  are the
respective mole fractions and viscosities of the component liquids.
Since blending is an important process in the lubricating and oil
industries, a variety of empirical and propriety equations exist for
predicting the viscosity of a blend, besides those stemming directly
from molecular theory.

Suspensions:-
In a suspension of solid particles (e.g. micron-size spheres
suspended in oil), an effective viscosity  can be defined in terms of
stress and strain components which are averaged over a volume
large compared with the distance between the suspended particles,
but small with respect to macroscopic dimensions. [49] Such
suspensions generally exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. However, for
dilute systems in steady flows, the behavior is Newtonian and
expressions for  can be derived directly from the particle dynamics.
In a very dilute system, with volume fraction , interactions between
the suspended particles can be ignored. In such a case one can
explicitly calculate the flow field around each particle independently,
and combine the results to obtain . For spheres, this results in the
Einstein equation:
 where  is the viscosity of the suspending liquid. The linear
dependence on  is a direct consequence of neglecting interparticle
interactions; in general, one will have:

where the coefficient  may depend on the particle shape (e.g.

spheres, rods, disks). Experimental determination of the precise
value of  is difficult, however: even the prediction  for spheres has
not been conclusively validated, with various experiments finding
values in the range . This deficiency has been attributed to difficulty
in controlling experimental conditions.
In denser suspensions,  acquires a nonlinear dependence on ,
which indicates the importance of interparticle interactions. Various
analytical and semi-empirical schemes exist for capturing this
regime. At the most basic level, a term quadratic in  is added to and
the coefficient  is fit from experimental data or approximated from
the microscopic theory. In general, however, one should be cautious
in applying such simple formulas since non-Newtonian behavior
appears in dense suspensions ( for spheres), or in suspensions of
elongated or flexible particles.
There is a distinction between a suspension of solid particles,
described above, and an emulsion. The latter is a suspension of tiny
droplets, which themselves may exhibit internal circulation. The
presence of internal circulation can noticeably decrease the
observed effective viscosity, and different theoretical or semi-
empirical models must be used.
Amorphous materials

Common glass viscosity curves

In the high and low temperature limits, viscous flow

in amorphous materials (e.g. in glasses and melts) has the Arrhenius
form:
where Q is a relevant activation energy, given in terms of
molecular parameters; T is temperature; R is the molar gas constant;
and A is approximately a constant. The activation energy Q takes a
different value depending on whether the high or low temperature
limit is being considered: it changes from a high value QH at low
temperatures (in the glassy state) to a low value QL at high
temperatures (in the liquid state).

INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES:-
 For intermediate temperatures,  varies nontrivially with
temperature and the simple Arrhenius form fails. On the other hand,
the two-exponential equation
where , are all constants, provides a good fit to experimental
data over the entire range of temperatures, while at the same time
reducing to the correct Arrhenius form in the low and high
temperature limits. Besides being a convenient fit to data, the
expression can also be derived from various theoretical models of
amorphous materials at the atomic level.

Eddy viscosity:-
 In the study of turbulence in fluids, a common practical strategy
is to ignore the small-scale vortices (or eddies) in the motion and to
calculate a large-scale motion with an effective viscosity, called the
"eddy viscosity", which characterizes the transport and dissipation
of energy in the smaller-scale flow (see large eddy simulation). In
contrast to the viscosity of the fluid itself, which must be positive by
the second law of thermodynamics, the eddy viscosity can be
negative.
SELECTED SUBSTANCES:-

In the University of Queensland pitch

drop experiment, pitch has been dripping slowly through a funnel
since 1927, at a rate of one drop roughly every decade. In this way
the viscosity of pitch has been determined to be approximately 230
billion (2.3×1011) times that of water.
Observed values of viscosity vary over several orders of
magnitude, even for common substances. For instance, a 70%
sucrose (sugar) solution has a viscosity over 400 times that of water,
and 26000 times that of air. More dramatically, pitch has been
estimated to have a viscosity 230 billion times that of water.
Water:-
The viscosity of water is about 0.89 mPa·s at room temperature
(25 °C). As a function of temperature, the viscosity can be estimated
using the semi-empirical relation:
where A = 2.414×10−5 Pa·s, B = 247.8 K, and C = 140 K.
Experimentally determined values of the viscosity at various
temperatures are given below.

Air:-
Under standard atmospheric conditions (25 °C and pressure of
1 bar), the viscosity of air is 18.5 μPa·s, roughly 50 times smaller than
the viscosity of water at the same temperature. Except at very high
pressure, the viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature.
Other common substances:-

Honey being drizzled

Viscosity
Substance Temperature (°C)
(mPa·s)
 Whole milk 2.12 20

Olive oil 56.2 26

Honey 2000-10000 20

Ketchup  5000-20000 25

Peanut butter  104-106

Pitch 2.3×1011 10-30 (variable)