Module 2:​ Week 2 - 3

Unit Title: Circuit Elements

Duration: 6 hours
Introduction:
As we have already learned the different terminologies of circuit analysis and the
concept of passive sign convention, we are now ready to apply all that we have
learned from the previous module specifically the different circuit elements that we
will be having in the circuit representation of practical electrical systems.
Different circuit elements and their electrical characteristics will be explained in this
module together with the resistance concept in the circuits. The use of different laws
in relation to voltage-current relationships in pure resistors will be included in this
module.

Objective: The goal for this module are:

1. Recognize the different circuit elements and their respective behaviors.
2. Be able to explain and applied in circuit analysis the following laws and
theorems: Ohm’s Law; and Kirchhoff’s Laws.
3. Know how to calculate the power in specific elements of the circuits.

Pretest:

Lesson Proper:
2.1 Voltage and Current Sources

There are five basic circuit elements:

1. Voltage source
2. Current source
3. Resistor
4. Inductors
5. Capacitor

The elements that we will define are terminal devices that are completely
described by current through the element and/or voltage across it. These elements,
which we will employ in constructing electric circuit, will generally classified as being
either ​active or passive​. The difference between these two classification depends
basically upon one thing – whether they supply or absorb energy. An ​active element
is capable of generating energy (ex. Batteries, transistor, generator etc.) and a
passive element​ cannot generate energy (ex. Resistor, capacitor, and inductor).

Here we will launch an analysis of passive elements by discussing the resistor in

detail. However, before proceeding with that element, we first present some very
important active elements.

Independent voltage source​- is a two terminal element that maintains a

specified voltage between its terminals regardless of the current through it.
Independent current source – is a two terminal element that maintains a
specified current regardless of the voltage across its terminals.

Dependent voltage source – established a voltage whose value depends

on the value of a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit (sometimes
called the controlled voltage source)

Dependent current source – established a current whose value depends on

the value of the voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit (sometimes called
the controlled current source)

Figure 2.1.​ The circuit symbols for (a) an ideal independent voltage source and (b)
an ideal independent current source.

Fe

Figure 2.2.​ The circuit symbols for (a) an ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage
source, (b) an ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source, (c) an ideal
dependent voltage-controlled current source, and (d) an ideal dependent
current-controlled current source.
Examples:

Problem 1. Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in Fig. P1.

Solution:
We apply the sign convention for power in each element. For p​1​, the 5A is out of the
positive terminal (or into the negative terminal); hence,
p​1​ = 20(-5) = -100 W Delivered power
For p​2​ and p​3​, the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.
p​2​ = 12(5) = 60 W Absorbed power
p​3​ = 8(6) = 48 W Absorbed power
For p​4​, we should take note that the voltage is 8V (positive at the top), the same as
the voltage for p​3​, since both the passive element and the dependent source are
connected to the same terminals. Since the current flows out of the positive terminal,
p​4​ = 8(-0.2I) = 8(-0.2 x 5) = - 8W Delivered power
We should observe that the 20V independent voltage source and 0.2I dependent
current source are delivering power to the rest of the network, while the two passive
elements are absorbing power.
Thus we can check that,
p​1​ + p​4​ = p​2​ + p​3 or
Total power delivered = Total power absorbed
The circuit is following the power check criterion.
Exercise Problems:
2.1 For the circuit shown in Fig. P - 2.1,
a.) What value of v​g​ is require in order for the interconnection to be valid?
b.) For this value of v​g​, find the power associated with the 8A source.
Answer: a.) -2V; b.) -16 W (16 W delivered).

2.2 For the circuit shown in Fig. P - 2.2,

a.) What value of α is required in order for the interconnection to be valid?
b.) For the value of α calculated in part (a), find the power associated with the
25V source.
Answer: a.) 0.6 A/V; b.) 375 W (375 W absorbed).

Fig. P - 2.1 Fig. P - 2.2

2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law)

Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge. The circuit element used to model this
behavior is the ​resistor​. Figure 2.5 shows the circuit symbol for the resistor, with R
denoting the resistance value of the resistor.

Figure 2.3.​ The circuit symbol for a resistor having a resistance R.

For purposes of circuit analysis, we must reference the current in the resistor to the
terminal voltage. We can do so in two ways: either in the direction of the voltage drop
across the resistor or in the direction of the voltage rise across the resistor, as shown
in Fig. 2.6. If we choose the former, the relationship between the voltage and the
current is:
v = iR Eq’n 2.1
where:
 v = the voltage, in volts (V)
i = the current, in ampere (A) and
R = the resistance, in ohms (Ω)

If we choose the second method, we must write the equation as

v = -iR Eq’n 2.2

where v, i, and R are the same as before. Note that these two equations are
consistent with the passive sign convention we have discussed before and known as
the Ohm’s law.
The reciprocal of the resistance is referred to as conductance, is symbolized by the
letter G, and is measured in siemens (S). Thus,
G = 1/R Eq’n. 2.3
We may calculate the power at the terminals of a resistor in several ways. The first
approach is to use the defining equation and simply calculate
p = vi Eq’n. 2.4
when v = iR and
p = -vi Eq’n. 2.5
when v = -iR,
where:
p = the power, in watts
R = the resistance, in ohms
i = the current, in amperes
v = the voltage, in volts

A second method of expressing the power at the terminals of a resistor expresses

power in terms of the current and the resistance. Substituting Eq’n 2.1 to Eq’n 2.4
p = vi = (iR)(i) = i​2​R
and substituting Eq’n. 2.2 to Eq’n. 2.5
p = -vi = -(-iR)(i) = i​2​R
Note that the two previous equations are the same because resistors are passive
circuit elements and have no capacity to create its own power but simply absorbs
power from the circuit.
The third method of expressing the power at the terminals of a resistor expresses
power in terms of the voltage and the resistance thus,
p = v​2 ​/ R
Examples:
Problem 1. In the circuit shown, determine the current and the power absorbed by
the resistor.

Solution:

Using Ohm’s law, we find the current to be

I = V/R = 12/2kΩ = 6 mA ans.

Solving for the power absorbed by the resistor,

P = VI = (12V)(6 x 10​-3​A) = 0.072 W or
P = I​2​R = (6 x 10​-3​A)​2​(2kΩ) = 0.072 W or
P = V​2​/R = (12V)​2​/2kΩ = 0.072 W ans.

Problem 2. The power absorbed in the 10 kΩ resistor in the circuit shown is 3.6 mW.
Determine the voltage and the current in the circuit.

Solution:
To solve for V​s​, we use the equation
P = V​2​/R or
V​s​ = P x R = (3.6 x 10​ W)(10 x 10​3​Ω)
2​ -3​

V​s​ = 6 V ans.

Solving for I,
P = I​2​R or
I​ = P/R = 3.6 x 10​ W / 10 x 10​3​Ω
2​ -3​

I = 0.6 mA ans.

Problem 3. For the circuit shown, find the value of the voltage source and the power
absorbed by the resistor.

Solution:
The voltage is,
V​s​ = I/G = 0.5 x 10​-3​A / 50 x 10​-6​S
V​s​ = 10 V ans.
The power absorbed is,
 P = I​2​/G = (0.5 x 10​-3​A)​2​ / (50 x 10​-6​S)
P = 5 mW ans.

Problem 4. Given the network shown, find R and V​s​.

Solution:
Solving for the value of V​s​,
P = V​s​I or
-3​ -3​
V​s​ = P/I = (80 x 10​ W) / (4 x 10​ A) = 20 V ans.

The value of R,
P = I​2​R or
R = P/I​ = (80 x 10​-3​W) / (4 x 10​-3​A)​2​ = 5 kΩ
2​
ans.

Exercise Problems
2.3 For the circuit shown in Fig. P - 2.3,
a.) If v​g = 1 kV and i​g = 5 mA, find the value of R and the power absorbed by
the resistor.
b.) If i​g = 75 mA and the power delivered by the voltage source is 3 W, find v​g​,
R, and the power absorbed by the resistor.
c.) If R = 300 Ω and the power absorbed by R is 480 mW, find i​g​ and v​g​.
Answer: a.) 200 kΩ, 5 W; b.) 40 V, 533.33 Ω, 3 W c.) 40 mA, 12 V.

2.4 For the circuit shown in Fig. P-2.4,

a.) If i​g = 0.5 A and G = 50 mS, find v​g and the power delivered by the current
source.
b.) If v​g = 15 V and the power delivered to the conductor is 9 W, find the
conductance G and the source current i​g​.
c.) If G = 200 µS and the power delivered to the conductance is 8 W, find i​g
and v​g​.
Answer: a.) 10 V, 5 W; b.) 40 mS, 0.6 A; c.) 40 mA; 200 V

Fig. P - 2.3 Fig. P - 2.4

2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Definition of Terms: Nodes, Branch, and Loops

Branch – represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor. In

other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element.
The circuit in Fig. 2.4 has five branches namely, the 10 V voltage source, the 2 A
current source, and the three resistors.
Node – it is a point where two or more branches are connected. It is usually
indicated by a dot.
The circuit in Fig. 2.4 has three nodes namely, node a, b, and c.
Loop​ – is any closed path in a circuit.
A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes,
and returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than once.
A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one brach which is not part of
any independent loop. Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of
equations.
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled
with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a
large variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the
German physicists Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824 – 1887). These laws are formally
known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires
that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of all the currents
passing through a node is equal to zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
N
∑ in = 0.
n=1

Where N is the number of branches connected to node and i​n is the nth current
leaving or entering a node.
Note: As a convention, we denote the current ​‘entering’ a node to be negative and
the current ​‘leaving’​ a node to be positive.
Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the conservation of energy.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages
around a closed path is equal to zero.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that
M
∑ v m = 0.
m=1

Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the
loop) and v​m​ is the mth voltage.
Note: As a convention, the voltage traced as a ​‘voltage drop’ is positive, and the
voltage traced as ​‘voltage rise’​ is negative.
KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counter-clockwise
trip around the loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of all the voltages around the loop
is zero.

As an illustration of KVL for Fig. 2.5, trace of loop is clockwise, then

-v​1​ + v​2​ + v​3​ – v​4​ + v​5​ = 0.

Examples:
Problem 1. Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown.

Solution:
Since there are four circuit elements present, the circuit has four (4) branches
namely, the 10 V voltage source, the two resistors and the 2 A current source.
The circuit below shows the three (3) nodes,
Problem 2. Find current i​0​ and the voltage v​0​ in the circuit shown.

Solution:
Applying KCL to node a, we obtain
3 + 0.5i​0​ = i​0; i​0​ = 6 A ans.
For the 4 Ω resistor, Ohm’s law gives
v​0​ = 4i​0​ = 24 V ans.

Problem 3. For the circuit shown, find voltages v​1​ and v​2​.

Solution:

Assuming a current ​i​ flows in the circuit, from Ohm’s law

v​1​ = 2i and v​2​ = -3i
Applying KVL around the loop,
-20 + v​1​ –v​2 ​= 0
Substituting the two expressions of the voltages in the latter equation, we have
-20 + 2i + 3i = 0; 5i = 20; i=4A
From the equations of the two voltages,
v​1​ = 8 V and v​2​ = -12 V ans.
Problem 4. Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. P4(a).

Fig. P4
Solution:
Ohm’s law gives,
v​1​ = 8i​1​; v​2​ = 3i​2​; and v​3​ = 6i​3 Eqn. 1
at node a, KCL gives
i​1​ – i​2​ – i​3​ = 0 Eqn. 2
applying KVL around loop 1 as shown in Fig. P4(b)
-30 + v​1​ + v​2​ = 0
Expressing the voltages in terms of Eqn. 1
-30 + 8i​1​ + 3i​2​ = 0
Solving for i​1​ gives,
(30− 3i2 )
i1 = 8
Eqn. 3

applying KVL around loop 2 as shown in Fig. P4(b)

-v​2​ + v​3​ = 0; v​2​ = v​3 Eqn. 4
in terms of i​2​ and i​3​,
i2
3i​2​ = 6i​3​; or i3 = 2
Eqn. 5

Substituting Eqn. 3 & 5 into Eqn. 2, we have

(30−3i2 ) i2
8
− i2 − 2
=0

i2 = 2 A ans.

Solving for the rest of the unknowns,

i​1​ = 3 A; i​3​ = 1 A; v​1​ = 24 V; v​2​ = 6 V; and v​3​ = 6 V ans.
Exercises:

2.5 Find v​1​ and v​2​ in the circuit shown.

Answer: 16 V, -8V

2.6 Find v​x​ and v​0​ in the circuit shown.

Answer: 20 v, -10 V

2.7 Find v​0​ and i​0​ in the circuit shown.

Answer: 12 V, 6 A

2.8 Find the voltages and currents in the circuit shown.

Answer: v​1​ = 6 V; v​2​ = 4 V; v​3​ = 10 V; i​1​ = 3 A; i​2​ = 500 mA; i​3​ = 1.25 A
2.4 Assignment No. 2
Problem 2.1. Find V​s​ in the circuit shown in Fig. P2.1.
Problem 2.2. Find I​s​ in the circuit shown in Fig. P2.2.

Fig. P2.1 Fig. P2.2

Problem 2.3 Use KCL to find the value of the unknown currents in Fig. P2.3.

Fig. P2.3
Problem 2.4 Use repeated application of KVL to find the values of v​c and v​e for the
circuit shown in Fig. P2.4.

Fig. P2.4
Problem 2.5 The current i​x​ in the circuit shown in Fig. P2.5 is 50 mA and the voltage
v​x​ is 3.5 V. Find (a) i​1​; (b) v​1​; (c) v​g​; and (d) the power supplied by the voltage source.
 Fig. P2.5
Problem 2.6 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. P2.6. (a) Find v​0 using Kirchhoff’s
laws and Ohm’s law. (b) Test the solution for v​0 by verifying that the total power
supplied equals the total power absorbed.

Fig. P2.6
Problem 2.7 The current in the circuit shown in Fig. P2.7 is 2 mA. Find (a) i​a​; (b) i​g​;
and (c) the power delivered by the independent current source.

Fig. P2.7
Problem 2.8 Given the circuit shown in Fig. P2.8, find a.) the value of i​a​; b.) the value
of i​b​; c.) the value of v​0​; d.) the power dissipated in each resistor; and e.) the power
delivered by the 50 V source.

Fig. P2.8
Problem 2.9 The current i​0 in the circuit shown in Fig. P2.9 is 1 A. Find a.) i​1​; b.) the
power dissipated in each resistor; c.) verify that the power dissipated in the circuit
equals the developed by the 150 V voltage source.

Fig. P2.9
Problem 2.10 The voltage across the 16 Ω resistor in the circuit in Fig. P2.10 is 80 V,
positive at the upper terminal. a.) Find the power dissipated in each resistor. b.) Find
the power supplied by the 125 V ideal voltage source. c.) Verify that the total power
supplied equals the total power dissipated.

Fig. P2.10
Guidelines for Submission and Evaluation
1. For those students who choose either synchronous (SL) or asynchronous
online learning (AOL) as the mode of learning that is suited for them, all
activities must be submitted online (Google Classroom, Google Mail, or
Messenger). Otherwise if the student prefers for remote print learning mode
(RPL), the instructor will give two (2) weeks for them to accomplish and
submit a printed/hand-written copy of their output.
2. Feedback for the submitted outputs will be through e-mail (for SL or AOL) or
will be returned on the students directly in the next schedule of submission
(applicable for RPL).
3. Submission and return (for RPL) of materials may be located outside the gate
of the University or in the designated area of the LGU in the student’s
municipality.

Module Summary:

• ​The circuit elements introduced in this module are voltage sources, current
sources, and resistors:
• An ​ideal voltage source maintains a prescribed voltage regardless of the
current in the device. An ​ideal current source maintains a prescribed current
regardless of the voltage across the device. Voltage and current sources are
either ​independent,​ that is, not influenced by any other current or voltage in
the circuit; or ​dependent​, that is, determined by some other current or voltage
in the circuit.
• A ​resistor constrains its voltage and current to be proportional to each other.
The value of the proportional constant relating voltage and current in a
resistor is called its ​resistance​ and is measured in ohms.

• ​Ohm’s law establishes the proportionality of voltage and current in a resistor.

Specifically,

v = iR

if the current flow in the resistor is in the direction of the voltage drop across it, or

v = -iR

if the current flow in the resistor is in the direction of the voltage rise across it.

• By combining the equation for power, ​p = vi​, with Ohm’s law, we can determine the
power absorbed by a resistor:

p = i2​ ​R or p = v​2​/R
• Circuits are described by nodes and closed paths. A ​node is a point where two or
more circuit elements join. When just two elements connect to form a node, they are
said to be in ​series.​ A ​closed path is a loop traced through connecting elements,
starting and ending at the same node and encountering intermediate nodes only
once each.

• The voltages and currents of interconnected circuit elements obey Kirchhoff’s laws:
• ​Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of all the currents at any
node in a circuit equals zero.
• ​Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages
around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.

• A circuit is solved when the voltage across and the current in every element have
been determined. By combining an understanding of independent and dependent
sources, Ohm’s law, and Kirchhoff’s laws, we can solve many simple circuits.

References:

Alexander, C., & Sadiku, M. (2013). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th ed.)
Nilsson, James and Riedel, Susan (2015). ​Electric Circuit Analysis​ (10th ed.)
Bird, J. (2017). Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (6th ed.)

Irwin, J., & Nelms, R. (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis (11th ed.)

Johnson, D., Johnson, J., & Hilburn, J. Electric Circuit Analysis (2​nd​ ed.)