Meta Analysis Sampling Error Hypothesis Variable External Validity

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AL HAMD ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY QUETTA CAMPUS

2ND SEMESTER FINAL TERM (ON LINE) EXAME 2021
NAME:NAJEEB ULLAH KHAN REG NO:m,phil edu-f-119715/2020

COURSE: M,PHIL EDUCATION SEMESTER: 2ND group A
PAPER: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION (ER 728)
TUTOR NAME: DR.IFFAT BASIT DATE: 15/07/2021
MARKS:40 TIME:09:30 AM – 09:30 PM
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QUESTION NO 1:
DEFINE (10)
 Meta analysis
 Sampling error
 Hypothesis
 Variable
 External validity
ANSWER:
META ANALYSIS:
A Meta analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific
studies. Meta analysis can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies
addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting measurements that
are expected to have some degree of error. The aim then is to use approaches from
statistics to drive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how
this error is perceived. It is a survey in which the results of the studies include in the
review our statistically similar and are combined and analysed as if they were one study.
SAMPLING ERROR:
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select the
sample that represents the entire population of data. As a result, the results found in the
sample do not represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population. It
means a sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of
the whole population. It often occurs, and thus, researches always calculate a margin of
error during final results as a statistical practice. the margin of error is the amount of error
allowed for a miscalculation to represent the difference between the sample and the
actual population.
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HYPOTHESIS :
Hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it
can be tested to see if it might be true, in non scientific use, however, hypothesis and
theory are often used interchangeably to mean simply and Idea speculation or hunch with
theory being the more common choice. It is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
for a hypothesis to be scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can
test it. scientist generally base scientific hypothesis On previous observations that cannot
satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories.
VARIABLE :
The meaning of variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing or
phenomenon that we are trying to measure in some way, in more simple words, we say
that a variable is any property, a characteristic, a number or a quantity that increases or
decreases work time or can take on different values. It represents the measurable traits
that can change over the course of scientific experiment.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY:
By external validity we mean how well the outcome of a study can be expected to apply
to other setting. it is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside
the context of that study. In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study
can be generalized to and across other situations, people, stimuli, and Times.
QUESTION NO 2:
ANSWER:
How many general categories of research are there by purpose? write any three. (15)
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH BY PURPOSE:
Following (3) are general categories of research by purpose.
1) PURE RESEARCH:
Pure research is theoretical type not a practical one. Pure research is the knowledge of
fact and theories to give a satisfaction of knowledge and understanding, it discovered
general principles of a problem solution. pure research involves developing and testing
theories and hypothesis that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or
may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work
often involve the testing of hypothesis containing very abstract and specialised concepts.
Pure research is also concerned with the development examination, verification, and
refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques, and tools that form the body of
research methodology, example of research include developing a sampling technique that
can be applied to a particular situation, developing a methodology to assess the validity
of a procedure developing an instrument measure the stress level in people and finding
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the best way of measuring people's attitudes the knowledge produced through pure
research is South in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods.
Following are some of the features of pure research:
1) it keeps the foundation of initial study.
2) it discovers new facts.
3) it gives theoretical reports for solution.
2) APPLIED RESEARCH:
Applied research is the implementation of theoretical study upon a problematic situation,
it applied its degrees and practice to know about the nature of the problem and give a
concrete shape for the solution, this is practical work in the field. It is a type of Research
Design that seeks to solve a specific problem or provide innovative solutions to issues
affecting an individual, group, or society. It is often referred to as a scientific method of
enquiry or contractual research because it involve the practical application of scientific
methods to everyday problems.
When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to identify a problem,
developer research hypothesis and goes I had to test this hypothesis via an experiment in
many cases, this research approach employs a legal methods in order to solve critical
problems.
Following are some of the features of applied research:
1) it test and verifies theories.
2) it discovers new facts.
3) it gives immediate answer to a question.
3) ACTION RESEARCH :
Action research is based on the taking of immediate action on a happening, event or
situation, the researcher is actively involved in the solution of the problems. Second
World War created many types of problems for which action research was necessary
these problems including food, epidemic, earthquake, fire etc.
Action research is a philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the
Social Sciences, it seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process of taking
action and doing research, which are linked Together by critical reflection action research
is a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action
and Research leading to social action that uses a spiral of steps each of which is composed
of a circle of planning action and fact finding about the result of the action.
Following are some of the features of action research:
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1) it is quick service oriented.

2) It is taking immediate action.
3) It is sensitive to time and place.
QUESTION NO 3:
ANSWER:
Differentiate between Probability and nonprobability sampling? explain Different
techniques of random sampling method ?
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROBABILITY AND NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
Probability sampling refers to the sampling method in which all the members of the
population has a pre-specified and an equal chance to be a part of the sample, this
technique is based on the randomisation principle where in the procedure is so designed
which guarantees that each and every individual of the population has an equal selection
opportunity, this helps to reduce the possibility of bias , statistical inference can be made
by the researchers using this technique I.e. the result obtained can be generalized from
the serveyd sample to the target population.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
When in a sampling method, all the individuals of the universe are not given an equal
opportunity of becoming a part of a sample the method is said to be non probability
sampling, under this technique as such there is no probability attached to the unit of the
population and the selection relies on the subjective judgement of the researcher,
therefore the conclusions drawn by the simpler cannot be inferred from the sample to the
wall population.
DIFFERENCE:
These are some of the significant differences between Probability and nonprobability
sampling
1) The sampling technique, in which the subjects of the population get an equal
opportunity to be selected as a representative sample, is known as probability
sampling, a sampling method in which it is not known that which is individual from
the population will be chosen as a sample, is called non probability sampling.
2)
The basis of probability sampling is randomisation or chance, so it is also known as
random sampling, on the contrary, in an probability sampling randomisation
technique is not applied for selecting the sample hence it is considered as non
random sampling.
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3) In Probability sampling, the simpler uses the representative to be part of the

sample randomly where is in non probability sampling the subject is chosen
arbitrarily, to belong to the sample by the researcher.
4) The chances of selection in Probability sampling are fixed and known as opposed
to non probability sampling The selection probability is zero I.e. it is neither
specified not known.
5) Probability sampling is used when the research is conclusive in nature on the other
hand when the research is exploratory non probability sampling should be used.
6) The results generated by probability sampling are free from a while the result of
non probability sampling are more or less biased.
7) Probability sampling test hypothesis but non probability sampling generates it.
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF RANDOM SAMPLING METHOD:

RANDOM SAMPLING METHOD:
Random sampling simply describes when every element in a population has an equal
chance of being chosen for the sample
There are four types of random sampling techniques
1) Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling requires using randomly generated numbers to choose a sample
more specifically it initially requires a sampling frame a list or database of all members of
a population you can then randomly generate a number of each element using Excel for
example and take the first n simple that you require.
To Give an example, image in the table on the right was your sampling frame using a
software like Excel you can generate Random numbers for each element in the sampling
frame if you need a sample size of 3 then you would take the sample with the Random
numbers from 1 to 3 .
2) Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling starts off by dividing a population into groups with similar
attributes, then a random sample is taken from each group. this method is used to ensure
the different segments in a population are equally represented, to give an example,
imagine a survey is conducted at a school to determine overall satisfaction. it might make
sense here to use stratified random sampling to equally represent the opinions of
students in each department.
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3) Cluster random sampling

Cluster sampling starts by dividing the population into groups, or clusters. what makes
this different that stratified sampling is that each cluster must be representative of the
population, then you can you randomly selecting entire clusters to sample.
For example, if an elementary school head five different grade 8 classes cluster random
sampling Might be used and only one class would be chosen as a sample, for example.
4) Systematic random sampling
Systematic random sampling is a very common technique in which you sample every
k,th element. for example if you were conducting service at a mall, you might survey
every 100thperson that walks in, for example.
If you have a sampling frame then you would divide the size of the frame, N, by the
desired sample size ,n, to get index number, k. you would then choose every k,th.
element in the frame to create your sample. using the same example if we wanted a
desired sample size of 2 this time, then we would take every 3rd row in the sample
frame.
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1

AL HAMD ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY QUETTA CAMPUS

NAME:NAJEEB ULLAH KHAN REG NO:m,phil edu-f-119715/2020

1) it is quick service oriented.

3) In Probability sampling, the simpler uses the representative to be part of the

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF RANDOM SAMPLING METHOD:

3) Cluster random sampling

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