10.1007@978 3 030 24314 2

Learning and Analytics in Intelligent Systems 2
Suresh Chandra Satapathy · K. Srujan Raju ·

Kumar Molugaram · Arkanti Krishnaiah ·
George A. Tsihrintzis Editors
International
Conference on
Emerging Trends in
Engineering (ICETE)
Emerging Trends in Smart Modelling
Systems and Design
Learning and Analytics in Intelligent Systems
Volume 2
Series Editors
George A. Tsihrintzis, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece
Maria Virvou, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece
Lakhmi C. Jain, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
Centre for Artificial Intelligence, University of Technology Sydney, NSW,
Australia; University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia; KES International,
Shoreham-by-Sea, UK; Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK
The main aim of the series is to make available a publication of books in hard copy
form and soft copy form on all aspects of learning, analytics and advanced
intelligent systems and related technologies. The mentioned disciplines are strongly
related and complement one another significantly. Thus, the series encourages
cross-fertilization highlighting research and knowledge of common interest. The
series allows a unified/integrated approach to themes and topics in these scientific
disciplines which will result in significant cross-fertilization and research dissem-
ination. To maximize dissemination of research results and knowledge in these
disciplines, the series publishes edited books, monographs, handbooks, textbooks
and conference proceedings.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16172

Suresh Chandra Satapathy •
K. Srujan Raju Kumar Molugaram

• •
Arkanti Krishnaiah George A. Tsihrintzis

•
Editors
International Conference
on Emerging Trends
in Engineering (ICETE)
Emerging Trends in Smart Modelling Systems
and Design
123
Editors
Suresh Chandra Satapathy K. Srujan Raju
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Department of CSE
Technology (KIIT) CMR Technical Campus
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Kumar Molugaram Arkanti Krishnaiah

University College of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osmania University Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India University College of Engineering
Hyderabad, India
George A. Tsihrintzis
Department of Informatics
University of Piraeus
Piraeus, Greece
ISSN 2662-3447 ISSN 2662-3455 (electronic)

Learning and Analytics in Intelligent Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-24313-5 ISBN 978-3-030-24314-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Dedicated to
Our Alma Mater & Eminent Professors who
taught us
for their inspiring vision, unwavering
conviction and tireless efforts that have
resulted in nurturing hundreds of eminent
global citizens and effective human beings.
“Once an Osmanian Always an Osmanian”
University College of Engineering,
Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
University College of Engineering (UCE) has the distinction of being the oldest and
the biggest among the engineering colleges of the State of Telangana, India. It was
established in the year 1929, eleven years after the formation of Osmania
University. The college was the sixth engineering college to be established in the
whole of British India. The college moved to its present permanent building in the
year 1947. Today, it is the biggest among the campus colleges of Osmania
University. The golden jubilee of the college was celebrated in 1979, the diamond
jubilee in 1989 and the platinum jubilee in 2004. The college was made autono-
mous in 1994. University Grants Commission of India conferred autonomy status to
the college for a period of 6 years (2016–2017 to 2021–2022). The college offers
four-year engineering degree courses leading to the award of Bachelor of
Engineering (B.E.) in biomedical engineering, civil engineering, computer science
engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, electronics and communi-
cations engineering and mechanical engineering. The college also offers graduate
programs and Ph.D. in the various branches of engineering. As of today, there is a
yearly intake of 320 undergraduate students (full-time) and 290 postgraduate stu-
dents (full-time and part-time). There are 143 teaching staff members, including 40
professors.
The UG programs offered have been accredited by the National Board of
Accreditation, New Delhi. Osmania University is accredited by NAAC with “A+”
Grade. UCE, OU, is the first engineering college to get ISO 9001 Certification in
Telangana State. University College of Engineering was awarded the Best
Engineering College by Indian Society for Technical Education (Telangana) in the
year 2010. UCE, OU, was adjudged as the Best Engineering College in the country
for the academic year 2003–2004 by Indian Society for Technical Education,
New Delhi, and by Star News for the years 2010–2011 and 2011–2012.
The college has successfully completed the Technical Education Quality
Improvement Programme (TEQIP-I) under the World Bank financial assistance of
Rs. 15.48 crores during the period 2003–2008. The outcome of the project has
resulted in: (i) increase in pass percentage of UG/PG students, (ii) enhancement of
research publications of staff by threefolds, (iii) introduction of six PG programs in
vii
viii University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
niche areas, (iv) introduction of credit-based system and (v) substantial increase in
internal revenue generation.
The college has successfully completed Phase II of TEQIP program with a
financial assistance of Rs. 12.5 crores and additional grant of 5 crores under the
best-performing institution category. Recently, the college has been approved as a
minor center under QIP for full-time Ph.D. programs. The college has been selected
for TEQIP Phase III twinning program with a financial assistance Rs. 7 crores. The
college has been granted “Visvesvaraya Ph.D. Scheme for Electronics and IT” for
full-time Ph.D. program. The GIAN program of MHRD has sanctioned 7 programs
in specialized research area to the college. The college has been ranked 80 in NIRF
Engineering College Ranking Survey by MHRD Survey, New Delhi, India, for the
year 2017–2018.
Alumni Association University College
of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Once University College of Engineering was declared autonomous, the idea of

having Alumni Association, whose membership would include all past students
of the college and present or past faculty members of the college, gained
momentum. Under the dynamic leadership of then Principal, Prof. D. C. Reddy, the
first get-together was held on Saturday July 3, 1996. After the revival of the
Association in 2015, the two subsequent Executive Committees under the leader-
ship of Er. Rammohan Rao, Er. P. Ram Reddy and Dr. D. Vijay Kumar with the
support of patrons, fellow members, learned faculty and students have been set out
to fulfill the objectives of Alumni Association.
The Association is a not-for-profit organization and works with the staff and
students of University College of Engineering, and the objectives are:
• Provide a platform for the alumni to connect with each other for the exchange of
information and ideas and communicate their accomplishments, interests and
concerns.
• Foster alumni pride and enhance the reputation of the university and OUCE in
particular.
• Enrich the emotional bondage among the students, alumni and faculty.
• Extend maximum help to the college in the placement and internship of students
in reputed organizations.
• Recognize alumni for their significant contributions to education.
• Propose and execute special projects: buildings, technical projects, seminars,
conferences, etc.
• Support poor/economically backward students financially by floating
scholarships.
• Institute awards for meritorious performance for students.
• Institute awards for the alumni for their contribution to the college and the
society.
• Inspire and invoke the spirit of innovation among the students leading to finding
technical solutions to the problems of the society leading to patents to students
and the college.
ix
x Alumni Association University College of Engineering
In the past four years, the Executive Body set out to execute the above objectives
by taking up many initiatives like conducting global alumni meets, alumni talks,
funding student innovation, patent and research, facilitating student Internships,
industry interactions and career development programs, supporting student clubs
and other activities, facilitating in setting up the technology business incubator, etc.
To further the objectives of the Association to support the faculty and research
scholars, the Association has organized the First International Conference on
Emerging Trends in Engineering under its aegis.
Foreword
Alumni Association is constantly setting up new benchmarks with every passing

year with a lot of good work done toward furthering the Association goals and
giving back to the alma mater. One of the key focus areas has been to bridge the
industry academia gap, thereby promoting cutting-edge skill development and
research, thereby enabling the university to be a hub of innovation.
This publication is an outcome of the First International Conference on
Emerging Trends in Engineering (ICETE). As part of the initiatives of the Alumni
Association, the conference was organized to enhance the information exchange
of theoretical research and practical advancements at national and international levels
in key fields of engineering and to promote professional interaction among students,
scholars, researchers, educators, professionals from industries and other groups to
share latest findings in their respective fields toward sustainable developments.
The entire organizing team has worked hard over the last few months in putting
together the complete structure for the event and coordinating with all the eminent
speakers across the globe to ensure that the 2-day conference brings together the best
minds in the industry to come together and share their valuable insights with the entire
fraternity. We are honored to have eminent speakers grace the conference this year.
We received 619 papers from about more than 100 institutions/organizations in
14 countries. The papers have gone through a rigorous evaluation process, and the
best papers have been selected for presenting on the days of the conference. Only,
the presented and approved papers have come for publishing. I want to thank the
Technical Program Committee for bringing together research scholars from diverse
background and working tirelessly in picking the final list and bringing out this
publication.
With a rich history of over 100 years producing world-class students and alumni
who have made a mark all over the world, we aim to continue the tradition by hosting
such world-class conferences and live up to the expectations of our alma mater.
April 2019 D. Vijay Kumar
xi
Preface
This book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the

First International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering (ICETE), held at
University College of Engineering (Autonomous) and organized by Alumni
Association, University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad,
India, on March 22–23, 2019. The aim of this conference is to enhance the
information exchange of theoretical research/practical advancements at national and
international levels in the fields of biomedical engineering, civil engineering,
computer science engineering, electrical engineering, electronics and communica-
tion engineering, mechanical engineering and mining engineering. This encourages
and promotes professional interaction among students, scholars, researchers, edu-
cators, professionals from industries and other groups to share latest findings in
their respective fields toward sustainable developments.
The refereed conference proceedings of the ICETE are published in three
volumes covering seven streams, i.e. biomedical engineering, civil engineering,
computer science engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, electronics
and communication engineering, mechanical engineering and mining engineering.
Out of 619 paper submissions from about 14 countries in seven streams of engi-
neering, only 214 papers are being published after reviewing thoroughly; this third
volume of “International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering (ICETE)”
comprises the comprehensive state-of-the-art technical contributions in the areas of
civil engineering, mechanical engineering and mining engineering. Major topics
of these research papers include latest findings in the respective fields toward
sustainable developments include water resource engineering, structural engineer-
ing, geotechnical engineering, transportation engineering, mining engineering,
production and industrial engineering, thermal engineering, design engineering and
production engineering.
George A. Tsihrintzis
Suresh Chandra Satapathy
Kumar Molugaram
A. Krishnaiah
K. Srujan Raju
xiii
Acknowledgements
We thank all the authors for their contributions and timely response. We also thank
all the reviewers who read the papers and made valuable suggestions for
improvement.
We would like to thank Prof. S. Ramachandram, Vice-Chancellor, Osmania
University, and Prof. M. Kumar, Principal, University College of Engineering, for
having faith in us. Dr. D. Rama Krishna and Prof. K, Shyamala of UCE, OU, for
leading from the front; the TPC team, for pulling off a brilliant job; Heads of all
departments and all learned faculty, for all the support. Also, last but not the least,
we convey our thanks to all the research scholars without whose relentless slogging
this conference and publication would not have seen light.
We thank our sponsors Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd., Defence Research
and Development Organization (DRDO), CCL Products (India) Ltd., The Singareni
Collieries Company Ltd., TEQIP-III and all other financial contributors.
We extend our thanks to all the Executive Body members of the Alumni
Association for their support and Sri. R. V. Rammohan Rao for the support when
needed.
Finally, we thank the Springer team comprising Prof. Suresh Chandra Satapathy,
Prof. K. Srujan Raju and Dr. M. Ramakrishna Murthy for guiding and helping us
throughout.
April 2019 D. Vijay Kumar
xv
ICETE Organizing Committee
Chief Patron
S. Ramachandram Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
(Vice-chancellor)
Patrons
Kumar Molugaram University College of Engineering (A),
(Principal) Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
P. Laxminarayana (Dean) Faculty of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
D. C. Reddy Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
(Former Vice-chancellor)
D. N. Reddy Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
(Former Vice-chancellor) Hyderabad, India
R. V. Rammohan Rao Alumni Association, University College
(Past President) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Chairpersons
P. Ram Reddy Alumni Association, University College
(President) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
P. V. N. Prasad Department of Electrical Engineering, University
College of Engineering (A), Osmania
University, Hyderabad, India
xvii
xviii ICETE Organizing Committee
Conveners
D. Vijay Kumar Alumni Association, University College
(General Secretary) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
D. Rama Krishna Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, University College
of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Publication Committee
Suresh Chandra Satapathy School of Computer Engineering, Kalinga
(Chair) Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT),
Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha
Kumar Molugaram University College of Engineering,
(Co-chair, Principal) Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana
K. Srujan Raju Department of CSE, CMR Technical Campus,
(Co-chair) Hyderabad, Telangana
Sriram Venkatesh Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University College of Engineering,
Osmania University, Hyderabad
K. Shyamala Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, University College of
Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad
D. Vijay Kumar Alumni Association, University College
(General Secretary) of Engineering (A), Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
D. Rama Krishna Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, University College of
Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad
International Advisory Committee

J. N. Reddy Texas A&M University, USA
Ramulu Mamidala University of Washington, USA
Chandra Kambhamettu University of Delaware, USA
P. Nageswara Rao University of Northern Iowa, USA
Suman Das Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
Tariq Muneer Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
Rao S. Govindaraju Purdue University, Indiana, USA
Nitin K. Tripathi Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
Srinivasulu Ale The University of Texas, Texas, USA
ICETE Organizing Committee xix
Prasad Enjeti Texas A&M University, Texas, USA

Akshay K. Rathore Concordia University, Canada
Sheldon Williamson University of Ontario, Canada
Malcolm McCulloch University of Oxford, UK
Bimal K. Bose University of Tennessee, USA
Manos Varvarigos Monash University, Australia
Vijay Vittal University of Arizona, USA
Sudhakar M. Reddy University of Iowa, USA
Vishnu Pendyala CISCO Systems, USA
Shantanu Narayen CEO, Adobe Systems, USA
National Advisory Committee

A. Venugopal Reddy JNTUH, Hyderabad
(Vice-chancellor)
V. M. Pandharipande BAMU, Aurangabad
Rameshwar Rao JNTUH, Hyderabad
A. K. Tiwari (Director) CARE Foundation, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad
K. V. S. Hari IISc, Bangalore
Sameen Fatima UCE, OU
(Former Principal)
N. K. Kishore IIT Kharagpur
D. Nagesh Kumar IISc, Bangalore
B. G. Fernandes IIT Bombay
Dinesh Bhatia NEHU, Shillong, India
G. Rameshwar R Institute of Engineering, Hyderabad Chapter
(Chairman)
A. K. Singh DLRL
(OS and Director)
J. V. R. Sagar (Director) ANURAG
John D’Souza NITK Surathkal
Arvind Tiwari GE-GRC, JFWTC
B. H. V. S. Narayana Murthy RCI
(OS and Director)
R. Soundara Rajan BDL
(Senior Project Manager)
Bathini Srinivas MathWorks, India
xx ICETE Organizing Committee
Finance Committee
Sriram Venkatesh ME, UCE, OU
A. Krishnaiah ME, UCE, OU
P. Ramesh Babu ME, UCE, OU
V. Bhikshma CE, UCE, OU
G. Mallesham EE, UCE, OU
M. Malini BME, UCE, OU
B. Rajendra Naik ECE, UCE, OU
V. Uma Maheshwar ME, UCE, OU
P. Naveen Kumar ECE, UCE, OU
D. N. Prasad SCCL
(Advisor (Coal))
M. Shyam Prasad Reddy TREA
(General Secretary)
T. Venkatesam AA UCE, OU
(Superintendent
Engineer (Retd.))
M. S. Venkatramayya Mining
Satish Naik AA UCE, OU
R. Thomas AA UCE, OU
Syed Basharath Ali AA UCE, OU
P. Narotham Reddy AA UCE, OU
Organizing Committee
E. Vidya Sagar UCE, OU
(Vice-principal)
K. Shyamala CSE, UCE, OU
P. Chandra Sekhar ECE, OU
M. Gopal Naik CE, UCE, OU
P. Usha Sri ME, UCE, OU
M. Venkateswara Rao BME, UCE, OU
M. V. Ramana Rao EED, UCE, OU
G. Yesuratnam EED, UCE, OU
P. Raja Sekhar CE, UCE, OU
B. Mangu EED, UCE, OU
M. Chandrashekhar Reddy ME, UCE, OU
Narsimhulu Sanke ME, UCE, OU
M. A. Hameed CSE, UCE, OU
B. Sujatha CSE, UCE, OU
L. Nirmala Devi ECE, UCE, OU
N. Susheela EED, UCE, OU
S. Prasanna CE, UCE, OU
ICETE Organizing Committee xxi
R. Rajender CE, UCE, OU

G. Narender ME, UCE, OU
P. Koti Lakshmi ECE, UCE, OU
M. Srinivas BME, UCE, OU
B. Sirisha EE, UCE, OU
B. Ramana Naik Alumnus
C. V. Raghava (Chairman) CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad
P. Lakshman Rao (President) OUECE Association
P. Kishore (Secretary) OUECE Association
K. J. Amarnath Mining
J. V. Dattatreyulu B.E (Mining)
Raikoti Anand Srinivas Alumnus
K. Praveen Dorna AA, UCE, OU
K. Chakradhar AA, UCE, OU
Pradeep Kumar Nimma AA, UCE, OU
A. Thara Singh Alumnus
Prasanth Kumar Manchikatla Alumnus
Technical Committee
K. Shyamala CSE, UCE, OU
P. V. Sudha CSE, UCE, OU
M. Manjula EED, UCE, OU
B. Mangu EED, UCE, OU
P. Satish Kumar EED, UCE, OU
J. Upendar EED, UCE, OU
M. Malini BME, UCE, OU
D. Suman BME, UCE, OU
K. L. Radhika CE, UCE, OU
K. Shashikanth CE, UCE, OU
L. Siva Rama Krishna ME, UCE, OU
E. Madhusudan Raju ME, UCE, OU
R. Hemalatha ECE, UCE, OU
M. Shyamsunder ECE, UCE, OU
Supported and Strengthened By
J. Suman (Research Scholar) CSE

D. Sai Kumar CSE
(Research Scholar)
P. Raveendra Babu ECE
(Research Scholar)
G. Shyam Kishore ECE
(Research Scholar)
Jaya Prakash EEE
(Research Scholar)
Contents
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach to Modelling

Heterogeneous Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Seelam Srikanth
Effect of Different Aggregates on Alkali Silica Reaction
of Geopolymer Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
D. Annapurna, Ravande Kishore, and K. Anil
Assessment of Aquifer Vulnerability of Nizamabad District,
Telangana State, India Using GIS and Drastic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
B. Ramakrishna, P. Rajasekhar, and Shaik Vaheed
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal Responses
of Elevated Rectangular Water Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Meghana Minnekanti and Mallika Alapati
Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing on Reinforced Foundation
Beds with Inclined Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
P. Rajashekar Reddy, G. V. Narasimha Reddy, and E. Saibaba Reddy
Precise Survey Assistance for Civil Structures Using Survey Assist . . . . 47
K. Surya Prakash, Kone Srimannarayana, Pradeep Kumar Kaatnam,
and Abhinav Dayal
Ground Improvement Using Band Drains at Onshore Gas Terminal
Near Kakinada (AP), India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
D. Babu Rao and D. Nageswara Rao
New Light Weight Mortar for Structural Application:
Assessment of Porosity, Strength and Morphology Properties . . . . . . . . 59
Paul Awoyera, Ravindran Gobinath, Sandela Haripriya,
and Poongodi Kulandaisami
xxiii
xxiv Contents
Computing Redistribution Moments of Concrete Members

in the Plastic Stage Using Linear Analysis: Short Review . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Paul Awoyera, Ravindran Gobinath, Chinyere Nwankwo,
Palanisamy Murthi, and Annabathina Sivakrishna
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
A. A. Waghmare and U. R. Kawade
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance the Poor Subgrade
Under Repeated Load for Low-Volume Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
D. Harinder and S. Shankar
Estimation of Maximum Magnitude (mmax) Considering Different
Seismic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Mohammad Muzzaffar Khan, Teja Munaga,
and Gonavaram Kalyan Kumar
Necessity of New Look for Equitable Water Sharing Among Basin
States - Krishna Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
S. Narasimha Rao, K. Venkata Narayana, and N. Ravishankar
A Comparative Study on the Performance of ANN, MLR and MNR
in the Assessment of Slope Stability for Kalla - Coonoor Hill Road
Stretch of Nilgiris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Balendra Mouli Marrapu and Ravi Sankar Jakka
Hydrologic Modeling with Transfer Function Based Approach:
A Comparative Study over Godavari River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chaitanya Lakeshri and Kaustubh Salvi
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips Embedded in Cement
Modified Marginal Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Pandu Kurre, Vineeth Reddy Karnati, and Heeralal Mudavath
Experimental Study on Interfacial Frictional Properties
of Geogrid Reinforced Pond Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Mogili Sudhakar, M. Heeralal, G. Kalyan Kumar, and Pandu Kurre
Resilient Modulus of Unsaturated Soil – A Comprehensive Review . . . . 141
A. G. Sharanya, M. Heera Lal, and Pandu Kurre
Effect of Eccentric Load on Footing Resting on Planar
Geosynthetic Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Pandu Kurre, M. Heeralal, and T. S. D. Venkatesh
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash Based Concrete Waste Steel Fibre
and Polypropylene Fibre as Reinforcing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
G. Swamy Yadav, N. Prabhanjan, G. Sahithi, G. Sangeetha, A. Srinivas,
and A. Siva Krishna
Contents xxv
Application of Statistics to the Analysis of Corrosion Data

for Rebar in Metakaolin Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
U. Raghu Babu and B. Kondraivendhan
Earthquake Analysis of High-Rise Building with Floating Column . . . . 170
Mohasinkhan N. Bargir and Ajim G. Mujawar
A Review on the Recent Development of Ambient Cured
Geopolymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Mayank Gupta and N. H. Kulkarni
A Case Study on Structural Assessment of Dudhgaon Grampanchayat
Building by Using Non Destructive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Rohit Kukade and Santosh Mohite
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building Using Diagrid
Structural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Ahmad Muslim Rujhan and Ravande Kishore
Engineered Cementitious Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Yogesh Biyani, L. G. Patil, and C. N. Kurhe
Influence of Metakaolin on Stone Waste Aggregate Concrete . . . . . . . . 215
Sakevalla Vinay Babu, U. Raghu Babu, N. Venkata Ramana,
and P. Pavithra
Rapid Hardening on the Strength Gain Admixture on Behavior
of Concrete with Replacement of Binary Cementitious Materials . . . . . . 222
R. Kiranmai, A. Rohita Susheela, S. Rajkumar, G. Asheesh,
and V. M. Sounthararajan
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips Embedded
in Cement Modified Marginal Backfill of Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE) Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Pandu Kurre and Gannavaram Venkat Praveen
Identification of Artificial Recharge Zones Using GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
K. A. Patil, Noopur D. Khatik, and Shriman N. Jirapure
Seismic Analysis and Design of Mass and Stiffness Irregular R.C.
Building Frames with Different Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Nishant C. Chandanshive and Santosh S. Mohite
Assessment of Spatial Interpolation Techniques
on Groundwater Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
G. Shyamala, B. Arun Kumar, S. Manvitha, and T. Vinay Raj
Sustainability Concepts in the Design of Tall Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Prashant Sunagar, Aravind Bhashyam, B. R. Neel,
and Abhishek Kumar Chaurasiya
xxvi Contents
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal and Correlation with Its Intrinsic

Properties Using Adiabatic Oxidation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Ravi Varma Rambha
Extraction of Electricity from Blast Induced Ground Vibration
Waves – Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Raghu Chandra Garimella and Rama Sastry Vedala
Evolution of the Probability Distribution Function
of Shovel – Dumper Combination in Opencast Coal Mine
Using ANN and RWB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
N. S. Harish Kumar, R. P. Choudhary, and Ch. S. N. Murthy
Temperature Measurement During Rotary Drilling
of Rocks - A Statistical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Vijay Kumar Shankar, B. M. Kunar, and Ch. S. N. Murthy
Safety in Coal Mines in India-Its Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
K. Srihari and A. Sandeep Kumar
Reliability Analysis of LHD Machine - A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
J. BalaRaju, M. Govinda Raj, and Ch. S. N. Murthy
Emerging Mining Trends: Preparing Future Mining Professionals . . . . 327
Laxminarayana Chikatamarla and Devulapalli Narasimha Prasad
Prediction of Energy Efficiency of Main Transportation System
Used in Underground Coal Mines – A Statistical Approach . . . . . . . . . 337
N. V. Sarathbabu Goriparti, Ch. S. N. Murthy, and M. Aruna
Shortcomings of Vibrating Screen and Corrective Measures:
A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
S. Bharath Kumar, Harsha Vardhan, M. Govinda Raj, Marutiram Kaza,
Rameshwar Sah, and H. Harish
Quantification of Rock Strength Using the Mechanical
Drilling Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
C. R. Lakshminarayana, Anup K. Tripathi, and Samir K. Pal
Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy Earth Moving
Machinery Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Jeripotula Sandeep Kumar, Mangalpady Aruna, and Mandela Govinda Raj
Assessment and Prediction of Specific Energy Using Rock Brittleness
in Rock Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Vijaya Raghavan and Ch. S. N. Murthy
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting the Performance
of Roof Bolts for Continuous Miner Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
K. M. Tejeswaran, Ch. S. N. Murthy, and B. M. Kunar
Contents xxvii
Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine for Various

Inlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Nihal Mishra, Shubham Mitra, Abhishek Thapliyal, Aniket Mahajan,
and M. Feroskhan
Studies on Pitting Corrosion of Pulsed Electrodeposited
Nanocomposite Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Chitrada Prasad, K. Srinivasa Rao, and K. Ramji
Effect of Condenser Coil Profile and Subcooling on Performance
of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Sreedhar Vullloju, K. Krishna Reddy, and Madhu Kumar Patil
Criteria for Drop-in Replacement of Existing Refrigerant
with an Alternative Refrigerant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Srinivas Pendyala and R. Prattipati
Analysis of Characteristics of Launcher Missile System
and Its Optimization to Reduce Tip-Off Effect During Launch . . . . . . . 432
P. Ravinder Reddy, A. Dhanalaxmi, M. Rakesh, and G. Chandramouli
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind
Lens Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
P. Usha Sri and Chirla Jeevesh
Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Electrochemical
Micro Machining Process Parameters for Al 7075 T6 Alloy . . . . . . . . . 449
K. Samson Praveen Kumar and G. Jaya Chandra Reddy
Galactic Cosmic Energy - A Novel Mode of Energy Harvesting . . . . . . 458
Uma Maheshwar Vanamala and Laasya Priya Nidamarty
Infrared Heating - A New Green Technology for Process
Intensification in Drying of Purslane Leaves to Reduce
the Thermal Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
D. Kodandaram Reddy, Kavita Waghray, and S. V. Sathyanarayana
Grey Relational Analysis of EDM Process Parameters
for Incoloy-800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
M. JagadeeswaraRao, Riyaaz Uddien Shaik, and K. Buschaiah
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy and Its Workspace
in RRRR Planar Kinematic Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Shravan Anand Komakula
Physio-Mechanical Properties and Thermal Analysis of Furcreo
Foetedo Mediopicta (ffm) Fibers: Its Potential Application
as Reinforcement in Making of Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Pathan Yasin, M. Venkataramana, and Shashidhar K. Kudari
xxviii Contents
Computational Analysis of Cavitation Structures

on a Ship Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
C. Syamsundar and P. Usha Sri
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using Halogen Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Sowjanya Madireddi, V. Siddharth, Mohd Amaan, and M. Adithya
Progressive Damage Analysis of Laminated Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Yashasvi Achanta, P. Ramesh Babu, and D. Sandeep
Optimization of Pecking Order Layout with Job Shop Scheduling
as Constraint: An Approach of Metaheuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
K. Mallikarjuna, V. Veeranna, and K. Hemachandrareddy
Experimental and Simulation Study in Deep Drawing of Circular
Cups for Determination of LDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
A. C. Sekhara Reddy, S. Rajesham, and T. Mahender
Free Vibration Analysis of Pre-stressed Membrane Using Element
Free Galerkin Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
K. R. Unnikrishnan, I. R. Praveen Krishna, and C. O. Arun
Xylitol Based Phase Change Material with Graphene Nano Platelets
as Fillers for Thermal Energy Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Praveen Kumar Varadaraj, Sandeep D., Ravi Kiran N., Balaji Padya,
and P. K. Jain
Orbital Volume Analysis of Midfacial Fractures Using Additive
Manufacturing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
L. Siva Rama Krishna, Shiva Dharshan Vanapalli, Sriram Venkatesh,
and Abhinand Potturi
Parametric Optimization During Wire EDM Taper Cutting on AISI
D2 Steel Using Desirability Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
K. L. Uday Kiran, Sanar Zuhair Abbas, K. Saraswathamma,
G. Chandra Mohan Reddy, and A. M. K. Prasad
Extraction of Coordinate Points for the Numerical Simulation
of Single Point Incremental Forming Using Microsoft Excel . . . . . . . . . 577
Zeradam Yeshiwas and Arkanti Krishnaiah
A Review on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated
Components of Ti6AL4V and Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
P. Satish Kumar, L. Suvarna Raju, and L. Siva Rama Krishna
Towards Modeling of Polymer Injection Molding
Process – Approaches for Evaluation of the Processing Conditions,
Control Factors and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Vishnuprasad Pattali, P. Govindan, and M. P. Vipindas
Contents xxix
Design of Sequential Electro-Pneumatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

Nagashiva Mutyam, T. S. S. Siva Saikumar, and Bhanumurthy Soppari
Factors Influencing Hydrodynamic Entry Length in Helical Coils . . . . . 616
R. Prattipati, N. Koganti, and Srinivas Pendyala
Formability Analysis on the Gas Formed Aluminum Coated
Magnesium Alloys in Conical Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
J. Kandasamy and M. Ranjith Kumar
Investigation of Back Rake Angle on Machining of Al 6061
and Development of Regression Model for Resultant Force . . . . . . . . . . 635
B. Suresh Kumar Reddy, A. Krishnaiah, and S. Gajanana
Machining Characteristics of Electro Discharge Machining
on NIMONIC 80A by Response Surface Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
G. Vishnu Pramod Teja, K. Saraswathamma, and T. S. R. V. Padmalatha
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials – Experimental
Investigations - Process Challenges and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
R. K. Vishnulal, P. Govindan, and M. P. Vipindas
Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Reproducibility of Cadaver
Skull by FDM Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
L. Siva Rama Krishna, Uday Kumar Balasany, Sri Ram Venkatesh,
and Abhinand Potturi
Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Friction
Welded AISI 4140 Grade Steel Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
S. K. Abdul Khadeer, P. Ramesh Babu, K. Surender Rao,
and A. Seshu Kumar
Effect of Aluminum Powder Suspended Dielectric and Silver Coated
Copper Electrode on Electrical Discharge Machining Characteristics
of Inconel 718 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
N. Hima Varsha and K. Saraswathamma
Investigation of the Process Parameters on Hot Rolling of Al 7178-SiC
Metal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
M. Nagarjuna, S. Gajanana, and A. Krishnaiah
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting Pressure Recovery
in a Two Stage Jet Pipe Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Madhusudhan Raju, I. R. Shivakumar, L. Siva Rama Krishna,
and D. Sandeep
Computational Modeling and Analysis of Intake Taper Manifold
of an Internal Combustion Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
T. Sreedhar, B. Nageswara Rao, K. Mourya Balaji,
K. Jagan Mohan Reddy, and K. V. Surya Harshith
xxx Contents
Evaluation of Wear Rate of Different Liner Materials Used in Bunkers

and Silos Using Dry Abrasion Wear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
D. Venkateshwarlu, Sriram Venkatesh, K. Saraswathamma,
Swetha Bhagirathi Sanganabhatla, and Shiva Dharshan Vanapalli
Experimental Investigation on Maraging Steel Metal Deposition
Using DMLS Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
D. Apparao and M. V. Jagannadha Raju
Intra-ply Damage Modeling of Low-Velocity Impact
on Composite Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Y. Sharath Chandra Mouli, C. S. Upadhyay, and P. M. Mohite
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring with EPDM Rubber
Sandwiched Between the Steel Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
R. Naresh, V. B. S. Rajendra Prasad, and G. Venkata Rao
Modelling of Surface Roughness and Tool Wear Rate During Turning
of AISI 202 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
Nagaveni Thallapalli, Vinay Kumar Goud Balne,
and T. S. R. V. Padmalatha
Estimation of the Grain Size Number and Microstructure
Analysis of AA6061 Alloy Flow Formed Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
G. Venkateshwarlu, K. Ramesh Kumar, G. Gopi,
and T. A. Janardhan Reddy
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil Using
a Heterogeneous Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Santosh Kumar Dash
Effect of Compression Ratio and Injection Timing on the Performance
of a B20 Biodiesel Blend Fueled Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Santosh Kumar Dash, Pradip Lingfa, and Dharmeswar Dash
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
About the Editors
George A. Tsihrintzis is Full Professor in the University of Piraeus, Head of its

Department of Informatics and Director of Graduate Studies in “Advanced
Computing and Informatics Systems.” He received the diploma of Electrical
Engineer from the National Technical University of Athens, Greece (with honors),
and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from Northeastern
University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. His current research interests include
pattern recognition, machine learning, decision theory, and statistical signal pro-
cessing and their applications in multimedia interactive services, user modeling,
knowledge-based software systems, human–computer interaction and information
retrieval. He has authored or co-authored over 300 research publications in these
areas, including 6 monographs and 17 edited volumes, which have received over
2500 third-party citations.
He is Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Computational Intelligence
Studies (Inderscience) and the Intelligent Decision Technologies Journal (IOS
Press) and Member of the editorial boards of 9 additional journals. He is Founding
Co-Editor and Co-Editor-in-Chief of the new book series on Learning and
Analytics in Intelligent Systems (Springer). He has chaired over 20 international
conferences.
He has supervised 10 doctoral students who have received their doctoral degrees
and is currently supervising an additional 5 students.
He has guest co-edited 8 special issues of international journals.
He won the Best Poster Paper Award of the 5th International Conference on
Information Technology: New Generations, Las Vegas, USA, April 7–9, 2008, for
co-authoring a paper titled: “Evaluation of a Middleware System for Accessing
Digital Music Libraries in Mobile Services.”
He also won one of the Best Applications Papers Award of the 29th Annual
International Conference of the British Computer Society Specialist Group on
Artificial Intelligence, Cambridge, UK, December 15–17, 2009, for co-authoring a
xxxi
xxxii About the Editors
paper titled: “On Assisting a Visual-Facial Affect Recognition System with

Keyboard-Stroke Pattern Information.”
He also won one of the Best Paper Awards of the 5th IEEE International
Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems, and Applications for
co-authoring a paper titled: “Genetic-AIRS: A Hybrid Classification Method based
on Genetic Algorithms and Artificial Immune Systems.”
He was Keynote Speaker on Software Personalization Using Machine Learning
with Imbalanced Samples at the IEEE International Conference on Computing,
Power and Communication Technologies (GUCON2018), Greater Noida, Uttar
Pradesh, India, September 28–29, 2018.
He was Keynote Speaker on Machine Learning Methodologies in Automated
Recommendation at the 12th Joint Conference on Knowledge-based Software
Engineering (JCKBSE2018), Corfu, Greece, August 27–30, 2018.
He was Keynote Speaker on Classification with Significant Class Imbalance and
Applications in Software Personalization at the 29th International Conference on
Tools with Artificial Intelligence (ICTAI2017), Boston, MA, USA, November 6–8,
2017.
He was Keynote Speaker on One Class Classification Problems – Applications
in Recommender Systems at the Multitheme Conference on Smart Digital
Futures (AMSTA, IDT, IIMSS & STET), Chania, Crete, Greece, June 18–20, 2014.
Prof. Suresh Chandra Satapathy is currently working as a Professor, School of

Computer Engineering, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India. He
obtained his Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from JNTU Hyderabad
and M.Tech. in CSE from NIT, Rourkela, Odisha, India. He has 27 years of
teaching experience. His research interests are data mining, machine intelligence,
and swarm intelligence. He has acted as program chair of many international
conferences and edited over 25 volumes of proceedings from Springer series from
LNCS, AISC, LNNS, LNEE, SIST, etc. He is also in the Editorial board of few
international Journals and has over 130 research publications in International
journals and conference proceedings.
Prof. Kumar Molugaram obtained his bachelor’s degree in civil engineering from
Osmania University, Hyderabad; master’s degree in civil engineering from JNTU,
Hyderabad; and doctorate degree from Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. He
published over 100 research papers in various international and national journals and
conferences. He supervised 78 M.E. dissertations and 5 Ph.D. theses and 8 Ph.D.
students. He received “Best Teacher State Award” by the Government of
Telangana on September 05, 2018. He also received prestigious award “Engineer
of the year 2018” from the Institution of Engineers, India, and Government of
Telangana on September 15, 2018 on the occasion of Engineers Day. He received
the “National Integration Award-2019”, Health Care International, Hyderabad,
Telangana State, India, on January 26, 2019. He completed two research projects
About the Editors xxxiii
from UGC and Government of India. He played a key role in start of M.E. trans-
portation engineering course in civil engineering department, OU. He is a member in
several committees of Government. of Telangana, AP, and Government of India. He
was awarded for best paper in 2010 (national level) and 2014 (international level).
He served as Additional Controller of Examinations, Exam Branch, OU; Chairman,
Board of Studies in Civil Engineering (local and global), OU; Nodal Officer,
TEQIP-I, UCE; Director of Evaluation, Exam Cell, UCE; Director Infrastructure,
OU; Head of Civil Engineering Department, OU; and Vice-Principal, UCE, OU. He
is a coordinator (STA), PMGSY, NRRDA, Government of India. He is a member of
PEC, NRRDA, Government. of India; he is a life member of several research and
technical organizations such as FIE, IRC, IUT, CTRG, IIBE, WCTR, TRG and SRS.
He visited many international cities such as London (2005), Sydney (2006),
Singapore (2006), San Francisco and Chicago (2007), Rome and Capri (2009),
Melbourne (2011), Hong Kong (2011), Toronto (2013), Washington D.C. and New
York (2013), Bangkok (2010 and 2014), Beijing and Shanghai (2014), Germany,
Switzerland, Paris, Netherlands and Belgium (2014), Tokyo-Japan(2015) and Ho
Chi Min City—Vietnam (2017) to present his research papers in international
conferences/seminars. He delivered 20 keynote lectures at various national and
international platforms. He chaired sessions at various international and national
conferences. He was Conference Chair for the International Conference on
“Innovations in structural Engineering” held in the year 2015 at Katriya hotel by
Civil Engineering Department first time in 85 years of history. He organized a
national conference on “Civil Engineering Systems—2006” and another national
conference on “Recent Research Advances in Civil Engineering—2014”, five
workshops and one training program. He delivered more than 300 expert lectures in
the areas of transportation engineering, optimization techniques and engineering
research methodology on various national-/state-level platforms in India. He is the
author of three conference proceedings and two books (one in Elsevier publications
international). He has over 23 years of teaching, research, consultancy and industry
experience. He was Controller of Examinations (centenary year of OU), Osmania
University, for two-year period. He initiated many technology-based reforms in
Exam Branch, OU, during his tenure. Presently, He is Principal of University
College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, and Convener, PGECET
—2019, Telangana State.
e-mail: kumartrans@gmail.com
Prof. Arkanti Krishnaiah obtained his bachelor’s degree (1994) in mechanical

engineering from University College of Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad; master’s degree in mechanical engineering (1997) with specilization
in production engineering from University College of University Engineering,
Osmania University, Hyderabad; doctorate degree (2006) from Indian Institute
of Madras, Chennai; and postdoctoral fellowship (2007–2008) from Chungnam
National University, South Korea. He received Sudharshan Bhat Memorial
Prize for the best Ph.D. thesis in metallurgical and materials engineering for the
year 2006 from IIT Madras, Chennai. He published more than 85 research papers in
xxxiv About the Editors
various international and national journals and international and national confer-
ences. He is Visitor’s nominee to Pondicherry University, Puducherry. He is also
a member in several selection committees of DRDO, Government of Telangana and
AP. He served as Additional Controller of Examinations, Exam Branch, OU,
during 2013–2015; Chairman, Board of Studies in Mechanical Engineering (local
and global), OU; Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
College of Engineering (Autonomous), OU, during 2015–2017; and Joint
Secretary, Osmania University Teachers’ Association (OUTA). He is Life Member
of Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE), Indian Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ISME) and Indian Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
(ISTAM). He visited many countries for technical paper presentations such as USA
(2005), Canada (2006), South Korea (2007–2008 for PDF), Australia (2010),
Thailand (2014), China (2014), France (2014) and Switzerland (2014). He was
Chairperson for the International Conference on Advances in Materials and
Manufacturing (ICAMM-2016) held during December 8–10, 2016, at Leonia
Convention Centre, Hyderabad, jointly organized by Department of Mechanical
Engineering, UCE, OU, and DRDL, Hyderabad. Also, he organized national
conferences, seminars and workshops in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering. He has 22 years of teaching, research and consultancy experience.
Presently, he is Director, Entrepreneurship Development Cell, Osmania University.
e-mail: kris_arakanti@yahoo.com
Dr. K. Srujan Raju is currently working as Dean Student Welfare and Heading
Department of Computer Science & Engineering at CMR Technical Campus.
He obtained his Doctorate in Computer Science in the area of Network Security. He
has more than 20 years of experience in academics and research. His research
interest areas include Computer Networks, Information Security, Data Mining,
Cognitive Radio Networks and Image Processing and other Programming
Languages. Dr. Raju is presently working on 2 projects funded by Government of
India, has filed 7 patents and 1 copyright at Indian Patent Office, edited more than
10 book proceedings published by Springer publications - AISC series, LAIS and
other which are indexed by Scopus also authored 4 books, contributed chapters in
various books and published more than 30 papers at reputed and peer-reviewed
Journals and International Conference. Dr. Raju was invited as Session Chair, Key
note Speaker, TPC and reviewer for many National and International conferences.
His involvement with students is very conducive for solving their day to day
problems. He has guided various student clubs for activities ranging from
photography to Hackathon. He mentored more than 100 students for incubating
cutting edge solutions. He has organized many conferences, FDPs, Workshops and
Symposiums. He has established the Centre of Excellence in IoT, Data Analytics.
Professor Raju has acted as reviewer and Technical Member for many conferences
and is editorial member for few journals. Raju received Significant Contributor and
Active Member awards by Computer Society of India - Hyderabad Chapter.
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach
to Modelling Heterogeneous Traffic
Seelam Srikanth(&)
Malla Reddy Engineering College, Main Campus, Hyderabad 500100,

Telangana, India
ssseelamsrikanth@gmail.com
Abstract. The data required for the study was collected from YMCA road in
Calicut city for frame based approach. Video-graphic technique was used for the
data collection by the advantage over other data collection technique. For frame
based approach video frames were taken approximately with a time lag of 3 s.
From extracted data calculate the speed of vehicles, porous area, areal density,
density and space headway of vehicles. From porous area data, pore space
distribution function was determined by using easyfit5.5 software. The difficult
was arises when extracting the traffic data from video frames. So for solving that
problem on screen versus on ground distance graph was prepared. Best
parameter to explaining the heterogeneous traffic system obtained as areal
density rather than density measurement based on R-square value. The speed,
areal-density model obtained was linearly decreasing relationship.
Keywords: Frame based approach Arial density Density

Pore space distribution
1 Introduction
Modelling of traffic flow provides the fundamental relationships between the macro-
scopic traffic stream characteristics and plays an important role in the planning, design
and operation of transportation facilities as it predicts the behaviour of the traffic flow.
Need for the study of traffic stream characteristics and the relationships between them
was recognized during the middle of the last century. The studies resulted in models
describing various aspects of traffic flow. Traffic flow may be described as homoge-
neous or heterogeneous traffic flow. Homogeneous traffic follows strict lane discipline
and the vehicles have similar static and dynamic characteristics whereas heterogeneous
traffic flow does not follow any lane discipline and the vehicles have varying static and
dynamic characteristics. The heterogeneous traffic flow maybe composed of both slow
moving and fast moving vehicles like trucks, buses, cars, three wheelers, two wheelers,
bicycles and hand drawn or animal drawn carts. In India heterogeneous traffic flow
conditions exists.
In Heterogeneous traffic, vehicles do not follow the lane discipline. Such traffic will
observe in developing countries like India. The traffic models developed in homoge-
neous traffic conditions are not applicable for heterogeneous traffic conditions. In
Heterogeneous traffic, vehicles can occupy any lateral positions based on lateral space

S. C. Satapathy et al. (Eds.): ICETE 2019, LAIS 2, pp. 1–8, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_1
2 S. Srikanth
availability and also vehicles move low speed to higher speeds. Traffic stream char-
acteristics such as traffic volume and density is defined as a linear measurement and the
characteristics are dependent only headway, are insufficient when traffic is heteroge-
neous. Measures such as areal density will assessed for suitability. Areal density is
defined by “the sum of total area projected by vehicles on the ground per unit area of
roadway (vehicles per square meter)”.
Research studies on modeling of heterogeneous traffic are limited in developing
countries. Previous studies mainly focused on understanding the interaction between
vehicles in the case of heterogeneous traffic. A relation needs to be established between
the microscopic behavior and the macro performance of the flow. The porous flow
approach will conceptualizes such relationship. The aim of the present study is to
model the heterogeneous traffic by using an empirical based approach.
2 Literature Review
Lighthill and Whitham [1] developed the first dynamic traffic flow model to different
vehicle types. For each vehicle type developed the separate fundamental diagram.
Authors assumed the traffic flow is related to density and conservation law was used to
define LWR model.
Hoogendoorn and Bovy [2] developed the mesoscopic gas-kinetic models for
heterogeneous traffic. The termed multiple lanes as multi lane multiclass phase space
density model.
Heterogeneous traffic is explained by help of vehicular headway. The headway data
fits the exponential and log normal distribution to explain the mixed traffic [3].
For model the mixed traffic flow, traffic composition, driver behavior, roadway
geometry and maneuverability were considered [4].
Marwah and Singh [5] used the simulation analysis to model capacity of mixed
traffic. Authors divided the traffic flow into four level of services.
Heterogeneous traffic flow was explained with a help of speed and headway dis-
tribution of the different vehicle types. The developed model used to evaluate traffic
management measures like segregation of vehicles on major urban roads, provision of
exclusive lanes for buses/bicycles etc. [6]. This research was continued by to quanti-
fying the vehicular interactions in terms of PCU and considering the effect of road
width and traffic volume on PCU values of vehicles [7].
Nair and Mahmassani [8] have developed on heterogeneous traffic model based on
non lane based traffic flow. The model uses the concept of pores.
3 Methodology for Frame Based Approach
The main criteria considered for this approach was speed of the vehicle is not constant
throughout road section i.e., speed of vehicle is changing time to time.
An Empirical Based Porous Flow Approach to Modelling Heterogeneous Traffic 3
3.1 Location for Data Collection

The location selected was YMCA road. The road link was two lane one way traffic
road. The 100 m road link was divided in 10 road sections i.e. length of each road
section was 5 m. Digital camera used for capturing the traffic data. Digital camera was
positioned on a building in such way that the digital cam was covered the entire road
link (Table 1).
Table 1. Details of study locations for data collection

Location no Location name Length of Width of Length
section (m) section (m) trap (m)
1 YMCA road 100 7.5 5
3.2 Retrieval of Data

The process of data retrieval includes transferring of the recorded digital video to
computer and then time stamping the video graphs. These video graphs are then used to
find out the traffic stream characteristics like areal density and speed. The description of
the data retrieval process is given below.
3.2.1 Transferring and Time Stamping of Video Graphs

Traffic data videos are transferred into computer by using data cable. The videos were
then time stamped by overlapping it with another video graph which displayed time to
an accuracy of 1/100th of a second. This was done using the software Adobe Premier
Pro. The videos were then played in Adobe Premier Pro to record the necessary data.
The vehicle classification considered as Auto (A), Bus (B), Car (C), Jeep (J), Truck
(T) and Two Wheeler (TW).
Traffic video frames were taken with a time lag of approximately 3 s. In the first
frame, the frame time was noted. And then type of vehicles and these vehicles crossing
at 0 m reference mark i.e. entry time of each vehicles were noted. After that distance at
entry time and distance at frame time of vehicles were noted. Next second frame was
taken the similar values were note like first frame. But in second frame the entry time of
vehicles that were present in first frame were same as frame time of first frame. The
similar procedure was followed for next frames.
The main difficult was obtained to note down the distance of vehicle from reference
mark when vehicle was in between the tape marks i.e. multiple of 5 m length. For
solving that problem a graph between on screen distance versus on ground distance
were drawn. That was shown in Fig. 1. From the retrieved data, speed of vehicle, pore
space area and areal density were calculated.
3.2.2 Stream Speed

The speed data was obtained from difference in vehicle distance at frame time and entry
time divided by time difference in frame time and entry time of vehicles.
4 S. Srikanth
Fig. 1. Ground distance versus screen distance
3.2.3 Pore Space Area

Pore space area is defined as portion of the material (road) that is not occupied by solid
material (vehicles). The vehicles length, width and area were shown in Table 2. The
composition of vehicles was converted into vehicle areas. Pore space area was obtained
by deducting the vehicle area from area of road section.
Table 2. Dimensions of different vehicle classes

Vehicle Length (m) Width (m) Area (m2)
TW 2.1 0.83 1.74
Auto 2.66 1.32 3.51
Car 3.5 1.50 5.25
Jeep 3.88 1.87 7.25
Bus 10 2.58 25.80
Truck 6.70 2.30 15.41
3.2.4 Areal Density

Areal density was obtained by dividing pore space area with area of road section.
4 Speed-Density-Areal Density Analysis
The speed in km/hr was plotted against areal density in vehicles/m2. and is shown in
Fig. 2 for frame based approach. The model equation and R2 value is shown in
Table 3. It can be observed from the plots that the speed varies linearly with density
and there is a considerable scatter in the plot. The average speed range is 50 kmph to
30 kmph and areal density range is 0.01 Veh/m2 to 0.24 Veh/m2.
Fig. 2. Average speed versus areal density relationship
Table 3. Development of speed-areal density models

Type of model Model equation R-square value
Linear regression model SPEED = (−53.74 * AREAL 0.507
DENSITY) + 45.65
5 Speed-Density Analysis
The speed in km/hr was regressed against density in vehicles/km. The model equation
and R-square value are given in Table 4. The speed in km/hr was plotted against
density in PCU/km. The plot is shown is Fig. 3 for frame based approach. The model
equation and R2 value are shown in Table 5. It can be observed from the plots that the
speed linearly vary with density and there is a wide scatter in the plot. The average
speed range is 50 kmph to 30 kmph and density range is 20 Veh/km to 150 Veh/km.
Table 4. Development of speed-density models with density in Veh/km

Linear regression model SPEED = (−0.055 * DENSITY) + 45.01 0.337
6 S. Srikanth
Fig. 3. Average speed versus density relationship
Table 5. Development of speed-density models with density in PCU/km for frame based
approach
Linear regression model SPEED = (−0.853 * DENSITY) + 46.43 0.489
6 Model Development
A linear relationship with speed and areal density for frame based approach was best
model equation and the R2 value obtained was moderately good value. Exponential
relationship between speed and areal density was also fitted and the models are shown
in Table 6. These relationships also have nearly same R2 value.
Table 6. Regression models of speed and areal density

Type of model Model R-square value
Linear regression model Speed = (−53.74 * areal density) + 45.65 0.507
Exponential model Speed = 45.78 * (expo(−1.34 * areal density)) 0.500
7 Speed-Porous Area Analysis
The speed in km/hr was plotted against porous area in m2 for frame based approach.
The plot is shown in Fig. 4 for frame based approach. It can be observed from the plot
that the speed values do not vary much with density and there is a wide scatter in the
plot. Average speed range is 30 kmph to 50 kmph and porous area range is 655 m2 to
750 m2 for frame based approach. Average speed range is 30 kmph to 60 kmph and
porous area range is 655 m2 to 750 m2 for section based approach.
Fig. 4. Average speed versus porous area relationship
8 Porous Space and Headway Distribution Functions
From data regarding porous area are fitted in the distribution. The distribution obtained
was GEV distribution. From data regarding space headway are fitted in the distribution.
The distribution obtained was log-normal distribution.
9 Conclusions
Data analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between speed, areal density
and density, speed and porous area and also pore space and headway distribution. After
data analysis speed-areal density and speed-density models were developed. The best
model obtained was linear regression model of speed-areal density of frame based
approach. The R squared value obtain for linear regression model was 0.507.
From the data analysis conclude that average speed is linearly decreasing with
increasing the areal density and speed of vehicles are increasing with more availability
of porous area on the road section. The speed density model obtained as linearly
decreasing relationship. Areal density parameter explains the heterogeneous disordered
traffic system better than the density parameter. The pore space distribution follows the
generalized extreme value distribution and headway distribution follows the log-normal
distribution. This work makes the contributions to the limited literature on traffic flow
theory.
8 S. Srikanth
References
1. Lighthill MH, Whitham GB (1955) On kinematic waves II: a theory of traffic flow on long,
crowded roads. Proc R Soc Lond Ser A 229:317–345
2. Hoogendoorn SP, Bovy P (1999) Gas-kinetic model for multilane hetererogeneous traffic
flow. Transp Res Rec 1678:150–159
3. Hossain D, Iqbal G (1999) Vehicular headway distribution and free speed characteristics on
two-lane two-way highways of Bangladesh. J Inst Eng India. Civ Eng Div 80(AOU):77–80
4. Khan SI, Maini P (2000) Modeling heterogeneous traffic flow. Transp Res Rec 1678:234–241
5. Marwah BR, Singh B (2000) Level of service classification for urban heterogeneous traffic: a
case study of Kanpur metropolis. In: Proceedings of the 4th international symposium on
highway capacity, transportation research circular E-C018, transportation
6. Arasan V, Koshy R (2005) Methodology for modelling highly heterogeneous traffic flow.
ASCE J Transp Eng 131:544–551
7. Krishnamurthy K, Arasan T (2012) Effect of road width and traffic volume on vehicular
interactions in heterogeneous traffic. J Adv Transp 2014(48):1–14
8. Nair R, Mahmassani HS (2011) Elise Miller-Hooks, a porous flow approach to modelling
heterogeneous traffic in disordered systems. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 17:611–627
Effect of Different Aggregates on Alkali Silica
Reaction of Geopolymer Concrete
D. Annapurna1(&), Ravande Kishore2, and K. Anil1

1
Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering,
Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
annapurna_ouce@yahoo.com, anilkekkarla@gmail.com
2
MIT School of Engineering, MIT-ADT University,
Pune, Maharashtra, India
kravande58@gmail.com
Abstract. Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is an emerging environmental friendly

construction material in present construction world. Extensive research related
to strength and durability studies is being done on this material. But, it is
required to check the mechanism of potential reactive aggregates with GPC.
Alkali silica reaction (ASR) is one of the major problems with the aggregates.
Volumetric expansion of silica gel produce internal stresses in the concrete and
leads to strength loss, cracking and failure of the structure. In the present
investigation three different types of aggregates were used with Fly ash and
GGBS based Geopolymer as binder. Mechanical testing included the potential
reactivity of aggregate and length change measurements as per ASTM: C1260-
07 standards. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is used for petrographic
analysis. It is observed that the alkali silica reaction in Fly ash and GGBS based
geopolymer concrete is comparatively less than the OPC based concrete and the
expansions are well below ASTM threshold.
Keywords: Alkali silica reaction

Fly ash and GGBS based geopolymer concrete Scanning Electron Microscope
1 Introduction
Ordinary Portland cement is the most abundantly used construction material in the
world. Production of OPC consumes large amount of natural resources and also a
reason for 5–8% of global CO2 emission [1, 2]. Geopolymer cement can be an alter-
native to the OPC and environmental friendly construction material [3]. Durability of
normal Portland cement is a problem in civil infrastructure industry; in which influence
of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) on performance of concrete is one of the major issue
[4, 5]. ASR is a chemical reaction between hydroxyl ions in the pore pressure within
the concrete matrix and certain forms of silica present in the aggregate. This reaction
forms silica gel at the interface of the aggregate and the binder matrix. This silica gel
expands in volume and exerts stresses on the adjacent binder and aggregates as shown
in Fig. 1. It reduces the bond between aggregate and binder matrix. This reaction could
lead to strength loss, volume expansion, cracking and potential failure of the structure.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_2
10 D. Annapurna et al.
Limited research has done in this area especially in the geopolymer concrete [6]. It is
required to check the influence of alkali silica reaction in geopolymer concrete. Alkali
silica reaction is a slow reaction which takes lot of time to recognize the problem. In
India, there are two major dams which are affected by the alkali silica reaction. One is
Hirakud dam located in Odisha and the other is Rihand dam in Uttar Pradesh.
Fig. 1. Mechanism of ASR
It is found that the locally available aggregate was used in the construction of these
structures in which some of the aggregates were potentially reactive in nature. These
aggregates have undergone alkali silica reaction and silica gel was formed in the
concrete. The volumetric expansion of the gel leads to formation of severe cracks in the
structures. In the present study, accelerated mortar bar test is done on geopolymer
mortar bars as per ASTM standards [7]. Petrographic analysis is carried out by using
scanning electron microscopic pictures to check the formation of alkali silica reactive
gel and its expansion. Three different types of aggregates i.e. Granite, Quartz and Black
trap have been used in the present investigation.
Conventional test as per IS 2386- Part-VII, 1963 [8] for alkali silica reaction is time
consuming, as it requires more than a year to assess the presence of silica gel in
concrete. Keeping this in view, the accelerated mortar bar test is selected for the present
study.
2 Experimental Investigation
Materials
In the present study, the materials used are Fly ash from Kakateeya thermal power plant
confirming to ASTM class F of specific gravity 2.08, GGBS from JSW steel plant,
Bellary, Karnataka of specific gravity 2.08, alkaline liquids (Sodium Hydroxide and
Sodium Silicate), and water. Aggregates used are Granite, Quartz and Black trap of
specific gravities 2.61, 2.52 and 2.93 respectively.
Preparation of Mortar Bar Specimens
Total 36 specimens of size 25 25 250 mm as shown in Fig. 2, having three
different types of aggregates each combines with various dosages of Geopolymer
binder of three variation dosages of GGBS and OPC were prepared.
Effect of Different Aggregates on ASR of GPC 11
Fig. 2. Mortar bar specimen
As per ASTM C1260-07 standards, the test has to be done on fine aggregate which
shall be tested for a grading meeting the requirements of the specifications given by
code. As per the guidelines given by code, the quantities of dry materials to be mixed at
one time in the batch of mortars for making three specimens shall be 440 g of cement
and 990 g of aggregate made up by recombining the portions retained on the various
sieves in the grading as prescribed. Fly ash based Geopolymer is used with 10%, 30%
and 50% GGBS dosages. The proportion of the Fly ash and GGBS are mentioned in
Table 1.
Table 1. Proportioning of cementing materials

GGBS dosage Fly ash (g) GGBS (g)
10% GGBS 396 44
20% GGBS 352 88
30% GGBS 308 132
OPC = 440 g
Geopolymer mortar is prepared by mixing graded aggregate and corresponding

cementing material with 8 M alkaline solution [9]. For OPC mix, the water cement
ratio is taken as 0.47 as mentioned in the code. Moulds were cleaned well and wax is
applied. The studs were set in the moulds in respective positions and care is taken to
keep studs free from wax. The prepared mortar is compacted well by vibration. The
specimens were demoulded after 24 h and labeled, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Fig. 3. Moulding of mortar bar specimens Fig. 4. Prism specimens

Testing Procedure
The specimens were removed from the moulds after 24 h of casting and the initial
reading is noted down using length comparator as shown in Fig. 5. After taking the
initial reading, OPC specimens were stored in a container with sufficient tap water to
totally immerse them, and then the container is sealed and placed in an oven at 80 °C
for a period of 24 h.
GPC specimens are not immersed in water, but sealed in a container and placed in
oven at same temperature as OPC specimens. After the period of 24 h, the specimens
length were measured by using length comparator, and is recorded. Then all the
specimens are immersed in 1N NaOH at 80 °C in a steel box as shown in Fig. 6 and
kept in oven for 14 days continuously. Readings were taken on fifth day and tenth day
at nearly same time from the date of placing the container in the oven. The expansion is
calculated for fifth day, tenth day and fourteenth day after taking the respective
readings of all the specimens. Expansions are calculated using Eq. 1.
L ¼ ½ðLx Li) 100=G ð1Þ
Where,
L = Change in length at an age of ‘x’ days,
Lx = Comparator reading of specimen at age ‘x’ days,
Li = Initial comparator reading of the specimen,
G = Nominal gauge length, i.e. 250 mm.
As per ASTM code guidelines, if the final expansion is less than 0.10%, then it is
indication of innocuous behavior. If the final expansion is in between 0.10 to 0.20%
then it is known to be innocuous and deleterious action and if the final expansion is
greater than 0.20%, then it is indicative of potentially deleterious expansion in the field
performance.
Fig. 5. Mortar bar specimen with comparator Fig. 6. Steel box in oven
reading
3 Results and Discussions
The expansions of all the specimens are calculated at fifth, tenth and fourteenth day
after placing in the oven. The results of quartz, granite and black trap are expressed
graphically as shown Figs. 7, 8 and 9.
Fig. 7. Expansions of quartz specimens
Fig. 8. Expansions of granite specimens
Fig. 9. Expansions of black trap specimens

Quartz with OPC and 30% GGBS samples exhibited 0.13 and 0.027% final
expansions, which indicates potentially deleterious expansion and innocuous behavior
respectively. Quartz with 10% GGBS sample exhibits 0.017% final expansion, which is
indication of innocuous action. 30% GGBS sample with Quartz also shows innocuous
behaviour. Granite with OPC have indicated deleterious behavior. Granite with 30%
GGBS and 50% GGBS Geopolymer binder shows higher elongations as that of quartz.
However, Granite with all Geopolymer binders has shown innocuous behavior.
Black trap with OPC also shows deleterious behavior. However Black trap with all
Geopolymer binders also proves to be innocuous. In all the type of reactive aggregates,
Geopolymer binder combinations shows higher elongations as GGBS dosages are
increasing.
During geoplymerization, the alkali content is utilized in the geopolymer reaction
and alkalis have reacted with the amorphous component in the Fly ash, and then
converted to strong cementitious binder. Very less amount of alkali and calcium is
present to react with silica present in the aggregate to form silica gel. The residual alkali
content after geopolymerization attacks silica present in the reactive aggregates. This
alkali silica reaction (ASR) forms silica gel in the mix, which expands with reaction of
calcium present in the binder. In the Fly ash based geopolymer binder, there is very less
amount of calcium to help the expansion of silica gel. However, in the present study,
Fly ash is replaced with GGBS in three different percentages to decrease the setting
time of the mix [10]. Calcium which is present in GGBS reacts with the silica gel
formation and silica gel expands, which creates micro cracks in the structure. Hence, as
the GGBS percentage increases in the mix, the expansion also increases. In most of the
cases 10% GGBS showed innocuous action, which means absence of alkali silica
reaction (ASR).
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis
Petrographic analysis is done on granite and quartz specimens using SEM, and the
same is shown in Fig. 10, 11 and 12.
ASR expansive gel
Aggregateand binder
interface
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. (a) SEM picture of granite with OPC. (b) SEM picture of granite with 10% GGBS
Formation of crack due to the expansion of the alkali silica gel is found in granite
with OPC as shown in the Fig. 10(a). No ASR gel is formed in the case of granite with
10% GGBS at the interface of the aggregate and binder matrix as shown in Fig. 10(b).
A B
(A) 20% GGBS (B) 30% GGBS
Fig. 11. SEM picture of granite with GGBS
Little ASR gel formation and expansion is observed in granite with 20% and 30%
GGBS as shown in Fig. 11. Cracks were developed at the interface of the aggregate
and the binder matrix, which reduces the bond strength of the concrete and ultimately
leads to the failure of the structure.
ASR Expansive gel
Fig. 12. SEM pictures of quartz with OPC
ASR gel is observed in the case of quartz with OPC as shown in Fig. 12, and with
20% and 30% GGBS, reveals that the aggregate is reactive in nature. No alkali silica
reaction was found in the case of quartz with 10% GGBS and the same can be observed
through Fig. 10.
From the experimental and petrographic analysis, it can be observed that the alkali
silica reaction in OPC binder is substantially higher than the Geopolymer binder. ASR
gel formation is clearly observed in the case of quartz with OPC binder as shown in
Fig. 13, which reveals it as a potentially reactive. With increase in the dosage of GGBS
in Geopolymer binder, the alkali silica reaction also increases due to the availability of
more calcium content in GGBS.
B
A C
ASR Expansive gel
(A) SEM picture of Quartz with 10% GGBS (B) 20% GGBS (C) 30% GGBS
Fig. 13. SEM picture of quartz with GGBS
4 Conclusions
Based on the experimental work and petrographic analysis, following conclusions are
drawn.
• Quartz with OPC exhibited final expansion of 0.13%, indicate innocuous and
potentially deleterious expansion thus ambiguous related to use as construction
material with OPC.
• Quartz with Geopolymer binder exhibiting less expansion compared with OPC.
Quartz with Geopolymer binder containing 10%, 20%, 30% GGBS has shown
innocuous behavior.
• No alkali silica gel formation is noticed in quartz with GPC.
• Black Trap and Granite with OPC is found to be deleterious in ASR. Granite with
GPC exhibiting less expansion compared with OPC.
• Black trap aggregates are suitable for construction when used in Geopolymer
binder.
References
1. Sanni SH, Khadiranaikar RB (2012) Performance of geopolymer concrete under severe
environmental condition. Int J Civ Struct Eng 3(2):396
2. Lloyd NA, Rangan BV (2010) Geopolymer concrete with fly ash: second international
conference on sustainable construction materials and technologies. Coventry University and
the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee Centre for by-Products Utilization, June 2010, ISBN
978-1-4507-1490-7
3. Rangan BV, Hardjito D, Wallah SE, Sumajouw DMJ (2006) Properties and applications of
fly ash-based concrete. Mater Forum 30:170–175
4. Abdul Aleem MI, Arumairaj PD (2012) Geopolymer concrete – a review. Int J Eng Sci
Emerg Technol 1(2):118–122
5. Kishore K (1992) Alkali silica reaction in concrete. Irrig Power J 49(4):29–30
6. Kupwade-Patil K, Allouche E (2011) Effect of alkali silica reaction (ASR) in geopolymer
concrete. In: World of coal ash (WOCA) conference, 9–12 May 2011, Denver, CO, USA
7. ASTM: C1260-07: Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates
8. IS: 2386 (Part VII)-1963: Indian Standard, Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete,
Alkali Aggregate Reactivity
9. Bachhaav SS (2016) Study of acid resistance properties of geopolymer concrete for different
molarities. SSRG Int J Civ Eng (SSRG-IJCE) 3(1):35–39
10. Ganapati Naidu P, Prasad ASSN, Adiseshu S, Satayanarayana PVV (2015) A study on
strength properties of geopolymer concrete with addition of G.G.B.S. Int J Eng Res Dev 2
(4):19–28
Assessment of Aquifer Vulnerability
of Nizamabad District, Telangana State, India
Using GIS and Drastic Method
B. Ramakrishna1(&), P. Rajasekhar2, and Shaik Vaheed1

1
Civil Engineering Department, RGUKT-Basar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
bhukyaramakrishna@gmail.com, vaheed.civil@gmail.com
2
Civil Engineering Department, Osmaina University,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
prscivilou@gmail.com
Abstract. The precipitation falling on the surface earth, either it runoff over
land to the stream or some part of it infiltrates into the ground. The part which
moves into the ground either get transplanted by the plants and goes back to the
atmosphere or some part of it percolated deep down and contributes water
already inside the earth. The water which is existing below the ground surface is
commonly called as ground water or subsurface water. Countries like India,
most of the people use groundwater for drinking purpose. Due to increase of
waste on earth surface which can effect groundwater quality. It can leads to
contamination of groundwater. The present study is conducted to assess the
groundwater vulnerability and prepare vulnerability map for Nizamabad district,
Telangana state using DRASTIC model in ARC GIS 10.4.1 groundwater vul-
nerability map can be obtained by overlaying seven layers. Such as Depth of
water level, Net Recharge, Aquifer Media, Soil Permeability, Topography,
Impact of Vadose Zone and Hydraulic conductivity.
Keywords: DRASTIC GIS Vulnerability Groundwater

Hydro geological parameters Weighted overlay analysis
1 Introduction
Earth is very special because it has much amount of water, the total earth surface covers
71% water. In this 96.5% is salt water that is found in the ocean only just 3.5% of water
on the earth is freshwater. In most of this freshwater 68% is glaciers and icecaps. One
third is in groundwater and remaining 2% of water is in River, Lakes, Streams and very
small amount in atmosphere. From last few decades population is increasing drasti-
cally. Due to human activities such as construction of buildings, Industries, Defor-
estation, Urbanization ground water level is reducing and it is contaminated. The main
aim of the study is to evaluate the groundwater vulnerability and prepare vulnerability
map. Determine area where groundwater is contaminated. For that area proper man-
agement and protection techniques has to follow. This maps are very informative for
educating the public. Groundwater vulnerability maps are prepared using standard
method. Research and scientist they did lot of work on this and find out so many

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_3
Assessment of Aquifer Vulnerability 19
variety of method for aquifer vulnerability assessment. Aller et al. (1987) proposed
DRASTIC method which is explained in this methodology. According to Al-Zabet
et al. (2002) Evaluation of aquifer vulnerability of contamination potential using the
DRASTIC method. Muhammad et al. (2014) describes that “Groundwater vulnerability
assessment shows an extreme sensitivity to in situ anthropogenic pollutants. A di-
chotomous assessment of geological and hydrological characteristics makes it possible
to determine the vulnerability of groundwater. You-Jailin et al. (2005) describes that
“The groundwater pollution in many regions is becoming more and more serious
because of over-exploiting and industrial activities”. Lathamani et al. (2015) describes
that this investigation was carried out to determine the aquifer vulnerability using
DRASTIC method which correlated well with then physicochemical characteristics of
groundwater in mysore city. This model was primarily developed by National Water
Well Association and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for different hydro-
geologic settings. Henceforth, the model has been modified according to geological or
hydro-geological setting such as pesticide DRASTIC, modified DRASTIC, modified
pesticide DRASTIC, DRASTIC-LU, DRASTIC-Fm and DRASTIC-AHP by different
researchers. DRASTIC model employs hydro-geological data in a Geographical
Information System (GIS) environment to compute aquifer vulnerability index.
DRASTIC is a shortening of seven physical parameters of hydro-geological which used
to define groundwater system and its susceptibility towards pollution. It considers
seven parameters, which taken together, provide the acronym such as Depth to
groundwater (D), Recharge (R), Aquifer type (A), Soil type (S), Topography (T),
Impact of the vadose zone (I), Hydraulic conductivity.
1.1 Study Area

Nizamabad district located in the north - western region in India. The study area is
4288 km2 with an average elevation of 395 m above mean sea level. The average
annual rainfall in the study area varying from 660 and 1340 mm. Annual average
rainfall is 970 mm, the average temperature varying from 24 °C to 40 °C. Location
map of nizamabad district is shown in Fig. 1.
20 B. Ramakrishna et al.
Fig. 1. Location map of nizamabad district
2 Methodology
The present study is to investigate the aquifer vulnerability assessment, DRASTIC

model is adopted. DRASTIC means D for Depth to water table, R for Net Recharge, A
for Aquifer media, S for Soil media, T for Topography, I for Impact of Vadose zone and
finally C for Hydraulic Conductivity, This 7 parameters are overlayed in Geographical
Information System and divided into number of units based on rate and weight of each
hydrological unit as for Aller et al. (1987). DRASTIC index map is created and this map
is reclassified using DRASTIC vulnerability index as shown in Eq. 1.
VI = DrDw + RrRw + ArAw + SrSw + TrTw + IrIw + CrCw: ð1Þ
In the above Eq. 1, w represents weight, r represents rate. The vulnerability index is
weighted sum of rate of all the evaluation factors given by Aller et al. 1987 is shown
Table 1 and schematic representation of methodology used in DRASTIC model is
shown in Fig. 2.
Table 1. DRASTIC parameters ratings and classes (Aller et al. 1987)

Layer Range Rating Typical Weight
rating
Depth to water (m) 0–1.5 10 5
1.5–4.5 9
4.5–9 7
9–15 5
15–22.5 3
22.5–30 2
30< 1
Recharge (mm/y) 254< 9 4
178–254 8
102–178 6
51–102 3
0–51 1
Aquifer media Karst Limestone 9–10 10 3
Basalt 2–10 9
Sand and Gravel 4–9 8
Massive Limestone 4–9 6
Massive Sandstone 4–9 6
Bedded Standstone, Limestone and 5–9 6
Shale Sequences
Glacial Till 4–6 5
Weathered Metamorphic/Igneus 3–5 4
Metamorphic/Igneus 2–5 3
Massive Shale 1–3 2
Soil media Thin or Absent 10 2
Gravel 10
Sand 9
Peat 8
Shrinking and/or Aggregate Clay 7
Sandy loam 6
Loam 5
Silty Loam 4
Clay Loam 3
Muck 2
Non shirnking and Non aggregated 1
clay
Topography (%) 0–2 10 5
2–6 9
6–12 5
12–18 3
18< 1
(continued)
Table 1. (continued)
Layer Range Rating Typical Weight
rating
Impact of the Karst Limestone 8–10 10 5
vadose media Basalt 2–10 9
Sand and Gravel 6–9 8
Metamorphic/Igneous 2–8 4
Sand and Gravel with significant 4–8 6
Silt
Bedded Standstone, Limestone and 4–8 6
Shale
Sandstone 4–8 6
Limestone 2–7 6
Shale 2–5 3
Silt/Clay 2–6 3
Confining Layer 1 1
Hydraulic 82< 10 3
conductivity (m/d) 41–82 8
29–41 6
12–29 4
4–12 2
0–4 1
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of methodology

3 Results and Discussion
Depth of water table data is obtained from Central Groundwater Board, Hyderabad.
Aquifer media, impact of the vadose zone, hydraulic conductivity data can be taken
from National Geographical Research Institute (NGRI), soil media data from the
Agricultural Department of Nizamabad, Topography map created the data extracted
from Bhuvan Portal and from rainfall data can be taken from Indian Meteorological
Department. The collected data was converted in to digital format and inserted into
Geographical Information System (GIS) using appropriate latitude and longitude.
Based on Aller et al. (1987) Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) were created by
adopting the hundred meter grid interval and value are assigned. Depth to water level,
Net Recharge, Aquifer Media, Soil Permeability, Topography Impact of Vadose Zone
and Hydraulic Conductivity Index map shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
respectively.
Fig. 3. Depth to watertable Fig. 4. Net recharge index

Fig. 5. Aquifer media Fig. 6. Soil media
Fig. 7. Topography Fig. 8. Vadose zone
Fig. 9. Hydraulic conductivity

Fig. 10. Vulnerability map
4 Conclusion and Recommendations
Using ARC GIS 10.4, aquifer assessment vulnerability map was prepared for this study
by overlapping 7 parameters. Study area was classified in to five vulnerability zones
such as <80 as very low vulnerability, 80–119 as low vulnerability, 120–159 as
moderate, 160–199 as high vulnerability and >199 as very high vulnerability. This
study revealed that the Nizamabad city is in the medium DRASTIC Index vulnerability
zone with the value of 159. The recommendation vulnerability zones of Nizamabad
City are obtained according to the indication of Index as shown in Fig. 10. For this area
proper management and protection techniques has to be needed.
References
Aller L, Bennet T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (1987) DRASTIC: A Standardized System for
Evaluating Ground Water Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings. US EPA Report
600/287/035, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Al-Zabet T (2002) Evaluation of aquifer vulnerability of contamination potential using the
DRASTIC method. Environ Geol 43:203–208
Babiker IS, Mohamed MA, Hiyama T, Kato K (2005) A GIS-based DRASTIC model for
assessing aquifer vulnerability in Kakamigahara Heights, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan. Sci
Total Environ 345(1):127–140
Burow KR, Nolan BT, Rupert MG, Dubrovsky NM (2010) Nitrate in groundwater of the United
States, 1991–2003. Environ Sci Technol 44(13):4988–4997
Erxleben J, Elder K, Davis R (2002) Comparison of spatial interpolation methods for estimating
snow distribution in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Hydrol Process 16(18):3627–3649
Mehrjardi RT, Jahromi MZ, Mahmodis Heidari A (2008) Spatial distribution of groundwater
quality with geostatistics (case study: Yazd-Ardakan plain). World Appl Sci J 4(1):9–17
Oliver MA, Webster R (1990) Kriging: a method of interpolation for geographical information
systems. Int J Geograph Inf Syst 4(3):313–332
Ramakrishnaiah CR, Sadashivaiah C, Ranganna G (2009) Assessment of water quality index for
the groundwater in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka State, India. J Chem 6(2):523–530
Jamrah A, Al-Futaisi A, Rajmohan N, Al-Yaroubi S (2007) Assessment of groundwater
vulnerability in the coastal region of Oman using DRASTIC index method in GIS
environment. Environ Monit Assess 147(1–3):125–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-
0104-6
Javadi S, Kavehkar N, Mousavizadeh MH, Mohammadi K (2010) Modification of DRASTIC
model to map groundwater vulnerability to pollution using nitrate measurements in
agricultural areas. J Agric Sci Technol 13:239–249
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal
Responses of Elevated Rectangular
Water Tank
Meghana Minnekanti(&) and Mallika Alapati
Department of Civil Engineering, VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering

and Technology, Hyderabad, India
minnekantimeghana@gmail.com, mallika_a@vnrvjiet.in
Abstract. Sloshing phenomenon in liquid storage tanks subjected to earth-

quake excitations is of major concern. Baffles act as damping devices to reduce
the sloshing motion of the fluid. The influence of baffle parameters like number,
location and the dimensions plays vital role in the fluid-structure interaction
system.
In the present study, effect of baffles varying in number, size and location on
model responses is investigated by finite element analysis in elevated rectan-
gular storage tanks. Free vibration analysis is carried out to study the variation in
Eigen values and sloshing heights in all the cases. Fluid structure interaction is
considered in ANSYS software. For different water levels (tank empty condi-
tion, tank quarter full, tank half full and tank full) model responses are obtained,
interpreted and presented.
Keywords: Baffles Fluid-structure interaction Sloshing heights
1 Introduction
During earthquake, elevated storage tanks are subjected to earthquake excitations with
sloshing of impounded liquid. To reduce the sloshing phenomenon, use of baffles is
considered by many researchers in the past.
Sloshing effects due to earthquakes with the introduction of baffle walls in the
cylindrical tanks are studied by Shaaban et al. using Finite Element technique in 1977
[1]. Authors studied the behaviour of the tank with perforated cylindrical baffles and
without baffle walls with modal analysis and earthquake excitation. Gedikli and
Erguven [2] studied the effects of a rigid baffle walls on the seismic response of liquid
in a rigid cylindrical tank. Superposition method of modes has been used find the
seismic response. Authors used, boundary element method to extract natural modes of
the liquid considering linearized free surface conditions.
Biswal and others [3] compared the natural frequencies of liquid with and without
baffle plates for a cylindrical tank. The liquid and the tank are discretized using Finite
elements. Authors computed frequencies of the sloshing liquid for various dimensions,
position of the baffle plates for rigid and flexible tanks considering the circumferential

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_4
28 M. Minnekanti and M. Alapati
wave number. The coupled vibration frequencies of the tank-flexible-baffle system are
computed considering the effect of sloshing of liquid.
Hosseini and Farshadmanesh [4] studied the effect of multiple vertical baffles in
rectangular tanks by Finite Element Analysis. Studies are carried out to find the
effective submerged depth of the baffles, to decrease the sloshing height of the liquid.
Authors concluded that optimal number of baffles to minimize the sloshing height for
each series of earthquakes. The research also focuses on the possibility of finding the
optimal submerged depth of baffles for each number of baffle set.
Goudarzi, Sabbagh-Yazdi and Marx [5] developed an analytical model to estimate
hydro dynamic damping ratio of sloshing liquid. In this research, baffles bound to the
tank walls is considered to estimate the hydrodynamic damping ratio of sloshing liquid
using linear wave theory and velocity potential formulation. The results are validated
for analytical solution and experimental investigations are conducted for describing the
hydrodynamic damping for vertical and horizontal baffles in partially filled rectangular
liquid tanks. Many other researchers [6–14] have conducted studies on dynamic
response of elevated tanks with baffles.
However, to the authors knowledge very few researchers have dealt with rectan-
gular water tanks with baffles in different directions and their effect on modal char-
acteristics. In the present study an attempt is made to study the influence of baffle walls
in various sizes, orientation and number on the modal characteristics of the tank.
2 Numerical Study
2.1 General
For the present work, a rectangular elevated water tank with and without baffle wall is
considered. Modal analysis is performed to extract Natural frequencies. The effect of
internal baffle walls on the modal responses of the tank for various liquid levels is
investigated and presented. ANSYS 18.1 is used for modelling and analysis of tank.
2.2 Cases Considered

For the present study, initially tank without any internal baffles is considered. Tank
with baffle wall/walls along the length and breadth of the tank with various lengths of
the baffles is modelled and analysed. Four liquid levels are considered i.e. tank empty,
tank quarter full, tank half - full and tank full. The cases listed in Table 1 are considered
for both 3 m and 6 m height of the baffle walls.
2.3 Geometry
A RC rectangular water container of 9 m 6 m in plan and height of 6.3 m (including
freeboard of 0.3 m) with 0.3 m wall thickness is supported on base slab of 0.3 m thick.
RC staging consisting of 4 columns of 0.6 0.6 m, 16 m height with horizontal
bracings of 0.6 0.6 m at three levels. First set of bracings are located at 4.45 m from
the base slab and second, third set of bracings are located at 8.3 m, 12.15 m respec-
tively from base slab.
Effect of Baffle Wall Parameters on the Modal Responses 29
Table 1. List of cases considered
Baffle wall Dimensions in m

Case Plan details
(l x t x h)
Case1
(Tank without baffle -- --
walls)
Case2
(Tank with 5.4 x 0.3 x 5.4 x 0.3 x 6.0
longitudinal baffle 3.0
wall)
Case3
(Tank with 7.2 x 0.3 x 7.2 x 0.3 x 6.0
longitudinal baffle 3.0
wall)
Case4
(Tank with
longitudinal baffle
walls (2 nos.)) 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 6.0
3.0
Case5
(Tank with
longitudinal baffle 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 6.0
wall in zig-zag 3.0
pattern)
(continued)
Case6
(Tank with 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 6.0
transverse baffle 3.0
wall)
Case7
(Tank with transvers 0.3 x 2.4 x 0.3 x 2.4 x 6.0
baffle walls (3 nos.)) 3.0
Modelling
The tank is modelled in ANSYS software using key points, areas and volumes.
SOLID45 element is used to discretize tank i.e. container walls, base slab, columns,
bracings and baffle walls. FLUID80 element is used to discretize the fluid. Length of
container walls in X-direction are discretized into 30 elements and the container walls
in Z-direction are discretized into 20 elements. Similarly, Fluid element is discretized
into 504 elements. Different fluid levels i.e. Tank full (6 m height water), Tank half full
(3 m height water), Tank quarter full (1.5 m height water) and tank empty condition are
considered with various baffle wall cases as discussed in Sect. 2.2. The material
properties of tank and water are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Material properties

Material Properties
Concrete Density 2500 kg/m3
Young’s modulus 26.44 GPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.15
Water Density 1000 kg/m3
Bulk modulus 2.2 GPa
2.4 Fluid Structure Interaction

Fluid elements are not directly attached to the structural elements. At the interface,
elements of solid and fluid have separate nodes. At the container wall nodes, the Fluid
nodes and the container wall nodes are coupled using COUPLING/Ceqn coincident
nodes in normal direction i.e. at the interface, the fluid and wall nodes are constrained
to move together in normal direction and free to move in vertical and tangential
directions. Similarly, at the base the fluid and base slab nodes are coupled in vertical
direction so that, the common nodes are constrained to move together in vertical
direction and free to move in horizontal and tangential directions.
2.5 Analysis
Modal Analysis is performed using Block Lanczos mode extraction method in ANSYS.
Five modes are extracted in the present study.
As discussed in Sect. 2, modal analysis using Block Lonczos Method is performed in

ANSYS. First five Eigen parameters are extracted and the results obtained are dis-
cussed in the subsequent sections for various fluid levels and for the cases mentioned in
the previous sections.
3.1 For Baffle Walls of 3 m Height
For Tank Empty Condition

The natural frequencies for all the cases (from case 2 to 7) are observed to be less than
that of the tank without any internal obstructions (baffle walls) i.e. case1. As the mass
of the tank is increased in every case of tank with baffle walls and as the natural
frequency is inversely proportional to the mass (p1m), the decrease is evidently noticed
with respect to tank without baffle walls. However, in some cases (case3 and case7)
though mass is same, stiffness is varying and hence change in frequency is observed to
be less in case7 (Table 3).
Table 3. 3 m height baffle wall for tank empty condition

Mode number Natural frequency (Hz)
Case1 Case2 Case3 Case4 Case5 Case6 Case7
1 1.4014 1.3596 1.3525 1.3681 1.3681 1.3844 1.3475
2 1.5555 1.5127 1.5011 1.5186 1.5185 1.5367 1.5000
3 2.1855 2.1763 2.1643 2.1731 2.1696 2.1847 2.1640
4 6.7707 6.6995 6.7470 6.7538 6.7538 6.7611 6.6883
5 6.9115 6.8821 6.8962 6.9009 6.8996 6.9059 6.8810
It is observed that tank with 3 transverse baffles of 3 m height has shown low fre-
quencies as compared to other cases. Maximum reduction found is 3.8%.
For Quarter Full Water Tank

The natural frequencies are observed to decrease for all the cases. In the case of tank
with 3 transverse baffles of 3 m height, fundamental frequencies are observed to be
minimum with the 5.4% reduction against tank percentage variation of 5.4% (Table 4).
Table 4. 3 m height baffle wall for tank quarter full water level
Mode Natural frequency (Hz)
number Case1 Case2 Case3 Case4 Case5 Case6 Case7
1 1.3804 1.3454 1.3356 1.3439 1.3469 1.3620 1.3060
2 1.5212 1.4620 1.4450 1.4542 1.4694 1.3624 1.4650
3 2.1702 2.1560 2.1388 2.1434 2.1466 2.0873 2.1429
4 6.8163 6.8002 6.7947 6.7969 6.8009 6.6626 6.7738
5 7.0007 6.9897 6.9845 6.9841 6.9911 6.8747 6.9865
For Half Full Water Tank

For tanks with half full water condition, tank without baffle wall is showing higher
values of natural resulting high sloshing phenomenon as against all the cases with
baffle walls (Table 5).
Table 5. 3 m height baffle wall with half-full water level

1 1.3149 1.2945 1.2893 1.2798 1.2290 1.2811 1.2211
2 1.4135 1.3455 1.3252 1.3364 1.3534 1.2891 1.3858
3 2.1322 2.1112 2.0856 2.0868 2.0647 2.0499 2.1074
4 6.7685 6.7659 6.7636 6.7513 6.1205 6.6289 6.7050
5 6.9396 6.9180 6.9133 6.9160 6.8211 6.8158 6.9475
The minimum sloshing frequency is observed in the case7 i.e. tank with 3 trans-
verse baffles of 3 m height with the percentage reduction as 7.1%.
For Tank Full Condition
From Table 6, in tanks with full water condition case 6 is showing lesser values of
natural frequencies compared to other cases.
In case of water tank with orthogonal baffle wall of 3 m height (Case6), funda-
mental frequencies are observed to be minimum. The maximum percentage reduction
being 2.4% (Table 6).
Table 6. 3 m height baffle wall for tank full water level

1 1.1580 1.1553 1.1429 1.1441 1.1432 1.1299 1.1590
2 1.1896 1.1770 1.1434 1.1683 1.1716 1.1859 1.2747
3 2.0492 2.0370 1.9870 2.0087 2.0087 2.0388 2.0473
4 6.6457 6.6532 5.9141 6.6006 6.6312 6.6223 6.6575
5 6.6838 6.6852 6.6463 6.6462 6.6468 6.6822 6.7700
Table 7. 6 m height baffle wall for tank empty condition

1 1.4014 1.3248 1.3072 1.3321 1.3320 1.3611 1.2977
2 1.5555 1.4655 1.4413 1.4751 1.4747 1.5157 1.4477
3 2.1855 2.1669 2.1424 2.1558 2.1488 2.1837 2.1424
4 6.7707 4.1984 4.2506 4.2274 4.1205 4.1706 4.0612
5 6.9115 6.6791 6.7131 4.2519 4.3211 6.7141 4.0931
3.2 For Baffle Walls of 6 m Height
For Tank Empty Condition

In the case of 6 m height baffle walls, same trend is observed in natural frequencies and
the maximum percentage reduction being 7.4% in the same case of the tank i.e. tank
with 3 transverse baffles (Table 7).
For Quarter Full Water Tank
In the case of tank with 3 transverse baffles of 6 m height, fundamental frequencies are
observed to be minimum, with 9.6% variation (Table 8).
Table 8. 6 m height baffle wall

1 1.3804 1.3177 1.2892 1.3152 1.3198 1.3295 1.2472
2 1.5212 1.4199 1.3715 1.4268 1.4299 1.4866 1.4204
3 2.1702 2.1470 2.1038 2.1308 2.1270 2.1677 2.1233
4 6.8163 4.2315 4.2719 4.2476 4.1778 4.2094 4.0885
5 7.0007 6.7739 6.7574 4.2787 4.3373 6.8115 4.1523
For Half Full Water Tank

The maximum percentage reduction of 11% is observed in the case of 3 transverse
baffles of 6 m height (i.e. case7) (Table 9).

1 1.3149 1.2648 1.2387 1.2598 1.2845 1.2509 1.1697
2 1.4135 1.3117 1.2486 1.3164 1.3269 1.4020 1.3346
3 2.1322 2.1027 2.0336 2.0763 2.0784 2.1283 2.0788
4 6.7685 4.0404 4.0791 4.0473 3.9691 4.0154 3.8392
5 6.9396 6.7444 6.7238 4.0802 4.1387 6.7643 3.9227
For Tank Full Condition

In case7 i.e. tank with 3 transverse baffles of 6 m baffle height, fundamental frequencies
are observed to be reduced by 10% (Table 10).

1 1.1580 1.1027 1.0372 1.1144 1.1314 1.0921 1.0339
2 1.1896 1.1407 1.1131 1.1272 1.2129 1.2291 1.2626
3 2.0492 2.0094 1.8938 1.8897 1.8880 2.0424 1.9829
4 6.6457 2.0997 2.0252 2.1844 2.2299 2.2906 2.0368
5 6.6838 6.3992 5.0672 2.3517 2.2681 6.6451 2.1030
In all the above cases of liquid levels, the tank with three baffle walls offer more
stiffness to the container and hence less frequencies are observed.
3.3 Sloshing Heights

Sloshing heights for free liquid surface is investigated and the maximum sloshing
height of liquid for first mode is presented for all the cases in the tables below, for 3 and
6 m height baffle conditions (Table 11 and Fig. 1).
Table 11. For 3 m height baffle wall

Cases Sloshing height (m) 10−3
Quarter full tank Half full tank Full tank
Case1 2.36 3.06 3.14
Case2 1.95 2.62 3.01
Case3 1.92 2.57 2.69
Case4 2.45 3.22 3.04
Case5 2.01 2.68 3.04
Case6 2.06 2.9 2.99
Case7 2.15 2.25 2.53
3.90E-03
3.60E-03
Case1
3.30E-03
SLOSHING HEIGHT(m) Case2
3.00E-03
Case3
2.70E-03
Case4
2.40E-03
Case5
2.10E-03
Case6
1.80E-03
Case7
1.50E-03
Quarter Full Half Full Tank Full
LIQUID LEVELS
Fig. 1. Sloshing heights of free liquid surface for different water levels in 3 m baffles height
From the above graph it is inferred that,

In the case of quarter full water tank, lowest sloshing height is observed for Case3
i.e. tank with 7.2 m Longitudinal baffle and highest sloshing height is observed in
Case4 i.e. tank with 2 longitudinal baffle walls.
In the case of half full water tank, lowest sloshing height is observed for Case7 i.e.
tank with 3 transverse baffles and highest sloshing height is observed in case4 i.e. tank
with 2 longitudinal baffle walls.
In the case of full water tank, lowest sloshing height is observed for Case7 i.e. tank
with 3 transverse baffles and highest sloshing height is observed in case1 i.e. tank
without baffle walls.
However, for all the cases, high sloshing is observed in full liquid level except in
case4. It is observed that introduction of baffles in any direction, in any number reduced
sloshing heights by 8.89 to 18.6% in quarter full liquid level, 5.2 to 26.5% in half full
liquid level and 3.2 to 19.4% in tank full liquid level as against tank without baffles
(Table 12 and Fig. 2).
Table 12. For 6 m height baffle wall

Cases Sloshing height (m) 10−3
Quarter full tank Half full tank Full tank
Case1 2.36 3.06 3.14
Case2 1.90 2.57 3.09
Case3 2.13 2.79 3.04
Case4 2.40 3.04 2.39
Case5 1.81 2.04 2.64
Case6 2.51 2.79 2.74
Case7 2.08 2.11 2.25
3.90E-03
SLOSHING HEIGHT(m) 3.60E-03
Case2
3.30E-03
Case1
3.00E-03
Case3
2.70E-03
Case4
2.40E-03
Case5
2.10E-03
Case6
1.80E-03
Case7
1.50E-03
LIQUID LEVELS
Fig. 2. Sloshing heights of free liquid surface for different water levels in 6 m baffles height
From the above graph it is inferred that,

In the case of quarter full water tank, lowest sloshing height is observed for Case5
i.e. tank with 2 Longitudinal staggered baffles and highest sloshing height is in the
case6 i.e. tank with transverse baffle wall.
In the case of half full water tank, lowest sloshing height is observed for Case5 i.e.
tank with 2 Longitudinal staggered baffles and highest sloshing height is observed in
case1 i.e. tank without baffle walls
In the case of full water level, lowest sloshing height is observed for Case7 i.e. tank
with 3 transverse baffles and highest sloshing height is observed in case1 i.e. tank
without baffle walls.
In the case partially filled water tank, i.e. quarter full water level, baffle walls in the
longitudinal direction i.e. case2 and case5 has shown less sloshing heights when
compared with tank without baffle walls (Fig. 3).
3.22
3.01
3.04
3.04
2.99
3.06
3.14
2.9
2.69
2.68
2.62
2.57
2.53
2.45
2.36
2.25
2.15
SLOSHING HEIGHT(mm)
2.06
2.01
1.95
1.92

LIQUID LEVELS
Fig. 3. Comparison of all 7cases for 3 liquid levels for 3 m height baffle walls.
From the above graph it is inferred that, sloshing heights are reduced in all cases of
three different liquid levels except in Case4 of Quarter full and half tank full conditions.
From the above graph it is inferred that, sloshing heights are reduced in all cases of
three different liquid levels except in Case4 of half tank full condition (Fig. 4).
3.04
3.14
3.04
3.09
3.06
2.79
2.74
2.79
2.64
2.57
2.51
2.36
2.39
2.4
2.25
2.13
SLOSHING HEIGHT(mm)
2.08
2.11
2.04
1.81
1.9

LIQUID LEVELS
Fig. 4. Comparison of all 7cases for 3 liquid levels for 6 m height baffle walls.
4 Conclusions
6 Cases of baffled water tanks are studied and compared with tank without baffles.
From that studies, it is concluded that,
• For all liquid conditions for 3 m height of baffles, transverse baffles 3 in number
showed better results with respect to modal responses and sloshing heights.
• For 6 m height of baffle walls, staggered pattern in longitudinal direction showed
better sloshing performance for quarter full and half-full water levels. But for tank
full condition tank with 3 number of baffles in transverse direction showed better
performance.
• The sloshing height of free surface is reduced as the baffle wall height is increased
from 3 m to 6 m for all the cases and for all the liquid levels.
• For the considered capacity of the elevated rectangular water tank, from the
investigated cases, it is found that baffle walls provided along the transverse
direction showed the better sloshing performance and modal response.
References
1. Shaaban SH, Nash WA (1977) Effect of a baffle on response of a liquid storage tank to
seismic excitation. In: Proceedings of Canadian congress of applied mechanics. Universite
Laval, Quebec, pp 695–696
2. Gedikli A, Ergüven ME (1999) Seismic analysis of a liquid storage tank with a baffle.
J Sound Vib 223(1):141–155
3. Biswal KC, Bhattacharyya SK, Sinha PK (2003) Free-vibration analysis of liquid-filled tank
with baffles. J Sound Vib 259(1):177–192
4. Hosseini M, Farshadmanesh P (2011) The effects of multiple vertical baffles on sloshing
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Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University
(NSYSU), Taiwan
9. Farshadmanesh P (2011) Optimizing the use of baffles in rectangular liquid storage tanks
subjected to earthquakes. M.Sc. thesis under supervision of professor Mahmood Hosseini,
submitted to Civil Engineering Department of the South Tehran Branch of the Islamic
University, Tehran, Iran
10. Chaudhari K, Bhilare SL, Patil GR (2017) A study of dynamic response of circular water
tank with baffle walls. Int Res J Eng Technol 4
11. Dhumal P, Suryawanshi SR (2016) A study of effect of baffle wall on dynamic response of
elevated water tank using ansys 16. Int J Innov Res Sci Technol
12. Maity D, Naveen Raj C, Gogoi I (2010) Dynamic response of elevated liquid storage elastic
tanks with baffles. Int J Civ Eng Technol 1
13. Avval IT (2012) Dynamic response of concrete rectangular liquid tanks in three-dimensional
space. Thesis presented to Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
14. George RR, Joseph A (2016) Dynamic analysis of elevated cement concrete water tank. Int J
Innov Res Sci Technol 3
Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing
on Reinforced Foundation Beds with Inclined
Reinforcement
P. Rajashekar Reddy(&), G. V. Narasimha Reddy,

and E. Saibaba Reddy
JNTUHCEH, Hyderabad, India

raj2002.shekar@gmail.com, esreddy1101@gmail.com,
gvnreddy@jntuh.ac.in
Abstract. Usually reinforcement is arranged (placed) horizontal underneath the

footings, to restrain developed tensile strains in soil, which in turn increase the
reinforced sand bed shearing resistance by means of interfacial bond resistance
and limited by tensile strength of its own. Present work analyses geotextile
reinforced foundation bed with reinforcement placed inclined downward from
edge of footing towards free end at an inclination varying from 0 to 10° and
evaluated the normalized bearing capacity values. Sand bed reinforced with
inclined reinforcement overlying clay is studied by computing enhancement in
normalized bearing capacity against reinforced foundation bed with reinforce-
ment placed horizontally. The variation of normalized bearing capacity with
angle of shearing resistance of sand bed, length of reinforcement, sand bed
density are studied. Sand bed reinforced with inclined reinforcement quantify
the increase in bearing capacity when compared with conventional method of
placing reinforcement horizontally.
Keywords: Normalized bearing capacity Inclined reinforcement

Reinforced foundation bed Foundation on soft clay
1 Introduction
Traditionally for reinforced foundation beds, placement of reinforcement is in the

horizontal direction but transverse to the gravity stress application. Tensile force
mobilized in the reinforcement due to interfacial friction between reinforcement and
soil results in increase in bond stress.
Meyerhof (1974) developed bearing capacity solution for strip footing resting on
dense sand bed overlying homogeneous clay using punching mode of shear failure and
compared the test results with model tests on strip/circular footings and found to agree
with the developed theory. Quast (1983) considered the force in the reinforcement to
act tangential to the slip surface. Bonaparte and Christopher (1987) considered force in
the reinforcement to act along a direction between tangent to the slip surface in the
reinforcement and alignment of reinforcement. Kumar and Madhav (2011) analyzed
reinforced earth wall with sheet reinforcement inclined downward to the horizontal
with inclination varying between 0 to 10° and found that there is increase in the factor
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_5
40 P. Rajashekar Reddy et al.
of safety against pull out due to increase in the normal stress of reinforcement to pull
out of reinforcement. It is proposed to study the increase in bond resistance of inclined
reinforcement due to increase in normal stress of reinforcement to pull out of rein-
forcement. Hence, in this paper a parametric study has been carried out to study the
effect of inclination of reinforcement in sand bed in improving bearing capacity.
2 Problem Definition and Formulation
A strip footing having width, B supporting on top of a replaced sand bed of thickness H
overlying soft homogeneous clay whose undrained shear strength is c. The unit weight
and angle of internal friction of sand bed is taken as c and / respectively. A single layer
of geotextile reinforcement is placed in the sand bed at a distance u from the bottom of
the footing and it is inclined at an angle a with horizontal as shown in Fig. 1. The
interface bond resistance and tension developed in the reinforcement are /r and Tr
respectively. A uniform surcharge pressure of w will be acting on reinforced foundation
bed. Reinforcement is subjected to overburden pressure increasing from cu at the edge
of footing to cH at the free end. The bottom of the footing is assumed as rough and
reinforcement does not fail by rupture (i.e., bond resistance due to pull out is less than
the rupture failure). Failure is initiated by the punching mode in the top sand layer.
Load intensity (w)

GL STRIP FOOTING GL
u B/2 Reinforcement
α H
Sand [γ, ϕ]
(Lr-B/2) sinα
Lr/2
α
Lei/2 = (Lr-B)/2
Clay [cu, ϕu=0]
Rigid Base
Fig. 1. Definition sketch
3 Method of Analysis
3.1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Sand Bed on Soft Clay
Meyerhof (1974), presented bearing capacity solution for strip footing on dense sand
bed resting over homogeneous soft clay is
Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing on Reinforced Foundation Beds 41
cH 2
qus ¼ cNc þ Ks tan/ cDNq þ 0:5cBNc ð1Þ
B
Limited to the bearing capacity of a sand layer of infinite thickness.
Where, Ks = Punching shear coefficient and is obtained from figure given by
Meyerhof and Hanna 1978 which depends on angle of shearing resistance of sand, /,
undrained cohesion of clay, c and bearing capacity ratio q2/q1, where q1, q2 are ultimate
bearing capacities of footing on surface of sand bed and soft homogeneous clay
respectively. Nc, Nq, Nc are bearing capacity factors and for /u = 0, Nc = 5.14.
Normalizing Eq. (1) with undrained cohesion of clay,
2
cB H
qus ¼ Nc þ Ks tan/ ð2Þ
c B
qus is the combination of strength contribution of upper sand layer and lower homo-
geneous clay layer to the bearing capacity of footing, where cB/c = sand bed density
gradient, H/B = Normalized sand bed thickness.
3.2 Bond Resistance of Inclined Reinforcement

Geotextile reinforcement of length, Lr placed at an angle of a with horizontal at a depth
u from bottom of footing as shown in Fig. 2. Due to weight of structure strip footing
along with sand column below the footing moves down due to punching effect and
shear stresses are developed on both sides of the sand column. Geotextile reinforce-
ment is subjected to overburden pressure increasing from cu at edge of footing to

cu þ c Lr 2B sina at the free end (i.e., tip of inclined reinforcement). Vertical stress and
tension developed in the reinforcement are obtained for average depth of reinforce-
ment, uavg

½u þ u þ Lr
B2 sina
uavg ¼ 2
ð3Þ
2
An overburden pressure of w considered to act at the base of footing arises due to

embedment of footing.
q = overburden pressure above reinforcement = c uavg + w

1 Lr B
q ¼ c uþ sina þ w ð4Þ
2 2 2
Stresses tangential, qt and normal, qn to the alignment of geotextile reinforcement

are
Direct resistance against pull out of reinforcement is offered by tangential stress, qt
and additional frictional resistance qntan/r mobilised due to normal stress qn.
q
Load intensity
GL STRIP FOOTING G
u B/2 Reinforcement
H
(Lr-B)/2 sinα Sand [γ, ϕ]
Clay [cu, ϕu=0]
Rigid Base
(a)
q
T B/2
q
τ τ
α
Reinforcement
quc
(b) (c)
Fig. 2. (a) Punching shear failure of footing, (b) stresses on sand column and (c) reinforcement
alignment.
Total mobilized resistance to pull out, Tr ¼ ðqn Lei tan;r Þ þ ðqt Lei Þ ð5Þ
Where Lei = effective length of inclined reinforcement, beyond the edge of footing.
For the reinforcement layer placed in the sand bed, axial tensile force developed in
the reinforcement layer for an effective length of, Lei beyond the edge of the footing,
due to mobilization of interface shear resistance.
Taking in to consideration the effective length of geotextile reinforcement Lei on
either side of the footing, axial stresses will be developed in geotextile reinforcement
layer due to development of shear stress on either side (Top and Bottom) of sand-
reinforcement interface, Tr by considering unit width of footing

Tr u 1 Lr 1 w Lr 1
¼ c þ sina þ 2 ðtan/r cosa þ sinaÞ ð6Þ
B B 2 2B 2 B 2B 2
Bearing capacity of reinforced sand bed on soft homogeneous clay with inclined
reinforcement is given by

cH 2 u 1 Lr 1 w Lr 1
quir ¼ cNc þ Ks tan/ þ 2 c þ sina þ ðtan/r cosa þ sinaÞ ð7Þ
B B 2 2B 2 B 2B 2
Normalizing the above Eq. (7) with undrained cohesion of clay c, gives
2
cB H cB u 1 Lr 1 w Lr 1
quir ¼ Nc þ Ks tan/ þ 2 þ sina þ ðtan/r cosa þ sinaÞ
c B c B 2 2B 2 c 2B 2
ð8Þ
The beneficial effect of geotextile reinforcement for increasing the ultimate bearing
capacity is quantified through a non-dimensional parameter, the normalized bearing
capacity ratio.
The normalized bearing capacity ratio quc is the ratio of bearing capacity of footing
on homogeneous clay layer to the undrained shear strength of clay. Similarly, qus is the
ratio of bearing capacity of sand bed overlying homogeneous clay layer to the
undrained shear strength of clay.
quir is the ratio of bearing capacity of geotextile reinforced sand bed with rein-
forcement placed inclinedly considering axial tension in reinforcement overlying clay
to that of undrained shear strength of clay. This ratio quantifies the contributions of
sand bed and axial tension mobilised in the inclined reinforcement to the overall
bearing capacity of the footing.
Bearing capacity of strip footing resting on sand bed with reinforcement placed
inclined on soft homogeneous clay depends on non-dimensional parameters u/B, /, H/
B, cB/c related to sand bed on clay. /r, (Lr − B)/2 related to interface shear resistance
between geotextile and sand. Results are illustrated in graphical form for the following
range of non-dimensional parameters, H/B (0 to 0.5), cB/c (2 to 16) in addition to that a
(0 to 10°). Calculations are made for Lr/B (2.5 to 4.0), /r// of 0.75 Effect of these
parameters on bearing capacity is quantified in this paper for different a values and
compared with normalised bearing capacity factors of horizontally placed reinforce-
ment in the sand bed.
4.1 quir Versus Lr/B: Effect of a

quir with Lr/B for different angles of inclination of reinforcement, a is depicted in Fig. 3
for H/B = 0.5, u/B = 0.125, w/c = 0, /r// = 0.75, cB/c = 8. For angle of inclination of
reinforcement, a = 5°, quir increases from 7.47 to 8.81 an increase of 17.93% with
increase in Lr/B from 2.5 to 4.0, due to development of bond resistance top and bottom
of reinforcement beyond the edge of the footing on both sides. quir increases from 7.36
to 8.5, an increase of 15.48% increase with increase in a from 0 to 10° for Lr/B = 3. quir
increases significantly with increase in inclination of reinforcement due to considera-
tion of overburden pressure effect of sand overlying reinforcement. Due to inclination
of reinforcement additional tangential stress, qt mobilized in addition to normal
stress qn.
10.10
H/B= 0.5, ϕ=30 , ϕr/ϕ=0.75 α=10
w/c=0, γB/c=8, u/B=0.125
5
quir*
8.60
7.10
2.5 3.25 4
Lr/B
Fig. 3. Variation of quir with Lr/B - Effect of a
4.2 Effect of cB/c

Variation of inclination of reinforcement, a with quir , for different values of cB/c are
depicted in Fig. 4 for / = 30°, H/B = 0.5, u/B = 0.125, /r// = 0.75, w/c = 0. With
increase in a, quir increases nonlinearly, due to effect of overburden pressure and it is
significant with increase in cB/c. quir increases from 6.11 to 10.22 an increase of
11.50
w/c=0, ϕ=30°, ϕr/ϕ=0.75 γB/c= 16
H/B= 0.5, u/B= 0.125
8.70
quir*
2
5.90
0 5 10
α in degrees
Fig. 4. Variation of quir with a - Effect of cB/c

67.26% increase with increase in cB/c from 2 to 16 for an inclination of reinforcement

of 5°, due to increase in density of sand bed wider footing and less cohesion.
4.3 quir Versus a - Effect of /

Figure 5 illustrates variation of inclination of reinforcement, a with quir for different
values of /, for H/B = 0.5, u/B = 0.125, w/c = 0, /r// = 0.75 and cB/c = 8. With
increase in a from 0 to 10° for / = 30°, quir increases from 7.36 to 8.5 an increase of
15.48%, due to effect of over burden stress acting on the reinforcement in the resisting
zone. For an inclination of reinforcement of 5°, there is a 28.93% increase in quir from
7.88 to 10.16 with increase of / from 30° to 40° due to mobilization of frictional
component of bond resistance.
w/c=0, Lr/B=3 ϕ=40

ϕr/ϕ=0.75, H/B= 0.5,
u/B= 0.125, γB/c= 8
35
30
α in degrees
Fig. 5. Variation of quir with a - Effect of /
5 Conclusions
The proposed bearing capacity equation for the strip footing on sand bed reinforced
with inclined reinforcement over soft clay layer, considers the sum of undrained
cohesion of clay, mobilized shearing resistance in the sand bed and pull out resistance
of inclined reinforcement, normalized bearing capacity ratio incorporates the above
mechanics. Parametric study evaluates contribution of angle of inclination of rein-
forcement, a, relative thickness of sand bed, H/B, cB/c, u/B on normalized bearing
capacity values for u/B = 0.125, cB/c = 2 to 16, a = 0 to 10°. Computations are made
for Lr/B = 2.5 to 4.0, / = 30° to 40° on the basis of results and discussion following
conclusions are made
quir increases with increase in length of reinforcement due to mobilization of bond

resistance beyond the edge of footing.
Bearing capacity of inclined reinforced sand bed on homogeneous clay layer quir
for a given inclination of reinforcement increases with angle of shearing resistance due
to mobilization of frictional component of bond resistance on the reinforcement.
quir for a particular angle of inclination of reinforcement, a increases with cB/c due
to increase in density of sand bed, wider footing and less cohesion.
References
Bonaparte R, Christopher BR (1987) Design and construction of reinforced embankments over
weak foundation. Transp Res Rec 1153:26–39
Kumar PVSN, Madhav MR (2011) Pullout of inclined reinforcement in reinforced earth wall.
Indian Geotech J 41(2):95–99
Meyerhof GG (1974) Ultimate bearing capacity of footings on sand layer overlying clay. Can
Geotech J 2:223–229
Quast P (1983) Polyester reinforcing fabric mats for the improvement of embankment stability.
In: Proceedings of 8th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering,
vol 2, pp 531–534
Meyerhof GG, Hanna AM (1978) Ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on layered soils
under inclined load. Can Geotech J 15:565–572
Precise Survey Assistance for Civil Structures
Using Survey Assist
K. Surya Prakash, Kone Srimannarayana(&),

Pradeep Kumar Kaatnam, and Abhinav Dayal
Vishnu Institute of Technology, Bhimavaram, India

suryakadaliprakash@gmail.com, sriharikone@gmail.com,
pradeep.kaatnam@gmail.com,
abhinav.dayal@vishnu.edu.in
Abstract. Civil structures like bridges, railway tracks, dams, high rise build-
ings and even public facilities need regular surveys and reporting so as to timely
address potential threats to avoid serious loss of life and property. Every
organization performs survey of related structures from time to time. However,
due to manual errors, corruption and other factors, inaccurate responses lead to
delay or neglect of critical repairs leading to unfavorable events and loss of life
and property. This paper presents a novel mobile app based framework to crowd
source survey information from qualified individuals to act as an indicator for
concerned authorities to take timely action. The app provides an informative
dashboard with color coded geo locations dynamically driven from crowd
sourced information. Authors envision that such an app in public domain will
help concerned authorities to take time action against potential threats.
Keywords: Civil structures Crowdsourcing Survey assistance Monitoring
1 Introduction
Every organization performs a survey of related civil structures like bridges, roads,
buildings etc., from time to time to timely address potential threats avoiding serious
loss of life and property [1]. This process of assessing and tracking structural integrity
and nature of the damage is called health monitoring [2]. The monitoring process is
labor intensive and incurs significant costs. In general, these tasks are done by visual
inspection, traditional methods like tap tests, and in recent times by smart tools like
sensors, smart structures etc. Manual methods are also prone to human error.
Health monitoring of civil infrastructure is measured by several parameters that
determine the location and severity of damage as they happen and as they are recorded
by visual inspection. Precise assessment of the extent of damage may require intensive
labor and investment. Just knowing that damage has occurred is often more important
as then the necessary action can be taken. Doing so in a cost-effective manner is
therefore important.
Authors in [3] present a review of several methods used for structural health
monitoring. There are several sensor based methods like sensor-based damage moni-
toring system [4]. Authors in [5] present overview of smart materials, sensors,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_7
48 K. Surya Prakash et al.
actuators, signal processors, communication networks, etc. for structural health mon-
itoring, structural vibration control, self-repairing, energy harvesting etc. However
employing sensors in all existing structures is time consuming and costly bots in initial
setup as well as maintenance.
Fig. 1. Survey assist Android application architecture.
In the modern day, mobile devices have become ubiquitous and easily accessible to
every person. Moreover, people have become used to online social activity on sites like
WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter etc. A lot of information can now be crowdsourced
through indirect data analysis or direct surveys from people, in general, using mobile
based applications. Crowd-Sourcing is one very effective method to gather real-time
insights of phenomenon happening around us [6]. For example analysis of twitter feeds
provides an effective way to detect and analyze events [7]. For example, authors in [8]
use crowdsourcing via Android Application to detect damaged roads. They further
propose a warning system to alert vehicle drivers of any abrupt discontinuities on the
road. This paper seeks inspiration from work in [8] to present an App based framework
to Crowd-Source data about damage to civil infrastructure alerting authorities of
possible damage that need to be attended.
In the context of this paper, rather than precise measurements and automatic sur-
veys using advanced technological tools like sensors etc. the authors use crowd
sourcing to collect relevant information about a civil structure that can drive automatic
timely notifications for concerned authorities to take appropriate action. Figure 1 shows
the overview of the system. A qualified user when registered on the portal will get geo-
fence based notifications as and when she is in vicinity of a structure that is marked for
public survey. If user accepts to survey, she can navigate to the location via the app and
answer objective questions preset by qualified individuals. A novel scoring system
evaluates the severity of the status as reported. A final dashboard displays cumulative
scored survey results for each location with color coded threat levels. The intent of this
paper is not to provide technically accurate measurements, rather to indicate potential
threats in a trustworthy and timely manner.
Precise Survey Assistance for Civil Structures Using Survey Assist 49
2 Methodology
In this project, authors have attempted to involve adequately educated people to

respond to carefully crafted location-based questions on civil structures such that their
combined responses can lead to a visual/actionable dashboard allowing visualizing
structures that may or may not need immediate attention as well as inform relevant
authorities in an automated manner. Once users sign up and make themselves available,
they will get information to do a survey if they are near a facility to be surveyed. The
questionnaire will be developed by professionals and users will have to follow the
guidelines and answer questions, if possible, they can explain the issue with shared
pics. This paper also presents an economic model to invite sponsors awarding monetary
favors for well-attempted surveys from authorized individuals. Authors believe that this
may help timely action and prevent disasters.
A civil structure may span large geographic regions. So many sets of questions on
the same structure can be made based on geolocation. When the person reaches close to
a location then the question will be displayed. The estimation of the result is based on
the score of the multiple-choice questions answered by the user. Each question may
have weight. Finally, calculated average of all the questions in the response drive the
survey reports and put the structure under green/yellow/red category depending on the
severity of damage (No damage for green and serious damage for red). A corre-
sponding alert will then be visible on the map to the concerned individuals including
decision makers.
Rðweight of different questionÞ

ðResultÞAverage ¼ ;
N
Where N is, no of questions.

If, (Result)Average < 40 the threat is high and it is displayed in Red, and if
(Result)Average < 70, threat is moderate and it is displayed in Yellow. For remaining
cases, they are displayed in Green as they have very low or no threat levels.
To make this possible, authors develop a mobile app to help users enter data for
carefully crafted questions as well as a responsive web application for the dashboard.
The questions are designed to have a novel scoring system so as to calculate the threat
levels appropriately.
2.1 Technical Implementation

There are multiple components that need to be implemented to achieve the final output.
The overall system needs to,
1. Find a way to showcase the real-time locations of the constructions.
2. Dynamically retrieve different types of a questionnaire for different types of con-
structions like bridges, dams, public facilities.
3. Represent questions with a scoring system to evaluate overall response.
4. Accumulate the results gathered from crowd sourcing and storing them into a secure
location so that the author can retrieve them again in a different flow for higher
officials to review and act accordingly.
5. Communicate to relevant officials via MAIL, PHONE, SMS regarding the current
condition of construction based on severity.
Fig. 2. Block diagram for user data transformation to enterprises network.
A mobile application with integrated Google maps for navigation allows users to
reach a location and answer the questionnaire which eventually leads to authentic
results. PHP based web application with MySQL database allows backend connectivity
to the mobile application. The application makes REST calls to the remote cloud and
fetch the results on the fly based on the selected location. JAVA based come on mobile
device consolidates the user’s responses and saves the result via a POST request to
PHP backend. A web frontend written in HTML, CSS and JavaScript drives the
dashboard that displays cumulative results. Surveyed locations are shown as colored
markers (green, yellow, red) based on the severity on the Google maps. Admin has
controls to add new survey locations and questionnaire in the system. An integrated
email service on backend sends relevant message to concerned officials. Figure 2
describes this architecture as a block diagram.
2.2 Score and Location-Based Questions

Civil structure may span large geographic regions. So many sets of questions on the
same structure can be made based on geolocation. When the person reaches close to a
location then the question will be displayed. For example there can be different set of
questions for north and south end of a structure.
Each question carries a weight in the range from 1–10 with low score for higher
damage and higher score for lower or no damage. User may also be asked to take a
picture and upload that concerned officials can see on the web frontend. For example a
Precise Survey Assistance for Civil Structures Using Survey Assist 51
general question can be, Are there cracks on the wall? with options “no – 10”,
“multiple long cracks – 3”, “few small cracks – 6”, etc. The number at the end shows
the score. The user does not see the score. Based on the response user can be asked to
upload a pic.
Fig. 3. Survey assist app
3 Results
Figure 3 shows the app in action. The survey assist app provides
1. Better Governance. Authorities can easily get consolidated public opinion about
the concerned structure, products, and services.
2. Timely Action. Public reaction may drive necessary action in a timely manner,
before internal resource allotment to detect the problem.
3. Lower Costs and Ease of Use. Phone call-based surveys require more investment.
Moreover, people, in general, do not like to be disturbed by a phone call. Such a
method may prove more effective in time.
4. Analytics. Real-time analytics and alerts help get a broad and clear picture while
the app allows to drill down into details and visualize survey results at various
levels
4 Conclusion and Future Work
Author’s main strategy and monitoring concern about global fluctuations based on the
dynamic characteristics of bridge damages, concrete cracking, yielding of steel, dete-
rioration of the materials used in the construction can generate the responses based on
the status of the structure. This will provide timely aid to prevent future accidents
because of lack of maintenance. To make this possible, authors also developed a
desktop application or even in mobile application to allow data entry.
Authors plan to use Machine Learning strategies to analyze uploaded images for
structural damage severity. This can significantly reduce the amount of questionnaire
and also make the survey process more interactive and reliable.
References
1. Chang PC, Flatau A, Liu SC (2003) Review paper: health monitoring of civil infrastructure.
Struct Health Monit: Int J 2(3):257–267
2. Mix D, Kijewski-Correa T, Taflanidis AA (2011) Assessment of residential housing in
Leogane, Haiti after the January 2010 earthquake and identification of needs for rebuilding.
Earthq Spectra 27:S299–S322
3. Kaur V, Tyagi A, Kritika M, Kumari P, Salvi S (2017) Crowd-sourcing based Android
application for structural health monitoring and data analytics of roads using cloud
computing. In: 2017 international conference on innovative mechanisms for industry
applications (ICIMIA)
4. Rytter A (1993) Vibration-based inspection of civil engineering structures. Ph.D. dissertation,
Department of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University,
Denmark
5. Daniel F, Kucherbaev P, Cappiello C, Benatallah B, Allahbakhsh M (2018) Quality control in
crowdsourcing: a survey of quality attributes, assessment techniques, and assurance actions.
ACM Comput Surv 51(1), Article 7
6. Zhai Z, Hachen D, Kijewski-Correa T, Shen F, Madey G (2012) Citizen engineering: methods
for “crowdsourcing” highly trustworthy results. IEEE
7. Li R, Lei KH, Khadiwala R, Chang KC (2012) TEDAS: a twitter-based event detection and
analysis system. In: 2012 IEEE 28th international conference on data engineering,
Washington, DC, pp 1273–1276. https://doi.org/10.1109/icde.2012.125
8. El-Wakeel AS, Li J, Noureldin A, Hassanein HS, Zorba N (2018) Towards a practical
crowdsensing system for road surface conditions monitoring. IEEE Internet Things J 5
(6):4672–4685
Ground Improvement Using Band Drains
at Onshore Gas Terminal Near
Kakinada (AP), India
D. Babu Rao1,2(&) and D. Nageswara Rao3

1
Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering,
dbaburao2000@yahoo.com
2
Geo Technologies, Hyderabad, India
3
Dharti Dredging and Infrastructure Limited, Hyderabad, India
Abstract. The Paper presents the construction of a major Gas Processing

Facility for Gujarat State Petrochemical Corporation (G S P C) at Mallavaram
near Kakinada in AP State. The Project involves reclaiming of 15 ha of land for
On - shore Gas Terminal (O G T); this included dredging of 1.5 million cubic m
of sand from Godavari - Gautami River, hydraulic transporting over a distance
of 4 km, depositing and reclaiming the land. The work was performed by Dharti
Dredging & Infrastructure Limited (D D I L), and monitored by Engineers India
Limited (E I L).
Detailed Geo technical investigations were undertaken for designing Prefab-
ricated Vertical Drains (PVD), to accelerate the vertical and radial consolidation
of 12 m thick soft clay bed. Dissipation of pore water pressures was ascertained
by using large scale Static Cone Penetration Tests (S C P T) in the field.
The Paper also describes the modern technology in Ground Engineering, viz.
Prefabricated Vertical Drains, wrapped in Geo textile filter jacket of non -
woven, spun - bonded material, to retain fine particles, based on three –
dimensional consolidation theory. This has considerably accelerated the settle-
ments so as to ensure the safe construction of structures over the reclaimed land.
Keywords: Geotechnical engineering Ground Improvement

Land reclamation Prefabricated Vertical Drains Onshore Gas Terminal
1 Introduction
Gujarat State Petrochemical Corporation (G S P C) has constructed a major Gas

Processing Facility at Mallavaram near Kakinada in the State of AP. The Natural Gas
processed at the Facility is transported through Pipeline from East Coast to West Coast
in Gujarat State. The gas to be evacuated from the Terminal is about 250 million metre
standard cubic feet per day. It is a significant, bold and complex venture for the State of
Gujarat.
The Facility is located on Onshore Gas Terminal (OGT) near the confluence of
Gautami–Godavari River and Bay of Bengal. The site conditions comprise highly
compressive clays to about 55 m depth, inundated by high tide. Some of the major

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_8
54 D. Babu Rao and D. Nageswara Rao
structures to come up at the Facility are Storage Tanks, Power Generator, Flare Tower
and Administrative Building.
Long term settlement of about 1000 mm was expected under the proposed loads. In
order to accelerate the settlement, and limit it to 1 to 2 year-period, Preloading and Band
drains were applied, enabling the construction to commence in less than two years [1].
2 Site Conditions
The site consists of top four layers of soft clay and fine sand of total thickness of about
51 m (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Typical subsoil profile
Typical Consolidation properties of clay are as follows:

Angle of internal friction = zero degree, Cohesion = 30 kN/m2
Coefficient of volume compressibility mv = 0.08 cm2/kg
Coefficient of vertical consolidation Cv = 1.25 m2/year
Coefficient of radial consolidation Cr = 2.5 m2/year
The area is generally inundated by high tides. The area to be reclaimed, of about
15 ha, was earlier used for shallow ponds, and needed dewatering and efficient drai-
nage system.
3 Band Drain (PVD) Properties
Drain body is a Prefabricated Vertical Drain (PVD), tightly wrapped in a Geo textile
filter jacket of nonwoven spun-bonded polypropylene, with very high permeability but
retaining fine soil particles. The band is 100 mm wide, 4 mm thick, weighing 81 g/m
length. All the mechanical properties such as tensile, tear and bursting strengths are
approved as per ASTM Standards [2].
Ground Improvement Using Band Drains at Onshore Gas Terminal 55
The purpose of band drains is to accelerate the consolidation period. Typically, the
fine grained soils (such as clay) have low permeability in vertical direction and high
permeability in radial direction. The inclusion of band drains provides additional
drainage path with shorter travel distance, and hastens the time of consolidation. Thus,
specified settlement can be achieved in short duration.
For the present project, the total settlement of 12 m thick clay layer was estimated
to be 914 mm, under a pressure increment of 94 kN/m2. Without treatment, time
required for 90% settlement was about 25 years. With triangular grid pattern of bands
of spacing 1.5 m, the time required was drastically reduced to about 250 days.
3.1 Preloading
To achieve the expected settlements to occur before the actual construction, preload
equivalent to the extra stress is to be placed on the natural soil. The average preload
height was 1 m, with a waiting period of 60 days. Three stages of loading were
required.
4 Dredging and Sand Fill
The process of reclamation was achieved by sand-fill with hydraulic transportation. The
quantity of sand required was approximately 1.5 million cu m. This was pumped from
a distance of 4 km, by dredging in the River Godavari–Gautami (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Sand dredging in Godavari River
Maximum dredging depth was 25 m with a discharge pipe of diameter 750 mm.
Cutter Section Dredger (CSD) with overall length of 84 m was used. Backwash water
management activities during sand filling are required for site preparation, maximizing
the retention of suspended solids and dewatering of dredged material (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Dewatering of sand fill
5 Compaction and Field Monitoring
At the end of each stage of lift, controlled compaction of filled area was performed by
conducting relevant field and laboratory tests. To monitor the efficacy of compaction
and study long-term effects, settlement plates were installed at the reclamation site.
Large number of Static Cone Penetration Tests were conducted in the field (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Static cone penetration in the field

Ground Improvement Using Band Drains at Onshore Gas Terminal 57
Typical Depth – Resistance Field Plot is given in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Depth – resistance graph – S C P T
It is noted that Cone Resistance of 75 kg/cm2 was achieved in the top 4 m of fill.
This enables the construction of light structures and plant roads. Foundations of
structures with heavy loads are carried deeper.
6 Closure
An Onshore Terminal was constructed near Kakinada, A.P., for Gujarat State Petro-
chemical Corporation, at a cost of about Rs. 20,000 millions. An area of 15 ha was
reclaimed through Ground Improvement, using the latest technology of Prefabricated
Vertical Drains and Preloading. All the major works of Gas Processing facility such as
Storage Tanks, Flare Tower, Administration Building, have been constructed over a
clay layer of 12 m thickness, adjoining the Bay of Bengal.
The Project demonstrates the application of modern techniques of construction,
using the principles of Geo Technical Engineering, to reclaim weak land. This is the
essence of Ground Improvement in Civil Engineering.
Acknowledgments. The corresponding author was Consulting Geotechnical Engineer for M/s
Dharti Dredging and Infrastructure Limited, Hyderabad, during some stages of the Project. The
co-author provided the inputs, and organized field visits. Thanks are extended to M/s Dharti
Dredging & Infrastructure Limited, Hyderabad, for providing utmost cooperation.
References
1. Conte E, Troncone A (2009) Radial Consolidation with vertical drains and general time-
dependent loading. Can Geotech J 46(1):25–36
2. ASTM D 6917-16: Standard guide for selection of test methods for prefabricated vertical
drains (PVD)
New Light Weight Mortar for Structural
Application: Assessment of Porosity, Strength
and Morphology Properties
Paul Awoyera1(&), Ravindran Gobinath2, Sandela Haripriya2,

and Poongodi Kulandaisami2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
paul.awoyera@covenantuniversity.edu.ng
2
S R Engineering College, Warangal, India
Abstract. Over reliance on the conventional construction materials majorly

contribute to the depletion of the natural sources, this also affects sustainability
of the future generation. The natural aggregate sources are being explored at an
alarming rate, therefore, the threat of depletion of the natural materials has
inspired interest in sustainable construction materials, through utilization of
solid wastes and local materials. In this study, an experimental insight on
modified mortar, based on strength and microstructural properties, is provided,
in an attempt to ascertain the suitability of ceramic industry wastes and laterite
as a replacement for conventional aggregates. Various mix proportions were
considered, also batching was done by weight when casting the mortar samples.
The results showed that there was significant improvement in strength as the
ceramic substitution for river sand was increased. However, increasing laterite
content beyond 10% negates the strength development in the samples. Overall,
the study has developed a suitable lightweight mortar, comprising of 10%
ceramic powder, and 100% fine ceramic contents, with strength properties as
that of the conventional mixes, and also ecofriendly for use.
Keywords: Sustainability Mortar Laterite Ceramic waste

Microscale analysis
1 Introduction
The demand for affordable materials for building construction is on the increase in
developing and underdeveloped countries. The natural aggregate sources are over
explored, and this is resulting into high cost of the materials [1], and coupled with
instability in economy [2, 3].
However, incessant exploration of these sources creates a number of environmental
problems in form of pollution and emission of toxic substance into the environment.
On the other hand, numerous solid wastes resulting from industrial and construction
activities are investigated for potential reuse for construction [4]. Many of the discarded
materials have also been found suitable for solving durability issues in concrete [5].
Despite the advancement in research relating to the recycling of waste materials,
ceramic waste has been identified as non- recyclable, yet improper management of this

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_9
60 P. Awoyera et al.
kind of materials could result into serious environmental challenges. It has been
reported that about 30% of ceramic content ends up as wastes during its production,
and this portion of the material is stockpiled and landfilled [6–9]. This is certainly a
reason to consider reusing the ceramic wastes.
There are two categories of ceramic wastes, based on the raw material sources [10].
One covers those involving the use of red pastes for product manufacture. While there
are also those in form of stoneware.
In recent years, studies have shown that ceramics and other silica rich materials are
suitable for making mortars and concrete [11–14], when used as a replacement of the
conventional aggregates.
Laterite, on the other hand, has been a famous construction material, mostly used
for production of earth blocks [15]. In some sub-Saharan African countries, laterite has
been used for building low cost houses, and as earthwork filling material for road
pavement and earth dams. However, advancement in research has shown that laterite is
a suitable material for making concrete, when it is used as a partial replacement of sand
in concrete [16, 17].
On the other hand, Awoyera et al. [18] recently explored the strength properties of
concrete containing laterite and ceramic aggregates, the study reported that the new
concrete possessed somewhat similar characteristics as the conventional concrete. This
is an indication that incorporation of ceramics and laterite as replacement of natural
aggregates can be a viable construction innovation.
However, in the current study, an overview on the strength and microstructural
properties of modified mortars made with laterite soil and fine ceramics is presented.
The strength and microstructural properties of the modified mortars are analyzed.
2 Materials and Methods
Ceramic wastes resulting from construction and demolition activities was used in this
study. It is comprised mainly of floor and wall tiles. The ceramics were cleaned to
remove dirt on them, before they were crushed using a hammer mill into granular sizes
(2–4.75 mm), thus reflecting the sizes of natural fine aggregates. While, certain portion
of the ceramics was further grinded and sieved through 50 l aperture size.
A laterite soil, belong to A-7-6(7) group, of sizes finer than 4.75 mm aperture, was
used as part of the fine aggregates. It was sourced within the precinct of Ota, south-
western Nigeria. Other materials used include grade 32.5 cement, river sand and
potable water. Table 1 presents the physical properties of the aggregates used. The
chemical oxide contents of the cement and ceramics (measured by X-ray fluorescence)
were determined in a preliminary investigation [19].
Mortar samples, produced with binder-sand ratio of 1:3, and sizes 40 40
160 mm were investigated. Table 2 shows the mix design for the mortar samples.
Curing of mortars commenced immediately after final setting for a 28 days regime.
Afterwards, the compressive strengths were determined in line with procedures in BS
1015-11 [20]. However, prior to mechanical tests, void distribution in the samples was
measured with the aid of a 2D X-ray CT machine. Also, the morphology of samples
having higher compressive strength, and the reference samples were further evaluated
New Light Weight Mortar for Structural Application 61
using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). This was done to aid understanding and
interpretation of the strength development (Table 3).
Table 1. Aggregates properties

Properties River sand Laterite Ceramic fine
Specific gravity 2.61 2.13 2.26
Water absorption (%) 2.24 4.70 2.52
Fineness modulus 2.24 1.80 2.20
Table 2. Chemical composition and physical properties of cement and ceramic powder [16]
Chemical composition MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3
Ceramic powder (%) 2.04 15.07 64.56 1.05 2.132 4.148 0.745 6.014
Cement (%) 3.19 19.48 24.09 1.14 0.847 74.211 0.619 6.273
Table 3. Mix design

Binder Fine aggregates w/c
Mix Cement (g) Ceramic powder (g) River sand (g) Ceramic fines (g) Laterite (g)
Ref 450 - 1350 - - 0.6
M10 405 45 - - 1350 0.6
M20 360 90 - - 1350 0.6
M30 315 135 - - 1350 0.6
N10 405 45 - 1350 - 0.6
N20 360 90 - 1350 - 0.6
N30 315 135 - 1350 - 0.6
F25 450 - - 337.5 1012.5 0.6
F50 450 - - 675 675 0.6
F75 450 - - 1012.5 337.5 0.6
Figure 1 shows the compressive strength of mortars obtained at 28 days curing. The
results showed that samples dominated with more fine ceramics (N10, N20, and N30)
and mix F75, produced better strength than the control samples. The addition of
ceramics to these mixtures contributed to the strength development, in that, ceramics
enhanced the compactness of the matrix, and also resulted in less pore structure of the
mortars. The mixture with higher composition of ceramics (N10) gave the higher
strength. As a result, mix N10 and reference mix was selected for the micro scale
evaluation. Also, the appreciable strength developed in the mix N10 could be attributed
to possible pozzolanic activities and filler action induced by ceramic powder. Jamil
et al. [21] and Chindaprasirt and Rukzon [22], in a related studies, attributed filler
actions by supplementary cementitious materials to aiding strength improvement in

blended cement based materials. Such actions certainly occurs when the alternative
binder material is finer than the cement particles. Figures 2(a) and (b) present the SEM
micrographs of the selected mix (N10) and reference mortars, respectively. The
structure showed that N10 mortar is dominated by porthlandite (Ca(OH)2) while the
reference mortar had large calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H).
Based on the result, it is evident that there was adequate bonding between the fine
ceramics and cement paste. Moreover, there is also a tendency that the ceramic powder
contributed to pozzolanic action in the matrix. And as a result, the strength properties
was enhanced. However, laterite dominated mortars (M10, M20, and M30) produced
minimal strengths, and the later also decreased with increasing laterite content. Such
reduction in strength could be a function of large clay content in the laterite. This can
be improved by thoroughly washing laterite before use in a cementitious material.
Fig. 1. Compressive strength of tested mortars
(a) (b)
C-S-H
Ca(OH) 2
Fig. 2. SEM micrographs (a) N10 mortar (b) reference mortar

The internal structures of both N10 and reference mortars were evaluated using X-
ray CT scans, and the images obtained were analyzed using an imaging software,
ImageJ. The air void distribution along the heights of the mortars is presented in Fig. 3.
From the analysis, it can be deduced that the inherent air void content distribution
across the mortars was not homogenous for the samples. In the N10 mortar, the air void
distribution appears uniform, however, in the reference mortar three different regions
with respect to the void distribution can be measured along the height of the mortars. In
the reference samples, there were relatively low void content at the bottom region, high
void content at the middle, and low at the top region.
The air void content in this mix is higher than in the N10 sample. This kind of
defect can contribute to the failure pattern in cement based material. Yuan & Harrison
[23] inferred that the heterogeneous microstructure in a material could influence a
significant improvement in the destructive transverse tensile strains when the material
is subjected to loading, in which stress concentrations around the pore areas could
provide a weakness zone for failure to take place.
Fig. 3. Air void distribution of the mixtures
4 Conclusion
The influence of incorporating laterite and ceramics as replacement of conventional

construction materials for making mortars has been explored. The strength of mortars
increased with increasing ceramic content, however adding laterite beyond 10%
reduces the strength of mortars. The compressive strength of a mortar mix containing
10% laterite as replacement of sand, and 100% ceramic aggregate was found as
comparable to the conventional mortar.
The study also showed that pozzolanic reaction resulting from ceramic addition in
the optimum mixture helped to reduce void distribution along the length of the mortar.
References
1. Mallick RB, Radzicki MJ, Zaumanis M, Frank R (2014) Use of system dynamics for proper
conservation and recycling of aggregates for sustainable road construction. Resour Conserv
Recycl 86(2014):61–73
2. Akanni PO, Oke AE, Akpomiemie OA (2014) Impact of environmental factors on building
project performance in Delta State Nigeria. HBRC J 11(1):91–97
3. Iyer KC, Jha KN (2005) Factors affecting cost performance: evidence from Indian
construction projects. Int J Project Manage 23(2005):283–295
4. Anandaraj S, Rooby J, Awoyera PO, Gobinath R (2018) Structural distress in glass fibre-
reinforced concrete under loading and exposure to aggressive environments. Constr Build
Mater 197:862–870
5. Thahira Banu S, Chitra G, Gobinath R, Awoyera PO, Ashokkumar E (2018) Sustainable
structural retrofitting of corroded concrete using basalt fibre composite. Ecol Environ
Conserv 24(3):1384–1388
6. Electricwala F, Sadanand S, Ankit J, Rakesh K (2014) Use of ceramic waste as filler in semi-
dense bituminous concrete. Am J Civ Eng Archit 2(3):102–106
7. Prajapati L, Patel IN, Agrawa VV (2014) Analysis of the strength and durability of the
concrete with partially replaced by the ceramic slurry waste powder. Int J Emerg Technol
Adv Eng 4(3):725–729
8. Zimbili O, Salim W, Ndambuki M (2014) A review on the usage of ceramic wastes in
concrete production. Int J Civ Archit Struct Constr Eng 8(1):91–95
9. Awoyera PO, Lucas SS (2017) Benefits of using ceramic tile waste for making sustainable
concrete. J Solid Waste Technol Manage 43:233–241
10. Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S (2010) Reusing ceramic wastes in concrete. Constr Build Mater
24(2010):832–838
11. Murthi P, Awoyera P, Selvaraj P, Dharsana D, Gobinath R (2018) Using silica mineral waste
as aggregate in a green high strength concrete: workability, strength, failure mode, and
morphology assessment. Aust J Civ Eng 16:122–128
12. Alves A, Vieira T, de Brito J, Correia J (2014) Mechanical properties of structural concrete
with fine recycled ceramic aggregates. Constr Build Mater 64(2014):103–113
13. Pereira-de-Oliveira L, Castro-Gomes J, Santos P (2012) The potential pozzolanic activity of
glass and red-clay ceramic waste as cement mortars components. Constr Build Mater 31
(2012):197–203
14. Awoyera PO, Dawson AR, Thom NH, Akinmusuru JO (2017) Suitability of Mortars
Produced using Laterite and Ceramic Wastes: Mechanical and Microscale Analysis. Const
Build Mater 148:195–203
15. Awoyera PO, Akinwumi II (2014) Compressive strength development for cement, lime and
termite-hill stabilized lateritic bricks. Int J Eng Sci 3(2):37–43
16. Osunade JA (2002) Effect of replacement of lateritic soils with granite fines on the
compressive and tensile strengths of laterized concrete. Build Environ 37(2002):491–496
17. Udeoyo FF, Iron UH, Odim OO (2006) Strength performance of laterized concrete. Constr
Build Mater 20(2006):1057–1062
18. Awoyera PO, Akinmusuru JO, Ndambuki JM (2016) Green concrete production with
ceramic wastes and laterite. Constr Build Mater 117(2016):29–36
19. Awoyera PO, Akinmusuru JO, Moncea A (2017) Hydration mechanism and strength
properties of recycled aggregate concrete made using ceramic blended cement. Cogent Eng
4:1–12
20. BS EN 1015-11 (1999) Methods of test for mortar for masonry—Part 11: determination of
flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar. British Standard
21. Jamil M, Khan MNN, Karim MR, Kaish ABMA, Zain MFM (2016) Physical and chemical
contributions of rice husk ash on the properties of mortar. Constr Build Mater 128
(2016):185–198
22. Chindaprasirt P, Rukzon S (2014) Strength and chloride resistance of the blended Portland
cement mortar containing rice husk ash and ground river sand. Mater Struct 48(2014):3771–
3777
23. Yuan SC, Harrison JP (2005) Development of a hydro-mechanical local degradation
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heterogeneous rocks. Int J Rock Mech 42:961–984
Computing Redistribution Moments
of Concrete Members in the Plastic Stage Using
Linear Analysis: Short Review
Paul Awoyera1(&), Ravindran Gobinath2, Chinyere Nwankwo1,

Palanisamy Murthi2, and Annabathina Sivakrishna2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
paul.awoyera@covenantuniversity.edu.ng
2
SR Engineering College, Warangal, India
Abstract. Reinforced concrete members can utilize their load carrying capacity
by the redistribution of moments. When sufficient rotation takes place in a
reinforced concrete member a plastic hinge forms and the rotational capacity of
this hinge determines the amount of redistribution that can occur in the member.
Reinforced concrete exhibits different behaviours (elastic, elastoplastic and
plastic) at different instances of load and this informs the different approaches in
the analysis of reinforced concrete members. Of the different methods of anal-
ysis, linear elastic analysis with moment redistribution is the most used method
in practice. Various studies on moment redistribution in reinforced concrete
beams, hinge formation, linear analysis and code provisions have been
reviewed, discussed and key findings have been presented in this study.
A continuous beam was also analysed using linear elastic analysis and a moment
redistribution of 20% from support to the beam spans was considered. The beam
was also analysed considering the various loading combinations that gave the
maximum effects at different beam segments.
Keywords: Reinforced concrete Moment redistribution Linear analysis

Plastic behaviour
1 Introduction
A beam subject to bending moment will curve and will result in a rotation of a segment
of the beam in respect to another [1]. Concrete obeys Hooke’s law before it reaches its
yield point and after which it exhibits a plastic behaviour. When a yield point occurs in
a section of an indeterminate beam, it reaches the full plastic moment and at that point,
there is inelastic rotation, any further increase in load will result to an increase in the
moment of the less stressed sections; this is known as the redistribution of moments [2].
This redistribution of moment occurs when a section has sufficient plastic rotation
capacity [3] and the plastic nature of reinforced concrete makes this redistribution of
moments possible [4].
Researchers over the years have tried to establish concise methods of evaluating the
extent of moment redistribution that occurs in both steel and reinforced concrete
members. In concrete elements, the exact redistribution of moments that occurs from
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_10
Computing Redistribution Moments of Concrete Members in the Plastic Stage 67
really stressed members to less stressed members are difficult to verify [5] and there is
also difficulty in determining this redistribution in steel beams once the section has
reached its maximum moment of resistance [2].
The various methods used to idealize structural behaviour include: two and three-
dimensional elastic behaviour, elastic behaviour considering moment distribution,
plastic behaviour and non-linear behaviour [6]. Various codes employ linear elastic
analysis to simplify design and if certain criterion is met, a percentage of redistribution
is allowed from the support to span of a reinforced concrete beam.
While there are numerous studies relating to the concept of moment redistribution
in structural member, this study, therefore, provides a summary of moment redistri-
bution with focus on reinforced concrete beams, hinge formation, linear analysis and
code provisions. Thus, this short review would be a guide book for structural design
practitioners, tutors and students.
2 Formation of Hinges
Concrete cracking and the yielding of steel reinforcement in reinforced concrete ele-
ments causes a substantial decrease of the section stiffness; this modifies the moment
diagram and in turn utilizes the cross section of the concrete member [7]. Since
Redistribution of moments utilizes the full load carrying capacity of reinforced concrete
and steel structures, its effective application in design will depend on the knowledge of
the rotational capacity of plastic hinges formed [8].
When or if the steel reinforcement in a reinforced concrete beam yields before
failure, tells if the beam failure will be ductile or brittle. A ductile beam can take a
significant amount of plastic deformation which may not amount to a loss of strength in
the member [7]. For rotation to take place, the concrete element has to be sufficiently
ductile for plastic hinges to form [5]. When the reinforcement yields before concrete
cracks, the magnitude of the compressive strain does not significantly affect the
moment redistribution [4, 7]. Studied the redistribution in high strength concrete beams
and found that the plastic rotation capacity, as well as the variance of the stiffness along
the length of a concrete member, determines the amount of moment redistribution.
In reinforced concrete members, the inelastic action is concentrated at hinges, the
reinforced concrete beam gradually contracts the length that rotation occurs; hence, an
exact collapse load can be defined [2]. Steel beams on the contrary have no definite
collapse load due to the progressive lengthening of hinges along the length of a
member because of strain hardening; a deflection criterion has to be met to define
collapse [2].
3 Rotational Capacity
The definition of failure in terms of deflections or occurrence of cracks is subjective and

the definition of failure of a beam as when it reaches its ultimate compressive strain is
arbitrary since it may still be able to carry some load at this strain but failure is sure when
the beam can no longer carry load [2]. Collapse will occur after a plastic hinge forms in a
determinate beam while in an indeterminate beam, stability can be maintained after the
formation of more than one plastic hinge [1]. In considering the failure of reinforced
concrete frames it is crucial to determine the rotation capacity of the members. This
rotational capacity determines the energy absorption of the member and also controls the
redistribution of moments that occur in a reinforced concrete member [9].
The rotation capacity of the plastic hinge formed in a reinforced concrete beam
limits the extent of moment redistribution that can occur in the beam [7, 10]. The
rotation capacity of a hinge is the difference between the rotation at ultimate load and
the rotation when the reinforcement starts to yield [7]. Various evaluation of the hinge
rotational capacity exists; some account for the difference in yield at ultimate load and
at the start of the reinforcement yielding [7], some others account for the length and
flexural rigidity of the member [10]. A lot of researchers have sort to find the hinge
rotation capabilities of members but because of the complexity of reinforced concrete
materials, they do not perform well beyond the bounds that they were derived [4].
Table 1. Moment rotation capacity of a beam [10]

Hinge rotation, Moment redistribution Restraining moment in the beam after
hh factor, KMR redistribution, (Mr)r
ðMr Þr L
hh ¼ M3EI
sL
2EI
KMR ¼ ðMr Þ2EIh
r
h
L2EIhh ðMr Þr ¼ 2EI ðK1K
MR L
MR Þ
h
Shown in Table 1 above is the expression for the moment rotation capacity of a
beam, KMR which is the limit to which the beam can redistribute moment. KMR
depends on the rotational capacity of the hinges, hh . Theoretical and experimental
studies have been adopted in trying to compute plastic rotation capacity, hp but these
formulations do not cover the wide range of complexities (varying distributed loads and
nonsymmetrical and unique structural configurations) that occur on a beam [11]. The
expression for the moment after redistribution, (Mr)r reveals that the percentage of the
moment redistribution in a beam is directly proportional to the flexural rigidity and
inversely proportional to the length of the beam [10]. The moment distribution capacity
in reinforced concrete beams also increases with the diameter and fracture strain of the
reinforcement and decreases with the bond strengths of the reinforcement [10].
Several theoretical, empirical and experimental relationships have been developed
by various researchers to determine the plastic rotation capacity of reinforced concrete
beams [3]. Various codes have focused on empirical solutions based on the neutral axis
depth factor, and these vary widely between codes [10].
4 Linear Elastic Analysis
The behaviour of the two constituent materials of reinforced concrete (concrete and
steel) is nonlinear and this makes the analysis complex [12]. Even though concrete
exhibits a nonlinear stress-strain relationship, this relationship is usually neglected in
design using linear elastic method [5]. The methods used for structural analysis do not
allow for the formation of plastic hinges, they simply suggest safety factors or depend
on the plastic reserve of statically indeterminate construction [5].
To simplify calculations linear elastic method is used whilst allowing for limited
redistribution (also known as the plastic balancing of moment method). It takes account
of the plastic properties of concrete [5] and it is the most commonly used method in the
design of structures [3]. Linear elastic analysis is used for analyzing a concrete
structure and moment redistribution is carried out under code provisions which
decrease or increase the sections’ stress within certain limits [3]. Usually, the degree of
moment redistribution is controlled by a coefficient of redistribution, d while the static
equilibrium conditions are maintained [7]. The use of the coefficient, d aims to mimic
the plastic nature of the materials, and it depends on the ductility of the section to be
considered [7].
Table 2. Eurocode degree of redistribution [7]

Degree of redistribution, η (%)
g ¼ ð1 dÞ 100 d ¼ Mred =Melast
The Table 2 above show the expressions for the coefficient of redistribution, d by
Eurocode 2. d according to Eurocode 2 is limited by the ultimate compressive strain of
concrete, the concrete strength and the ductility of the reinforcing steel [7].
The American concrete institute code (ASI381-94), ensures the ductility of the
plastic hinge region by limiting the tensile reinforcement ratio, q (or q – q’ where there
is compressive reinforcement) to 0:5qb . Where q’ is the compressive reinforcement
ratio and qb is the reinforcement ratio at balanced condition [7]. All possible mecha-
nisms and the rotation requirements at all possible hinge locations in reinforced con-
crete beams need to be analysed to maximize the plastic capacity of reinforced concrete
members [1] and these calculations become cumbersome. The ACI code also limits the
amount of redistribution to <1000et (to a maximum of 20%) without the rigor of
calculating rotation requirements [1]. This modification of the negative moment
redistribution will occur when the net tensile strain, et 0:0075 [1].
In the British standards, the three conditions as follows have to be satisfied for
redistribution to take place; (i) Equilibrium must be maintained between the internal
and external forces. (ii) After the ultimate moment of resistance for a cross-section is
reduced, the depth of the neutral axis, x should be limited to ðbb 0:4Þd. Where, d is
the effective depth and bb is the ratio of the moment at the section after redistribution to
the ratio of the moment before redistribution ðbb 1Þ. (iii) The value of the redis-
tributed moment should be at least 70% of the moment obtained from elastic analysis
accounting for the appropriate ultimate design load combinations [13].
The use of computers in structural analysis makes the expansion of the bending
moment envelope for design less cumbersome and these larger moments can be
reduced because of moment redistribution [11]. The beam in Fig. 1 below supports a
dead load, Gk of 25 kN/m and a live load, Qk of 10 kN/m and it has been analysed
using linear elastic analysis.
Fig. 1. Span details of beam
Fig. 2. Combination 1 - maximum end-span moment (kN/m)
Fig. 3. Combination 2 - maximum mid-span moment (kN/m)
Fig. 4. Combination 3 - maximum support moment (kN/m)

Figure 2 shows the combination that gives the maximum effects in the end spans,
Fig. 3 shows the combination that gives the maximum mid-span moment and Fig. 4
shows the combination that gives the maximum support moments. 20% redistribution
of support moments was allowed in all cases and equilibrium conditions were satisfied
to obtain the moments on the other beam sections. The final design bending moment
diagram taking account the three combinations is shown in the Fig. 5 below.
Fig. 5. Final design moments (kN/m) – using linear analysis with 20% moment redistribution of
support moments
5 Discussion
Various conclusions have been drawn through experimental investigations of moment

redistributions in reinforced concrete members. It has been found the amount of tensile
reinforcement in a reinforced concrete beams determines it collapse load. Beams with
lower tensile reinforcement ratios can support more loads than that gotten using linear
elastic analysis (2.1 to 1.6 times greater) [7].
Several other factors come into play in determining the redistribution of moments
in concrete beams; the nature of the support, the presence of dynamic loads, unsym-
metrical structural configuration and the presence of more than one plastic hinge at a
support [3]. Code provisions for the distribution of moments using linear analysis make
generalizations that do not cover the wide range of possibilities that can occur in a
reinforced concrete frame. Various codes also simulate moment redistribution only
from the support to beam spans but research has shown that redistribution of moments
may also occur from beam span to support [4, 5]. Even though redistribution of
moments can be obtained by linear elastic analysis, creep, or plastic deformation of the
reinforcing bar can also affect the redistribution that takes place [5].
In allowing redistribution of moments in the whilst designing reinforced concrete
members, the effect of the modified ultimate limit state in the serviceability limit state
has to be considered and the member has to be sufficiently ductile for rotation to take
place [14]. As increased rotation is allowed in beams, it has to be within allowable
limits thus taking into account the possible occurrence of increased deflections and
cracking.
6 Conclusions
The amount of tensile reinforcement and the concrete strength of a reinforced concrete
member determine its ductility which controls the redistribution of moments and with
appropriate tensile reinforcement ratios, sections can be utilized more effectively.
Linear analysis with moment redistribution can be used to analyse reinforced
concrete members in the plastic stage. It is the method of analysis widely used in
practice but these calculations give a wide margin and may not tell what occurs in the
member as it is loaded.
References
1. Nilson AH, Darwin D, Dolan CW (2004) Design of Concrete Structures, 13th edn. Mc
Graw-Hill, New York. Elizabeth A. Jones
2. Barnard RP (1964) The collapse of reinforced concrete beams. In Proceedings of the ASCE-
ACI international symposium on flexural mechanics of reinforced concrete, Miami
3. Marefat M, Farzanian M (2008) Evaluation of moment distribution demand in continuous
constructions under gravity and seismic loads. In: 14th world conference on earthquake
engineering, Beijing, China
4. Visintin P, Ali MM, Xie T, Sturm AB (2018) Experimental investigation of moment
redistribution in ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete beams. Constr Build Mater
166(2018):433–444
5. Piotr D, Krzysztof K (2017) Research in redistribution of bending moments in the beams of
reinforced concrete early loaded. Procedia Eng 172(2017):883–890
6. McKenzie WM (2004) Design of Structural Elements. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
7. Carmo RN, Lopes SM (2005) Ductility and linear analysis with moment redistribution in
reinforced high-strenght concrete beams. Can J Civ Eng 32:194–230
8. Eligehausen R, Langer P (1986) The rotation capacity of plastic hinges in reinforced
concrete beams and slabs. In: International symposium on fundamental theory of reinforced
and prestressed concrete, Nanjing, China
9. Oehlers DJ, Liu IS, Seracino R (2005) The gradual formation of hinges throughout
reinforced concrete beams. Mech Based Design Struct Mach Int J 33:373–398
10. Oehlers DJ, Haskett M, Ali M, Griffith MC (2010) Moment redistribution in reinforced
concrete beams. Struct Build 163:165–176 SB3
11. Shakir A, Rogowsky DM (2000) Evaluation of ductility and allowable moment redistri-
bution in reinforced concrete structures. Can J Civ Eng 27:1286–1299
12. Kostić SM, Deretić-Stojanović B, Stošić S (2011) Redistribution effects in linear elastic
analysis of continuous composite steel-concrete beams according to Eurocode 4. Archit Civ
Eng 9:133–145
13. British Standard (2002) British Standard - BS 8110-1:1997, BSI
14. Allen AH (1988) Reinforced concrete design to BS8110. E. & F. N. Spon, London
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis
A. A. Waghmare(&) and U. R. Kawade
Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. Vithalrao Vikhe Patil College

of Engineering, Ahmednagar, India
aratiwaghmare03@gmail.com, urmilaanagar@gmail.com
Abstract. To determine the performance of structures facing earthquakes the

method which is becoming increasingly significant is nonlinear dynamic anal-
ysis. To perform nonlinear dynamic analysis the method used here is incre-
mental dynamic analysis. Range of structural response from elasticity to
yielding is being covered and further extended up to dynamic instability. A 10
story reinforced concrete building frame structure was developed. The compu-
tational model was analyzed. For simulation software used is Opensees - Open
System for Earthquake Engineering Simulations. High Performance Computing
facility of C-DAC is used for simulations. The results indicate the probability of
yield and collapse of the structure when subjected to a series of earthquakes.
Keywords: Ground motion Peak ground acceleration Inter storey drift

IDA
1 Introduction
Collapse of numerous RC frame buildings during recent earthquakes has emphasized

the need of earthquake analysis of buildings which are in existance to protect them
from future damage. To identify the seismic vulnerability of a structural system
Seismic risk analysis of a building is important. For retrofitting decisions and disaster
response planning it is important to know seismic vulnerability estimation.
There are different methods used for determining seismic vulnerability. Those
methods can be summarized as Static and dynamic methods. Out of which nonlinear
dynamic analysis is the one which gives most realistic results. It studies elastic response
of the structure through yielding and nonlinear response right up to the dynamic
instability. Thus it covers overall behavior of the structure. To perform nonlinear
analysis, incremental dynamic analysis-IDA has been proved to be one of the powerful
means. In IDA a set of selected ground motions is applied to the structure various
times. Each time the ground motion is scaled with increasing scale factor. Response of
the structure is counted in terms of inter story drift. A series of dynamic analyses is
performed until structure reaches its ultimate capacity. The results are plotted in the
form of graph with intensity measure and damage measure as two axes. Meaningful
statistical averages are obtained using the plots.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_11
74 A. A. Waghmare and U. R. Kawade
2 Literature Review
Rai, Thakkar and Ramesh [1]- The relative hysteretic performance of two models of
reinforced concrete portal frames were tested under slow cyclic loads. Conventional
non-seismic detailing as per IS 456: 2000 and seismic ductility provisions as per IS
13920: 1993 was done. Both frames showed stable hysteretic behavior, but the beam-
column joints exhibited inelastic activities. The need for adequate seismic detailing of
beam-column joints was emphasized.
Shinozuka, Feng, Lee and Naganuma [3]- Study of fragility curves using a statis-
tical analysis was presented. The curves considered empirical as well as analytical
fragility. For empirical fragility curves bridge damage data obtained from the 1995
Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake was utilises. For analytical fragility curves the
basis used was of the nonlinear dynamic analysis. To represent the fragility curves two-
parameter lognormal distribution functions were used.
Vamvatsikos and Cornell [5]- To estimate structural performance of a structure
under seismic loads the method incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) was proposed. It
is divided into two parts; one to subject a structural model to ground motions which is
scaled to multiple levels of intensity, and to produce curves of response parameterized
versus intensity level.
3 Objectives of IDA
3.1 To Understand the Range of Response

This method gives the thorough understanding of the response of frame under con-
sideration for the selected range of a ground motion record.
3.2 To Predict the Dynamic Capacity

Dynamic capacity of the structural system can be predicted easily.
4 Steps Involved in IDA
Incremental dynamic analysis offers thorough prediction capability of a structure

through a series of nonlinear dynamic analyses. Following are the steps involved in this
computer-intensive procedure.
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis 75
4.1 Modeling of the Structure

In order to minimize computational input and output data two dimensional model is
selected. A RCC 10 story frame with 3 bays, each bay with 3.0 m width and 3.0 m
high is considered. All beams and columns are 230 450 mm in size with columns
fixed at the base. The structure is assumed to be located in zone IV. Concrete and steel
used are of grade M20 and Fe415 respectively.
4.2 Selection of the Earthquake Series

A set of earthquake records is selected and scaled before applying to the structure to run
the dynamic analysis. The scale factor selected varies between range 0.02 to 2.
4.3 Damage Measure and Intensity Measure

Ground Acceleration (PGA) and maximum inter storey drift are selected as the
intensity measure and damage measure respectively.
4.4 Ground Motion Record

See (Table 1).
Table 1. Ground motion record

Event Event ID Date Magnitude
Bishop round valley E1 23/11/1984 6.5
Central California E2 20/01/1960 6.7
Chalfant, Bisho LADWP south station E3 31/07/1986 6.5
Dharamshala, Bandalakhas stn E4 26/04/1986 5.5
Indo-Berma Border Katakhal stn E5 1997 5.7
Imperial Valley, Agrarias stn. E6 15/10/1979 6.5
Loma Prieta, Capitola stn E7 18/10/1989 6.9
Northridge, Simi valley, Catherine stn E8 17/01/1984 6.7
Uttarkashi, Ghansali stn E9 1991 6.5
Imperialvalley, EL Centroarray#12 E10 15/10/1979 6.5
5 Incremental Dynamic Analysis Curves
All earthquake motions are scaled and applied to the frame under consideration. The
scale factors used range between 0.02 to 2 and increment used is 0.005 to 0.1. For each
ground motion maximum inter storey drift is calculated. Using the results of simula-
tion, 10 curves are plotted for 10 ground motions. Due to space limitations only two
curves and a combined plot of all 10 curves are presented here (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Fig. 1. Incremental Dynamic Curve for E3 (Maximum inter storey drift on x-axis and Peak
ground acceleration on y-axis)
Fig. 2. Incremental Dynamic Curve for E8 (Maximum inter storey drift on x-axis and Peak
ground acceleration on y-axis)
Fig. 3. Incremental Dynamic Curve for all ground motions (Peak ground acceleration on x-axis
and Maximum inter storey drift on y-axis)
6 Conversion of IDA Curves to Fragility Curves
Incremental dynamic analysis curves are further converted to fragility curves. Based on
dynamic instability or excessive lateral displacements collapse is predicted. Using yield
data obtained from IDA results, a yielding fragility is defined with the help of a
cumulative distribution function (CDF). This function gives relation between the
ground motion intensity and probability of yielding. This cumulative distribution is
assumed to be log normally distributed. Figure shows a cumulative distribution plot is
obtained by fitting a lognormal distribution to the yield values as well as collapse
values. Log normal distributions are defined by a median value and a dispersion
parameter (Figs. 4 and 5).
Fig. 4. Fragility curve for yield versus to peak ground acceleration (Peak ground acceleration
on x-axis and Probability of yielding on y-axis)
Fig. 5. Fragility curve for collapse versus peak ground acceleration (Peak ground acceleration
on x-axis and Probability of collapse on y-axis)
7 Conclusion
In this study, the seismic yield and collapse capacities for a non-seismic RC frame
building are obtained using a methodology known as incremental dynamic analysis.
One representative building is subjected to ten ground motions. IDA curves are plotted
to get the yield and collapse capacities of the frame under consideration. The IDA
curve contains the necessary information to assess Performance levels. The yield
capacity of the structure is defined as the peak ground acceleration point at which the
IDA curve nonlinear. The peak ground acceleration point at which the IDA curve
becomes horizontal is defined as the collapse capacity. Fragility curves are plotted for
yielding damage levels, defined using intensity measures. Thus it is observed that for a
ten storied structure there is 10% probability of yielding the structure when it is
subjected to an earthquake of PGA 0.2. This probability becomes equal to 20%, when
the PGA is 2.75. If the value of PGA increases to 0.475, yielding probability exceeds
40%. For the ground motion of PGA 0.7, the structure will yield with more than 60%
probability. When the PGA reaches to 1, there are more than 80% chances of yielding
of the frame. Similar conclusions can be drawn from fragility curve for collapse.
In this way the method can be used to predict the response of any frame when
subjected to a series of ground motion.
Acknowledgements. I express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide, Dr. U.R. Kawde for
supporting and encouraging me time to time. I am grateful to Mr. Mahesh Shah, Associate
Director, CAE, C-DAC, Pune for his kind support and guidance. I also extend my sincere sense
of gratefulness to Miss. Pallavi Gawali and Gauri Kadam, C-DAC, Pune for giving me proper
direction and for providing the required data and documents needed.
References
1. Rai DC, Thakkar SK, Ramesh U (2006) Behavior of seismic and non-seismic RC frames
under cyclic loads. Indian Concrete J 80:46–52
2. Murty CVR, Rai DV, Bajpai KK, Jain SK (2001) Anchorage details and joint design in
seismic RC frames. Indian Concr J 75:274–280
3. Shinozuka M, Feng MQ, Lee J, Naganuma T (2000) Statistical analysis of fragility curves.
J Eng Mech 126(12):1224–1231
4. Mahashabde AV, Dasgupta K, Murty CV (2003) Seismic strengthening of gravity load
designed RC frame buildings. In Fourth international conference of earthquake engineering
and seismology, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
5. Vamvatsikos D, Cornell AC (2002) Incremental dynamic analysis. Earthquake Eng Struct
Dyn 31(3):491–514
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance
the Poor Subgrade Under Repeated Load
for Low-Volume Roads
D. Harinder(&) and S. Shankar
Transportation Division, Department of Civil Engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506004, Telangana State, India
hariatnitw@gmail.com, shankarcvg@gmail.com
Abstract. The construction of Low-volume roads (LVRs) roads over the poor
subgrade soil is a challenging task. The poor subgrade is revealed as Black
Cotton soil (BC). The presence of the clay and silt particular of BC soil possess
seasonal changing behavior such as swelling, shrinkage, and settlement.
Resulting in higher rut depth, fatigue, and settlement in LVRs. To arrest these
problems many of the conventional techniques were adopted. But these tech-
niques are neither economical nor eco-friendly. In the present study, an attempt
was made with the two types of the coir geotextile mats to the reinforcement of
BC soil under the repeated loading condition. This study is concluded that the
use of coir geotextile mats is effective to reduce the deformation and more
significant with morrum soil. And also indicate that the incorporation of the coir
geotextile improved the performance and serviceability of the LVRs.
Keywords: Coir geotextile Black Cotton soil Rut depth

Wheel tracking test Reinforcement
1 Introduction
India is the second largest road network country in the world. Among them, around
85% of the roads are built as LVRs. The LVRs are plays a key role in developing
country like India. From the last few decades’ rapid constructions of LVRs are takes
places in India. Simultaneously, there a problem of scarcity of natural material such as
aggregate, gravel, and morrum. And also the lower cost of construction and mainte-
nance. Apart from the above, many of the LVRs are subjected to several problems such
as poor subgrade, low strength of sub-base material. Resulting in a higher deformation
and settlement occur in the pavement layer. The construction of the LVRs possesses
several problems to the pavement such as rutting, fatigue, depression and high set-
tlement. To minimize this problem of the pavement many of the conventional tech-
niques were adopted in pavement engineering. But these conventional techniques are
not easy to adopt, economical and also involve the higher machinery during the con-
struction of LVRs.
In another way, form the last few decades an alternate material such as geotextile
was introduced in the construction of the LVRs. The utilization of the geotextile is

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_12
Evaluation of Coir Geotextile Mats to Enhance the Poor Subgrade 81
improved the bearing capacity, enhance the poor subgrade and also the cost-effective
method in pavement engineering. In view of the above consideration, the present study
was aimed to evaluate the potential benefits of the coir geotextile mats.
A systematic laboratory study was planned to conduct with fabricated assembled
mould with two types of the coir geotextile mats. The test was performed as a two-layer
pavement model system such as subgrade and sub-base with and without coir geo-
textile. The subgrade soil was taken as BC (CBR < 2) along with the two types of sub-
base material such as morrum (GW) and gravel (SP). The prepared test samples are
performed under WTT apparatus.
2 Literatures Review
The expansive soil poses the several problems to the pavement in the form of rutting,
fatigue and reflection due its high swelling, shrinkage and volume change behavior
upon wetting and drying condition [1–3] to prevent this problem many of the con-
ventional technics were adopted and reported their benefits, due to its high cost and the
difficulties in application in field. The geosynthetics are chosen as alternate material in
pavements. In addition strength to the pavement, the geosynthetics are gaining
importance in the pavement in term of Reinforcement, separation, and drainage, they
proved to be cost effective especially for low volume roads [4]. The author described
that the entire world having 80% of LVR, which are subjected to failures like rutting
and fatigue cracks lack of maintenance problem [5]. The geotextile acts as a tension
member and reduce the deformation and the vertical stress over the subgrade [6] and
improve the performance of the roads. The test was conducted to determine the per-
formance of the Geosynthetics in the flexible pavement. The results of the study
indicate that the placement of Geosynthetics at top of base course is performance better
than the other places [7]. To evaluated the reinforcement character of geogrid and
geotextile in terms of anti-reflecting cracks, concluded that the provision of geotextile
at the sub-base level reduce the anti-reflecting cracks of the flexible pavement [8].
Investigate the effectiveness of geosynthetics in term of reflecting cracking; conclude
that the reduction of cracking proportion depends on the suitable position of the
Geosynthetic [9]. Study the performance of the locally available material with the
determination of pavement thickness and concluded that the locally available materials
are effectively utilized for the construction of the LVRs [10]. To evaluate the geo-grid
and geotextile application in pavement construction, it was revealed that the Geosyn-
thetics stabilized pavement section significantly increases the pavement life and reduce
the rutting of the pavement [11]. The performance of the new materials for subgrade
improvement under cyclic loading and concluded that there is a reduction in the per-
manent deformation and vertical stress between the base and sub-base [12]. The author
described the shear strength of clay soil reinforced with the randomly distributed coir
fiber by using the Tri-axil test [13]. This study concluded that the incorporation of the
coir fiber improves the shear strength of the clay soil.
82 D. Harinder and S. Shankar
3 Material Used in the Present Study
The study was conducted with subgrade as BC soil (CBR < 2) was borrowed from the
lake. The basic test on the BC soil is performed in the laboratory and listed in the below
Table 1.
Table 1. The basic properties of BC soil

The property of BC soil Value
Classification CH
Liquid limit (%) 58
Plastic limit (%) 27
Plasticity index (%) 34
Specific gravity 2.62
Optimum moisture content (%) 17
Max dry density (gm./cc) 1.7
Free swelling index (%) 77
Soaked CBR value (%) 1
In the present study, two types of sub-base soil are taken as sub-base material such
as morrum (GW) and gravel (SP). The basic properties of the sub-base material are
evaluated in the laboratory and listed in the below Table 2.
Table 2. The basic properties of sub-base material

The properties of sub-base materials Sandy gravel (SP) Morrum (GW)
Optimum moisture content (%) 8.0 10.0
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) 1.87 2.14
Shear strength parameter (C and /) 0, 31o 5, 34o
Un soaked CBR (%) 47 34
Soaked CBR (%) 24 18
The coir geotextile is naturally available material extracted from the husk of
coconuts. It is strong in nature and high durability as compared with other natural
material. The basic properties of coir geotextile are presented in Table 3.
In the present study, two types of coir geotextile mats are used as reinforcement
material such as coir composite (CC) and Woven coir mats (WCM). The coir com-
posite material was manufactured with a combination of the woven coir mats along
with geogrid material. Figure 1 shown the types of geotextile mats used in the present
study.
Table 3. The basic properties of coir geotextile

Basic properties of the coir Values
Length (mm) 15–20
Density (g/cc) 1.15–1.4
Breaking elongation (%) 30
Diameter (mm) 0.1–1.5
Swelling in water (%) 5
Specific heat 0.27
Fig. 1. Coir geotextile mats used in the study
4 Experimental Setup Used in the Study
Experimental Setup: The wheel tracking test apparatus (WTT) are used for this
investigation with the varying contact pressure of moving load to simulate the filed
condition. The WTT apparatus height of the loading lever has been raised using the
fabricated angle sections. The fabricated angles are controlling the enable to the loading
onto the pavement model section. The maximum load applied on to the pavement has
55 kg, through the moving wheel of diameter 200 mm, the width of 50 mm made of
solid rubber. Figure 2 shown the Experimental setup used in the study.
Fig. 2. Experimental setup used in the present study

In the laboratory, an attempt is made in the form of a two-layer pavement model system
using the fabricated mould of size 300 300 400 mm. The fabricated mould was
prepared as a two-layer model system as subgrade and sub-base. The coir geotextile
mats are incorporated in the fabricated mould at a different position.
Form the above Fig. 3 the placement position of coir mats at sub-base thickness of
200 mm shown the higher number of wheel passes such as 850 with coir composite
(CC) mats. The un-reinforcement pavement model obtained the lower deformation due
to the sandy gravel sub-base material. Which is occurred due to the lower shear
strength of the sub-base soil with the presence of the non-cohesive particles. The rut
depth along with the number of wheel passes at the sub-base layer I shown in Fig. 3.
40
Rut depth (40mm)
30
20
BC soil + sandy Gravel
BC soil + WCM + Sandy Gravel
BC Soil + CC + Sandy gravel
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Number of wheel passes
Fig. 3. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer I with 400 mm
40
30
Rut depth (40mm)
20

BC soil + WCM + Sandy Gravel
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Fig. 4. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer II with 400 mm
In Fig. 4 the incorporation of coir geotextile mats at sub-base layer II (134 mm)
shown the lower number of passes at same rut depth. In this case, the provision of coir
mats at sub-base layer II with sandy gravel soil having the lower passes in the un-
reinforcement model. The maximum number of wheel passes at this position was
obtained as 580 repetitions with CC. The rut depth and the number of wheel passes at
the sub-base layer II position are showed in Fig. 4. The coir composite mats were
shown the better performance. Its serve as reinforcement and separation function to the
pavement model and extend the service life of the LVRs. The NWC mats serve only
the reinforcement to the poor subgrade. The finer soil particles are moved from the
opening size of the woven coir mats.
40
Rut depth (40mm)
30
20

10 BC soil + WCM + Sandy Gravel
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Fig. 5. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer III with 400 mm
Form the Fig. 5 show the number of passes at sub-base layer III (thickness of
100 mm) with gravel sandy soil. While reducing the sub-base thickness the number of
passes are shown higher with composite material than the WCM. The obtained num-
bers of wheel passes with CC and WCM are noticed as are 780 and 560 respectively.
The coir composite mats were shown more effective at every position to improving the
number of passes at the same rut depth.
BC soil + Sandy Gravel soil

14 BC Soil + WCM+ Sandy Gravel Soil
BC Soil + CC + Sandy Gravel Soil
12
10
Rut Depth in mm
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Number of Wheel Passses
Fig. 6. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer I with 200 mm
From the above Fig. 6 the rut depth and the number of passes are shown at sub-
base thickness of 100 mm with gravel soil. The rut depth of the prepared sample is
noticed the noticed for T1 traffic categories (T1 = 30,000) as per the IRC SP: 72-2015.
During the study, it was noticed that the provision of coir mats with morrum (GW) soil
improves the number of passes. The deformation or rut depth of the un-reinforced
sample is 15 mm and the reinforced sample 4 mm was noticed. The provided CC mats
reduce the deformation up to 13 mm to 5 mm.
BC soil + Morrum soil

BC Soil + WCM+ Morrum Soil
BC Soil + CC + Morrum Soil
30
25
Rut depth in mm
20
15
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Number of Wheel Passes
Fig. 7. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer II with 200 mm
In the above Fig. 7 it was observed that the maximum and minimum rutting of the
un-reinforcement at sub-base thickness of 66 mm has occurred at a position of 27 mm
and 8 mm respectively. The higher the deformation occurred with reinforcement of coir
mats. The 17 mm deformation was obtained with WCM at the same position under T1
traffic category. In this case, the provision of CC, WCM, and NWCM mats are shown
the smaller rutting when compared with sandy gravel soil. The rut depth and the
number of wheel passes at sub-base layer II is shown in Fig. 7.
BC soil + Morrum soil

BC Soil + WCM+ Morrum Soil
40 BC Soil + CC + Morrum Soil
35
30
Rut depth in mm
25
20
15
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Number of Wheel Passes
Fig. 8. Rut depth and number of wheel passes at sub-base layer III with 200 mm
The above Fig. 8 describes the two-layer pavement system in order to reduce the
thickness of the sub-base soil and the coir mats are provided at sub-base layer III. The
maximum and the minimum rut depth of reinforced and un-reinforced model layer
deformation are noted as 37 mm and 11 mm respectively. The un-reinforced model
layer rut depth at a 50 mm thickness of sub-base is shown in Fig. 8. The inclusion of
coir mats with sub-base as a morrum soil showed better performance than the sandy
gravel soil. From the study, it was noticed that the cohesive fine content sub-base soil
enhance the performance due to its confinement. The placement of the coir geotextile
mats with morrum soil shown more significant results. The CC mats increase the
performance and service life of the pavement structure.
6 Conclusions
The following are the conclusion are drawn from the laboratory study.
1. The maximum rut depth was noticed as 37 mm without the reinforcement of the
coir geotextile. It can reduce up to 8 mm with coir composite mats.
2. The lower the deformation has occurred as 5 mm at sub-base layer III with morrum
soil with CC material. The CC mats are performed effectively to possess the
reinforcement and separation function in both types of sub-base soil.
3. In case of gravel as sub-base material, the maximum number of passes are obtained
with the incorporation of CC mats. The higher the passes are noticed with a lower
thickness of the sub-layer thickness (100 mm) such as 780 passes.
4. The provision of coir mats is more significant with the morrum (GW) soil than the
gravel (SP) soil.
References
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anti-reflective cracking systems using Geosynthetic in the interlayer zone. Geotext
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Estimation of Maximum Magnitude (mmax)
Considering Different Seismic Zones
Mohammad Muzzaffar Khan(&), Teja Munaga,

and Gonavaram Kalyan Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal,

Warangal, India
mdkhan27@gmail.com
Abstract. The maximum magnitude of earthquake possible for a region is an

important parameter is any seismological study. The maximum possible earth-
quake, mmax, in a particular region is required by the local municipal authority,
insurance industry, disaster management organizations and seismologists. In this
paper, the mmax value has been estimated using different methodologies pre-
sented in the literature. The area considered for this study is a circle of radius
500 km with centre as latitude 17.981 and longitude 79.533 (National Institute
of Technology Warangal). The mmax value depends on the tectonic faults and
the local seismicity. An earthquake catalogue was developed by assembling the
earthquake events from the available sources from the year 1800 AD to 2016
AD. The foreshocks and aftershocks were removed from the main earthquake
catalogue to have a Poisson distribution of the earthquake events. The study
region was divided into four zones based on the past seismicity and the geology.
The maximum possible earthquake magnitude, mmax, was estimated using dif-
ferent methodologies. The value of mmax for different seismic zones ranges from
5.18 to 6.73.
Keywords: Earthquake catalogue Maximum magnitude Seismic hazard

Seismic zones
1 Introduction
Earthquakes are one of the devastating natural disaster that occur in the world affecting
mostly by damaging property and life. It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of
earthquake but with the help of seismic hazard studies, the effect of earthquake on
infrastructure and life can be reduced significantly. Keeping in view of some of the
earthquakes occurred in peninsular India such as the Bhuj earthquake, Koyna earth-
quake, Latur earthquake, it is necessary to access the earthquake potential of a par-
ticular region. It is certain from the peninsular earthquakes that intraplate region is also
prone to catastrophic earthquake. The potential earthquakes in peninsular India com-
pelled us to estimate the seismic hazard for different source zones to reduce the effect
earthquake risk on human life and property damage.
The study includes the peninsular India (PI), which is known for its moderate level
of seismicity. The region has experience earthquakes with magnitude Mw > 6 which

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90 M. M. Khan et al.
has caused huge loss to properties and human life in PI. The region consists of zone II
and zone III level of seismicity as per seismic zonation map of India [1]. The seismic
scenario and the amount of destruction caused by earthquake to property and human
life shows that PI region is seismically active with moderate magnitude of earthquakes.
The knowledge of mmax is essential in many engineering application. Hence, the
seismic hazard assessment in terms of maximum magnitude mmax for the PI is essential.
The maximum magnitude can be estimated mostly using probabilistic and deter-
ministic approaches. The deterministic approach requires various tectonic features and
fault parameters such as fault rupture length, slip rate etc. to estimate the maximum
magnitude. However, the uncertainty of mmax estimated using deterministic approach is
large, upto unity. The probabilistic approach uses the earthquake catalogue, statistical
procedure and seismological history of the area. A simple incremental method has also
been developed in which the observed maximum magnitude will be increased by a
certain value. In this study, the maximum magnitude mmax have been calculated using
the probabilistic method and incremental method for four seismotectonic zones.
2 Study Area and Geology
The present study area considered is a circle of radius 500 km with centre as NIT
Warangal. The study area cover a major portion of peninsular India (PI). The PI
consists of very old rock formations such as schists and gneiss. The Archaean system
and the Dharwar system are the two main divisions of the Precambrian rocks of India.
The Dharwar system rocks are mainly sedimentary and found in the Aravalis of Raj-
putana and Mysore. The Peninsular Shield is divided into three main regions the
Singhbhum the Dharwar and the Aravalli which are separated by Proterozoic rifts. The
Son-Narmada Tapti lineament which is a combination of the Narmada Son Lineament
and the Tapti lineament separates the northern and southern blocks of the Peninsular
Shield. The other rift basins are the Cuddapah, Godavari, Cambay, Kutch, etc. Pale-
orifting regions comprising of big faults has experienced deformations in their most
active phase, which are Mahanadi, Cambay and Narmada grabens.
The study area consists of many active faults and lineaments. The linear sources
such as faults and lineaments have been identified from the Seismotectonic Atlas of
India and have been digitized using ArcGIS software. Some of the major faults present
in the study region are the Kaddam fault, Purna fault and Tapti fault.
3 Earthquake Database and Seismicity Parameters
A homogeneous earthquake catalogue is one of the essential requirements for seismic

hazard analysis of any region. The earthquake catalogue has been compiled from the
year 1800 to 2016. The earthquake data required for the compilation of catalogue are
the location, time, magnitude, magnitude scale and focal depth. The data have been
collected from different earthquake reporting organizations like the Indian Meteoro-
logical Department, International Seismological Center, United States Geological
Survey. Some the published literature such as Rao and Rao [4], Srivastava and
Estimation of Maximum Magnitude (mmax) Considering Different Seismic Zones 91
Ramachandran [5], Jaiswal and Sinha [6] and Nath et al. [7] has also been considered
for the preparation of the catalogue. The different sources reported the earthquake in
different magnitude scales such as the body wave magnitude, surface wave magnitude,
local scale magnitude, moment magnitude and intensity scale. The earthquakes
reported in different magnitude scale have been converted to a homogeneous moment
magnitude scale using the empirical equations suggested by Scordilis [8], Heaton et al.
[9] and Gutenberg-Richter [10]. Scordilis [8] have given the relationship to convert
body wave magnitude and surface wave magnitude to moment magnitude. Heaton et al.
[9] have given the relationship to convert local magnitude scale whereas Gutenberg-
Richter [10] has given for intensity scale. The above equations were used to achieve a
homogeneous earthquake catalogue in moment magnitude scale for the study region.
The earthquake catalogue consists of 325 events including foreshocks and aftershocks.
The foreshocks and aftershocks have to be removed from the earthquake catalogue to
have a Poisson’s distribution. The foreshocks and aftershocks have been removed using
the windowing technique suggested by Uhrhammer [11]. After declustering, a total of
296 events were available with magnitude greater than 3.0 from 1800 to 2016.
The seismic hazard assessment requires the identification of probable seismic zones
that are capable of generating future earthquakes by understanding the seismicity
pattern, recent and historical seismicity, fault activities and tectonic evidences. The
study region has been divided into four seismic zones based on the seismicity pattern
and fault orientation as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Seismotectonic map of study region

The completeness analysis of an earthquake catalogue is prerequisite since statis-

tical analysis using incomplete data may lead to unsatisfactory results [12]. The cat-
alogue completeness has been analyzed for the four zones using the Stepp’s method
[13]. The completeness interval for the four zones has been given in Table 1.
Table 1. Completeness period for the scenario 2 by Stepp’s method

Magnitude interval Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
3.0 Mw < 3.5 1987–2016 1967–2016 1957–2016 1967–2016
3.5 Mw < 4.0 1967–2016 1937–2016 1947–2016 1957–2016
4.0 Mw < 5.0 1967–2016 1937–2016 1947–2016 1927–2016
Mw 5.0 1837–2016 1837–2016 1837–2016 1837–2016
The recurrence relationship suggested by Gutenberg and Richter [14] has been
estimated using the data after completeness analysis. In the present study, the seis-
micity parameters are assumed to be constant in a zone. The Gutenberg-Richter (G-R)
recurrence relationship is given in Eq. 1.
log10 ðkM Þ ¼ a b M ð1Þ
where, a and b are constants, M is moment magnitude, kM is mean annual rate of

exceedance of magnitude M. The recurrence relationship graph for zone 1 has shown in
Fig. 2. The G-R parameters for four zones are shown in Table 2.
Fig. 2. Gutenberg-Richter recurrence relationship for zone 1

4 Methodology and Result
The maximum magnitude mmax of the study region was estimated using the proba-
bilistic approach suggested by Kijko et al. [3] which was initially developed by Kijko
and Sellevol [15]. This method considers the uncertainty of magnitude, completeness
of earthquake catalogue and earthquake-occurrence model. The model requires the
information of the mean seismic activity rate k and the parameter b. The detailed
procedure to estimate the values were given by Kijko et al. [3]. A computer program
(HA3) written by Kijko et al. [3] was used to estimate mmax and the value are given in
Table 2.
Table 2. Gutenberg-Richter parameters for four zones

Zone Seismicity parameter Value
Zone 1 b-value 0.71
a-value 2.43
Zone 2 b-value 0.85
a-value 2.78
Zone 3 b-value 0.72
a-value 2.44
Zone 4 b-value 0.98
a-value 3.23
The second method considered to estimate maximum magnitude mmax has been
proposed by Gupta [2]. This method is based on adding an incremental unit to the
observed maximum magnitude earthquake. This is a simple method in which the
observed maximum magnitude in the considered region is increased by a magnitude of
0.5 unit. This incremental method has been adopted in various seismic hazard studies
[16, 17]. The maximum magnitude mmax for different zones calculated using the Gupta
[2] method was given in Table 3.
Table 3. mmax estimated using different methods

Zone mobs
max
mmax (Gupta method) mmax (Kijko method)
Zone 1 6.23 6.73 6.65 ± 0.46
Zone 2 5.23 5.73 5.50 ± 0.34
Zone 3 5.67 6.17 6.02 ± 0.40
Zone 4 5.00 5.50 5.18 ± 0.27
5 Discussions and Conclusions
In this paper, the maximum possible earthquake magnitude mmax for four seismic
source zones around NIT Warangal was estimated using two different methods. The
study region is a part of peninsular India which is an intraplate region. The region has
experienced some of the catastrophic earthquakes in the past. The earthquake data was
collected for the region from different sources and homogenized to a convenient scale.
The earthquake catalogue was declustered for foreshocks and aftershocks. The linear
sources such as faults and lineaments have been recognized from the Seismotectonic
Atlas of India. The faults and earthquake epicenter was digitized using ArcGIS soft-
ware. The study region was divided into four zone based on the seismicity pattern. The
maximum possible earthquake in each zone has been calculated using two different
methods. The zone 1 has the maximum value whereas zone 4 has the minimum value
of possible earthquake magnitude. It is evident from the study that the region con-
sidered is moderately vulnerable due to earthquake hazard.
References
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Bull Seismol Soc Am 106(3):1210–1222
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generic MW scale framework. www.earthqhaz.net/sacat
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and its effect on statistical estimates of earthquake hazard. In: Proceedings of the 1st
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Am 34(4):185–188
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Necessity of New Look for Equitable Water
Sharing Among Basin States - Krishna Basin
S. Narasimha Rao(&), K. Venkata Narayana, and N. Ravishankar
Irrigation & CAD Department, Government of Telangana, Hyderabad, India

tsiswrkrishna@gmail.com
Abstract. Water is a vital basic human resource and essential for all activities
right from drinking to Industrial needs. Being a scarce natural resource, the
stress is more evident with increasing population and priorities. The evolution of
law in water sharing began with absolute territorial sovereignty and shifted
towards equitable utilization which is more divergent and complex. The earlier
arrangements in river water sharing had traces of imperialistic and colonialistic
perspective. The changes in the recent past are more in the nature of
improvements in these approaches towards equitable utilization. The approach
of various Water Dispute Tribunals constituted in India is unique to each Tri-
bunal, leading to a variety of asymmetries and anomalies in resolution of dis-
putes among States. The composition of Tribunals with involvement of
Technical Experts and adopting uniformity in its adjudication are indispensable
for better appreciation and acceptance the award. An attempt has been to dwell
upon these aspects with a concern to address pertinent issues like migration of
people and cause of health hazards with poor quality water resources etc., with
practicable solution in the field of Irrigation engineering in a pragmatic manner.
1 Introduction
Water is a vital resource for basic human needs. It is an important resource in all
activities of the society, more particularly drinking and agriculture. In view of
increasing water demands in other sectors such as industry, recreation, power etc., there
is a more stress on limited water resources. Its scarcity is more evident with increasing
population. Further, water availability is highly uneven with time and space due to
irregular monsoon. Precipitation is the main source of water and average annual pre-
cipitation in India is around 1.4 lakh TMC. The surface water resources available in
rivers are 66 Thousand TMC. But, the net available water beneficial use is around 40
Thousand TMC due various geographical constraints. Out of 40 Thousand TMC
around 24 Thousand TMC can be tapped through surface in rivers.
The availability of water resources required are dwindling and competitive needs
by States are rising day by day resulting in disputes. A River which originates in the
high mountain travels up to the Sea. Geographical borders have been created for ease of
administration, language & culture. This has resulted in formation of different States in
our country. Each State has its own needs and priorities. The States are depending on
the river flows passing through its territory to manage its demand. Near the origin of
river due to mountainous region river flows are high but the needs are low while down

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_14
Necessity of New Look for Equitable Water Sharing Among Basin States 97
below the needs are high but due to abstractions of flows in the upper reaches, resulting
in reduction flows in lower reaches. The dispute arises due to conflicting demands of
different States. It is an imperative to have rules for proper management of water
sources and its utility. The distribution of available water must be equal, equitable and
justifiable as per the reasonable requirements within the river basin. Constitutional
provisions pertaining to the river waters are mainly of legislative and executive nature
in the use, distribution and control of waters resources in India. Existing local customs
prevailed over Centuries and Laws and Acts framed by British administrators before
Independence in 1892, 1919 and in 1935 had impact in Provisions incorporated in
Indian Constitution, 1950.
2 Evolution of Indian Water Law
The Evolution of water law in India is incorporated in the report of B.N. Rao Com-
mission on Indus River basin by adopting various prevailing theories worldwide in
sharing and also relied on general principles in the adjudication of various disputes in
sharing river waters and from the lakes.
The theory of absolute sovereignty attributes to exercise of sovereign powers of
nation enjoying its right over natural resources within its territory. It is conceived along
with the imperialistic and colonial practices existing in 19th century for sharing of Reo
Grande water between USA and Mexico. However, the deficiencies and difficulties
were realized in this practice, for sharing of river waters in other parts. An Attempt was
made to have more flexible approach with the theories of Equitable and Reasonable
utilization of river waters with emphasis to compromise and fairness.
The concept of equality which does not mean equal share and is very complex,
complicated and also does not have any direct formulae to arrive at. In fact it has to be
assessed by taking into the relevant parameters such as extent of drainage area, con-
tribution of water from this drainage area, the dependent population for its needs, the
existing pattern of use and rising demands of ecology, recreation and environmental
and possibility in harnessing of available alternative resources. The proposed equitable
shares of riparian States with fairness and compromise in such a manner it would have
to be appreciable, acceptable and rational in usage of waters for the needs of
inhabitants.
The theory of equitable shares in river basin is evolved mainly from the adjudi-
cations before US Supreme Court since 1902. However, International Law Association
(ILA) met in Helsinki in 1966 and formed guidelines for the equitable usage of river
waters which are primarily advisory in nature and popularly known as “Helsinki
Rules”. Further, UN General Assembly insisted International Law Commission to
come out with guidelines on equitable use of water based on Helsinki rules in 1970.
These guidelines on non-navigational uses of water included both surface and ground
water. The Guidelines of Helsinki rules and that of UN Convention were updated for
clear cogent and coherent approach with the experience put up with the Helsinki rules
for decades and these updated guidelines are known as Berlin Rules. The decisions of
other Federal Courts across the globe adopted the similar approach.
98 S. Narasimha Rao et al.
3 Colonial Impact in Indian Water Law
The evolution water law in India is mainly because of promotion of large irrigation
works by the Colonial Government in India to mitigate the recurring famines at that
time. The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873 is brought out to regulate
irrigation, navigation and drainage. It introduced the right of Government to use and
control water course for public purpose.
The widespread suffering caused by famines in the later part of 19th century led to
setting up of Famine Commission in 1878. Before, the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms
introduced by the colonial government in British India in 1921 (Act 1919), irrigation
works under the control of Central Government and no major works could be taken up
without sanction from Crown and these sanctions from Crown were classified as
productive. However, Government of India and provincial Government were given
powers to sanction minor or unproductive works costing less than 10 lakhs and these
were known as Imperial or Provincial works according to their sanction. After 1921,
Provincial Government were allowed to raise loan for works upto 50 lakh, Government
of India Act 1935 made radical changes in the administration of irrigation projects,
delegating powers to Provinces.
In fact, the first major head works proposed was Godavari anicut during 1847–52
besides their earlier attempts since 1820 to improve old indigenous existing works
namely Western Yamuna Canal, Eastern Yamuna Canal, Cauvery Delta and Inundation
canals in Indus System. Further, Govt of India embarked upon large irrigation projects
like Upper Yamuna Canal, Upper Bari Doab canal in Punjab which has been styled as
“capital works”. In India, the issue of water sharing is significantly evident since 1892.
Madras Presidency and Princely State of Mysore had entered in to an agreement in
1892 over sharing of Tungabhadra and Cauvery waters for better utilization and infact
it is first of its kind in river sharing.
Before the agreement of 1892 on Krishna river, Madras Presidency complained to
the Colonial Government for its prescriptive rights based existing use of waters over
the decades in Legal parlance and drew the attention to the provisions of acts enacted
by British Provincial or the Government of India in British India which are applicable
in their respective jurisdictions but not applicable to the Princely States. Thus, these
asymmetrical power relations internalized in negotiations of 1892 agreement remains a
source of contention. These prejudiced agreements have bearing in adjudication of
water disputes after 1947. Other, around 15 rivers namely Pennar, Chitravati, Papagni,
Palar and South Pinakini etc., shared by the two entities, province and princely States,
are also included in the agreements which are not part of Krishna basin.
The Griffin’s arbitration on the issues in Cauvery basin based on 1892 agreement
exemplifies the politics of inter-State water disputes resolution under the colonial rule.
Attempts to correct these asymmetries by law were simply obliterated by imperial
powers. These internalized asymmetries have remained a perpetual source for recurring
of disputes much more so in the Cauvery water dispute. The dispute was not settled by
appropriation of law but through the authoritative decision of the sovereign powers of
the British.
Major inter-State water disputes are a manifestation of reproducing imperial and

colonial power relations in India due to developed asymmetries between the States
under colonial rule which remain relevant in contemporary water disputes. With the
provision of large scale irrigation infrastructure, with the obvious advantage of colonial
power in technology and capital inputs, asymmetries produced by the colonial histories
have eventually internalized structurally in the form of uneven historical geographical
development. These asymmetries have to be reconciled to the realm of modern inter-
national customary law with principles of equitable sharing between the federal con-
stituents after independence.
From a union of 14 States at independence, India now has 29 States with State
boundaries reorganized several times. These boundaries overwrite several other fault
lines inscribed from the colonial era, of loosely federated British ruled presidencies and
hundreds of princely States. The re-organization of the States in Independent India
from its provincial status or princely State status led to maintain their ethnic entities. It
also affected federal spirit co-operation as enshrined in the Constitution and this
reorganization of territorial boundaries was one of Central challenges and contributed
to the reoccurrence of the disputes.
4 Legal Framework in India - Constitutional Provisions
Indian water law affected due to the absence of perfect umbrella to regulate for use,
distribution and control of river waters. The complexity of law is more with the
existence of provisions from different acts brought out and adopted during colonial rule
and also adoption of latest concepts with the adoption of fairness and compromise in
the shared sovereignties and equality of rights. After Independence in 1947, Demo-
cratic pattern of Government and federal system was accepted for administration.
Democracy is a rule of law. Indian Constitution is our fundamental law. All other laws
passed by the Central or State legislative authorities as well as all subordinate legis-
lations have to conform to the constitutional provisions. Accordingly, there is distri-
bution of legislative and executive powers between the States and the centre. As such
there is possibility of disputes between states and/or the centre.
Article-246 of the Constitution of India consists of Union List, States list and
Concurrent list for the control on the subject by the Central and State Governments.
River Board Acts of 1956 was enacted under Entry-56 of List-I of the Constitution. The
Centre could not exercise its powers under entry 56 fully and preferred instead to led
the States to take larger responsibility in the water disputes is mainly due to the
presence of water subject in the State’s list and to accommodate the princely States to
accede to Indian Union. In fact MoWR couldn’t get River Boards Act like Forest
conservation act and Environmental Protection Act which allow the Centre to exercise
a reasonable control. The Centre compromised in drafting River Boards Act
(RBA) may be due to the strong centre existing under Nehru and may be due to fear of
States for the diminution of their powers by setting up of a Board. Thus, the States were
not either cooperative or enthusiastic about setting up of river Boards under RBA.
However, some river Boards like Brahmaputra, Tungabhadra Boards were constituted
from drawing legislative force from various other acts and not from RBA.
Further, Inter States River Water Disputes Act (ISRWD), which was also enacted in
1956 (Act 33 of 1956) under Article-262 to deal with water disputes in use, distribution
and control of river waters is also may be the one of the reason for the compromise to
keep River Boards Act as an advisory nature. The Act provides for constitution of
water disputes Tribunal if any riparian States files a complaint raising water disputes in
the use, distribution and control of river waters.
5 Issues Associated with the Tribunals
Priority for irrigation projects in the first five year plan encouraged the competition and
also emergence of conflicts over the utilization of river waters. The Bachawat Tribunal
after conducting prolonged deliberations on the issue of sharing of Krishna river waters
based on 1951 agreement made between the riparian States at the instance of Planning
Commission was concluded that the said agreement is invalid and void and questioned
the clearance of projects cleared by Planning Commission based on these agreement.
Further, the allocation of water resources in a basin is vested only with the Tribunals
and even the jurisdiction of the Supreme court is also barred on inter-State water issues.
It is felt that allocation made by Planning Commission in 1951 inter-State conference
may be with imperialistic style of function inherited form the colonial government. The
re-organization of State boundaries by the State Re-organization Committee in 1956
led to the consolidation of linguistic based homogenous geo-political identities in the
form of distinct territorial entities of the States. Thus, the Krishna river dispute emerged
first for which one of the three river water disputes Tribunal were constituted for
adjudication along with Godavari and Narmada.
The Tribunals have adopted the principles of equitable principles in the adjudica-
tion of river water disputes. The Tribunal hires two or more “assessors” who provide a
range of scientific, engineering and other technical advice. So far, the Union
Government has set up the following Tribunals under the Act: (i) The Narmada Water
Disputes Tribunal; (ii) The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I & II; (iii) The Godavari
Water Disputes Tribunal, (iv) The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, (v) The Ravi-
Beas Water Disputes Tribunal, (vi) Vamshadhara Water Disputes Tribunal and
(vii) Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal.
Politics and Politicization played a disruptive role in the resolution of water dis-
putes by the Tribunals which are already erred in legal ambiguities and constitutional
anomalies. Formation of governments in south Indian States by the regional parties
ensured the reconstruction of Indian Federalism and emergence of Coalition politics in
the Centre. A common occurrence for the States to pass bills or resolutions of Leg-
islature against Tribunal decisions or Supreme Court orders were found in Cauvery and
Ravi-Beas disputes due to the absence of the sanctions against non-complaint States led
to persistence recurrence of disputes. The following issues are associated with the
functioning of the Tribunals led to the degeneration of their effectiveness over the time.
No specified procedures for the functioning of the Tribunals
• Extended proceedings with extreme delays and Lack of clarity and guidelines in the
institutional framework.
• Time lost with the Tribunal proceedings proved to be costly affair in terms of loss of
production and cost run of irrigation projects.
• No incentives for the expediting the completion of the Tribunals.
• Deliberations before Tribunals at the discretion of Judges.
• Presence of layered process in the setting up of Tribunal itself like mediation by the
Centre at first, setting up of the Tribunal second, third referring the Complaint to the
Tribunals and absence of stipulated timeframe due to several extensions.
• Absence of technical experts in the decision making during adjudication of disputes
for ensuring a decision duly taking care of unique nature of water disputes which
are quite different from the civil/property disputes are different from the decision by
judicial process before the Hon’ble Supreme Court.
• After an Award is given, there is no proper mechanism to interpret, implement and
to enforce. Even though the Courts are barred in review of water disputes under
Article 262, the matters were posed before the Hon’ble Supreme Court under
Article 131 of the Constitution.
6 Case of Krishna Waters Disputes
The Krishna river originates in the Western ghats and flows for 1400 km eastwards
before joining the Bay of Bengal. The rivers pass through the States of Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Krishna basin receives 90% of its annual
rain rainfall during the South-West monsoon season (July to October). The Krishna
basin area extends over arid areas to semi arid areas with large tracts of drought prone
areas.
The water sharing arrangements was arrived at first in 1892, again in 1933, 1944
and 1946 for the needs of inhabitants. After Independence in inter-State Conference of
1951 for the needs, basin States came to an agreement on water sharing but the same
was declared invalid due to non ratification of Mysore State. Further, new State of
Andhra was created under Act of 1953 and the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
and Maharashtra formed under State Reorganization Act of 1956 with changed the
territorial boundaries in the Krishna River basin. Due to these changes in the territorial
boundaries, the region of Telangana was denied the benefits from the proposals of
many irrigation projects for irrigating drought prone areas in the region which were
planned by erstwhile Hyderabad State. These projects were shelved due to the indif-
ferent attitude and non-pursuance before Tribunal by combined State of Andhra Pra-
desh led to perpetual injustice.
The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I was constituted by the Central Government
in 1969 for the first time by the legislation of the ISRWD Act, 1956 after receiving the
Complaints from respective States. The Krishna Tribunal-I gave its final awards in
1976.
Salient Features of the Decision of KWDT-I (Bachawat Tribunal)
• The Tribunal did not include the groundwater potential in the adjudication for
equitable shares.
• The previous agreements signed by States namely 1892, 1933, 1944 and 1946 were
superseded by the KWDT-I order.
• The Tribunal apportioned only 75% dependability water as 2,060 TMC.
• The Tribunal allowed outside diversion to an extent of around 450 TMC for uses in
the outside basin ignoring large draught prone areas within the basin.
• The Tribunal did not consider alternative sources of water availability to meet the
demands of the States to ensure equality.
• The Tribunal over emphasized protection of existing uses than equality in the basin.
• The Tribunal avoided an authority for enforcement of its Order and left it to the
cooperation of the co-basin States.
• The Tribunal did not assess scientific irrigation water requirement against the need
of extensive requirement.
• The Tribunal included a clause for review of its Order after May 31, 2000.
All the three basin States before had their own fractured histories and hybrid
sovereignties in their making. It led to distinct regional identities. The uneven devel-
opment is due to irrigation development in the parts under direct colonial rule as
compared with the parts under Princely States. This disparity development was also the
source for emergence of inter-State disputes. Due to the ambiguities in the interpre-
tation of the orders after Tribunal decision, party States approached Hon’ble Supreme
Court under Article 131 involved Hon’ble Supreme Court. After the provisions of
review clause in the Award of KWDT-I, second round of adjudication began with the
constitution of second Krishna River Water Disputes Tribunal-II (KWDT-II) under the
chairmanship of Justice Brijesh Kumar in 2004. The KWDT-II gave its final Award in
2013 but the publication of Award couldn’t be made due to the stay orders from the
Hon’ble Supreme Court.
Salient Features of the Decision of Brijesh Kumar Tribunal
• The Tribunal allocated water upto average yield of 2578 TMC.

• It proposed Krishna Water Decision Implementation Board (KWDIB).
• It included a clause to review the Order after May 31, 2050.
• It proposed manner of drawl to draw water at different dependabilities among the
States.
The two basin States Karnataka and e/w State of AP challenged the decision of the
Tribunal in the Supreme Court. Further, under the AP Reorganization Act, 2014 by the
Parliament, the State of Telangana is formed and came into existence from June 02,
2014. The Act included two terms of reference for further adjudication by the KWDT-
II which was not dissolved by that time after submitting its final report under Section 5
(3) in 2013. The State of Telangana being non party before KWDT-I and KWDT-II got
an opportunity to represent its concerns and grievances before KWDT-II. It challenged
the decision of KWDT-II of 2010 and 2013 before Hon’ble Supreme Court and also
filed a Complaint before Central Government by raising water disputes to refer the
same to a Water Disputes Tribunal to safe guard the interests of inhabitants of the State
in July 2014. The Central Government did not act and kept pending the Complaint
without referring it to a Tribunal as requested till date.
The State of Telangana sought relief in the contagious Krishna issues including on
the colonial agreements of 1944, 1945 and 1946, effect on water utilization in its
territory due to post-independence territorial reorganizations. It also requested for
equitable allocation of water in Krishna basin as it’s more than 80% culturable area is
without irrigation facilities. But, due to legal and constitutional ambiguities, political
ecology of the dispute, it is finding difficulty in settling these asymmetries entered in
KWDT-II Award. Further, the ambiguity in the amendment to the ISRWD Act in 2002
for way of introducing a proviso not to open the closed issues is throwing a challenge
in the adjudicatory process before Brijesh Kumar Tribunal. The State of Telangana
insisting for the scientific assessment of scientific irrigation water requirement for
providing extensive irrigation by covering more than 80% of its culturable in-basin
areas which are denied irrigation for more than 5 to 6 decades. Telangana is also
contesting the issue of outside basin diversion by the State of Andhra Pradesh before
KWDT-II.
For illustration, the Telugu Ganga Project, which is the offshoot of one of the finest
examples of interstate co-operation and itself an outcome of political expediencies. The
hard fact is that the above said agreement was made without considering the water
requirements of inhabitants within Krishna basin in Telangana territory, which are
highly drought stricken and affected with severe fluoride content areas, diverting water
to a tune of one lakh cusecs in the combined State to the outside basin areas.
7 Conclusions
In examining equitable shares to the riparian States, the enshrined principles of the
federal setup in the constitution with the presence of Article 262 baring the jurisdiction
of Supreme Court over River Water Disputes must be enforced. The constitution of
water disputes Tribunal is essential to resolve the water disputes through legislative and
political process based on higher grounds of public welfare and prosperity and by
avoiding judicial decisions and strictures of the Hon’ble Supreme Court and other
Courts. The proposal of Union Government to setup a permanent Tribunal for various
river water disputes to function continuously on the lines of Hon’ble Supreme Court
with required benches for providing quick relief to the inhabitants should be expedited
with the inclusion of technical experts in the decision making, as water disputes are not
like other entities involving civil/property disputes.
As a meager assured one TMC of water will benefit lakhs of population including
agriculture farmers and contribute for the upliftment of farmers socially, economically
and will also contribute in averting migration of people for sustenance and eschew
major health hazards with better quality of drinking water, the need for practical and
feasible solution in arriving at equitable shares to the basin States will be necessary for
providing better irrigation facilities by the State for the overall development. The
existence of cartographical territorial boundaries with the colonial footprint and hybrid
linguistic barriers with the States Reorganization Commission of 1956 ought to be
corrected with the concept of single hydrological units as proposed in the form of River
Boards Act, 1956 by the Union Government. A set of guidelines from the Union
Government is required for adopting uniformity in the procedures by the Tribunal in
adjudication of water disputes for better acceptance and appreciation of the Award by
the basin States.
Delay in constituting Tribunal, referring the Complaints of the riparian States to the
Tribunal, obtaining the final order by the Tribunal and for the implementation of these
awards by notifying by the GoI need to be checked and completely avoided. In order to
appreciate the spirit behind the provision of Article 262 in the constitution which bars
Supreme Courts and other courts to exercise jurisdiction in respect of inter-State river
water disputes, implementing mechanisms should be effectively enforced.
Since Article 262 of the Constitution provides that neither the Supreme Court nor
any other Court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of inter-State river disputes, it is
necessary that the spirit behind this provision is fully appreciated and there is every
need to evolve enforcement mechanism to implement the awards given by the Tri-
bunals. The GoI needs to be more prompt. Proactive and decisive in dealing with cases
of inter-State river disputes. As a measure of conflict resolution in case of inter-State
rivers, the GoI along with the States should take up the task of resource planning
considering single hydrological unit harmonizing the geographies to achieve equity and
to avoid recurring of disputes.
References
1. Central Water Commission (2015) Water and Related Statistics, pp 4–5
2. The Report and Further Report of Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I with the Decision
(1973, 1976)
3. Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-II Report/Decision & Further Report (2010, 2013)
4. Bakshi PM – The Constitution of India
5. Inter State River Water Disputes Act (1956). (Act 33)
6. Andhra Pradesh Re-organization Act (2014). (Act 6 of 2014)
7. Colorado River commission (2008) Wold Major Rivers - an introduction to international
water law with case studies, pp 105–120
8. Second Administrative Reforms Commission report on capacity building for conflict
resolution, February 2008
9. Chokkakula S (2017) Interstate Water Disputes Emerge and Recur - an anatomy of
ambiguities, antagonisms and asymmetries
10. Lahiri KK (2016) Inter-State River Water Disputes Act Genesis, Evolution and Analysis
11. Indus Water Treaty (1960)
A Comparative Study on the Performance
of ANN, MLR and MNR in the Assessment
of Slope Stability for Kalla - Coonoor Hill Road
Stretch of Nilgiris
Balendra Mouli Marrapu1(&) and Ravi Sankar Jakka2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, CMR College of Engineering and
Technology, Hyderabad, India
balendra@cmrcet.org
2
Department of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India
rsjakka@gmail.com
Abstract. Artificial neural network (ANN), Multiple linear regression

(MLR) and Multiple Non linear regression (MNR) analysis are known as
Machine learning techniques which solves complex problems for which doesn’t
have any standard algorithms. These methods forms their own rules of learning
and solve the complex problems. Among the various problems affecting the hill
system, slope instability’s are very important. These slope failures have been
observed more frequently in recent days because of the tremendous develop-
mental activities in hilly regions. Road networks play major role in the devel-
opmental activities of hill regions. Human interactions with the nature during the
construction of roads, increases the landslide susceptibility. In present study, a
road network between 76.806–76.874 E longitude and 11.334–11.351 N lati-
tude passing through Nilgiri hills was considered for stability assessment.
Assessment of slope-stability/landslide-susceptibility of the hills is a common
geotechnical problem and it requires detailed information about several
parameters such as slope inclination, height, shear strength, density, etc. Even
though limit equilibrium methods (LEM) are most accurate methods for the
estimation of slope stability, their application to analyze huge number of slopes
especially for hilly regions are very tedious and time consuming. In order to
minimize these problems associated with LEM, ANN, MLR and MNR are soft
computing method which can solve these problems. There is often confusion in
the selection of suitable method from these methods, for this all these methods
are applied to Kalla - Coonoor Hill road stretch and then results are analyzed and
find suitable method out these. A part from these their advantages and disad-
vantages of these alternative approaches are also discussed in this study.
Keywords: ANN Multiple non linear regression Multiple linear regression

Slope stability, landslides

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_15
106 B. M. Marrapu and R. S. Jakka
1 Introduction
Kallar - Coonoor hill road stretch is located in the Western Ghats. In Western Ghats,
many places are having slope instability problems. These instability problems are
causing severe damage to infrastructure and loss of human life every year (Jha et al.
2000). To minimize this problem, a critical slope stability analysis is necessary.
Analyzing slope stability using convention slope stability is time taking for modeling
and design of slopes. In case of hilly regions large number of slopes will be there to
analyze. So, it is difficult to analyze these large numbers of slopes using convectional
limit equilibrium method (LEM). To minimize this effect an alternative tool to con-
ventional slope stability methods is multiple linear regressions (MLR), multiple non-
liner regression (MNR) and artificial neural network (ANN). The main purpose of
MLR and MNR are to learn more about the relationship between several independent
parameters and a dependent parameter. Several authors used this MLR in estimation of
slope stability (Sah et al. 1994; Erzin and Cetin 2013), where as MNR applications are
very limited. Several researches like (Khanlari et al. 2012) used MLR in other geo-
technical applications like Prediction of shear strength parameters of soils. ANN can
also be applied to various geotechnical problems (Shahin et al. 2008). ANN applica-
tions in slope stability was done by many researchers (Sakellariou and Ferentinou
2005; Erzin and Cetin 2012). In this study, slope stability assessment is carried out for
the considered study region using MLR, MNR as well as ANN and the results are
compared in terms of regression coefficient and mean square error.
2 Kallar - Coonoor Road Data for Analysis
Kallar-Coonoor road network is located in the Western Ghats, in the Nilgiris District of
Tamil Nadu, Southern India. In Western Ghats, many places are having slope insta-
bility problems (Manimaran et al. 2012). This road stretch is part of NH 67. It plays
very important role in region of Nilgiris hills connecting many power stations and hill
stations. It is necessary to carry out slope stability analysis for this road stretch. Nalina
et al. (2014) have carried out stability assessment of Kallar - Coonoor road stretch
between 76.806–76.874 E longitude and 11.334–11.351 N latitude (i.e. total length of
the road studied is 27 km). They had collected soil samples from 32 locations along the
road stretch and their slope stability is assessed. FOS for these locations was calculated
using Mohr coulomb theory with the infinite formula given in the Eq. 1. The exact
latitude and longitude of the locations along with respective soil properties and cal-
culated factor of safety are presented in Table 1. This data is considered as a training
data for MLR, MNR as well as ANN. Out of these 32 cases, 25 cases were used in
training MLR, MNR and ANN and remaining 7 cases were used in validating results.
C tan /
FOS ¼ þ ð1Þ
cH cos2 b tan b tan b
where, c = Cohesive in g/cm2; c = Unit weight of soil in g/cm3; H = Depth of soil in

cm; ф = Angle of internal friction in degrees; b = Angle of inclination in degrees.
A Comparative Study on the Performance of ANN, MLR and MNR 107
3 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
An artificial neural network is composed of many artificial neurons that are linked
according to specific network architecture. The objective of the neural network is to
transform the inputs into meaningful outputs. The basic principal of ANN is similar to
the human brain’s neurons principal. ANN needs training like human brain. ANN
possesses a large number of processing elements called nodes/neurons which operate in
parallel. Neurons are connected to each other by connection link. Each link is asso-
ciated with weights which contain information about the input signal. Each neuron has
an internal state of its own which is a function of the inputs that neuron receives.
(Sakellariou and Ferentinou 2005; Gelisli et al. 2015) has also applied ANN for pre-
diction of slope stability.
Table 1. Kallar - Coonoor roads slope stability data

Sr. Degree Degree Density Angle of Angle of c FOS
no (N) (E) (c) g/cc internal inclination g/cm2
friction (/) (b)
1 11.344 76.874 1.45 36.5 41 4 0.89
2 11.343 76.873 1.33 53.3 64 0 0.65
3 11.342 76.871 1.35 48.8 57.5 0 0.73
4 11.34 76.868 1.4 40.8 62 46 0.83
5 11.339 76.865 1.61 27.4 38.5 7 0.72
6 11.339 76.865 1.33 48.3 58.5 0 0.69
7 11.34 76.865 1.71 47.2 70.5 0 0.38
8 11.341 76.863 1.61 43.9 27.5 84 2.98
9 11.338 76.862 2.01 44.9 79.5 0 0.18
10 11.34 76.854 1.49 36.5 26.5 19 1.77
11 11.339 76.85 1.65 21.4 29.5 2 0.72
12 11.35 76.85 1.61 20.3 18.5 29 1.67
13 11.344 76.844 1.61 34.1 42.5 17 0.9
14 11.339 76.839 1.41 41.6 48 2 0.82
15 11.338 76.838 1.96 46.6 47 0 0.99
16 11.337 76.837 1.41 41.2 52.5 0 0.67
17 11.338 76.83 1.3 48.8 34.5 0 1.66
18 11.334 76.826 1.34 23.9 18 24 1.95
19 11.336 76.828 1.37 20.3 24 19 1.17
20 11.337 76.828 1.41 46 41 14 1.34
21 11.336 76.825 1.3 42.6 39 0 1.14
22 11.338 76.827 1.49 27.4 32 2 0.86
23 11.337 76.825 1.8 25.4 46.5 87 1.12
24 11.337 76.823 1.45 34.1 28 0 1.28
25 11.335 76.819 1.3 35.3 32 0 1.13
(continued)
Sr. Degree Degree Density Angle of Angle of c FOS
no (N) (E) (c) g/cc internal inclination g/cm2
friction (/) (b)
26* 11.334 76.819 1.94 37.9 52 73 1.09
27* 11.335 76.817 1.57 23.9 19 29 1.86
28* 11.335 76.819 1.52 38.9 63.5 0 0.4
29* 11.334 76.813 1.37 20.3 32 27 0.96
30* 11.335 76.815 1.54 51.5 42 12 1.52
31* 11.348 76.809 1.63 41.8 54 0 0.65
32* 11.345 76.806 1.65 46.6 68 0 0.43
3.1 Development of ANN

In order to establish the relations among the slope stability parameters, training of
neural network is required. In this section we will discuss about ANN training pro-
cedure and its application to untrained data. For training ANN, slope stability data
given in Table 1 is used. Out of 32 cases presented in Table 1, 25 cases are considered
for training of ANN. Remaining cases are used for testing of potential of ANN in the
estimation of slope stability. During training, c, /, b, c are considered as input
parameters, while FOS is an output parameter. 4 input neurons, 5 hidden neurons and
one output neuron (4-5-1) network is considered. The number of hidden neurons are
finalized based on trail and hit method and finalized 5 as optimum number of neurons.
During training process, TANSIG function is used between input and hidden layers,
while PURELIN function is used between hidden and output layer. Figure 1 shows the
architecture of considered ANN. Back propagation algorithm is considered for training.
For updating the weights and bias values according to output data Levenberg - Mar-
quardt optimization is used. Training data regression plot is shown in Fig. 2, It was
observed that regression coefficient R2 0.993, which is almost perfect match. After this
successful training, ANN is applied to untrained data without modifying the final
residual weights. ANN estimated FOS for untrained data is presented in Table 2.
Fig. 1. Neural network considered for training of ANN

Fig. 2. Regression plot for ANN training data (i.e. 25 cases)
4 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR)
Multiple linear regression method was first proposed in the year 1908 by Pearson
(Yilmaz and Kaynar 2011). Recently MLR has been used by many geo-technical
engineering for various geo-technical problems (Erzin and Cetin 2013). This method
was generally used to find the relationship between several independent variable and
dependent variables. It was in the form of (Y = aX1 + bX2 + cX3 + ------ + K) here Y
is dependent variable whereas X1, X2, X3… are independent variables, and a, b, c. etc.
are regression coefficients. Using this MLR an attempt is made to find the relation
between dependent parameter (i.e. Factor of safety) and independent parameters (i.e. c,
/, b, c) for stability assessment of slopes.
4.1 Development of Multiple Linear Regression Model

For development of this linear regression model, solved slope stability data is needed.
For this purpose, data collected from previous section is used (Training data of ANN).
For obtaining appropriate MLR equation, training/learning data has to satisfy following
assumptions.
1. Relationship between the dependent and independent variables need to be linear.
2. All the dependent variables need to be normally distributed.
3. There is a little or no multicollinearity in the independent variable data.
4. Multiple regression analysis requires homoscedasticity of output data.
After verifying all the 4 assumptions, 25 cases of data collected from Table 1 is
used for development of MLR model. For developing the relationship IBM SPSS
statistics 20 (Pallant 2013) software is used. Developed multiple regression equation
(relation) based on the considered data is shown in Eq. 2. Regression plot using
developed MLR equation is shown in the Fig. 3 for learning data. It was observed that
regression coefficient R2 0.934, which is considerable good. So developed model can
be applied to any new data. Finally developed equation is shown in the Eq. 2.
FOS ¼ c 0:0688 þ / 0:036 b 0:037 þ C 0:0109 þ 1:052 ð2Þ

where, C = Cohesive in g/cm2; c = Unit weight of soil in g/cm3; ф = Angle of internal
friction in degrees; b = Angle of inclination in degrees
Fig. 3. Regression plot for MLR model learning data (25 cases).
5 Multiple Non-linear Regression (MNR)
Multiple Regression model (MNR) is a statistical method, which is traditionally used to

predict an indirect estimation of the given problem using empirical equations. Which is
similar to linear regression model but the relationship between dependent and inde-
pendent variables are non-linear/partially non linear. The main purpose of MNR is to
learn more about the underlying relationship between several independent variables
and a dependent variable. A dependent variable is modeled as a function of several
independent variables with corresponding coefficients, along with a constant
term. Development of multiple regression requires two or more independent variables.
The generalized multiple regression equation takes the following form
Y ¼ a þ b1 Xi þ b2 Xj þ b3 Xi2 þ b4 Xj2 þ þ bn Xi Xj
here Y is dependent variable whereas Xi, Xj, Xk… are independent variables, and b1,
b2, b3, etc. are regression coefficients. MNR model is to find the relation between
dependent parameter (i.e. Factor of safety) and independent parameters (i.e. c, /, b, c)
for stability assessment of slopes.
5.1 Development of Multiple Non-linear Regression Model

For development of this non linear regression model, as discussed solved data is
required for learning. Data collected from previous section is used (Training data of
ANN, learning data of MLR). before developing MNR model assumptions 2, 3, 4 of
MLR model development need to be satisfied. After satisfying all the assumption
developed MNR model is presented in Eq. 3. For verifying the developed MNR model
learned date is checked with this model and observed correlation coefficient R2, it was
0.967, shown in Fig. 4 which is almost showing good correlation which can be applied
to unlearned data.
0:08177 U 0:0246 b þ 0:0284 c 0:0012 U b þ 0:0004 b2 ð3Þ
Fig. 4. Regression plot for MNR learning data
6 Results
After developing MLR, MNR, ANN models successfully, these methods are applied to
untrained data of 7 cases from the Table 1 and their performances are evaluated in
terms of MSE and R2 and these are evaluated using Eqs. 4 and 5. Results of these are
compared and presented in the Table 2.
1 XN
MSE ¼ ðY Y 0 Þ2 ð4Þ
n 1
2 32
P P P
6 N Y Y 0 ð YÞð Y 0 Þ 7
R2 ¼ 6r ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4 h P iffih i
7
5 ð5Þ
P P P
N Y 2 ð YÞ N Y 02 ð Y 0 Þ 2 2
where, Y - Calculated FOS; Y′ - Predicted FOS by ANN/MLR; N - Total no of

samples.
Table 2. FOS estimated by MLR, MNR and ANN for untrained cases
Sr. no Calculated FOS MLR FOS MNR FOS ANN FOS
1 1.09 1.419 1.108 1.086
2 1.86 1.639 0.048 1.842
3 0.4 0.195 0.464 0.402
4 0.96 0.983 0.948 0.974
5 1.52 1.597 1.488 1.516
6 0.65 0.666 0.685 0.603
7 0.43 0.317 0.408 0.423
MSE 0.031 0.005 0.0003
Fig. 5. Comparison of ANN predicted FOS Fig. 6. Comparison of MLR predicted FOS
with calculated FOS with calculated FOS
Fig. 7. Comparison of MNR predicted FOS with calculated FOS

7 Discussions and Conclusions
Potential of MLR, MNR and ANN in the estimation of FOS of slopes is studied in this
study. Stability assessment carried out by Nalina et al. (2014) for Kallar - Coonoor road
stretch is used in our analysis. ANN is initially trained with first 25 cases presented in
Table 1 and then applied to last 7 cases presented in the table. ANN estimated FOS is
presented in Table 2. Similarly, MLR, MNR equation is developed using first 25 cases
from the Table 1 and then the developed equation is used to predict FOS of remaining
7 cases. Estimated FOS of last 7 cases is presented in the Table 2.
Accuracy of FOS estimation by all the methods are compared in terms of Mean
square error (MSE). Predicted FOS of both MLR, MNR and ANN are shown in terms
of regression plot shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7 Mean square error is calculated using
Eq. (4) Results from MLR, MNR and ANN are well compared. MSE of ANN is very
low, this imply s ANN performance is almost close to actual FOS values. After ANN
MNR is providing second best result, this method can also be used in field for rapid
assessment of stability. MSE performances of MLR little more when compared to
ANN and MNR, this is due to some non-linearity is there in between depending
variable and independent variable. R2 shown in Figs. 5 and 7 for ANN, MNR are much
better than R2 for MLS shown in Fig. 6.
This study clearly showed that the soft computing analysis is an effective tool for
accurate slope stability analysis. From the results of this study, it is found that both
MNR and ANN are able to predict the FOS reasonably. Hence, artificial neural network
and multiple non linear regression analysis can be used to analyze slope stability.
However, one should thoroughly understand their procedures before applying. For
instance, for MNR requires date should satisfy all the assumptions. Similarly, ANN
requires sufficient data for its training. This study also explains the modeling procedure
and mechanisms of the two methods.
However, there are certain limitations of the current study. The MNR equation
developed here is purely regional specific, this can be valid and limited to this par-
ticular for this study region only, for new areas one has to develop new MNR equation.
Even though, both MNR and ANN provides similar levels of accuracy in the current
study, ANN accuracy can be further improved with the more data training. Huge data
training for ANN is required to well establish the nonlinear relationships between
various causative factors and FOS.
Acknowledgement. Authors are thankful to the management of CMR College of Engineering

and Technology for funding this work and preparation of the manuscript.
References
Erzin Y, Cetin T (2012) The use of neural networks for the prediction of the critical factor of
safety of an artificial slope subjected to earthquake forces. Scientia Iranica 19:188–194
Erzin Y, Cetin T (2013) The prediction of the critical factor of safety of homogeneous finite
slopes using neural networks and multiple regressions. Comput Geosci 51:305–313
Gelisli K, Kaya T, Babacan AE (2015) Assessing the factor of safety using an artificial neural
network: case studies on landslides in Giresun, Turkey. Environ Earth Sci 73:8639–8646
Jha C, Dutt C, Bawa KS (2000) Deforestation and land use changes in Western Ghats, India.
Curr Sci-Bangalore 79:231–237
Khanlari G, Heidari M, Momeni A, Abdilor Y (2012) Prediction of shear strength parameters of
soils using artificial neural networks and multivariate regression methods. Eng Geol 131:11–18
Manimaran G, Ravindaran AA, Selvam S, Manimaran D, Sugan M (2012) Characterization and
disaster management of landslides in the Nilgiris mountainous terrain of Tamil Nadu, India.
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stretch of the Nilgiris. J Comput Sci 10:1107
Pallant J (2013) SPSS survival manual. McGraw-Hill Education (UK), London
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Hydrologic Modeling with Transfer Function
Based Approach: A Comparative Study
over Godavari River Basin
Chaitanya Lakeshri and Kaustubh Salvi(&)
Department of Civil Engineering Department,

College of Engineering Pune, Pune, India
{lakeshricv17.civil,kas.civil}@coep.ac.in
Abstract. Hydrologic modeling (HM), which involves forming a nexus

between two important components of hydrologic cycle viz. rainfall and runoff,
is one of the most important steps, which provides realistic inputs for water
distribution policies. A plethora of HM methodologies, categorized as ‘con-
ceptual’ and ‘empirical’, have been proposed to estimate the fraction of rainfall,
which would be available as surface runoff. However, intensive data require-
ments, mathematical interpretations of complicated physical processes, and
assumptions that are likely to get violated under changing climatic and land-use
land cover conditions render the application of conceptual models a cumber-
some task. Under such conditions, empirical models play a crucial role in
estimating the runoff with minimal data availability. Here, we use two transfer
function based approaches viz. linear regression (LR) and kernel regression
(KR) for estimating runoff over Godavari river basin. We find that LR outper-
forms its non-parametric counterpart in capturing long-term properties of
observed runoff.
Keywords: Godavari Rainfall-runoff modelling Kernel regression
1 Introduction
Hydrologic modeling (HM) is a method to assess and quantify the basin’s response to
the rainfall. It tries to capture the link between two important components of hydrologic
cycle viz. rainfall and runoff. However, the hydrologic cycle is an epitome of com-
plexity, involving different processes such as evaporation, infiltration. These processes
are difficult to model mathematically. To add to this, the response of basin is heavily
dependent on the local factors such as land use and land cover. Changes in the land use
(e.g. urbanization) alter the response of basin to the rainfall. Despite these odds,
quantification of runoff is extremely important to have a fair idea about available
surface water. Hence, HM is extremely important.
Rainfall–runoff models may be categorized into two groups: conceptual and
empirical models (Machado et al. 2011). The conceptual models portray the processes
of the hydrological cycle based on physical laws governing each of these processes
with the help of mathematics. However, physical processes such as infiltration, evap-
oration are difficult to model. Also, these methods are data intensive, which is difficult
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_16
116 C. Lakeshri and K. Salvi
to get at time. Unit hydrograph (Sherman 1932) is one of the most popular state of the
art methodologies, which fits in this category. This methodology is no exception and
requires a lot of data. Further the assumptions involved with this theory are likely to get
violated under changing climatic and land use conditions. These characteristics often
render the implementation of the conceptual model difficult. Under such conditions,
empirical models involving data-driven approaches and soft computing techniques play
a crucial role in estimating the runoff with minimal data availability.
Empirical models form suitable alternative to the conceptual models. The main
characteristic of this type of model consists of establishing a stable relationship
between input and output variables without accounting to the physical laws that govern
the natural processes. These models are easy to apply and supposedly cheaper.
Examples of these models are transfer function based approaches, artificial neural
networks (Hsu et al. 1995; Elshorbagy et al. 2000; Anmala et al. 2000; Tokar and
Markus 2000; Rajurkar et al. 2002). Usually, these models use gridded datasets and
hence, are not affected by human interventions pertaining to the discharge releases over
control structures. Even with these advantages, empirical approaches require calibra-
tion and validation and are affected by non-stationarity in the system.
With this assertion, we undertake the study of HM over Godavari river basin. Here,
we use two transfer function based approaches viz. linear regression and kernel
regression for establishing statistical relationship between gridded rainfall and runoff
data over the Godavari river basin. This study is more of a comparative nature with an
intention of identifying the suitable transfer function based approach for HM over the
Godavari river basin. The results are compared over first two moments of data to
evaluate the credibility of these models in capturing long term properties.
The manuscript is organized in the following manner. Section 2 provides infor-
mation about the study region and the data used. Section 3 describes the transfer
function based approaches. In Sect. 4, we illustrate and discuss the results that are
obtained after the application of methodology and we conclude with summary and
concluding remarks in Sect. 5.
2 Study Region and Data
We choose Godavari river basin for the current analysis. Originating in Trimbakeshwar
(Maharashtra), Godavari is the second longest river in India navigating through almost
seven states before connecting to the Bay of Bengal. Figure 1 (the embedded plot)
shows the location of Godavari river basin. Basin area of Godavari River is
302065.10 km2. Real motive behind selection of Godavari river basin for the present
analysis is extreme heterogeneity in terms of spatial variations in the rainfall pattern,
leading to similar complexities in runoff. Main plot in Fig. 1 shows the average runoff
in gridded format. The runoff data is taken from Climate Forecast System Reanalysis
(CFSR) and the details about the data are mentioned in the subsequent section. The
spatial heterogeneity in runoff, which is illustrated in Fig. 1, can be replicated only by a
Hydrologic Modeling with Transfer Function Based Approach 117
robust model, which understands causal relationship between the two components of
hydrologic system. Hence, it would be a real test for the data driven approaches to
capture this variability and prove their credibility.
0.0 0.2
2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 1. Location of Godavari river basin shown by red polygon (in the embedded plot) and
spatial variation of average runoff during 1970–2000
2.1 Rainfall Data

Gridded daily precipitation data by India Meteorological Department (IMD) is used as
a source of rainfall data. The daily data is available over Indian landmass at 0.25°
spatial resolution spanning over a period of 110 years (1901–2010) (Pai et al. 2014).
The data is obtained by applying inverse distance interpolation method proposed by
Shepard (1968). The orographic effects are nicely captured in this data. For the present
study we crop the data with ARC-GIS 10.2 over the Godavari river basin and mask the
grids falling out of the basin boundary.
2.2 Runoff Data

Gridded daily runoff data from CFSR is used in the present study. CFSR is the third
generation data product. The data is regridded at 0.25° resolution to match the grids of
rainfall data. Similar to the rainfall data, we mask the grids out of the boundary of the
Godavari river basin. Bringing the grids at the same resolution as rainfall helps us to fit
a statistical relationship between the rainfall and runoff at each grid.
3 Methodology
We use two transfer function based approaches viz. linear regression based approach
(LR) and kernel regression based approach (KR) for establishing the statistical rela-
tionship between the rainfall and runoff data. Overall data used in this study is from
1970 to 2000 (31 years). We had dual intentions in selecting the time slice. Thirty one
year time slice provides sufficient data required for calibration and validation. Also,
India encountered major boom in industrialization post 1975. We wanted to have a
period showing signatures of both pre and post industrial years. We choose first 16
years (1970–1985) for calibration and next 15 years (1986–200) for validation. Since
India received most of the rainfall during monsoon (June, July, August, September i.e.
JJAS), we use the data for monsoon period for this study. This implies that for each
year the data will be of 122 days (JJAS). The approaches are described as below.
3.1 LR Approach
LR approach, in mathematical terms, is conditional expectation. In statistics, linear
regression is a linear approach to modelling the relationship between a scalar response
(or dependent variable) and one or more explanatory variables (or independent vari-
ables). The case of one explanatory variable is called simple linear regression. LR is a
parametric approach, which can be used to fit a predictive model. The parameters of LR
are established usually with least square approach. LR approach is extensively used for
downscaling (Kannan et al. 2014; Salvi et al. 2017a, b) and shows capability of
capturing linear variations among different variables.
3.2 KR Approach
Kernel regression is a non-parametric form of conditional expectation. This approach is
used to link two variables, which share a non linear relationship. Nadaraya and Watson,
both in 1964, proposed the mathematical form of KR as shown in Eq. 1.
Pn
i¼1 kh ððx xi Þyi Þ
by ð xÞ ¼ P n ð1Þ
j¼1 kh ðx xi Þ
Where, by ð xÞ is estimated value of dependent variable y for given value of independent

variable x, kh is kernel density function. This model is used in different statistical
downscaling studies for obtaining rainfall values (Kannan and Ghosh 2013; Salvi et al.
2013; Salvi et al. 2015, Salvi et al. 2017b). In this approach, kernel density function is
normally used as weights. Hence, the expression shown in Eq. 1 is similar to weighted
average. In the present study, we use inverse distance method to find weights. The
approach is explained in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. KR based approach adopted in the present study.
Consider nine points with co-ordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2),..(x9, y9) as shown in
Fig. 2 and we need to find y for X = x. For finding ‘y’ corresponding to x, we subtract
x from x co-ordinates of all the points (such as x1 − x, x2 − x). The differences that we
get are basically the distances of x from all other points (e.g. D1, D2.. D9). These
differences are used as weights in kernel regression. Here, we leverage the fact that the
points close to the line X = x, will get more weight.
For the application of these approaches, we take inspiration from the gridded
approach of VIC model. Here, we assume that the runoff at a particular grid is a
function of rainfall at the same grid. Hence, over each grid, the calibration and vali-
dation is performed separately and skill results over entire basin are shown and dis-
cussed in the results section.
This section describes the skills illustrated by both the approaches in capturing long
terms statistical properties of evidentiary target runoff dataset over the validation
period.
4.1 Comparison of Mean

Figure 3 shows the results of comparison of mean runoff with the observed data (a).
The mean runoff obtained by LR approach (b) is in close consent with observed mean
at most of the locations. This is evident from the error plot (c) showing difference in the
simulated and observed mean runoff. Over most of the grids, the difference is restricted
to 0.5 mm/day. However, the downstream part is the location, where LR is not able to
continue the same performance. The difference is on higher side (about 1.5 mm/day).
KR based approach (d) is able to capture the spatial pattern of observed runoff,
however, significantly underestimates the magnitude. This is revealed in the error plot
(e), which shows the positive difference in mean all over the basin. KR approach
basically fails in capturing mean runoff, especially in the southern part of basin.
Fig. 3. Comparison of mean runoff obtained with LR (b) and KR (d) based approaches with
observed data (a), along with quantification of errors (c) and (e)
4.2 Comparison of Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a measure of spread and if a methodology is able to capture the
spread, it has the ability to capture extremes. Figure 4 shows the comparison between
the standard deviation of observed data and those shown by two approaches. For
observed data (a), higher variations are seen on the northern part of river basin. The
simulations obtained by LR approach (b) show significant resemblance with observed
standard deviations in terms of magnitude and spatial variations. It is clear from the
Fig. 4. Comparison of standard deviation of runoff obtained with LR (b) and KR (d) based
approaches with observed data (a), along with quantification of errors (c) and (e)
difference plot (c). Except for the downstream side of the basin, the model’s perfor-
mance is reasonable. Simulations with KR approach (d) again capture the spatial
pattern of observed standard deviation (higher variation in northern part and lower in
southern). However, it completely under predicts the magnitude of this variation, which
is again evident from the difference plot (e).
5 Summary and Concluding Remarks
Rainfall runoff relationship is a classic problem, which hydrologist across the globe try
to resolve. Here, an attempt is made to assess the skills of two data driven approaches
(LR and d KR based) over the Godavari river basin with a motive to comment upon the
skills imparted by these approaches, which can work under data deficient conditions.
LR based approach seems to outperform KR based approach in every field. This is
slightly astonishing mainly because we do not expect rainfall and runoff to vary lin-
early. However, that might be the case here. Also, the simplest weighted average
approach used in KR might have affected the skills. A future scope of this study would
be to use complicated kernels (such as Gaussian kernel) and verify is there is any
improvement in skills. Nevertheless, the skills shown by LR approach are good enough
to get overall picture of runoff and hence, in a data deficient conditions and hence, can
be used for understanding the response of basin to the rainfall.
References
Machado F, Mine M, Kaviski E, Fill H (2011) Monthly rainfall–runoff modelling using artificial
neural networks. Hydrol Sci J (J des Sci Hydrol) 56(3):349–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02626667.2011.559949
Sherman LK (1932) Streamflow from rainfall by unit hydrograph method. Eng News-Recod
108:501–505
Hsu KL, Gupta HV, Sorroshian S (1995) Artificial neural network modelling of the rainfall –
runoff process. Water Resour Res 31(10):2517–2530
Elshorbagy A, Simonovic SP, Panu US (2000) Performance evaluation of artificial neural
networks for runoff prediction. J Hydrol Eng 5(4):424–427
Anmala J, Zhang B, Govindaraju RS (2000) Comparison of ANNs and empirical approaches for
predicting watershed runoff. J Water Resour Plan Manag 126(3):156–166
Tokar AS, Markus M (2000) Precipitation – runoff modelling using artificial neural networks and
conceptual models. J Hydrol Eng 5(2):156–161
Rajurkar MP, Kothyari UC, Chaube UC (2002) Artificial neural network for daily rainfall–runoff
modelling. Hydrol Sci J 47(6):865–877
Pai DS, Sridhar L, Rajeevan M, Sreejith OP, Satbhai NS, Mukhopadhyay B (2014) Development
of a new high spatial resolution (0.25° 0.25°) long period (1901–2010) daily gridded
rainfall data set over India and its comparison with existing data sets over the region. Mausam
65(1):1–18
Shepard, D.: A two‐dimensional interpolation function for irregularly spaced data, Proc.
1968 ACM Nat. Conf., 517–524 (1968)
Kannan S, Ghosh S, Mishra V, Salvi K (2014) Uncertainty resulting from multiple data usage in
statistical downscaling. Geophys Res Lett 41:4013–4019. https://doi.org/10.1002/
2014GL060089
Salvi K, Villarini G, Vecchi G, Ghosh S (2017) Decadal temperature predictions over the
continental United States: analysis and enhancement. Clim Dyn https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00382-017-3532-1
Salvi K, Villarini G, Vecchi G (2017b) High resolution decadal precipitation predictions over the
continental United States for impacts assessment. J Hydrol 553:559–573. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jhydrol.2017.07.043
Salvi K, Kannan S, Ghosh S (2013) High-resolution multisite daily rainfall projections in India
with statistical downscaling for climate change impacts assessment. J Geophys Res Atmos
118:3557–3578. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50280
Salvi K, Ghosh S, Ganguly AR (2015) Credibility of statistical downscaling under nonstationary
climate. Clim Dyn https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2688-9
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips
Embedded in Cement Modified
Marginal Backfill
Pandu Kurre1(&), Vineeth Reddy Karnati2, and Heeralal Mudavath2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Indu Institute of Engineering
pandu.ouce@gmail.com
2
Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Warangal, Hanamkonda, India
Abstract. Pull-out resistance of reinforcing materials is one of the internal

stability criterions in Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) construction which is
normally calculated taking the friction coefficient equal to tan(d); d being the
angle of internal friction in case of rigid reinforcing materials. For
flexible/extensible reinforcing strips, the friction coefficient cannot be directly
taken and in this direction, several attempts have been made by various
researchers to evaluate suitable pull-out parameters. Further, the complexity
increases within the use of marginal backfill soils where suitable soils are not
available. The present work aims at determining the pull-out parameters of
different types of reinforcing materials embedded in marginal backfill soil
without and with cement modification. The testing was carried out in laboratory
using a test box. The pull-out factors F and a as suggested by FHWA were
evaluated using the test data.
Keywords: Mechanically Stabilized Earth Marginal soil

Cement modification Geotextile reinforcement Pull-out resistance
1 Introduction
MSE walls gained prominence in place of conventional retaining walls in view of the
inherent advantages of such systems. These walls consist of free draining frictional
backfills reinforced with suitable materials connected to facing units. Though the cri-
terion for standard backfill is specified, at several work sites, such materials are not
available in abundance and hence, the use of locally available marginal backfills is
reported by various investigators [2, 12]. With this shift from standard backfills, few
failures of reinforced soil structures were reported [1, 14]. It is reported that majority of
failures were attributed to the use of poor quality backfills with high plasticity and low
permeability [2, 8]. Few attempts were also made by investigators to overcome the ill-
effects of marginal backfills by the use of electro-kinetic dewatering [5], prestressing
and preloading and the use of cementitious materials [15]. The researchers have also
studied the efficacy of cement modification of marginal soils for their use in reinforced
soil structures [13] by conducting load tests on model embankments. In order to evolve
the design parameters for internal stability in case of cement modified backfills, an
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_17
124 P. Kurre et al.
attempt is made to carryout laboratory pull-out tests on various types of reinforcing

strips embedded in marginal backfills without and with cement modification.
2 Materials and Methodology
2.1 Upland Soil

Upland soil which is locally available was used to resemble the marginal backfill soil.
The index and engineering properties of the upland soil were determined according to
IS: 2720 and presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of sand and upland soil

Property Upland soil
Particle distribution
% Gravel 0
% Sand 58
% Silt 24
% Clay 18
Atterberg limits: (%)
Liquid limit (wl) 39
Plastic limit (wp) 17
IS soil classification SC
Compaction properties
OMC (%) 16.5
MDD (g/cc) 1.78
Shear strength parameters
(i) UU test
Cu (kPa) 52
/u (o) 14
(ii) CD test
C′ (kPa) 20
/0 (o) 29
Coefficient of permeability, k (cm/sec) 2.48 * 10−6
2.2 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of 53 grade is used to modify the collected upland
soil.
2.3 Soil-Cement
The upland soil was mixed with different proportions of cement and tested for the
Atterberg limits and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) values which were
Study on Interaction of Reinforcing Strips Embedded 125
presented in Table 2. It was observed that the soil shown non-plastic (NP) behaviour at
2% cement content and in the present pull-out tests 3% cement content was used to
avoid non uniform mixing of cement to soil.
Table 2. Properties of marginal soil-cement mixtures

Property Cement content (%)
0 2 3 5 10
Atterberg limits (immediately after addition) (%)
Liquid limit 39 35 34 30 NP
Plastic limit 17 17 18 20
Atterberg limits (after 3 days curing) (%)
Liquid limit – NP NP NP NP
Plastic limit
UCS for cement modified soil (kPa) (after 3 days curing) 74 261 334 618 1216
2.4 Reinforcement
The properties of different reinforcing materials used were determined as per the
standard procedures [9] and given in Table 3. These reinforcements were chosen with
variable tensile strength to distinguish the failure mechanisms in pull-out resistance of
reinforced cement modified marginal soil.
Table 3. Properties of reinforcing strips used for pull-out testing

POLYFELT WOVEN GEOTEXTILE (PD 381) Q 425 D (Non-woven
Material: Polypropylene Material: Polypropylene Geotextile)
(Non-woven web with woven Thickness: 0.62 mm under 2 kPa Material: Polypropylene
interfaces) Grab strength: 18 kN/m Thickness: 3.8 mm under
Thickness: 3 mm under 2 kPa 2 kPa
Grab strength: 28 kN/m Grab strength: 8.3 kN/m
TENSAR GEOGRID (type 1) TENSAR GEOGRID (type 2) CHICKEN MESH
Material: Polypropylene Material: Polypropylene Material: Galvanized Iron
Hexagonal openings of 26 28 mm Diamond shaped openings of Diameter of wire: 0.6 mm
Grab strength: 7 kN/m 6 8 mm Size of opening: 6 6 mm
Grab strength: 5 kN/m Yield strength: 260 MPa
2.5 Laboratory Tests

Laboratory scale pull-out tests were performed to determine the interaction parameters
of reinforcement with soil. The fill material used was marginal upland soil for this
testing.
126 P. Kurre et al.
3 Pull-Out Testing
The pull-out test apparatus consists of a square box of size 0.30 m 0.30 m
0.30 m, made of 8 mm thick mild steel plates. The schematic illustration of experi-
mental set up is shown in Fig. 1. The size of the box is so chosen that the pull-out tests
would be done on smaller length of reinforcing strips such that they tend to slip rather
than anchor themselves within their tensile strength. On one side of the box, a hori-
zontal sleeve was made to allow the reinforcing strip to be pulled through.
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the pull-out unit during testing.
The reinforcing strips of 10 cm wide with different embedment lengths (10, 20 and
30 cm) were placed over the compacted surface of the fill and an overhanging of the
strip was left for connection (Fig. 1). The upper portion of the box was also filled with
backfill and compacted in 5 cm thick layers at its optimum moisture content to its
maximum dry density using a hand rammer. To minimize the wall friction, grease was
applied on the internal sides of the test box [7]. The friction between the strips and the
front wall of pull-out box was assumed to be negligible due to sufficient clearance
while no soil escapes through it [11]. The protruding part of the respective reinforcing
strip was clamped at the end by steel plates with nut and bolt arrangement and then
connected to a tension proving ring attached to motorized movable ram of specially
fabricated pull-out testing unit (Fig. 1).
A series of pull-out tests were carried out under varied normal stresses (7.5, 15 and
22.5 kPa) using different types of reinforcing strips embedded in upland soil without
and with 3% cement modification. The pull-out load was recorded using a tension
proving ring while the displacement was obtained from dial gauge readings. The pull-
out resistance vs. normal stress plots were drawn to get the pull-out interaction
parameters (ca and d, the adhesion value and apparent friction angle respectively).
However, these parameters cannot be directly used in design calculations especially for
flexible reinforcing strips due to their extensibility [6] and hence, pull-out design
factors, namely, F (pull-out resistance factor) and a (scale effect correction factor)
were introduced in calculations [2–4, 10]. Pull-out resistance (Pr ) is calculated using
the above factors per unit width using the following equation.
Pr ¼ F a r n Le C ð1Þ
Where, F is the pull-out resistance factor, a is scale effect correction factor, rn is

the normal stress, Le is the embedded length of strip and C is generally taken as 2. The
values of F and a depend on the type of reinforcement, its geometry, length and
confining pressure.
rn tand þ ca
F o a is given by Ci tanu; Where; Ci ¼
rn tanu þ c
4 Discussion on Laboratory Test Results
The tests were carried out on different reinforcing strips embedded in a pull-out box
and at different normal stresses. Typical pull-out load versus pull-out deformation plot
is shown in Fig. 2 for Polyfelt (non-woven) geotextile strip. It can be seen that the pull-
out load is steadily increased with pull-out deformation beyond the initial extension of
the strip and thereafter, it is decreased. In case of metallic strips, the pull-out load is
steadily increased with deformation up to peak value and then decreased. Similar plots
were drawn for all the strips under different normal stresses and peak pull-out loads
were obtained.
Fig. 2. A typical plot between pull-out load versus pull-out deformation.

128 P. Kurre et al.
4.1 Interaction Parameters (ca and d)

These parameters were obtained from the plots drawn between peak pull-out stress and
normal stress. The typical plot is shown in Fig. 3 for chicken mesh reinforcing
strip. The intercept on peak pull-out stress axis is referred to as ca (adhesion intercept)
and the slope of the line as d (apparent interface friction angle). These values obtained
for different test conditions are presented in Tables 4. It can be observed from the tables
that the pull-out design factors, F and a values are ranging from 0.3 to 1.72 and 0.2 to
0.55 respectively. The lower values of these parameters are pertinent to the more
extensible materials like geogrid and geotextile for both the test moisture contents i.e.,
optimum moisture content and fully wet condition. For all the reinforcing strips, these
parameters were reduced by 50–60% upon wetting for laboratory testing. These
parameters were restored back to their presoaked values upon 3% cement modification
of the marginal backfill. These observations are close to those made by others [2].
Fig. 3. A typical plot between peak pull—out stress and normal stress.
Among the geotextiles, higher values of pull-out design factors (F and a) were
obtained for polyfelt compared to other fabrics. This could be supported by its higher
tensile strength and rough surface due to longitudinal laces. The descending order of
values of F and a are observed for polyfelt followed by PD381 and Q425D. The value
of F bears a good relationship with tensile strength of fabric reinforcement, whereas a
values are not significantly influenced by tensile strength. For any fabric type, the F
value is slightly decreased with normal stress. Similar observations were also made by
others [2, 3, 10].
Table 4. Laboratory pull-out test results.

Type of Normal Upland marginal soil
reinforcement stress At OMC At saturation At 7 days curing period
ca d ci a F ca d ci a F ca d ci a F
Polyfelt 7.5 16 13 0.73 0.40 1.00 11 10 0.51 0.25 1.22 24 21 1.11 0.41 1.48
15 0.69 0.94 0.48 1.02 1.06 1.42
22.5 0.64 0.88 0.45 0.99 0.98 1.31
Woven 7.5 14 20 0.69 0.40 0.95 12 10 0.55 0.27 1.12 30 14 1.32 0.42 1.72
geotextile 15 0.67 0.92 0.52 1.05 1.20 1.57
(PD 381) 22.5 0.66 0.90 0.44 0.89 1.07 1.40
Q 425 D 7.5 10 10 0.47 0.31 0.83 5 12 0.29 0.28 0.56 21 5 0.90 0.40 1.23
15 0.45 0.79 0.27 0.53 0.79 1.08
22.5 0.42 0.72 0.26 0.51 0.69 0.95
Chicken 7.5 19 27 0.95 0.45 1.05 17 22 0.83 0.37 1.00 31 18 1.45 0.55 1.40
mesh 15 0.91 1.00 0.79 1.00 1.39 1.31
22.5 0.89 0.95 0.77 0.98 1.35 1.28
Tensar 7.5 7 10 0.34 0.32 0.58 6 8 0.29 0.24 0.56 8 10 0.38 0.30 0.70
geogrid 15 0.33 0.56 0.28 0.44 0.36 0.66
type 1 22.5 0.31 0.53 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.60
Tensar 7.5 6 10 0.31 0.22 0.77 3 5 0.15 0.20 0.41 7 11 0.35 0.21 0.91
geogrid 15 0.30 0.75 0.13 0.35 0.31 0.81
type 2 22.5 0.28 0.70 0.10 0.27 0.29 0.75
In case of mesh and geogrid, the F and a values are significantly lower than those
of fabrics due to their higher extensibility as observed during testing. The lower d
values also indicate their inadequate pulling out of the fill. This could be supported by
their ready slippage during pull-out testing.
5 Summary and Conclusions
Pull-out resistance of reinforcing materials embedded in backfill soil is one of the

essential requirements of internal stability of reinforced soil structures. The complexity
of assessment of pull-out interaction increases further with the use of marginal backfills
which are susceptible for moisture variations. The present work overcome the defi-
ciencies of marginal backfill soils by adopting cement modification and study the pull-
out resistance of different types of reinforcing materials embedded in marginal backfill
soil without and with cement modification which are comparable with the available
literature.
The marginal soils could retain its resistance to pull-out of reinforcement even
under fully wet condition by 3% cement modification at which the soil became non-
plastic while retaining the flexible nature of reinforced soil. The pull-out factors a and
F , as envisaged by FHWA to account for extensibility of flexible reinforcing materials
and the geometric variations were determined for different reinforcing materials under
different test conditions. The values of these factors are observed to be in the range of
130 P. Kurre et al.
those reported in the literature when marginal soil is modified by 3% cement. In case of
virgin marginal soil, the pull-out resistance is reduced to about one-third of its value at
optimum moisture content.
References
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and field pull—out tests. Report no. FHWA/LA 03/380, Louisiana Transportation Research
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tests on geogid strip reinforcement. Geotech Test J 22(1):32–38
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soils. M.S. thesis submitted to LSU, U.S.A
11. Palmeira EM (2004) Bearing force mobilization in pull—out tests on geogrids. Geotext
Geomembr 22:481–509
12. Palmeira EM (2007) Soil—geosynthetics interaction: modelling and analysis mercer lecture
2007–2008. In: Proceedings of 13th asian regional conference on soil mechanics and
geotechnical engineering, Kolkata
13. Praveen GV, Murty VR (2009) Cement modified backfills for mechanically stabilized earth
walls with built—in facing. J Mater Civil Eng 21(7):343–348
14. Subramanian R (1995) Large scale pull-out and shear tests on geogrid reinforced lightweight
aggregates. In: Proceedings of geosynthetics 1995, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., pp 1179–
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Experimental Study on Interfacial Frictional
Properties of Geogrid Reinforced Pond Ash
Mogili Sudhakar1(&), M. Heeralal1, G. Kalyan Kumar1,

and Pandu Kurre2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal,
Warangal 506004, Telangana, India
Mogili.Sudhakar@gmail.com, M.Heeralal@gmail.com,
G.Kalyan.Kumar@gmail.com, sudhakarmogili147@gmail.com
2
Pandu.Kurre@gmail.com
Abstract. The performance of any reinforced soil structures is primarily gov-

erned by soil and geosynthetic interface friction mechanism. Nowadays, due to
non- availability of suitable backfill materials, exploration has been started to
find out alternative one. On other hand, pond ash which is a waste by-product
generating from thermal power plants has many desirable engineering proper-
ties, encouraging to use as backfill material. In this connection, the present work
is focused to find the interfacial frictional characteristics of pond ash reinforced
with two biaxial geogrid materials by conducting the large scale direct shear test
and pullout tests. From the test results, it is observed that the interface friction
properties of two tests in terms of coefficient of interface friction (Ci ) and pullout
frictional factor (f ) are in the range of 0.86 to 0.74 and 0.54 to 0.35
respectively.
Keywords: Pond ash Geogrid Interfacial friction Direct shear Pullout
1 Introduction
Since 1970’s the “Reinforced Earth” technology has gained worldwide acceptance and
constructed many reinforced earth structures all over the world. The advantages of this
technology are simplicity in the construction phase, cost-effective and flexible in nature
as compared to conventional classical structures like gravity retaining structures. The
structures constructed by using this technology has the ability to tolerate large defor-
mations in vertical as well as horizontal directions without excessive structural distress
under static and dynamic loads [1]. Further, with the great advent in and wide appli-
cations of geosynthetics in civil engineering practice, a new era started in reinforced
earth structures such as walls, slopes, embankments etc. Although the design and per-
formance of these structures appear simple like gravity retaining wall, its internal
mechanism development for stability and serviceability point of view is unique and
which mainly depends on interaction mechanism developed between soil and rein-
forcement and which further relies on type of backfill soil, reinforcement characteristics,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_18
132 M. Sudhakar et al.
and its elemental interaction [2, 3]. For any reinforced soil structure, the
instability/failure within is caused by sliding failure (direct shear) and/or pullout of
reinforcement (pullout failure), which are commonly considered in the design of rein-
forced soil structures. Hence, for the design of any reinforced earth structure, it is very
significant to identify the mode of failure so that the optimized design can be carried out.
Numerous investigators have studied the interface friction mechanism successfully by
conducting shear strength tests and pullout tests with various type of conventional
granular backfill soils and geosynthetic inclusions reported the development of interface
friction mechanism and its significant contribution between fill and reinforcement in the
performance of reinforced soil [4, 5]. However, at many construction sites due to non-
availability of conventional soils, people have been used locally available soils like
clayey soils, marginal soils as backfill materials behind the reinforced structures. During
the lifespan of the structures, these soils lead to undesirable engineering behaviour in the
form of pore water pressure development, insufficient frictional stresses and corrosion of
reinforcement [1–3, 6]. Hence, to overcome the above problems researchers intended to
find new sustainable materials. One such most commonly available material is pond ash
(a mixture of fly ash and bottom ash stored in ash ponds), which is generating from coal-
based thermal power plants as a waste material at an alarming rate (180MMT/year),
occupying huge valuable land for disposal and causing environmental hazards thereby
creating an ecological imbalance [7]. Therefore utilization of pond ash in huge quantity
has become a primary concern. In several investigations, researches have confirmed the
suitability of coal ash as a construction material because of its low specific gravity, good
drainage property, insensitive to water during compaction, low compressibility, and
good frictional characteristics. Some investigations have studied the use of coal ash in
civil engineering practices either by itself or blend it with other soils/admixtures or
inclusions and reported the improvement in strength and stiffness characteristics [8–10].
Some people have studied the interfacial frictional characteristics of coal ashes espe-
cially fly ash and bottom ash with various types of geosynthetic reinforcing elements by
conducting triaxial, direct shear and pull-out tests to use them as structural backfill [11,
12]. However, limited research work has been reported on the use of pond ash. Hence,
the present work is aimed to study the interface frictional characteristics of pond ash
reinforced with biaxial geogrid type reinforcement.
2 Materials Used
2.1 Pond Ash

The pond ash used in the present study is collected from Kakatiya thermal power plant
(KTPP) Bhupalpalle, Telangana, India. Table 1 shows the physical properties of pond
ash. According to ASTM (C-618-98), pond ash is classified as class F type ash material
with Cao content <15%.
Experimental Study on Interfacial Frictional Properties 133
Table 1. Physical properties of pond ash

S. No. Property Value
1. Specific gravity 1.82
2. Plasticity index NP
3. Grain size distribution
(i) % of gravel (>4.75 mm) 0
(ii) % of sand (0.075 mm–4.75 mm) 71
(iii) % of silt & clay (<0.002 mm) 29
4. Maximum dry density, MDD (kN/m3) 10.5
5. Optimum moisture content, OMC (%) 38
6. Angle of internal friction (u0) 32.1°
7. Coefficient Permeability, k (cm/sec) 6.2 10−4
8. Compression Index, Cc 0.0846
2.2 Reinforcement
Two geogrid type reinforcements shown in Fig. 1, called as GG1 and GG2 were used
in the present experiments having rectangular mesh configuration with 26.5 25 mm;
30 30 mm internal openings with a thickness of 1.0 mm. The tensile strength of
GG1 and GG2 were 26 kN/m and 14 kN/m with the maximum elongation at break of
15% and 9.8% as per ASTM D5035. Tensile strength and elongation of the geogrids
have been determined by wide width specimens at a pulling rate of 5 mm/min.
Fig. 1. Geogrid materials used in the present study
3 Experimental Program
In the present work, large scale direct shear test and pullout test apparatus were used to
measure the interface frictional characteristics of pond ash and pond ash-geogrid
reinforcement (GG1 and GG2) in terms of interface friction coefficient (Ci ) and pullout
resistance frictional factor (f ).
3.1 Experimental Setup and Procedure (Large Direct Shear Test)

A direct shear box of size 300 mm 300 mm 200 mm was used to conduct direct
shear tests. It consists of a horizontal load cell with 30 kN capacity and a dial gauge
extensometer to measure horizontal deformations during the shear stage. Each test is
carried out with pond ash and pond ash - reinforcement compacted at relative com-
paction of 90% of MDD placed with a moisture content of 2% wet of optimum. The
reinforcement is placed at the interface between lower and upper box and gripped
tightly with lower box using gripping system. The reinforcement size used in the
present study is the same as that of plan area of shear box. These tests were conducted
under three normal stresses (50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 150 kPa) and kept them constant for
a period of 2 h before applying shear load. The shear force was applied at a rate of
1 mm/min with a maximum shear displacement of 30 mm. All these tests were con-
ducted with the general accordance of ASTM D5321. Figure 2 shows the large direct
shear setup used in the study.
Fig. 2. Large direct shear test setup
3.2 Experimental Setup and Procedure (Pullout)

The geosynthetic pullout tests have been performed in a prefabricated pullout testing
equipment with the size of pullout box being 610 mm 460 mm 380 mm. The
box must allow the maximum embedded length of 600 mm beyond the sleeve with the
minimum width of 175 mm. The pond ash sample was placed in pullout box with a
relative density of 90% MDD with a 2% wet of optimum. A total of three normal
stresses (37 kPa, 72 kPa, and 110 kPa) were examined to know pullout behaviour. The
pullout load was applied with a constant rate of 4.5 mm/min for each test until pullout
failure or maximum load was recorded. The load application was noted with the help of
a proving ring of capacity 100 kN. The horizontal displacement of geosynthetic was
measured at the entrance of pull out box with dial gauge extensometer (100 mm).
In the testing procedure, to start with, the bottom half of the pullout box was filled
with pond ash in layers and compacted to the required density. After that geogrid was
placed on pond ash and drawn between sleeves and clamped in the clamping device.
Then again pond ash was placed in the top half and compacted as followed in the
bottom half of the test box. Finally, the test box was closed with the top plate and
equipped with the necessary measuring devices. The methodology followed in each
tests are as per ASTM D6707. Figure 3 shows the large direct shear setup used in the
study.
Fig. 3. Geosynthetic pull out test apparatus
4.1 Shear Strength of Pond Ash

The shear strength of compacted pond ash was evaluated by conducting the direct shear
test (DST) compacted with 2% wet of optimum moisture content at a relative density of
90%. Figure 4(a) represents the variation of shear stress with horizontal deformation at
three normal stress conditions and Fig. 4(b) represents the shear strength envelop of
pond ash. The Peak stresses were observed for horizontal deformation in the range of 5
to 8 mm while the residual stresses (large displacement strength) were observed at a
horizontal displacement of almost 13 mm. From Mohr-Coulomb envelop the peak
shear strength parameters (C, u) were found to be 1.2 kPa and 35.1°.
(a) Shear stress vs Horizontal (b) Shear strength envelop

deformation
Fig. 4. Large direct shear test on pond ash

4.2 Interface Friction Between Pond Ash and Geogrid

The interface shear stresses vs horizontal deformation plots and the corresponding
shear envelopes at different normal stresses are shown in Figs. 5 and 6 for both geo-
grids GG1 and GG2. The shear parameters were considered under both peak and
critical deformation (large deformation) conditions. From Fig. 5, the resulting peak
shear strength parameters for GG1 were observed as Ca = 3.6 kPa and d = 28.45°
whereas for large deformation condition Ca = 0.6 kPa and d = 27.56°. From Fig. 6,
the interface shear stresses between pond ash and GG2 at both peak and critical state
were Ca = 6.0 kPa, d = 26.10°, and Ca = 2.0 kPa, d = 24.7° respectively. From the
test results, it is seen that the pond ash- geogrid interface friction was increased with the
increase of normal stresses. This is due to the increase of interaction forces between
pond ash - reinforcement interface leads to an increase in peak shear stresses.
(a) Shear stress vs Horizontal deformation (b) Shear stress envelops at peak and critical condition
Fig. 5. Large direct shear test on Pond ash reinforced with GG1
Further, there was an increase in the stiffness of reinforced pond ash with increase
of normal stresses as it was observed by the steep slope of stress-strain curves.
However, the mobilized interaction between pond ash and reinforcement was lower
than the internal friction of pond ash alone and which was almost in the range of 68 to
80% of the angle of internal friction of pond ash.
4.3 Interface Friction Coefficient (Ci )

The coefficient of interface friction (Ci ) between backfill soil material and reinforce-
ment is calculated using Eq. 1 [2, 13].
(b)Shear stress envelops at peak and critical

(a) Shear stress vs Horizontal deformation
condition
Fig. 6. Large direct shear test on Pond ash reinforced with GG2
Ci = (Shear strength developed between fill and reinforcement/Shear strength of fill

alone)
Ci = τpond ash- geogrid / τpond ash ð1Þ
The interface friction coefficient of pond ash with geogrid reinforcement GG1 and GG2
were evaluated using Eq. (1). Table 2 summarizes the interfacial friction coefficient
values of pond ash reinforced with geogrids at three normal stresses. Figure 7(a) and
(b) shows the variation of interface friction coefficient with respect to normal stresses.
The interaction coefficient values obtained from the direct shear test were in the range
of 0.98 to 0.78 & 0.85 to 0.78 for GG1; 0.82 to 0.74 & 0.76 to 0.71 for GG2 under both
peak and critical conditions for corresponding normal stresses of 50 kPa to 150 kPa,
respectively. From the test results, it is seen that the interface friction coefficient of a
pondash–geogrid decreased with the increase of normal stresses. Further, it was
observed that the interfacial frictional strength of GG1 was found to be higher than
GG2. This is attributed to the type of polymer characteristics, grid dimensional
structure (availability of transverse ribs which offers passive resistance against shear-
ing), surface roughness and stiffness characteristics [10, 11].
Table 2. Coefficient of interface friction of pond ash with geogrid reinforcements

Material/Normal (Pond ash + GG1) (Pond ash + GG2)
stresses (kPa) Peak Critical Peak Critical
condition condition condition condition
50 0.98 0.85 0.82 0.76
100 0.81 0.82 0.78 0.75
150 0.78 0.78 0.74 0.71
(a) at peak condition (b) at critical condition
Fig. 7. Interface friction coefficient of reinforced pond ash
4.4 Pullout Frictional Characteristics Between Pond Ash and Geogrid

The pullout force vs horizontal deformation behaviour of geogrid reinforced pond ash
at different normal stress levels (37, 72, and 110 kPa) are presented in Figs. 8 and 9.
The test results were analyzed to evaluate the interface frictional bond strength between
pond ash and reinforcement in terms of pullout friction factor (f ) using Eq. 2 [2].
Table 3 summarizes test results. In each case, all the reinforced specimens were failed
under pullout mode condition only. The present study assumed that the nonlinear stress
reduction along the length of the reinforcement on account of scale effect correction
factor (a) as 0.8 for all test specimens [14].
Pr ¼ 2Le B rv a tan/ ¼ 2Le B rv a tand ¼ 2 Le Brv a f ð2Þ
Where Pr = pullout resistance Le = length of embedded reinforcement, B = rein-

forcement width, rv = vertical overburden pressure, a = scale effect correction factor,
tand = f = pullout frictional factor.
From the test results, it was found that with an increase of normal stresses from 37
to 110 kPa, the pullout force also increased and attained peak load and then failed by
pullout mode. All the peak loads were observed between the displacements of 40 to
80 mm. In both cases, the friction factor values decreased with the increase of normal
loads and varying from 0.43 to 0.35 for GG1 and 0.42 to 0.28 for GG2. The similar
trend was observed in previous studies [10]. From Table 3 it is noticed that GG1
specimen showed higher pullout resistance than GG2 specimen because of high surface
roughness characteristics with the pond ash which results in higher interaction values.
Fig. 8. Pullout force vs displacement of pond Fig. 9. Pullout force vs displacement of

ash reinforced with GG1 pond ash reinforced with GG2
Table 3. Summary of pullout test results

Test fill and Normal Max pullout Pullout friction
reinforcement stress (kPa) resistance (kN/m) factor (f )
Pond ash + GG1 37 4.15 0.43
72 7.56 0.41
110 10 0.35
Pond ash + GG2 37 4.01 0.42
72 6.82 0.37
110 8.06 0.28
5 Conclusions
The objective of the present study is to find the interfacial frictional characteristics in
terms of shear and pullout between pond ash and geogrid reinforcement by conducting
large direct shear test and pullout test. From experimental works, the following con-
clusions were drawn.
• In both direct shear test and pullout tests, the resisting load against shear and pullout
failures increased with applied normal stresses.
• From the direct shear test, the interface friction coefficients (Ci) found to be in the
range of 0.86 to 0.74 in a detrimental way with applied normal stresses of 50 to
150 kPa. The higher interface coefficient for GG1 as compared to GG2 is attributed
to the type of polymer, surface roughness, and stiffness characteristics.
• The mobilized interfacial frictional angles are almost 68 to 80% of the angle of
internal friction of pond ash.
• The pullout test results showed that the pullout resistance for both geogrids was
increased with the increase of normal stresses from 37 to 110 kPa, whereas pullout
resistance factor (f ) was decreased from 0.43 to 0.35 for GG1 and 0.42 to 0.28 for
GG2.
• The interface frictional shear strength characteristics between pond ash particles
alone are higher than the pond ash-geogrid reinforcement.
References
1. Holtz RD (2017) 46th Terzaghi lecture: geosynthetic reinforced soil: from the experimental
to the familiar (Doctoral dissertation, ASCE)
2. Berg, R. R., Christopher, B. R., Samtani, N. C.: Design and construction of mechanically
stabilized earth walls and reinforced soil slopes. US Department of Transportation (FHWA)
(2009)
3. BSI (2010) Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and others fills. BSI Standards
Publication
4. Liu CN, Zornberg JG, Chen TC, Ho YH, Lin BH (2009) Behavior of geogrid- sand interface
in direct shear mode. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(12):1863–1871
5. Hegde A, Roy R (2018) A comparative numerical study on soil-geosynthetic interactions
using large scale direct shear and pullout test. Int J Geosynth Ground Eng 4(1):2
6. Mallick S, Zhai H, Adanur S, Elton D (1996) Pullout and direct shear testing of geosynthetic
reinforcement: a state-of-the-art report. J Transp Res Board (1534):80–90
7. CEA (2017) Fly ash generation at coal/lignite based thermal power stations and its utilization
in the country for the year 2016–2017. Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi. http://www.
cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/tcd/flyash_201718.pdf
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carbon, pozzolanic fly ash and its potential as a construction fill. Can Geotech J 28(4):542–
555
9. Jakka RS, Ramana GV, Datta M (2010) Shear behaviour of loose and compacted pond ash.
Geotech Geol Eng 28(6):763–778
10. Mir BA, Sridharan A (2013) Physical and compaction behaviour of clay soil–fly ash
mixtures. Geotech Geol Eng 31(4):1059–1072
11. Pando MA, Swan Jr RH, Park Y, Sheridan S (2014) Experimental study of bottom coal ash-
geogrid interaction. In: Geo-congress: geo-characterization and modeling for sustainability,
pp 316–325
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IJGE 3(2):131–148
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construction guidelines, FHWA-NHI-0043
Resilient Modulus of Unsaturated
Soil – A Comprehensive Review
A. G. Sharanya1(&), M. Heera Lal1, and Pandu Kurre2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal,
India
sareninalli@gmail.com, mhl@nitw.ac.in
2
Abstract. Unsaturated soils are predominant in semi-arid regions which has the
property to show moisture changes. Compacted pavement soil is in the unsat-
urated state thus exhibiting the tendency to weaken or strengthen with varying
water content. With ever-changing vehicular loading condition, the necessity to
utilize the dynamic behavior of pavement materials in the design of pavements
have been validated in numerous research works. Thus the elastic moduli of
pavement material have been incorporated as a key parameter in MEPDG. In-
service condition all the compacted soil possess the ability to exhibit changes in
strength with seasonal moisture variation. This paper is intended to summarize
the findings and the necessity to understand the post-compaction moisture
variation and their influence on the mechanical property of pavement materials.
Furthermore, the importance to correlate suction and resilient modulus have not
been into practice in many developing countries due to inadequate information.
Hence, the present work aims to be a comprehensive reference to be updated on
available correlation models.
Keywords: Unsaturated soils Soil suction Degree of saturation

Compacted subgrade Resilient modulus Repeated load triaxial test
1 Introduction
With the rapid progress of cities, the areas further inland is developed to accommodate
the increasing population. The behavior of soil in areas of low or moderate rainfall fall
in the category of unsaturated or partially saturated soils. The soil is represented as a
two-phase system with solid and liquid, whereas the unsaturated soil mechanics con-
siders the soil as a four-phase system in most of the cases with air and air-water
interface in count [2]. The geotechnical engineering practice dealing with these soils is
still ingrained in conventional soil mechanics [1]. Pavement infrastructure is pre-
dominantly found on unsaturated soils and the compacted subgrade soil also resembles
that of unsaturated soil. Thus the viability of soil to saturate or desaturate with varying
moisture content tends to alter the property of the pavement material which in turn
influences their mechanical behavior.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_19
142 A. G. Sharanya et al.
As soil suction is defined as the free energy of soil water is with two components:
(1) Osmotic suction (2) Matric suction. Matric suction results from a combination of
capillary tension and short term adsorption that exists between individual particles.
Osmotic suction is a function of the salt concentration in the water and it is not a
dominant factor in influencing the geotechnical aspects of pavement. As matric suction
adds to the material stress state, it is recognized as the primary stress state variable in
constitutive relations for unsaturated soils [3]. The variation of matric suction with
respect to moisture content is depicted using the Soil Water Characteristics Curve
(SWCC). This curve is useful in constitutive modelling of unsaturated soil properties
[4–8].
Compacted pavement layer materials usually remain in unsaturated condition. The
strength and stiffness are the mechanical properties represented as permanent defor-
mation and resilient modulus (MR). The computation and prediction of mechanical
properties of unsaturated pavement materials should be done considering soil suction
ðWÞ variations [9–13]. In this paper, various predictive models proposed in the liter-
ature based on the research works conducted in various parts of the world are cate-
gorized for use by the practicing geotechnical and transportation engineers to
understand and use them for the computation of mechanical property of pavement to be
used as an reliable design input parameter considering the effect of suction and
moisture variation is presented.
2 Influence of Suction ðWÞ on Resilient Modulus ðMR Þ
Fully saturated soils are those with all their pores filled with water. This leads to
predictable behavior of soil quantified in coherence with effective stress. With a change
in environmental factors, desaturation begins from the largest pore diameters followed
by those from smaller pores. These partly or unsaturated soil tends to exhibit higher
strength compared to its saturated counterpart. The increase in shear strength of
unsaturated soil is attributed to the increased contact stress in the occurrence of neg-
ative pore water pressure (i.e. suction).
The elastic modulus of unbound or compacted unsaturated pavement materials is
represented by the resilient modulus. It is defined as a ratio exhibited between the
deviator stress and the corresponding recoverable strain [17, 21].
As resilient modulus or the elastic modulus is the key parameter to study the
mechanical behavior of pavement materials [2–4, 6–8] it is necessary to analyze the
same in dynamic traffic load conditions [14, 15, 16] and [18].
In many validated studies to test the pavement response in terms of its mechanical
properties has been focusing on the soil specimens prepared close to or at optimum
moisture content [58]. In draining saturated pavement layers, the influence of applied
stress and internal stress has to be considered rather than the conventional practice of
observing only the external loading stresses. Resilient Modulus (MR) of pavement
materials in the unsaturated state is found to be inconsistent in-service life. So the
effective stress principle should be extending assuming it to be valid with the inclusion
of matric suction [14, 18, 20, 22, 25].
Resilient Modulus of Unsaturated Soil – A Comprehensive Review 143
Equation by Bishop [27] to represent the effective stress considering the negative
pore pressure and pore air pressure is as follows:
r 0 ¼ ð r u a Þ vð u a u w Þ ð1Þ
X represents degree of saturation in the range of 0 to 1 [28]. Various research works

conducted to analyze the importance to include soil suction as influencing parameter in
the determination of resilient modulus of pavement materials has been summarized in
the below section.
3 MR – Prediction Models with Suction
Resilient modulus prediction models considering the matric suction, moisture variation
and degree of saturation as the environmental variation factors that are developed in the
past decade is discussed for understanding the influencing effect of matric suction on
the mechanical behavior.
Lytton et al. in 1995 measured the changes in the properties of pavements on
unsaturated soils in eight locations and developed a constitutive model to be applied in
analysis at six locations for use as granular base materials.
k2 k3
hb f hW 3 soct
M R ¼ k1 P a ð2Þ
Pr Pr
hb = Bulk stress; soct = octahedral shear stress; k1, k2 and k3 represents the model
parameters.
Parreira and Gonçalves [21] conducted experimental tests on lateritic soil sample
classified as A-7-6 from Brazil to predict the resilient modulus when subjected to the
suction value in the range of 0–87, 500 kPa.
MR ¼ 14:10 r0:782
d W0:076 ð3Þ
The Mechanistic – Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG 2004) suggested

the use of following model to predict resilient modulus for samples compacted at
optimum moisture content accounting for the influence of the applied stresses.
k2 k3
hb soct
MR ¼ k1 Pa þ1 ð4Þ
Pa Pa
Further model to include the effect of moisture variation is derived as follows:

MR ba
log ¼ aþ ð5Þ
MROPT 1 þ exp ln ba þ km ðS SOPT Þ
In Eq. (4), degree of saturation at optimum moisture content and parameters such as
a = −0.5934 & −0.3123, b = 0.4 & 0.3 and Km = 6.1324 & 6.8157 to be used in case
of fine – grained soils & coarse- grained soils respectively. MROPT is the resilient
modulus determined at optimum moisture content.
Doucet and Dore [30] In Quebec province of Canada, partially crushed and crushed
granular materials to be used as pavement base material was tested to predict resilient
modulus considering the internal and applied stress is expressed as
MR ¼ 1060 hb 8700 w þ 57000 ð6Þ
Yang et al. [18] tested two samples of residual soil and pulverized mud soil clas-
sified as cohesive (A-7-5 and A-7-6) as per AASHTO T 292-91 from China consid-
ering the suction range of 0–10,000 kPa.
MR ¼ k1 ðrd þ vwÞk2 ð7Þ
Here v is the representation of degree of saturation in the range of 0–1; W is the

suction in kPa; rd is deviator stress.
Gupta et al. [14] developed the following pavement design method using the
unsaturated soil mechanics concept for four samples with the clay content in the range
of 4.8% to 75.2% from Minnesota for a suction range up to 10,000 kPa.
k2 k3
hb soct
MR ¼ k1 Pa þ1 þ kus Pa Hk W ð8Þ
Pa Pa
Liang et al. [7] developed the following new resilient modulus prediction equation
considering the concept of soil suction. The prediction results were validated with the
experimental results conducted on two samples classified as A-4 and A-6.
k3
hb þ vw k2 soct
M R ¼ k1 P a þ1 ð9Þ
Pa Pa
Khoury et al. [6] evaluated the variation of resilient modulus of undisturbed sub-
grade soil samples collected from Oklahoma over the suction variation of 0 kPa–
6,000 kPa.
k2
hb soct k3
MR ¼ k1 Pa k4 þ þ a 1 W b1 ð10Þ
Pa Pa
Khoury et al. [24] conducted experimental analysis for a manufactured soil with in
unsaturated condition. The influence of soil suction hysteresis on the resilient modulus
was analyzed and the proposed the following model.
" k2 k3 1n #
hb soct hd hd
MR ¼ k1 Pa þ1 þ ðW W 0 Þ ð11Þ
Pa Pa hs hw
Cary and Zapata [5] assessed the suitability of the MR prediction model of
NCHRP 1-28A for a granular soil sample and clayey soil sample collected from
Arizona, USA. It is suggested to consider matric suction as independent stress variable
to predict MR.
" k3 k4 #
hnet3Duwsat k2 soct W0 D W
M R ¼ k1 P a þ1 þ þ1 ð12Þ
Pa Pa Pa
Oh et al. [31] derived for granular base and subgrade soils from Florida considering
the effect of moisture content with suction (S) and volumetric water content (Vw).
k2 k3
hb þ 3k4 SVw soct
MR ¼ k1 Pa 1þ ð13Þ
Pa Pa
Ng et al. [8] conducted suction – controlled triaxial test to calculate the deviation of
resilient modulus for a subgrade soil sample and derived the following semi-empirical
relationship.
k1
P 1 þ qcyc k2 W k3
MR ¼ M0 1þ ð14Þ
Pr Pr P
Han and Vanapalli [32] conducted extensive experimental test on 11 fine grained
soil samples to be used as compacted subgrade material. In his prediction model, a
model parameter n is introduced to be in the range of 1.0 to 3.0.
k1 n
MR MRSAT W S
¼ ð15Þ
MROPT MRSAT WOPT SOPT
Naji [23] considered the post - compaction moisture contents of soil in the seven
soil samples classified as cohesive and silty were tested and the new M-EPDG rec-
ommended analytical model to predict the variations of resilient modulus of subgrade
soils with fluctuations in moisture content (NCHRP 1-37A) is calibrated considering
km as a function of Plasticity Index (PI).

MR ba
log ¼ aþ b ð16Þ
MROPT 1 þ exp ln a þ km ðS SOPT Þ
km ¼ 0:362PI þ 3:545 ð17Þ

4 Conclusion
To ensure a pavement to achieve its design life, changes in the property of pavement
materials induced by moisture ingress should be prevented from the beginning. Infil-
tration of water, capillary rise or suction of moisture from the adjacent ground or the
diffusion of water present within the soil can cause slow deterioration or sudden
damage to a pavement [4, 5, 7, 17, 21]. In unsaturated soils suction has an important
role to alter the mechanical behavior of pavement materials and it works on two
mechanism; (i) due to water meniscus, suction imparts bonding force between soil
particles (ii) suction induced changes in the soil skeleton stress as a result of the change
in pore fluid pressure. In –service life of the pavement, due to the increase of saturation
level, particularly under repeated traffic load, negative pore-pressure increases to
positive. Idyllically, soil suction holds the particles together and an increase of pore
pressure resilient modulus tends to decrease. [17, 19, 26, 29]. Measurement of suction
and its variation with dynamic traffic load is a laborious and challenging task. However,
the necessity to relate the behavior of unsaturated soils and pavement mechanical
behavior is to be understood and adequate research works to develop constitutive
resilient modulus prediction models is needed.
References
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axial tests on lateritic subgrade soils from Dakshina Kannada, India. Geotech Geol Eng
36:3987. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-018-0550-7
4. Cary C, Zapata C (2010) Enhanced model for resilient response of soils resulting from
seasonal changes as implemented in mechanistic empirical pavement design guide. Transp
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Mater Pavement Des 12(3):615–638
6. Khoury N, Brooks R, Khoury C (2009) Environmental influences on the engineering
behavior of unsaturated undisturbed subgrade soils: Effect of soil suctions on resilient
modulus. Int J Geotech Eng 3(2):303–311
7. Liang RY, Rababah S, Khasawneh M (2008) Predicting moisture-dependent resilient
modulus of cohesive soils using soil suction concept. J Transp Eng 134(1):34–40
8. Ng CWW, Zhou C, Yuan Q, Xu J (2013) Resilient modulus of unsaturated subgrade soil:
experimental and theoretical investigations. Can Geotech J 50(2):223–232
9. Ng K, Henrichs ZR, Ksaibati K, Wulff SS (2017) Resilient modulus of subgrade materials
for mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide. Road Mater Pavement Des 19(7):1523–
1545
10. Sedano J, Vanapalli S (2011) Experimental investigation of the relationship between the
critical state shear strength of unsaturated soils and the soil-water characteristic curve. Int J
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shear strength to the soil water characteristic curve. Can Geotech J 33(3):440–448
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resilient moduli of granular pavement subgrade layers. Road Mater Pavement Des 4(3):309–
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10.1139/cgj-2014-0339
Effect of Eccentric Load on Footing Resting
on Planar Geosynthetic Reinforcement
Pandu Kurre1(&), M. Heeralal2, and T. S. D. Venkatesh2

1
2
Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Warangal, Hanamkonda, India
Abstract. A structural foundation transmits all the loads from the super
structure to the soil underneath safely. Due to earthquake or wind loading, the
line of action of total load from the superstructure does not pass through the
center of gravity of the footing resulting in eccentric loading. The compensation
for reduction of the bearing capacity by increasing the size of footing is
uneconomical. Geosynthetics can be used to improve the bearing capacity of the
footing. In the present study a series of tests were conducted and comparative
study is made when Geotextile (Fibertex G-100) is used as planar reinforcement
to improve the bearing capacity of sand. Also the improvement of bearing
capacity in accordance to eccentricity was studied. The test results indicate that
there is significant improvement in the bearing capacity and reduction in the
settlement by providing planar reinforcement until the eccentricity is 0.1 times
the width of footing.
Keywords: Planar reinforcement Eccentric loading Bearing Capacity Ratio
1 Introduction
Earth provides the ultimate bearing support for all the civil engineering structures like
buildings, bridges, reinforced fills, earthen embankments and concrete dams. Hence the
behaviour of the bearing ground defines the stability of whole structure. Hence the
structural foundation should be able to transfer the load from super structure such that
the overstressing of soil underneath is avoided besides preventing the excessive set-
tlement of structure. If line of action of the load does not pass through the center of
loaded area, the contact area decreases. The reduction in contact area results in the
reduction of effective width of footing resulting in decrease in bearing capacity of
supporting soil [3]. Eccentric loading of footing can occur in extreme column footing or
due to earthquake or wind loading.
Several studies conducted on eccentrically loaded footing and bearing capacity
improvement using geosynthetics and found that significant bearing capacity
improvement can be achieved using geosynthetics so that the reduction of load carrying
capacity due to the eccentricity of the footing can be compensated [1, 3, 4]. Geosyn-
thetics can be used to improve the load carrying capacity [5, 6]. Though there are many
types of geosynthetics, a non-woven geotextile is used in this study to find the effect of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_20
150 P. Kurre et al.
eccentricity. A comparative study is made by placing the geotextile (Fibertex G-100) in

planar form to find the effect of bearing capacity with respect to eccentricity.
In the study, locally available poorly graded sand (SP) and a non-woven geotextile
(Fibertex G-100) were used and their properties were presented respectively in
Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Properties of sand used.

Property Value
Particle distribution: % Gravel 2.6
% Sand 97.4
% Fines 0
Effective size, D10 (mm) 0.3
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 1.667
Coefficient of curvature, Cc 0.9
I.S. soil classification SP
Dry unit weight, ϒ (kN/m3) 16
Friction angle, / (o) 35o
Table 2. Properties of geotextile used.

Property Value
Physical properties
Weight (g/m2) 100
Thickness at 2 kPa (mm) 0.6
Material properties
Static punch (N) 940
Elongation (%) 55
Tensile strength (kN/m) 5 in transverse direction
4 in longitudinal direction
Dynamic cone drop (mm) 40
Hydraulic properties
Permittivity (sec−1) 1.6
Transmissivity (m2/sec) 0.5 * 10−6
Pore size O90 (lm) 100
Standard dimension
Width (m) 4–5
Length (m) 500
Effect of Eccentric Load on Footing Resting 151
3 Model Test Tank
Experiments were conducted in a specially fabricated test box made of steel with plan
dimensions 0.5 m 0.5 m and 0.6 m height. The tank was mounted on a loading
frame consisting of a hand-operated hydraulic jack provided with a proving ring of
capacity 5000 kg having a proving ring constant of 4.6 kg/division. The arrangement
of test tank on the rigid platform of loading frame was shown in Fig. 1.
Three planar geotextile layers of size 375 mm 375 mm were used to reinforce
the consecutive sand layers. The size of the geotextile is selected based on the ratio of
width of geotextile to the width of footing (L/b) which is equal to 5 [2]. For achieving
the maximum improvement, the ratios u/b, x/b and L/b of 0.3, 0.5 and 5 respectively
were chosen from literature where u, x and L being the depth of top layer, vertical
spacing of two fabrics and layer width respectively (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Experimental set up for plate Fig. 2. Planar reinforcement under the footing.
load test with planar reinforcement.
3.1 Test Methodology

The tank is filled with sand at chosen density and upon reaching the reinforcement
level, a geotextile is placed and the next layer placement is carried out. The bed
preparation above the geotextile sheet is continued in layers. Great care was adopted for
leveling the top surface of sand so as not to affect the density of the top surface. The
footing plate is placed on the leveled surface in an alignment which was adjusted to
create a concentrated load on the footing. Ball bearing technique was uses to apply
vertical load on the footing. Finally, the load platform, the ball bearing, and the square
footing were arranged in position and the load is applied using the hydraulic jack. The
footing is pushed by applying a constant rate of loading. For eccentric footing the plate
is changed which has a recess in accordance with the required eccentricity.
152 P. Kurre et al.
A pre-calibrated proving ring is placed in between the hydraulic jack and the ball
bearing to measure the load coming on the footing. Settlements of footing were
measured by placing two dial gauges each of sensitivity 0.01 mm on the either side of
center line of footing and the average is reported.
3.2 Test Parameters

Three series of tests are carried to find the effect of eccentricity. The tests include
calculation of ultimate bearing capacity (U.B.C) of soil bed when it is reinforced.
Results from laboratory load test on footing resting on planar reinforced sand shows
that up to an eccentricity (e) of 0.15 times the width of footing (b) there is improvement
of ultimate bearing capacity. When the eccentricity exceeds this limit there is no much
improvement. So the eccentricity variation used in the testing were e/b = 0, 0.1 and
0.2. Application of eccentric loading was shown in Fig. 3 (Table 3).
Fig. 3. Arrangement of eccentric loading
Table 3. Model test parameters.

Constant parameters Variable parameters
Tests on unreinforced sand bed
No parameters considered e/b = 0, 0.1 and 0.2
Tests on planar reinforced sand bed
u/b = 0.3, x/b = 0.5 and L/b = 0.5 e/b = 0, 0.1 and 0.2
The tests were performed and the typical load vs. settlement curve for e/b value of 0.1
with and without the provision of reinforcement was plotted as shown in Fig. 4. The
results of various tests were presented in Table 4 which involves the calculation of U.
Effect of Eccentric Load on Footing Resting 153
B.C. and the corresponding settlement. The improvement in U.B.C. was found in terms
of Bearing Capacity Ratio (B.C.R.) which is the ratio of the improved strength to the
original strength without reinforcement. It was observed that the reduction of U.B.C. of
the foundation bed due to eccentricity can be increased by providing planar geosyn-
thetic reinforcement.
Fig. 4. Load vs. Settlement curve for e/b = 0.1
Table 4. Eccentric loading test results.

Provision of reinforcement e/b = 0 e/b = 0.1 e/b = 0.2
Variation of bearing capacity
No 373 320 204
Yes 773 551 212
B.C.R. 2.07 1.82 1.04
Variation of settlement (cm)
No 2 2.6 3.8
Yes 1.8 2.2 2.6
A series of tests are conducted in the model test tank arrangement with a square footing
of size 0.75 m resting on the sand bed for finding the effect of eccentricity of the
footing. The effect of variation in eccentricity (e/b = 0, 0.1, 0.2) on the U.B.C of the
sand is studied. Due to eccentricity the ultimate bearing pressure decreases. To improve
the bearing capacity, geosynthetic reinforcement is used. In this study, planar geotextile
is used to improve the bearing capacity of sand bed and the effect with respect to
eccentricity is studied. It is found out that by placing the geotextile as planar rein-
forcement, bearing capacity was found to be more than 2 times the bearing capacity of
154 P. Kurre et al.
unreinforced sand (B.C.R > 2). The improvement in bearing capacity was found to
increase up to an eccentricity of 0.1 tunes the width of footing (e/b = 0.1), above which
there is no improvement is noticed. For unreinforced sand when the eccentricity
exceeds beyond 0.1 times the width of footing (e > 0.1b) there is marked reduction in
bearing capacity.
References
1. Patra CR, Das BM, Bhoi M, Shin EC (2006) Eccentrically loaded strip foundation on geogrid-
reinforced sand. Geotext Geomembr 24:254–259
2. Das BM, Puri VK, Omar MT, Evgin E (1996) Bearing capacity of strip foundation on
geogrid-reinforced sand-scale effects in model tests. In: The sixth international offshore and
polar engineering conference. International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
3. El Sawwaf M (2009) Experimental and numerical study of eccentrically loaded strip footings
resting on reinforced sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(10):1509–1518
4. El Sawwaf M, Nazir A (2011) Behavior of eccentrically loaded small scale ring footings
resting on reinforced layered soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138:376–384
5. Klimar KVSP (2010) Bearing capacity of square footing on geocell sand mattress overlying
clay bed, M. Tech Thesis, National Institute of Technology, Warangal
6. Yeo B, Yen SC, Puri VK, Das BM, Wright MA (1993) A laboratory investigation into the
settlement of a foundation on geogrid-reinforced sand due to cyclic load. Geotech Geol Eng
11(1):1–14
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash Based
Concrete Waste Steel Fibre and Polypropylene
Fibre as Reinforcing Materials
G. Swamy Yadav1,2(&), N. Prabhanjan1, G. Sahithi1, G. Sangeetha1,

A. Srinivas1, and A. Siva Krishna1,2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, S R Engineering College, Warangal, India
swamy.yadav86@gmail.com
2
Center for Construction Methods and Materials, Warangal, India
Abstract. The improper management of waste steel fibres causes a huge

environmental damage. Proper utilization of these waste steel fibres can be done
in civil engineering. Concrete obtained by adding these fibres is considered to
show a good mechanical improvement of brittle matrix, moreover it is a
promising candidate for both structural and non-structural applications. In the
present work, as a continuation of research already performed in this field by the
other authors, the post cracking performances of FRC (fibre reinforced concrete)
were evaluated by means tests on flexural elements and slabs. All fresh and
hardened concrete properties are estimated experimentally. By the means of
flexural test the post-cracking behavior of SFRC is obtained. These specimens
showed a good energy absorption and good residual strength after cracking.
Moreover, cracks have an important role in concrete structures as they are the
permeable components and have high risk of corrosion. Cracks make the
structure aesthetically unacceptable and make structure weak. Cracks are con-
sidered to be neither harmful to structure nor affects its serviceability if they are
in limited width. Hence it is important that crack width must be less and this is
achieved by adding polypropylene fibres to concrete.
This work examines the mechanical properties of concrete by using waste
steel fibres from mechanical labs and recronS polypropylene fibres and flyash as
replacement of cement. In this work cement was replaced by flyash by 20% of
cement by weight in each mix, waste steel fibres with varying percentages like 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in the mix, and the combinations were tested and in the second case
with same combinations 1% of polypropylene fibre is added and tested for
workability, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength. In this
study we observed that the strength was increased with increase in fibre content
but workability decreased and optimum percentage of steel fibre was observed at
5% so super plasticizer has been used to increase workability and the effect of
polypropylene was not on the strength but crack width reduced and observed
controlled brittle failure.
Keywords: Flexural strength Waste steel fibre Polypropylene fibre

Tensile strength Flyash Workability Compressive strength

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_21
156 G. Swamy Yadav et al.
1 Introduction
The major problems existing in the present world are:

Growing population is a major problem being faced by the present world. To
provide water, food and shelter with clean environment to this growing population is a
major challenge. The necessity arises for innovation in various technologies.
Lack of proper infrastructural and other requirements of the populace:

Role of Civil Engineer is vital in meeting the ever increasing infrastructural require-
ments. Concrete and mortar utilization in development of infrastructure of any country
is very high. Due to fast depleting natural resources, it is imperative on us to think of
development of materials, which can possibly reduce the cost of structure, clean the
environment for us and provide better service. To meet the above requirement suit-
ability of different materials for partial or total replacement in concrete, mortar and soils
is investigated.
Flyash Concrete
Flyash is a pozzolana, or siliceous material which in the presence of water and lime,
will react to form a cementitious material. This property makes flyash ideal for a
multitude of function in the construction industry. Flyash is an extremely variable by -
product and will not only differ from one plant to another but will vary within the same
plant. Both the physical and chemical characteristics of flyash will affect the hardened
concrete material.
In the modern world, the most used material for construction buildings and to build
infrastructure the most used material is concrete. and concrete is normally manufac-
tured by mixing with ingredients such as cement, cores aggregates, fine aggregates,
water, and mineral admixtures for latent concrete nowadays such as, fly ash, GGBS and
also usage of super plasterers for improving strength of concrete. The materials used for
concrete manufactures such as fine aggregates are found in nature and used by trim-
ming them into required shape & size. Water is also available in nature and clan water
is used, but cement is manufactured for raw materials available in nature. So some
study is been made by replacing cement completely with fly ash and GGBS [1].
Fibre Reinforced Concrete
FRC has a cracking arresting property of which is well proven in many experiments
and it is applied extensively. Million tons waste is produced around the world every
year and most part of this waste is recycled. Furthermore, recycling waste consumes
energy and produces pollution. Accumulation of waste in suburbs and the disposal of
waste has dangerous effects to the environment. Using this waste in civil engineering
works may be considered as an appropriate method for achieving the goals of elimi-
nating waste produced and adding positive properties in concrete. We introduced a
glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)-steel hybrid bar with a core of a deformed steel
bar (steel core). Around six types of hybrid cross sections were considered and 48
specimens to calculate tensile test using uniaxial tensile testing machine and the
modulus of GFRP hybrid bar. The test results revealed that the GFRB hybrid bar
showed higher elasticity modulus and lesser tensile strength than that of usually shown
normal GFRB bar [3].
Strength Investigation of Fly Ash 157
Need of Polypropylene Fibre

Cracks developed in concrete during the curing process propagate rapidly when
stresses are applied which results low tensile strength. Addition of PP fibers improves
the concrete strength. And the problem of cracks can be reduced by using PP fibers in
concrete. Moreover they provide the strength to concrete while protection of fibres is
done by matrix. The major role of fibres in a cement composite mix is to control cracks,
importantly to increase the tensile strength, Flexural strength and to improve the
deformation characteristics. The type of fibres used will definitely effect the perfor-
mance of FRC. Inclusion of polypropylene fibers will reduce the water permeability of
the composite and increases flexural strength because it is high in young’s modulus. In
the stage of post cracking as the fibres are pulled out the crack is reduced by absorbing
the energy.
Materials
Properties of Cement Used
Indian Standards IS 12269-1987

Grade 53
Specific Gravity 3.12
Fineness of Cement 7%
Consistency 31%
Properties of Flyash Used
Indian Standards IS3812-1981

Properties of Fine Aggregates Used
Sand Availability Zone-II

Fineness Modulus 2.51
Properties of Coarse Aggregates Used
Type Granite
Minimum Size 20 mm
Water Absorption 1.2%
Water
Drinking water available near to the field was used in the present work both for casting
and curing.
Waste Steel Fibre
The steel fibre used in this work has taken from mechanical workshop, They are of
irregular sizes and shapes.
Super Plasticizer
Conplast SP 430 FOSROC is used for the experimental study.
Methodology
The mix design followed according to IS 10262-2009 for M25 concrete. The experi-
mental investigation is carried out by replacing cement with flyash by 20% cement
weight and varying percentages of waste steel fibres in steps of 1% and 1% of
polypropylene the results were observed.
The required materials were weighed and mixed manually and tests were conducted.
The cube of 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm. Cylinder of 150 mm diameter 300 mm
height.
Beam of size 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm was casted. The specimens has been
de molded after 24 h from the casting and the casted specimens were cured at a room
temperature in water tank.
3 Results
See Tables (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).
Table 1. Workability of concrete using waste steel fibre alone vs Using waste steel fibre and
polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres Compaction Factor %Fibres Compaction Factor
0 0.927 0 0.927
1 0.921 1 0.923
2 0.918 2 0.920
3 0.915 3 0.917
4 0.909 4 0.911
5 0.890 5 0.903
6 0.871 6 0.892
Table 2. Compressive strength of concrete using waste steel fibre alone.

%Fibres 7 days compressive 28 days compressive
strength strength
0 28.64 42.21
1 32.24 46.63
2 34.18 47.46
3 35.42 48.12
4 35.82 48.48
5 36.12 48.63
6 36.96 48.77
Table 3. Compressive strength of concrete using waste steel fibre and polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres 7 days compressive 28 days compressive
strength strength
0 28.64 42.21
1 32.42 46.71
2 34.40 47.51
3 35.68 48.17
4 35.89 48.51
5 36.21 48.69
6 37.03 48.78
Table 4. Split tensile strength of concrete using waste steel fibre alone.
%Fibres Load P1(kN) Load P2(kN) Avg. load P(kN) F = 2P/pdl (N/mm2)
0 112.1 115.7 113.9 3.62
1 124.2 121.2 122.7 3.90
2 124.6 124.3 124.5 3.96
3 127.7 125.3 126.5 4.02
4 127.4 127.6 127.5 4.05
5 128.5 127.9 128.2 4.08
6 128.8 129.1 128.6 4.10
Table 5. Split tensile strength of concrete using waste steel fibre and polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres Load P1(kN) Load P2(kN) Avg. load P(kN) F = 2P/pdl (N/mm2)
0 112.1 115.7 113.9 3.62
1 122.9 123.4 123.1 3.92
2 125.2 124.9 125.0 3.99
3 127.3 126.6 126.8 4.03
4 128.2 127.5 127.8 4.07
5 128.8 128.6 128.7 4.09
6 129.2 129.0 129.1 4.11
Table 6. Flexural strength of concrete using waste steel fibre alone.

%Fibres a (cm) P(kN) fb = Pl/bd2
0 15.0 13.0 2.60
1 16.3 14.8 3.08
2 16.4 15.3 3.22
3 16.8 15.7 3.38
4 17.1 15.8 3.45
5 17.4 16.1 3.56
6 17.7 16.4 3.67
Table 7. Flexural strength of concrete using waste steel fibre and polypropylene (1%).
%Fibres a (cm) P(kN) fb = Pl/bd2
0 15.0 13.0 2.60
1 15.5 15.2 3.10
2 16.5 15.3 3.25
3 16.7 15.9 3.41
4 16.6 16.3 3.48
5 17.2 16.6 3.64
6 17.5 16.8 3.73
4 Conclusions
• The workability of fresh concrete is decreased by adding the steel fibres.
• Gradual increase in Compressive strength, Tensile strength and flexural strengths
are observed by increasing percentage of steel fibres.
• Polypropylene fibres reduce cracks and brittle failure.
• Polypropylene fibres increased the initial crack load of the structure.
• Finally the partial replacement of flyash and waste steel fibres in concrete is
economical.
References
1. Ravi Kumar T, Siva Krishna A (2017) Design and testing of fly-ash based geo polymer
concrete. Int J Civ Eng Technol 8(5):480–491
2. Tavakoli D, Hashempour M, Heidari A (2018) Use of waste materials in concrete: a review.
Pertanika J Sci Technol 26(2):499–522
3. Ju M, Lee S, Park C (2017) Response of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)-steel hybrid
reinforcing bar in uniaxial tension. Int J Concr Struct Mater 11(4):677–686
4. Gobinath R, Awoyera P, Selvaraj Kumar P, Murthi P (2018) Eco friendly high strength
concrete production using Silica mineral waste as aggregate - an ecological approach. Ecol
Environ Conserv 24(2):904–915
5. Gobinath R, Ganapathy GP, Akinwumi II, Kovendiran S, Hema S, Thangaraj M (2016)

Plasticity, strength, permeability and compressibility characteristics of black cotton soil
stabilized with precipitated silica. J Cent South Univ 23(10):2688–2694
6. Sathanandham T, Gobinath R, NaveenPrabhu M, Gnanasundar S, Vajravel K, Sabariraja G,
Manoj Kumar R, Jagathishprabu R (2013) Preliminary studies of self curing concrete with the
addition of polyethylene glycol. Int J Eng Res Technol 2(11):313–323
7. Murthi P, Awoyera P, Selvaraj P, Dharsana D, Gobinath R (2018) Using silica mineral waste
as aggregate in a green high strength concrete: workability, strength, failure mode, and
morphology assessment. Aus J Civ Eng. https://doi.org/10.1080/14488353.2018.1472539
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Application of Statistics to the Analysis
of Corrosion Data for Rebar
in Metakaolin Concrete
U. Raghu Babu(&) and B. Kondraivendhan
Applied Mechanics Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute

of Technology, Surat 395007, Gujarat, India
ammaraghubabu@gmail.com, kondraivendhan78@gmail.com
Abstract. The present paper reports the effect of chloride, sulphate and the
combined chloride-sulphate solutions on the corrosion behaviour of rebar
embedded in concretes made with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and
Metakaolin (MK). The corrosion test data collected on the reinforced slab
specimens made with mix water contaminated with 5% sodium chloride, 2%
magnesium sulphate and the combination of both salts. The corrosion perfor-
mance was monitored for every 30 days throughout 180 days, in terms of
corrosion rate values. The analysis of the obtained data was carried out as per
the specifications given by ASTM G16-13. The analysis of the corrosion data
includes the descriptive statistics of the Normal, Weibull lognormal, and
Smallest Extreme Value probability distribution functions and the test of fit
significance by the Anderson-Darling (AD) goodness of fit statistics. In addition,
the analysis of variance was also carried out to determine the influence of each
factor on the corrosion data. This detailed analysis of the test data is useful to
carry out the further investigation on corrosivity of reinforcement bar exposed to
aggressive environments or marine environment. The statistical analysis from
the present dataset is helpful for further research on the MK and the effect of
concomitant presence of chlorides and sulphates on the corrosivity of rebar
embedded in concrete. In addition to this Analysis of Variance is also carried out
on the obtained corrosion data to assess the effect of cementitious material type
and salt type on corrosion data.
Keywords: Corrosion Metakaolin Probability distribution Chloride

Sulphate
1 Introduction
Corrosion of the rebar embedded in concrete and deterioration of concrete due to

sulphates are the most common causes of the failures of concrete structures. Corrosion
due to chlorides and carbonation are not only the deterioration mechanisms of concrete,
some other aggressive salts like sulphates, carbonates, high temperature and humidity
variations contribute to the early initiation and propagation of reinforced steel corrosion
[1]. However, It would be anticipated that the existence of sulphate ions would affect

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_22
Application of Statistics to the Analysis of Corrosion Data 163
the mineralogical composition and the characteristics of corrosion resistance of rebar in

concrete [2].
Sulphate salts are also present in ground water and sea water in addition to chloride
salts. The environmental conditions in the coastal areas contribute to a reduction in the
durability of the structures mainly due to the contaminated soil and ground water with
the chloride and sulphate ions. In the marine environments and groundwater prevailing
in the Arabian Gulf countries [3], Northwest of China [4, 5] and elsewhere, chloride
and sulphate ions existed concomitantly. Khan and Tayyib [6] demonstrated that sul-
phate ions are corrosive, but not much severe than chloride ions. The reaction of
sulphates with Ca(OH)2 reduces the pH of concrete pore solution and results the
sulphate induced corrosion of rebar. Holden et al. [7] have shown, the concomitant
presence of sulphates with chloride ions, decreases the chloride binding capacity due to
reaction with the aluminates, and increases the corrosion of steel in concrete. The
concentration of sulphates present in concrete also influences the binding of chlorides.
Some other research work also evident that the chloride binding capacity of cement
hydrates decrease with the sulphate ions [4, 11]. This was ascribed to the reaction of
C3A with sulphates to produce ettringite, which inhibits the formation of Friedel’s salt
(FS). Brown and Badger [8], indicated that FS can convert to ettringite in Na2SO4
solution and releases the bound chlorides. Furthermore, due to the competition between
the sulphate and chloride ions to adsorb on the C–S–H phase, the physically bound
chlorides may release. Thus, the presence of sulphates is considered as a potential
factor to release of bound chlorides in concrete.
Keeping this in view, the present study is designed to bring the understanding of the
impact of the sulphates on the chloride induced corrosion of rebar in concrete. This was
done by analysing the corrosion performance of rebar in both normal and blended
concrete specimens contaminated with chlorides, sulphates and combination of both
the salts. In addition, the experimental results were analysed with Analysis of Variance
to investigate the influence of salt type and cement type on corrosion data.
2 Experimental
2.1 Materials Used and Specimen Preparation
The Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 53 grade conforming to IS:12269-2013 [9] was
used in preparing normal cement concrete specimens. The blended concrete specimens
were made with the replacement of cement with Metakaolin (MK) by 10% weight of
OPC cement. The oxide composition of the cement and MK used in current study were
shown in Table 1. The diameter of the steel reinforcing bar was 10 mm. The Coarse
aggregate of size 20 mm and 10 mm maximum size of aggregate (MSA) respectively,
were used in the ratio of 1.5:1. The specific gravity and water absorption of coarse
aggregate were 2.8, and 2.25% respectively, and the corresponding values for fine
aggregate were 2.7, and 0.75%. Locally available river sand is confirming to grading
zone II as per IS:383:1970 (Reaffirmed 2002) [10] was used as fine aggregate. Tap
water from the laboratory was used for the preparation of concrete mixtures with water
to cementitious material (w/cm) ratio 0.51. Analytical reagent grade chemicals were
164 U. Raghu Babu and B. Kondraivendhan
added to the concretes. Magnesium sulphate as the source of sulphate ions and sodium
chloride as the source of chlorides were added in mix water. The composition of
admixed solution is as detailed below:
Solution 1: 5% NaCl
Solution 2: 5% NaCl + 2% MgSO4
Solution 3: 2% MgSO4.
Table 1. Chemical composition of cementitious materials.

Chemical compound Al2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 MgO TiO2 CaO SO3 Na2O LOI
(%)
OPC 5.32 4.23 20.65 1.13 – 64.12 2.16 – 2.39
MK 40– 1.3 52– 1.0 0.5 1.0 – –* 1.5
42 (Max) 54 (Max)
* Na2O K2O: 0.5–2.5%
Reinforced concrete slab specimens with size 320 mm 320 mm 52 mm were

prepared with a centrally embedded Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) steel of
diameter 10 mm. The steel specimens were cleaned and prepared as per the recom-
mendations of ASTM G109-99a. The reinforcing steel was prepared such that the
central portion of length 250 mm remains bare to expose to corrosive environment as
shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Steel specimen for corrosion moni- Fig. 2. Analysed results of I data of NaCl
corr
toring slab specimen admixed concrete
2.2 Corrosion Monitoring

The advanced corrosion monitoring (ACM, Gill AC guard serial no. 1824-sequencer)
instrument was used to monitor the corrosion of rebar in slab specimens. Linear
Polarization Resistance (LPR) sweep technique was adopted to evaluate the corrosion
current density (Icorr) of the concrete slab specimens. This LPR sweep test was con-
ducted with IR compensation, using the guard ring arrangement. The slab specimens
were polarized to ±20 mV with offset to the rest potential at a sweep rate of 0.1 mV/s.
Fig. 3. Analysed results of Icorr data of Fig. 4. Analysed results of Icorr data of concrete
MgSO4 admixed concrete with NaCl plus MgSO4
3 Results of Statistical Fitting Analyses of Corrosion Data
The Normal, Lognormal, Weibull and Smallest Extreme Value probability distributions
(pdf’s) were adopted for determining the descriptive statistics for the scatter of mea-
sured corrosion data as per ASTM G16-13 [11] and for detailing the performance of
metakaolin in mitigation of corrosion of rebar. According to ASTM G16-13 [11],
statistical evaluation is necessary in the analysis of the results.
Results of statistical analyses of test-data measurements from each OPC and MK
blended concrete specimen contaminated with chlorides, sulphates and combination of
both were shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4. In order to choose the best fitting distribution, the
results of Anderson-Darling (AD) goodness-of-fit test of the scattering of corrosion test
data were also reported in Table 2. This table consists the AD statistic, AD p-value and
the validation decision of the corresponding distribution. In Table 2 decision of “A”
indicated that the modelled dataset significantly drawn from the fitting distribution,
while the decision of “B” suggests that the modelled data not significantly drawn from
the corresponding distribution.
From the Table 2. It is noted that all the Icorr data scattered like Weibull. It is also
observed that, except the corrosion data of MK contaminated with combined solution
all the set scattered like Lognormal probability distribution. As the Weibull and
Lognormal distribution are provide reasonable fit to the data in most of the datasets, the
best distribution can choose by comparing the AD statistics. Generally, the Smaller AD
values indicate that the distribution fits the data better. The overall performance of OPC
and MK concrete specimens was evaluated from the use of these selected distributions
as shown in Fig. 5. These identifications of descriptive statistics for detailing the
corrosion data highlights the importance of the use of goodness-of-fit test for deter-
mining the probabilistic distribution fitting followed by the corrosion data. While
observing the influence of chlorides and sulphates on corrosion of rebar from the
Fig. 5, it is observed that the corrosion due to sulphate ions alone is very less as
compared to chlorides. As well as it is also observed that the attendance of sulphates
with chlorides enhances the chloride induced corrosion. The replacement of cement
with 10% of MK enhanced the corrosion resistance of rebar in concretes contaminated
with chlorides, sulphates and combination of both the salts.
Table 2. The results of Anderson-Darling goodness-of-fit data

Statistical OPC MK
parameters NaCl MgSO4 NaCl plus NaCl MgSO4 NaCl plus
MgSO4 MgSO4
Normal AD 1.066 0.476 0.984 0.656 0.905 0.608
P-Value 0.005 0.177 0.008 0.06 0.013 0.078
Decision B A B A B A
Weibull AD 0.561 0.248 0.409 0.151 0.467 0.818
P-Value 0.136 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.229 0.26
Decision A A A A A A
Lognormal AD 0.399 0.446 0.314 0.193 0.682 0.734
P-Value 0.286 0.213 0.485 0.856 0.051 0.035
Decision A A A A A B
Smallest extreme AD 1.275 0.825 1.125 0.958 1.34 0.593
value P-Value 0.01 0.025 0.01 0.012 0.01 0.104
Decision B B B B B A
Fig. 5. The overall performance of OPC and MK concrete contaminated with different salts
3.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Tables 3 and 4 reports the ANOVA results of Icorr data of OPC and MK blended
concrete specimens contaminated with NaCl, MgSO4 and NaCl plus MgSO4 respec-
tively. For this three replicate of Icorr values at two levels of cementitious material type
i.e., OPC, MK are prepared in tabular form to calculate the sum of the squares (SS) for
factor and residual error. After that, their corresponding SS values were divided by
associated degree of freedom (DF) to calculate the mean squares (MS). Then the effect
of individual factors is assessed by hypothesis test of equality of variances. In analysis
of variance the most important statistics is the P-value, which used to determine
whether the level of means are significantly different from each other about the
hypothesis with 95% confident level (a = 0.05) The hypothesis for the present study is
given below [12]:
Table 3. Results of ANOVA for Icorr values of NaCl contaminated concrete

Source DF SS MS F-Value P-Value
Cementitious material 1 3.080 3.0798 7.29 0.015
Error 17 7.181 0.4224
Total 18 10.261
Table 4. Results of ANOVA for Icorr values of MgSO4 contaminated concrete

Error 16 0.017183 0.001074
Total 7 0.019193
Table 5. Results of ANOVA for Icorr values of NaCl plus MgSO4 contaminated concrete
Error 17 21.536 1.267
Total 18 25.823
Table 6. Results of ANOVA for Icorr values of OPC concrete specimens

Salt type 2 7.213 3.606 3.24 0.05
Error 25 27.836 1.113
Total 27 35.049
Table 7. Results of ANOVA for Icorr values of MK concrete specimens

Salt type 2 0.1718 0.08591 2.51 0.1
Error 27 0.9257 0.03429
Total 29 1.0975
P value 0.05: The level means are significantly different from each other
P value > 0.05: The level means are not significantly different.
From Tables 3, 4 and 5, it is observed that the cementitious material type is statistically
significant with the p value 0.015 for NaCl and 0.043 for NaCl plus MgSO4 con-
tamination with 95% confident level. The cementitious material factor in other admixed
salts namely MgSO4, is not significantly related to Icorr value. It means that the type of
cementitious material has the strongest effect on Icorr values of rebar in NaCl and NaCl
plus MgSO4 admixed concrete. While observing the impact of salt type on corrosion
data of rebar embedded in OPC concretes, it is observed that for Icorr values of rebar,
the P-value indicated that salt type is significant at the 0.05 a-level, but not significant
for MK concrete. It means that there are significant differences in Icorr value of OPC
specimens between salt types (Tables 6 and 7).
4 Conclusions
From the presented statistical analysis of the test data the following conclusions were
drawn:
1. Corrosion current density values in the study followed Weibull probability distri-
bution function for OPC and MK concretes contaminated with different salts.
2. The rebar in MK blended concrete has shown less corrosion current density values
as compared to OPC concrete.
3. The corrosion of rebar in concrete due to sulphates alone is very less as compared to
chlorides and chlorides plus sulphates.
4. The presence of MgSO4 enhances the chloride-induced corrosion of rebar in both
normal, and MK blended concretes.
5. ANOVA results indicated that there is a significant difference in corrosion perfor-
mance between OPC and MK concretes contaminated with NaCl and NaCl plus
MgSO4.
6. ANOVA results also reported that the type of salt affect the corrosion performance
of rebar in OPC concrete.
References
1. Al-Amoudi OSB, Rasheeduzzafar AA, Maslehuddin M, Abduljauwad S (1994) Influence of
sulfate ions on chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion in Portland and blended cement
concretes. Cem Con Agg 16:3–11
2. Al-Amoudi OSB, Baghabra OS (1998) Sulfate attack and reinforcement corrosion in plain
and blended cements exposed to sulfate environments. Build Environ 33:53–61
3. Jarrah NR, Al-Amoudi OSB, Maslehuddin M, Ashiru OA, Al-Mana AI (1995) Electro-
chemical behaviour of steel in plain and blended cement concretes in sulphate and/or
chloride environments. Constr Build Mater 9:97–103
4. Yang L, Yu H, Ma H, Zhou P (2009) Deterioration of high performance hybrid fibers
reinforced expansive concrete exposed to magnesium sulfate solution. In: International
conference on transportation engineering 2009, pp 2614–2619
5. Liu R, Jiang L, Huang G, Zhu Y, Liu X, Chu H, Xiong C (2016) The effect of carbonate and
sulfate ions on chloride threshold level of reinforcement corrosion in mortar with/without fly
ash. Constr Build Mater 113:90–95
6. Khan MS, Tayyib C (1992) Rebar corrosion in MgSO4 solution. J Mater Civ Eng 4:292–299
7. Holden WR, Page CL, Short NR (1980) The influence of chlorides and sulfates on
durability. In: Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction, pp 143–150. Society of
Chemical Industry Ellis Horwood Ltd., West Sussex
8. Brown PW, Badger S, Hime WG, Marusin SL (2001) A discussion of the paper The
distributions of bound sulfates and chlorides in concrete subjected to mixed NaCl, MgSO4,
Na2SO4 attack. Cem Concr Res 31:1115–1116
9. Bureau of Indian Standards (2013) Ordinary Portland Cement, 53 Grade-Specification (First
Revision). IS 122692013
10. IS 383 (Reaffirmed 2002) (1970) Indian standard specification for coarse and fine aggregates
from natural sources for concrete (second revision)
11. ASTM G16-13 (2013) Standard Guide for Applying Statistics to Analysis of Corrosion Data
12. Molugaram K, Rao GS, Shah A, Davergave N (2017) Statistical Techniques for
Transportation Engineering. BSP Books Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad Published by Elsevier Inc.
Earthquake Analysis of High-Rise Building
with Floating Column
Mohasinkhan N. Bargir(&) and Ajim G. Mujawar
Department of Civil Engineering, Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering

and Technology, Ashta 416301, India
nihal8885@gmail.com, agm_civil@adcet.in
Abstract. In present scenario construction of high rise building with floating

column is a distinctive feature in urban India. As per IS: CODE-1893:2016
clause no-7.1, floating column construction is prohibited but there is no limi-
tation and restriction for research work. The purpose of this research is to study
seismic response of a building and to analyze and build the structure in which
there will be less damages to the structure and its component under the exci-
tation of earthquake. The paper deals with validation of the software has been
done in relation to the literature and further matters have been decided and
studied based on the validation result. Finite element-based software like Staad-
Pro has been used, Equivalent static method and response spectrum method
have been used for analysis. The results have been obtained in terms of base
shear, displacement, storey drift, time period etc. Based on results it was con-
cluded that triangular plate in floating column building reduces displacement
and base shear of building.
Keywords: High rise building Floating column Dynamic analysis

Staad-Pro
1 Introduction
India is developing country where population growth is increasing per year. A few year
ago, the population were not so vast so they used to live in horizontal system (because
of large area available per person), but present days people preferring vertical system
due to shortage of space. Buildings are the symbol of modern society. Due to lack of
space, increasing population and also for aesthetic view and functional requirements,
Construction of high rise building in urban cities are required to have column free
space. For this purpose, the concept of floating column is coming in picture. These
columns are highly disadvantageous in building built in seismically prone areas. As per
IS:1893-2002 earthquake code the India is classified into different zone for which it
specifies the seismic zone factor and it is very important to analyze & design the
building for seismic force to prevent damages occur due to earthquake. The code of
earthquake engineering has been designed with the aim that people get enough time to
escape from the building, the building is less damaged and the building comes in faster
use. When earthquakes take place, the building passes at dynamic motion. The reason
is that the building subjected to the inertial forces operating in the opposite direction of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_23
Earthquake Analysis of High-Rise Building with Floating Column 171
the acceleration of earthquake stimulation. These inertia forces, called seismic loads,
are usually handled as assuming forces are external, Since the motion of earthquake
varies with time and inertia forces vary with time & direction. Seismic loads are not
stable in terms of time and space.
1.1 What Is Floating Column?

Floating column is nothing but a vertical member or element that rests on a beam, but
doesn’t transfer load directly to the foundation. Generally, the columns rest on the
foundation to transfer loads coming from slabs and beams, floating column acts as a
point load on the beam and this beam transfers the load to the column below it, that
beam is called a transfer beam. The use of floating columns is intended for an archi-
tectural view, site conditions and as much as possible area on a plot within, permissible
bye laws. Earthquake is a natural phenomenon in which disasters are mainly caused by
damage to the building or the loss of other man-made structures. Generally, the failure
of the structures begins at the point of weakness. This weakness arises because of
discontinuity in mass, discontinuity in load transferring path, Stiffness and irregular
geometry (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Fig. 1. Floating column Fig. 2. Model- C Fig. 3. Model-E, F

building
2 Literature Review
Equivalent static analysis on different models for Zone-2 and 5 are carried out to study
the performance of the building in Shrikant et al. [6], and it has been found that
displacement increases when the floating column is provided on the edge. Apart from
this, Kishalay et al. [1] has perform the response spectrum analysis by the BNBC code
on various model, by changing its properties and the size of the elements, and compare
with the results of the general building and found that torsional irregularity was exist
when floating column was placed unsymmetrically. While Sarode et al. [3] analyzed the
172 M. N. Bargir and A. G. Mujawar
model by static and response spectrum method by considering beam girder on the model
and found that the larger base shear comes in the building due to composite beam girder.
Similar work has been done by Wahidi et al. [4] with Pushover Analysis G + 5-storey
building on Sap2000 in which some new system of bracing has been suggested based on
findings. Floating column building along with the Infill wall in the IDARC program,
Banerjee et al. [8] estimates damage index, cracks, yield, plastic hinges and found that
infill wall, help in reducing the seismic parameters with floating columns building.
3 Objective of Work
To the validation of FEM software with literature.
To model the building with floating column by using Staad-Pro V8i Series-6 Software.
To Compare building with and without floating column in terms of base shear, dis-
placement, storey drift, moments, time period, etc.
3.1 Problem Formulation

The importance of present research work is to study the performance of 10-storey
buildings for different zones. Validation of the software along with the literature is
carried out, further cases have been decided and studied based on the results of the
validation, the following models and have been modeled and analyzed for the lower
and higher seismic zones for the position of medium soil. The results are plotted for the
base shear, storey displacement and storey drift, frequency and time period etc.
3.2 Methodology
Article for validation: Seismic Response of Complex building With Floating Column
for Zone-II, V (International Journal of Engineering Research, vol.2, issue.4, 2014)
3.2.1 Description of Model and Cases
Model - A: Floating column is provided @ particular location on ground floor

Model - B: Floating column is provided by rising the height of storey 4 m on ground
floor.
Model - C: Floating column is provided by applying heavy load on slab on ground floor
Model - D: 10 Storey Normal Building.
Model - E: 10 Storey building with floating column provided @ corner on ground floor.
Model - F: 10 Storey building with floating column provided @ corner on ground floor
with Triangular Plate.
3.2.2 Cases
I. Floating Column in the middle of interior frame (On Ground Floor)

II. Floating Column in the edge of exterior frame (On Ground Floor)
III. Floating Column is provided @ corner of building (On Ground Floor)
Case-I & II are taken as validation cases for Model-A, B, C & Case-III is taken for
research in which high rise building with floating column is provided at the corner of
building for Model-E, F (Table 1).
Table 1. Model data & dynamic properties

Parameters Model-A Model-B Model-C
For Case-I & Case-II (Validation Cases)
Plan dimension 15 m 15 m
3 Bay in X & Z direction 5 m @ c/c
All column size 450 450 mm
All beam size 300 450 mm
Support condition Fixed Fixed Fixed
Soil type Medium (II) Medium (II) Medium (II)
Seismic zone (Z) II & V II & V II & V
Method Equivalent static analysis
Response reduction factor (R) 5 5 5
Importance factor (I) 1 1 1
Floor height (H) 3.0 M 4.0 M 3.0 M
Height of building (H) 30 M 31 M 30 M
Thickness of slab 150 MM 150 MM 150 MM
Heavy dead load - - 10 kN/m2
Live load 3.5 kN/m2 3.5 kN/m2 3.5 kN/m2
Heavy live load - - 10 kN/m2
Floor finish 1.0 kN/m 2
1.0 kN/m 2
1.0 kN/m2
Material properties M25 & FE- 415 Steel grade
Parameters Model-D Model-E Model-F
For Case-III
Plan dimension 9m9m
3 Bay in X-Z direction 3 m @ c/c
Column size 450 450 mm
Floating column 300 300 mm
All beam size 230 380 mm
Support condition Fixed Fixed Fixed
Soil type Medium (II) Medium (II) Medium (II)
Seismic zone (Z) II, III, IV II & V II & V
Response reduction factor (R) 5 5 5
(continued)
Parameters Model-D Model-E Model-F
Method Response spectrum method
Importance factor (I) 1.2 1.2 1.2
Floor height (H) 3.15 M 3.15 M 3.15 M
Height of building (H) 31.5 M 31.5 M 31.5 M
Thickness of slab 150 MM 150 MM 150 MM
Live load 2.5 kN/m2 2.5 kN/m2 2.5 kN/m2
Floor finish 1.0 kN/m2 1.0 kN/m2 1.0 kN/m2
UDL on beam 11.75 kN/m 11.75 kN/m 11.75 kN/m2
2 2
Material properties M30 & FE- 500 Steel grade
3.3 Results and Discussions

After analyzing the first three models (Model-A, Model-B, Model-C) in Staad-Pro
which were validation cases, it was seen that the results obtained in terms of dis-
placement and base shear are almost identical to literature results. The maximum error
between Staad-Pro & Literature results are 9.42%. In validation cases, maximum storey
displacement of top floor is 20.48 mm (Case-I) & 26.46 mm (Case-II) for Model-C. As
well as Base shear is 450.05 kN (Case-I) & 472.50 kN (Case-II) for Model-C. So, it
can be seen that as load increases the storey displacement as well as base shear is also
increases for any zone. It was also found that Case-II is more vulnerable as compared to
Case-I because in case -1 the floating column, which rests on the beam, is supported on
two columns, where as in case -2 that beam is cantilever. On the basis of these results,
Model-D, Model-E and Model-F for Case-III have been decided. To find out why
Case-2 is unsafe. Case-3 is analyze by response spectrum method as per IS: code 1893-
2016 and results are compared for all Model-D, E & F in terms of base shear, storey
displacement, storey drift, time period and frequency. It was seen that maximum storey
displacement can be reduced with addition of triangular plate at column beam joint in
Model-F for any zone (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5). In Case-III, the Base shear is less when
floating column is added in Model-E than that of normal building (Model-D). But if
triangular plate is added at the junction of beam column, the base shear is increased in
Model-F which is lesser than that of Model-E (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 ).
Table 2. Displacement results of Staad-Pro & literature (Case-1) @ Zone-II, V

Storey Results Model-A Model-B Model-C Model-A Model-B Model-C
10 Staad.Pro 17.91 17.82 20.48 60.77 64.15 68.17
Literature 16.5 17.52 19.50 57.55 60.05 65.05
9 Staad.Pro 17.18 17.15 19.64 58.32 61.77 65.40
Literature 16.02 17.35 19.10 56.3 57.5 62.50
8 Staad.Pro 16.07 16.10 18.32 54.39 57.98 61.01
Literature 15.04 15.45 17.50 50 54.5 58.50
(continued)
7 Staad.Pro 14.48 14.70 16.55 49.14 52.90 55.11
Literature 14.1 14.90 16.35 45 49.5 52.50
6 Staad.Pro 12.62 13.00 14.43 42.84 46.81 48.04
Literature 12.3 12.60 14.20 39.98 43.2 46.05
5 Staad.Pro 10.53 11.60 12.05 36.78 39.94 40.11
Literature 9.8 10.90 11.75 34.6 37.5 39.50
4 Staad.Pro 8.29 9.03 9.48 28.15 32.15 31.57
Literature 7.75 9.25 9.50 27.2 30.2 30.00
3 Staad.Pro 5.85 6.87 6.80 20.2 24.72 22.65
Literature 5.45 7.20 6.75 19.5 23.2 22.20
2 Staad.Pro 3.58 4.64 4.09 12.15 16.71 13.63
Literature 3.3 5.05 4.30 12.1 15.75 13.50
1 Staad.Pro 1.34 2.37 1.53 4.58 8.60 5.10
Literature 1.3 2.20 1.50 4.4 8.1 5.05
Table 3. Base shear results of Staad-Pro & literature (Case-1) @ Zone-II, V

10 Staad.Pro 100.64 87.94 110.31 414.26 336.77 349.10
Literature 105.15 90.20 112.50 390.15 345.10 320.15
9 Staad.Pro 186.93 164.42 204.47 766.96 628.55 726.30
Literature 195.50 170.50 210.20 795.05 645.05 780.25
8 Staad.Pro 255.11 225.39 278.87 1045.64 861.16 1087.25
Literature 270.20 232.50 285.15 1050.00 885.20 1065.10
7 Staad.Pro 307.03 272.61 335.83 1259.00 1041.29 1363.60
Literature 330.10 285.00 345.05 1275.50 1066.10 1290.25
6 Staad.Pro 345.65 307.83 375.05 1415.76 1175.64 1566.64
Literature 375.15 315.10 385.65 1425.50 1186.15 1525.10
5 Staad.Pro 372.28 332.80 406.74 1524.62 1270.91 1707.64
Literature 405.05 345.20 420.20 1545.1 1305.20 1590.15
4 Staad.Pro 389.32 349.28 425.34 1594.29 1333.80 1797.88
Literature 425.15 360.10 435.60 1605.05 1365.35 1650.05
3 Staad.Pro 405.05 358.84 435.80 1633.48 1371.02 1848.64
Literature 435.05 367.50 442.50 1665.10 1383.05 1665.15
2 Staad.Pro 425.35 363.62 440.45 1650.90 1389.26 1860.15
Literature 442.50 375.20 445.50 1672.25 1402.50 1680.00
1 Staad.Pro 461.32 365.41 441.61 1655.24 1395.30 1876.82
Literature 465.05 375.80 450.05 1680.65 1410.10 1695.10
Table 4. Displacement results of Staad-Pro & literature (Case-2) @ Zone-II to IV

10 Staad.Pro 19.51 18.05 26.46 62.35 64.82 92.11
Literature 20.00 17.50 19.50 58.50 62.50 65.00
9 Staad.Pro 18.57 17.20 25.33 59.38 61.93 88.94
Literature 19.00 16.50 18.40 55.50 60.05 62.50
8 Staad.Pro 17.25 16.07 23.68 55.18 57.86 83.49
Literature 17.50 15.40 17.05 51.50 56.50 57.50
7 Staad.Pro 15.54 14.61 21.43 49.72 52.59 75.81
Literature 16.00 14.20 15.50 46.50 51.05 52.05
6 Staad.Pro 13.51 12.87 18.73 43.25 46.33 66.34
Literature 14.00 12.50 14.10 40.00 45.10 45.05
5 Staad.Pro 11.25 10.92 15.68 36.00 39.31 55.52
Literature 11.50 10.50 11.50 33.50 39.20 37.50
4 Staad.Pro 8.81 8.82 12.38 28.22 31.74 43.75
Literature 9.50 8.10 9.50 26.50 31.10 30.05
3 Staad.Pro 6.27 6.11 8.92 20.08 25.80 31.39
Literature 6.75 6.00 7.25 19.05 24.50 21.50
2 Staad.Pro 3.74 4.39 5.43 11.98 17.20 18.85
Literature 4.00 4.10 4.55 11.00 16.10 13.05
1 Staad.Pro 1.20 2.04 2.14 3.85 9.38 7.04
Literature 1.30 2.00 1.85 4.00 9.05 4.50
Table 5. Base Shear results of Staad-Pro & literature @ Zone-II to IV

10 Staad.Pro 84.79 63.75 75.24 320.10 310.15 370.85
Literature 90.10 68.50 90.05 350.25 330.10 420.10
9 Staad.Pro 193.06 164.66 210.46 695.10 632.24 757.65
Literature 195.10 170.10 195.00 750.05 640.15 755.15
8 Staad.Pro 278.60 245.10 317.30 1005.10 920.25 1142.28
Literature 295.00 255.50 300.00 1035.10 930.10 1050.20
7 Staad.Pro 344.09 307.39 399.10 1191.49 1059.10 1436.77
Literature 352.50 315.10 330.15 1245.35 1080.05 1245.50
6 Staad.Pro 392.21 353.85 459.20 1356.62 1200.55 1653.12
Literature 405.00 360.40 375.10 1395.10 1235.05 1410.05
5 Staad.Pro 425.63 386.80 500.93 1470.53 1310.05 1803.37
Literature 430.10 390.35 420.05 1500.00 1320.50 1530.10
4 Staad.Pro 447.02 408.55 527.64 1543.72 1350.20 1899.53
Literature 450.05 412.50 442.50 1575.25 1380.05 1575.50
3 Staad.Pro 459.05 421.42 542.66 1584.89 1405.15 1953.62
Literature 465.05 427.50 450.00 1605.00 1425.10 1635.10
2 Staad.Pro 464.38 427.71 549.34 1603.19 1430.10 1977.00
Literature 465.71 434.50 465.00 1620.10 1450.05 1650.00
1 Staad.Pro 465.71 429.80 551.02 1607.75 1467.16 1983.66
Literature 470.50 435.10 472.50 1635.25 1480.10 1665.05
Fig. 4. Comparison of displacement (Case-III) Fig. 5. Comparison of storey drift (Case-III)
Fig. 6. Comparison of base shear (Case-III) Fig. 7. Comparison of period and

frequency (Case-III)
4 Conclusions
In static analysis the building with floating column provided at corner side (Case-II),
gives the maximum storey displacement and storey shear for zone-II, V compared to
Case-1, while loading and other properties are similar in both cases.
The location of floating column is made significant impact on building, by ana-
lytically it cannot be said that which location is most appropriate for all types of
building. Every time we need to be carried out careful analysis.
The introduction of triangular plate plays good role in floating column building as
In Model-F, the average value of displacement is decreased by 7.3 mm compared to
Model-E and 5.04 mm decreased compared to Model-D (Normal Building). The value
of storey drift was also found to be decreased in Model-F compared to Model-E.
In Case-III, storey shear decreases with introduction of floating column for all
zones, due to the reduction mass of column structure. Whereas Base shear is increases
in Model-F due introduction of triangular plate.
The mode frequency was seen using model analysis by eigen. It has been found that
frequency is lower for each mode in Model-E. Therefore, as the Model-E building is
more flexible. Whereas Frequency was found more in Model-F, because triangular
plate is provided and due to this the building become stiffer.
References
1. Kishalay MT, Kamrujjaman NM (2018) Evaluation of seismic performance of floating
column building. Am J Civil Eng 06
2. Elakkiyarajan N, Iyappan G (2018) Seismic analysis of multistory building with floating
column. IOSR J Eng 42–44
3. Sarode J, Pote AS (2016) Analysis of floating column building of composite and RCC beam
girder and comparison with RCC frame structure by using E-tab. Int J Adv Res 8:1464–1469
4. Wahidi A, Ramaseshu D (2016) Seismic analysis of multistory building with floating column.
Asian J Civ Eng 17
5. Singla S, Rahman E (2015) Effect of floating columns on seismic response of multistoried RC
framed building. Int J Eng Res Technol 2:1–11
6. Srikanth MK, Holebagilu YR (2014) Seismic response of complex building with floating
column for Zone-II and Zone-V. Int J Eng Res Online 2(4)
7. Sekhar TR, Prasad PV (2014) Study of behaviour of seismic analysis of multi storied building
with and without floating column. Caribb J Sci Technol 2:697–710
8. Banerjee S, Patro SK (2014) Estimation of the park-ang damage index for floating column
building with infill wall. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 8:760–763
A Review on the Recent Development
of Ambient Cured Geopolymer Composites
Mayank Gupta(&) and N. H. Kulkarni
Shri Guru Gobind Singhji (SGGS) Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Vishnupuri, Nanded 431606, Maharashtra, India
mayank40gupta@gmail.com, nhkulkarni@sggs.ac.in
Abstract. Geopolymer composite is synthesized with aggregates and industrial

by-products materials those are thriving in alumina and silica, energized using a
powerful alkali solution. Geopolymer composites required high temperature
curing for achieving higher strength which restricted the use in cast-in-situ work.
This literature provides a condensed explanation on the recent development of
the ambient cured Geopolymer composites. It has been observed that
geopolymer composites contributed better physical properties viz. workability
and mechanical parameters viz. compressive, split tensile and flexural strength
along with the superior durability properties like sulfate and acid resistance,
resistance to freezing and thawing, shrinkage, corrosion and water absorptions
etc. compared to the cement composites in the ambient cured condition and also
reduces the greenhouse gas production. In general, production of high strength
geopolymer composites in the ambient cured condition requires concentration of
sodium hydroxide 10–12 Molarity, alkali to binder ratio 0.35–0.5 and the ratio
between sodium silicate and sodium hydroxides 1.5–2.5.
Keywords: Geopolymer Sodium hydroxide Ambient curing

Heat curing and steel fiber
1 Introduction
The requirement of concrete buildings has been rising regularly, especially in the last 2
decades due to the increment of the world population. It is estimated that the demand of
concrete for the construction works will become 18 billion tons per year by the end of
the year 2050 [1]. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) being an essential constituent of
the concrete other than aggregates. Every year, approximately one ton cement is
produces for every human being and this quantity is increased by 100% by the end of
year 2020 [2]. Manufacturing of cement is not only energy intensive but also emits
carbon dioxide (CO2) in large quantity. It has been calculated that production of one
ton cement required 94.76 mega joule energy and annually, 13,500 million tons or
approximately 7% of the total CO2 gas emission is contributed by only OPC industries
to the environment [3]. Development of green-house gases from the cement industries
is the causal of global warming and ozone layer depletion. On the other hand huge
amount of agro and industrial by-products like fly ash, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) slag,
red mud, metakaolin and rice husk ash (RHA) etc. is being produce, which also affects

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_24
180 M. Gupta and N. H. Kulkarni
the environment. To overcome these aforementioned issue, many researchers are

partially utilizing these industrial and agro waste as one of the constituent of concrete,
which enhanced the physical, mechanical and durability properties of the normal
concrete. As, everyone knows that for enhancing the properties of concrete, complete
replacement is always preferable compared to the partial replacement.
In the year 1978, Devidovits [4] (U.S. Patent No. 4349386) introduced geopolymer,
which is synthesized with aggregates and aluminosilicate materials such as fly ash,
RHA, POFA, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and metakaolin etc. and
these are energized with powerful alkali solution of potassium/sodium silicate and
hydroxide.
Turner and Collins [5] documented that the emission of CO2 was approximately
9% from the geopolymer concrete which was comparatively small for the normal
concrete and likewise, Islam et al. [6] reported that inclusion oil palm shell as a coarse
aggregate in geopolymer reduced the carbon footprint by approximate 50–60% as
compared to the OPC based concrete. Ng et al. [7] informed that production of
geopolymer reduced the power consumption up to 15% and greenhouse gas emission
44–64%. Alkali-activated geopolymer concrete showed good workability and abrasion
resistance, low drying shrinkage, high initial strength and excellent bonding strength
between reinforcing steel bar and geopolymer concrete comparatively that of normal
concrete [8, 9]. Along with, in the acid exposure, the loss in weight of the geopolymer
concrete was much smaller than that of the OPC based normal concrete, which showed
that normal concrete was less durable than the geopolymer concrete up to some degree
of aggressive environment exposure [10]. The aforementioned advantages create
enthusiasm in the researchers to investigate the different properties of geopolymer
composites, therefore, geopolymer composites could become preferable construction
material.
Geopolymer is one among the polymers. It has a three-dimensional amorphous
shape and its chemical structure is similar to the natural zeolite material. In the presence
of alkaline environment, when silicon dioxide (SiO2) and aluminium oxides (Al2O3)
react with solution of various alkalis then it develops a polymeric Si–O–Al chain, this
reaction is known as geopolymerization reaction. The developed polymer structures are
sialate (-Si-O-Al-O-), siliate–siloxo (Si-O-Al-O-Si-O) and siliate–disiloxo (Si-O-Al-O-
Si-O-Al-O) [11]. Microstructural studies done by Nath and Sarker [12] informed that
geopolymer reaction formed aluminosilicate or geopolymer (N–A–S–H) gel in the
absence of calcium oxides but if the calcium oxide is incorporated in the form of
GGBFS [13] or OPC [14], into the fly ash based geopolymer then calcium silicate
hydrate (C–S–H) gel is formed along with the geopolymer gel. The formation of C–S–
H gel, makes possible to construct self – cured geopolymer composites, which reduce
the cost of heat curing. Past studies explained that reinforced geopolymer concrete
columns and beams showed approximately equal and better structural behavior to that
of normal concrete [12].
Geopolymer composites have potential to become a substitute of OPC composites
because they can provide 120 MPa compressive strength [15], better durability prop-
erties [16] superior sulphate resistance [9, 10], and excellent thermal performance [17].
Most of the researchers used low/high calcium fly ash as the aluminosilicate material in
the geopolymer which required heat curing at 60–100 °C for 24 to 48 h for enhancing
A Review on the Recent Development of Ambient Cured Geopolymer Composites 181
the geopolymerization reaction and achieving the better workability and higher strength
[18] which also leads to the high cost of construction and impedes to cast-in-situ work.
So, the researchers are now focusing on to the use of other substitute materials like
GGBFS [19], OPC [14], bottom ash [20], cement kiln dust (CKD) [21], iron making
slag, Silica fume (SF) [19], nano silica [22], rice husk ash (RHA) [23], metakaolin
(MK) [24] etc. as the binder materials in the geopolymer composites. This literature
provides a condensed review of the inclusion of the aforementioned source material in
the geopolymer composites, and determined the effect of different alkali solution,
sodium/potassium silicate to sodium/potassium hydroxides ratio, concentration of
sodium/potassium hydroxides and water addition on the various properties of ambient
temperature cured geopolymer composites.
2 Previous Studies on Ambient Cured Geopolymer

Composites
This study focused on the researches completed in the recent duration on the ambient
cured geopolymer composites and explain the effect of factors those can influence the
properties of geopolymer composites like source materials, alkaline activator and water
addition etc.
2.1 Effect of Source Materials

Source material play a vital role for developing geopolymer composites in the ambient
environment. Past studies confirmed, development of ambient cured geopolymer
composites could be possible by adding calcium Oxide (CaO) into the (with or without
fly ash) geopolymer composites from the slag, OPC and other materials. The presence
of high amount of calcium (Ca2+) in the OPC and slag is capable to develop C-S-H gel
along with the calcium-alumino-silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) and sodium-alumino-
silicate hydrate (N-A-S-H) gel, which is primarily responsible to enhancement in the
mechanical properties and decrease setting time of the ambient cured geopolymer
binders [25]. Only fly ash is not feasible to develop high strength geopolymer in the
ambient cured condition. Addition of calcium oxide (CaO) in the fly ash based
geopolymer binder increases the strength of ambient cured geopolymer. Studies
revealed that calcium present in the alccofine [26], GGBFS [23] and fly ash [27] reacts
with the alkaline activator and generate heat in the matrix due to exothermic reaction
which could be the cause of enhancing the mechanical properties of the concrete.
The mechanical properties of ambient cured geopolymer concrete was continuously
enhanced with the inclusion of GGBFS but the rate of increment was slowdown after
the 28 days. The highest compressive strength could be achievable with the utilization
of 70–100% GGBFS [28]. Development of only GGBFS based self-compacting
geopolymer concrete could be possible in the ambient environment. GGBFS has the
potential to develop high strength self-compacting geopolymer concrete [27]. Incor-
poration of slag in the geopolymer attributed dense microstructure which significantly
reduced the porosity and pore volume [25].
The inclusion of RHA into the GGBFS based geopolymer (self-compacting)

concrete reduced the workability because RHA consists high specific surface area and
micropores which adsorbed high amount of water which is available for lubrication.
Whereas GGBFS have less specific surface area compared to the RHA, hence, 100%
GGBFS based geopolymer showed high workability [23]. Replacement of GGBFS
with the metakaolin, fly ash and silica fume improved the setting time but decrease the
compressive strength of GGBFS based and ambient cured geopolymer concrete [19].
The reason for this increment in the setting time can be attributed to the reaction time
between GGBFS and activator compared to the silica fume, fly ash and metakaolin,
whereas, with the reduction in the amount of GGBFS, the amount of CaO decreases,
thereby slow down the polymerization reaction which decreases the compressive
strength of geopolymer in the ambient curing [19, 29], however, Sun et al. [24]
reported that metakaolin and GGBFS based pervious concrete provide highest com-
pressive strength, porosity and permeability compared to the only metakaolin or only
GGBFS based pervious concrete.
Alanazi et al. [25] explained that OPC mixture exhibited more heat compared to the
alkali activated fly ash geopolymer. Fang et al. [29] reported that equation bestowed by
ACI code and Eurocode for determining the split tensile and flexural strength and
dynamic modulus of elasticity of the OPC concrete overestimated these values for the
fly ash GGBFS contained geopolymer concrete. Addition of OPC in the geopolymer
accelerate the hydration process which reduced the workability and the setting time,
whereas, hydration process can be retarded with the addition of citric acid [30].
Cao et al. [31] incorporated calcium aluminate cement in the geopolymer as the
source of calcium and alumina, greatly promote the mechanical properties of the
ambient cured geopolymer concrete and found that inclusion of calcium aluminate
cement significantly enhanced the mechanical properties but reduced the workability.
The split tensile strength and elastic modulus was accurately predicted by the ACI 318
and AS 3600 codes, respectively, whereas, these American and Australian standard
code underestimated the flexural strength of the geopolymer concrete. Unit weight of
ambient temperature cured specimen slightly reduced after the 90 days because of the
vaporization of water from the geopolymer matrix [32].
2.2 Influence of Alkaline Activator

The solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate are mostly used as the alkaline
activator compared to the solution of potassium silicate and potassium hydroxide [19].
Sodium/Potassium hydroxide is an important activator for binding and dissolving all
ingredients, to develop the geopolymer binders. An increment in the molarity of
sodium hydroxide along with the viscosity of the solution decreases the fluidity and
flowability of self-compacting geopolymer concrete [33]. Solubility of alumino-silicate
materials enhanced with the increment in the concentration of sodium hydroxide. High
molarity of sodium hydroxide accelerate the bonding property which leads to enhance
the mechanical parameters of geopolymer concrete. The compressive strength increases
up to 12 M but after that strength of geopolymer concrete start to decrease. This is due
to the more hydroxide ions react in the early stage and slow down the next reaction
process [27].
Parveen et al. [26] has been recognized, slump of the geopolymer concrete were
increased by approximately 15% when concentration of sodium hydroxide changes
from 16 M to 8 M, however, mechanical properties were improved but rate of
absorption of water were decreased with the increment of sodium hydroxide concen-
tration. Microstructural studies verified the formation of the denser structure and less
crack which could be the reason for reducing the water absorption. It was documented
that drying shrinkage of geopolymer increases with sodium silicate concentration
increment because of higher degree of hydration [34].
The flowability of fresh geopolymer mixture reduced with the increased ratio
between sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide. It was observed from the results,
geopolymer mortar become more cohesive and viscous with the inclusion of alkaline
solution, therefore the flow value reduced compared to the of OPC concrete. However,
the ratio between alkaline activators did not affect the mechanical properties of
metakaolin or silica fume incorporated fly ash based geopolymer whereas, this ratio
highly affect the strength parameters of the slag contain geopolymer [25].
2.3 Impact of Alkali to Binder Ratio (Al/Bi)

Alkali to binder ratio is also an influencing factor for the properties of the geopolymer
composites. The participation percentage of Al/Bi for enhancing the mechanical
properties was approximate 94% compared to the other factors like concentration of
sodium hydroxide etc. [31]. Previous studies revealed that increment in the Al/Bi ratio,
enhanced the workability of the geopolymer concrete, whereas the compressive
strength of the GGBFS based geopolymer concrete decreases because increment in the
amount of alkaline activator increases the quantity of water which obstructs the
geopolymerization reaction in the ambient condition, therefore compressive strength
reduced and workability enhanced [19, 35]. Coincidentally, in the same manner, slump
and strength parameters of the ordinary concrete alter with the augmentation in the
water to binder ratio.
2.4 Effects of Aggregates

Size, shape and quantity of coarse aggregate is also influences the properties of alkali
activated geopolymer composites similar to the OPC based concrete. It was docu-
mented in the past studies that increment in size of aggregate, compressive strength and
density of geopolymer pervious concrete were reduced, but in contrast, water perme-
ability and porosity increases. It’s indicated that bigger size aggregate is not able to
develop compact structure, therefore the contacting area between aggregate and binder
decrease which reduced the mechanical properties [27]. Sun et al. [24] exhibited that
modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of the geopolymer pervious concrete
were reduced with the increment of aggregate quantity. It was observed that inclusion
of fine aggregate in to the concrete not only enhance the mechanical properties, but also
enhance the freeze-thaw resistance. Results reported that highest mechanical properties
could be achievable by using natural aggregate into the fly ash geopolymer pervious
concrete, however best permeability of the that material could be achievable by using
recycled coarse aggregate.
2.5 Effect of Bioadditives

Now days, researchers is utilizing some bio-additives like molasses, palm jiggery,
honey and terminalia chebula into the geopolymer, to enhance the physical, mechanical
and durability properties and also facilitate self cured geopolymer concrete. Study done
by Karthik et al. [36] reported that inclusion of bio-additive into the ambient cured
geopolymer specimen exhibited better durability properties like loss in strength and
weight compared to the ordinary geopolymer concrete after the immersion of specimen
into the 5% sodium sulfate, 5% sodium chloride and 5% sulfuric acid solution for the
period of 90 days.
X-ray diffraction studies informed the formation of crystalline and amorphous
phases which developed quartz and aluminosilicate compounds those highly influenced
the physical and mechanical parameters of the geopolymer [37]. Mercury intrusion
porosimetry test results informed that bio-additive inclusion reduced the porosity of the
specimen [36]. Compressive strength test results exhibited that inclusion of bio-additive
enhanced the strength by 18–35% after the 28 days of ambient temperature curing [37].
Visual inspection of the immersed specimen exhibited that bio-additive added
specimens were less deteriorated compared to the without bio-additive added
geopolymer concrete specimen. Microstructural studies informed that the presence of a
stable cross-linked polymer in the bio-additives exhibited superior resistance to the
sulfate, acid and chloride in the geopolymer concrete specimen [36].
2.6 Influence of the Other Factors

To magnifying the durability properties of concrete, nowadays air entraining admix-
tures has been added in the concrete in the form of the tiny air bubble. Air entraining
admixtures did not reported a significant effect on the workability, because of the
reduction in the air void spacing factor, whereas, these properties were enhanced with
the addition of the water and fly ash. Mechanical parameters slightly improve with the
addition of air entraining admixtures after the 7 days of ambient curing but it con-
tinuously decreases by the addition of the water content [34]. Similar findings were also
explained by the M. Albitar et al. [38] when they utilized lead smelter slag as the source
material and fine aggregate.
Microstructural studies informed, with the inclusion of water and fly ash reduces
the number of cracks exists in the GGBFS based geopolymer paste along with the
autogenous volume changes. These studies revealed that self-desiccation could be the
possible reason for the early cracking of the geopolymer paste, which reduce with the
increasing water content [34].
Farhan et al. [39] inquire the influence of steel fiber inclusion into the geopolymer
concrete column and understand the behavior under eccentric axial, concentric axial
and four point loading condition. Results informed that steel fiber significantly affected
the post-peak deformation behavior and prevented from sudden failure by retarding the
crack propagation. The strength of geopolymer concrete column improvised with the
inclusion of steel fibers whereas, it decreased with the increase in the eccentricity of
loading, meanwhile, brittle behavior of specimens’ changes to the ductile behavior due
to the confinement of pores available.
3 Conclusion
Production of a small amount OPC from the natural substance required high amount of
embodied energy and developed CO2 gas along with other environmental affecting
substances. For that reason, OPC concrete has facing acute condemnation from last two
decades which encourage the researchers for finding the alternatives of the OPC, those
have comparable properties of the OPC. After reviewing the previous published
research papers on the ambient cured geopolymer composites, it was found that
geopolymer is the best alternative of the OPC which enhanced the physical, mechanical
parameters and durability properties of the alkali activated geopolymer concrete and
reduce greenhouse gas emission as well as utilize industrial by – products. This review
paper epitomizes the utilization and effect of the industrial and agro waste such as slag,
fly ash, RHA and metakaolin etc. and other factors like alkaline activators, bio-
additives, Al/Bi ratio and air entraining admixtures etc. on the different parameters of
the geopolymer composites. On the basis of current work, the following findings can be
drawn –
• Many components viz. physical and chemical properties of the aluminosilicate
materials, ratio between alkaline compounds and alkali to binder ratio along with
curing temperature and time influence the various properties of geopolymer
composites.
• Due to unavailability of any standard design procedure for achieving comparable or
even better physical, mechanical and durability qualities, geopolymer composites
are not feasible for the cast-in-situ work.
• For the production of self-cured geopolymer composites, calcium oxides and cal-
cium hydroxides should be incorporate in the form of GGBFS or OPC.
• The behavior of fibers with geopolymer composites were found similar to the
normal concrete. Inclusion of fibers into the geopolymer composites also enhanced
the microstructure of the composites.
• Manufacturing of pervious and lightweight geopolymer concrete and geopolymer
brick could also be possible by using geopolymer composites.
• In general, production of high strength and durable geopolymer composites in the
ambient cured condition needs 10–12 M sodium hydroxide, the alkali to binder
ratio 0.35–0.5 and the ratio between sodium silicate and sodium hydroxides 1.5–
2.5.
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A Case Study on Structural Assessment
of Dudhgaon Grampanchayat Building
by Using Non Destructive Testing
Rohit Kukade1(&) and Santosh Mohite2

1
Civil Structural Engineering, Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering
Kukaderohit@gmail.com
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering
hod_civil@adcet.in
Abstract. Structural Assessment is the overall health and performance check-

up of the structure. This assessment gives an idea to repair and retrofitting
measures required for the structure by which the service life of the structure can
extended. The main criteria for assessment of any structure include the state of
the building history, surrounding environment conditions, structural capacity,
durability, and professional involvement in construction. RCC structure is often
exposed to many types of damages and deteriorations due to different cause and
exposure conditions during their life cycle.
Keywords: Building inspections Safety Repairs and control

Non destructive testing (NDT) Rebound hammer ultrasonic pulse velocity
1 Introduction
Any Building Structure can withstand for a very long period without any damage that only
depends on general checkup of that structure. After completing 30 years of any structure
periodical monitoring should be carried out. As the building grows old special precaution
should be carried out to remain the building for long period. Therefore it is suggested to
carry out periodical monitoring of the structure by structural consultant to save the loss of
life and loss of structure. Structural Assessment of a building is the preliminary stage in
which we can clarify exact in which condition is the structure right now. Indian society of
structural engineer has presented methodology on structural assessment.
Structural assessment is the examination of the building to give the current situation
of the building or members of the structure, the extent of material deterioration is
greatly depends on quality of material used for construction and quality of work at
construction stage. The damaged part of the building should repair as soon as, to
overcome future loss of structure. If the deteriorated part remains as it is, it causes slow
poisoning which is corrosion of steel, chemical attack etc. There are several techniques
by which we can extend our building life span but there should be exact diagnosis of
the damage and correctly applied the techniques.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_25
190 R. Kukade and S. Mohite
2 Literature Review
Sachin Shelke, Darshana Ainchwar (2018) [1] Structures are the assemblies of beam,
column, & slab which safely transfer the superimposed load to the foundation. Con-
crete is an integral material used for construction purposes. Thus to know the strength
of this concrete we used the technique Non destructive testing. The rebound hammer
test is a hardness test and it is based on principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
depends on the hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. The
assessment of any old structure by which we can extend the life of the structure by
suggesting remedies for repair. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is conducted which
gives quality of concrete.
Peteris Drukis, Liga Gaile and Leonids Pakrastins (2017) [2] Safety of buildings is
very important in all aspects. A commercial building at Riga collapse due to damages
caused was very serious and 54 people were died. Safety of structure is the practice of
designing, constructing, operation, maintaining and removing structure in ways that no
any loss of human or injuries. This paper tells us risk based assessment system of
commercial building with target to classify this in common way. The outcome of this
paper is exact assessment of the structure and the effect of that risk factor to the safety
of public buildings.
Mahadik and Jaiswal(4) (2014) [3] This paper create awareness amongst the civil
engineering structure and health examination of the concrete structure called as
Structural assessment. The need of assessment is for maintenance and repair of existing
structures whose life has exceed the age of 15 years according to standard guidelines
and to save valuable loss of human life and also the collapse of structure.
3 Objectives
To study the various types of structural defects.
To identify any signs of material deterioration.
To identify the signs of structural distress and deformation.
To identify any alteration and addition in the structure.
Remedies for restoration of the structure.
4 Problem Formulation
Structural Assessment of dudhgaon grampanchayat was necessary because the struc-

ture has completed 15 years and almost loss it’s strength due to material deterioration
and corrosion of steel and hence to avoid loss of human life and loss of structure
collapse it’s necessary to take assessment of that structure and suggest remedies to the
respected authority.
A Case Study on Structural Assessment of Dudhgaon Grampanchayat Building 191
5 Methodology
Performing preliminary inspection by which we can get clear idea of the structure.
Preparation of Architectural plan and steel design of the structure.
Should highlight critical areas which are more damaged.
Performing NDT test by which we can get clearer about the structure health.
Finding actual strength of the building.
Suggesting the remedial measures for extending life span of the structure.
5.1 Case Study of R.C.C Building
Basic Information
Name of Building:- Dudhgaon Grampanchyat office.
Type of Structure:- R.C.C. Building G + 1
Address:- A/p Dudhgaon Grampanchayat, Tal- Miraj Dist. Sangli.
Age of Building:-18 years completed.
Effects of monsoon:- Yes
(1) Visual Observation
This building is a commercial type and located in Dudhgaon village. While visual
observing this building it has been cleared that material deterioration in every
member has gone to an extreme point and steel has been corroded, and some of
the reinforcements which has been corroded the small parts of corroded steel has
fallen down and only concrete part is there. The column has gone cracks in huge
manner which is easily observed by any common man. Dampness problem in wall
due to leakage in slab.
(2) Tapping Observation
While tapping on the column and beam with hammer the hollow sound was
recorded. This clearly indicates that voids are present in those members.
(3) Non-Destructive Testing Observations
Some of the members of the building were subjected to test by Ultrasonic pulse
velocity and Rebound Hammer test and reading were recorded which were
evaluated further for remedial measures.
5.2 Report of NDT Test

Inspection & Testing
The aim of testing was to arrive at the general quality of concrete, rather than evaluating
each RCC members in detail. On site few RCC members at random were tested. Ultrasonic
pulse velocity (UPV) measurements were taken on Beam, column, and slab.
Corrosion
Rusting of reinforcement in structure is very common. Any corrosion of reinforcement
which may cause serious damage to the structure if this damage to the structure is not
repaired within time then loss of structure and loss of life may cause. Usually the
corrosion occurs due to the exposed steel to the atmosphere, this exposed steel if
remain for long time rusting occurs. Due to poor workmanship at the time of casting
RCC members the voids remain in concrete which may further lead to removal of
concrete cover and due to wear and tear the steel exposed to atmosphere.
5.3 Observations on Case Study

Structurally the building appears to be unsound and few structural members show
major distress sign at external face & internal area of the building.
• This building at external face shows large cracks in column and corrosion in column
is at extreme point.
• The wall joint with column is not proper and this shows the separation of wall with
column by cracks.
• The cover of beam has fallen down and steel is exposed to atmosphere.
• The plumbing lines are damaged and still now in use.
• Dampness in wall due to which the condition of building appears to be quite leaky.
• Plaster on RCC member and on brickwork acts as skin but this plaster has fallen
down in most of the part.
• Due to weather & carbonation force in some place, plaster has deteriorated.
While going through all aspects of the building maintenance and as per our detailed
survey, we suggested that building needs to be properly repaired and use without this
repair building cannot sustain load for long time.
Reinforcement of structure acts as bones in body, so if this are damaged then
weight of body cannot be sustain similarly reinforcement are more important in RCC
structure so special precaution should be taken.
To bring original strength of RCC members which are damaged then polymer
modified mortar method should be used.
The RCC members and walls which are deteriorated due to excess of water leakage
or any other action on these components, to stop this leakage must be stopped.
In RCC structure plaster it acts like a skin on bone, this skin should be of good
quality we recommended good quality resin based coating.
Cracks should be filled with adhesive material.
Waterproofing at terrace must be there to avoid leakage (Tables 1, 2 and 3).
Table 1. Rebound hammer test results (slab)

Sr. No Rebound value Compressive
strength
Kg/cm^2
+Ve 90 −Ve 90 +Ve 90 −Ve 90
1. 28 24.75 140 205
2. 27.25 23.75 135 203
3. 31.75 24.75 195 203
4. 27 30.25 125 302
5. 31.75 34.25 195 385
6. 33 31.5 220 325
A Case Study on Structural Assessment of Dudhgaon Grampanchayat Building 193
Table 2. Rebound hammer test results (beam)

Sr. No Rebound value Compressive
strength Kg/cm^2
Horizontal +Ve 90 Horizontal +Ve 90
1. 23.25 24.25 140 0
2. 25.75 31 165 190
3. 32.25 27.5 280 125
4. 27.25 27 202 120
5. 34.5 26.5 305 110
6. 34 26.75 310 112
7. 26 25.5 180 105
8. 28.25 29.5 215 160
Table 3. Results of ultrasonic pulse velocity test

Sr. No. Ultrasonic pulse velocity by (Km/sec.) Concrete quality grading
SLAB
1. 0.424 Doubtful
2. 1.478 Doubtful
3. 4.640 Excellent
4. 3.78 Good
7 Conclusion
For a framed structure structural assessment is necessary so that appropriate remedial

measures can be recommended for all type of structural defects. This assessment of any
structure gives extra life span to the structure by applying appropriate remedies sug-
gested in assessment report.
From above observation we conclude that reinforcement provided for the structural
member is in very bad condition and lost its strength due to corrosion. And this
corrosion leads to reduction in size of reinforcement and deflection of that member due
its own weight therefore it’s unsafe to carry future load on that structural member. And
structural defects are due to the faulty workmanship, poor quality of material used at
the time of construction and no any specific supervision at the time of construction
carried out. The reinforcement provided in members are corroded and there is loss in
strength of the member, this loss is due to leakage of water from slab. Also there are
combined effects of carbonation, corrosion, and effects of continuous drying and
wetting.
So the strength and serviceability of structure can be extended by taking necessary
measures such as waterproofing walls and slab to stop seepage of water in to structural
members to stop corrosion of reinforcement. Providing polymer mortar treatment.
Recasting of slab.
References
1. Breysse D (2012) Nondestructive evaluation of concrete strength: an historical review and a
new perspective by combining NDT methods. Constr Build Mater 33:140–163
2. Shelke SS, Ainchwar D (2018) Structural health monitoring, Audit Repair and rehabilitation
of building in construction industry. Int J Eng Technol Sci Res 05(3). ISSN 2394-3386
3. Mahadik AB, Jaiswal MH (2014) Structural audit of building. IJCER 05:411–416 ISSN 2278-
3652
4. Chafekar BH, Kadam OS, Kale KB, Mohite SR, Shinde PA, Koyle VP (2013–2014)
Structural audit. IJCSER. 01(1):42–46
5. McCann DM, Forde MC (2001) Review of NDT methods in the assessment of concrete and
masonry structures. NDT E Int 34:71–84
6. Lim MK (2013) Combining multiple NDT methods to improve testing effectiveness. Constr
Build Mater 38:1310–1315
7. The Government of Maharashtra vide their notification date 07/02/2009 has communicated
that Government has modified the M.M.C. act, 1888 thereby incorporation a new
section 353B for making structural audit compulsory in respect of existing building, which
have completed 30 years
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building
Using Diagrid Structural System
Ahmad Muslim Rujhan(&) and Ravande Kishore
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering,

muslimrujhan@yahoo.com, muslimrujhan@gamil.com,
kravande@yahoo.com
Abstract. Diagrid Structural System is defined as a system that consists of

diagonal columns and horizontal members to mitigate and perform against lat-
eral forces by making up a triangular model on the periphery of the building.
Diagrid structural system provided by diagonals on the periphery is adopted in
tall buildings due to its structural efficiency as result of its triangular configu-
ration against both lateral loads and vertical loads. In this paper, analysis and
design of Diagrid module is carried out by three manners innuendo Manual
Calculation using stiffness method, ANSYS V12.1 software, and ETABS
V9.6.0 software. A floor plan of 36 m by 36 m having six spans of 6 m, and 48
stories with typical storey height of 3.6 m is considered. ETABS software is
used for Dynamic Analysis of total Diagrid building, and ANSYS software and
Manual calculation are used for Static Analysis of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery.
Analysis is performed as per IS:800-2007 and IS:1893-2002. Design wind speed
is calculated as per IS:875-1987 Part-3, and specification of steel is taken as per
IS:2062-2011. Comparison of analysis results in terms of Static and Dynamic
control of Diagrid building, therefore Static Analysis is carried out to define
Lateral Stiffness/Displacement of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery, and Dynamic
Analysis is carried out to define Time History, Time Period, Storey Displace-
ment, Storey Drift, Storey Shear, and Load Distribution in Diagrid.
Keywords: Analysis of Diagrid in three methods

Static and dynamic control of diagrid structural system
1 Introduction
The word “Diagrid” is derived from ‘diagonal-grid’, an efficient triangular structure that
can guarantee the stability of a building [1]. Diagrid structural system is used in high-rise
steel buildings where the horizontal loads and the accompanying deflection are nor-
mative, thus stability of tall buildings against lateral loads is an important point in the
analysis and design. There are several lateral resistance systems for tall buildings such as
concrete shear wall, infill wall, braced frame, rigid frame, outrigger truss system, braced
tube, and framed tube, but Diagrid structural system is found the most reliable and
economical structural system for steel tall buildings. The structural efficiency of Diagrid
system occurs as a result of its triangular configuration. The triangulation resists both

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_26
196 A. M. Rujhan and R. Kishore
gravity and lateral load by axial stresses of its members where each member simply acts
in tension or compression with no bending.
Diagrid structural system is a special form of space truss which acts as a rigid shell
and it is considered as a new seismic force-resisting system. For analysis purposes it
can be considered as a very thin deep beam [9]. Among the large-span buildings some
examples are represented as the Seattle Library, the London City Hall, the Sydney One
Shelley Street, and the Astana National library. Among tall buildings, noteworthy
examples are the Swiss Re building in London, the Hearst tower in New York, the
CCTV Headquarters building in Beijing, the Capital Gate in Abu Dhabi, and Tornado
Tower in Doha (Fig. 1).
(a). Poly Int. Plaza Diagrid building (b). Hearst tower Diagrid building
Fig. 1. Diagrid’s diagonal periphery with Diagrid module.
Diagrid system has a bold appearance and the orientation of Diagrid system causes
to reduce the number of structural steel element required on the façade of the buildings.
The structural efficiency of Diagrid system also helps in reducing interior and corner
columns; therefore diagonal periphery of Diagrid system saves approximately 20% of
the structural steel in weight when compared to a conventional moment-frame structure
[8]. Diagonal members in Diagrid structural system can carry both gravity loads and
lateral forces due to its triangulated configuration [10]. Diagrid structures are more
effective in minimizing shear deformation because they carry lateral shear by axial
action of diagonal members. Diagrid structures generally do not need high shear
rigidity cores because lateral shear can be carried by the diagonal members located on
the periphery of the building [8, 9].
2 Derivation of Load Deflection Formulae for Diagrid [1]
In this paper, stiffness method is applied to find the deformation of Diagonal Periphery
of Diagrid building for Bending Deflection and Shear Deflection [10]. The adopted
Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery is consisting of 16 triangular frames, locating three
stories along the height of the building. The 16 nodes are changed to 16 concentrated
loads, which are evenly distributed along the height of the building. Bending Deflection
Analysis and Design of High-Rise Building Using Diagrid Structural System 197
and Shear Deflection formulae for a cantilevered rod with 16 concentrated loads can be
derived with the help of two existing formulas that are deflection and rotation at top of
the rod. Discretization of Diagrid module into continuous load pattern is shown in
Fig. 2. Deflection ðyÞ and Rotation ðuÞ at top of the discretized module calculated
respectively are based on stiffness formulae of cantilever rod [10].
Fig. 2. Discretization of 16 nodes 6 spans Diagrid module into 16 continuous load pattern.
F l3
y¼ ð1Þ
3EI
F l2
u¼ ð2Þ
2EI
2.1 Bending Deflection of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery

By combining the above formulae, bending deflection formula is found based on a
cumulative principle for the rod with 16 concentrated loads.
X
16
ybending ¼ ðyi þ ui li Þ ð3Þ
i¼1
833 F l3
ybending ¼ ð4Þ
384 EI
2.2 Shear Deflection of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery

Similarly, Shear deflection formula for the cantilever rod with 16 concentrated loads is
found.
16
X
Fi li
yshear ¼ ð5Þ
i¼1
Gi Ai i
17 F l
yshear ¼ ð6Þ
2 GA
2.3 Racking Shear Stiffness of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery

The expression for the racking shear stiffness for 16 concentrated loads and 6 pans of
6 m with having span (a), diagonal length (d), and height (h) for the Diagrid structure
(trussed tube) is derived as bellow. The expression needs to be multiplied with 2 since
shear occurs in the two web planes of the tube.
3a2 h E Ad
GA ¼ 2 ð7Þ
d3
2.4 Bending Stiffness of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery

For 3D Diagrid module with 6 spans and 16 nodes (16 triangles, each triangles segment
covers three floors throughout the height) provided in an orthogonal grid, Bending
Stiffness formula is found.

1 5
EI ¼ 4 ð aÞ2 þ 4 ð aÞ2 þ 8 ð2aÞ2 EAequ ¼ 58 a2 E Ad ð8Þ
2 2
2.5 Total Displacement of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery

Total displacement of the of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery is equal to sum of Bending
Deflection and Shear Deflection.
Ytotal ¼ ybending þ yshear ð9Þ
3 Analysis and Design of 48 Stories Diagrid Building

3.1 Analysis of Diagrid Structural System
A floor plan of 36 m by 36 m in size having a rigid slab without openings and no core
wall is considered for the 48 stories steel Diagrid building. Typical storey height is
taken 3.6 m. The angle of inclination 74.48° is kept uniform throughout the height. The
diagonal columns are provided at 6 m spacing along the perimeter. The interior frame
of the Diagrid structures is designed only for gravity load. For linear static and dynamic
analysis, beams and columns are modeled as beam elements and braces are modeled as
truss elements. The support conditions are assumed as fixed. Secondary effect like
temperature variation is not considered. Typical cross sections are shown in Fig. 3.
(a). Interior Column (Built-Up Section) (b). Diagonal Circular Column (CHS)
Fig. 3. Cross section detail of columns.
Analysis is carried out in three manners, by Manual Calculation, by ANSYS

software, and by ETABS software. Manual Calculation and ANSYS software are used
to define lateral stiffness/displacement of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery, and ETABS
software is used for Dynamic control of total Diagrid building. All structural members
are designed as per IS:800:2007 and IS:1893-2002. Diagonal sections are taken as
circular hollow section-CHS and horizontal beams are taken as wide flange grade
E300-Fe440. Specification of steel is taken as per IS:2062-2011. Dynamic along wind
and across wind is considered.
Design dead load, live load, and cladding load are 3.75 KN/m2, 2.5 KN/m2, and
3.5 KN/m2 respectively. The dynamic along wind load and Across wind load is cal-
culated based on the basic wind speed of 42 m/sec (Kabul city wind load [1]) for terrain
category 3 class B, and Design wind speed is calculated 55.01 m/sec based on IS:875-
1987 Part-3 (Gust factor method) [4]. Fundamental natural period of the 48 stories
Diagrid building is calculated 4.05 s as per IS:1893 Part-1 and time history analysis is
performed based on El-Centro 1940 vibration data in ETABS V9.6.0. Material damping
factor of the steel building is taken 4% as per IS:1893 Part-4 for MCE-Maximum
Considered Earthquake. Total Time Elapse is calculated 52 s as per IS:1893 Part-1.
Design earthquake load is applied as per IS:1893 Part-1 based on the Seismic Zone
Factor of 0.24 for seismic zone IV. Importance Factor of 1.75, Soil Type of III, and
Response Reduction Factor of 5 are taken for seismic analysis as per IS:1893 Part-1.
3.2 Design of Diagrid Structural System

For design criteria, two load combinations are assigned to Diagrid Structure in ETABS
software as per IS:1893-Part-1 due to Dead Load (DL), Earthquake Load (EL), and
Imposed Wind Load (IL), as ISCOMBO1 of 1.7x(DL+EL) and ISCOMBO2 of 1.3x
(DL+IL+EL). All structural members are designed as per IS:800-2007. The yield stress
of steel is taken 290 N/mm2 and tensile stress is taken 440 N/mm2 as per IS:2062-2011
for grade E300-Fe 440. Spans of each Diagrid are 6 m and total height of the building
is 172.8 m. Sizes of typical members are shown in Table 1. Floor plan and elevation
are shown in Fig. 4.
Table 1. Cross sectional sizes of typical members of the 48 stories steel Diagrid structure.
Diagonal columns Interior columns Beams (typical all
stories)
Diagonal column, Storey 1–30 Built-up Column Section B1: ISMB550
CHS: 508 mm 38 mm 1500 mm 1500 mm B2: ISWB600
(20″ 1.5″) 40 mm Thick Plate Web and
Diagonal column, Storey 31–48 Flange
CHS: 406 mm 16 mm 50 mm Think Plate Side Wall
(16″ 0.63″)
(a). Diagrid Peripheral detail (b). Diagrid Floor Plan
Fig. 4. Typical floor plan and elevation of the 48 stories Diagrid.
Details of Internal Column which resists mainly gravity loads and Diagonal Col-
umns are shown in Fig. 3. Sizes of the members can be reduced by considering higher
yield strength of structural steel. Cross Sections of Interior Column (Built-Up Section)
and Diagonal Circular Column (CHS) is shown in Fig. 3.

4.1 Results
The Static Analysis performed by Manual calculation and ANSYS software results in
terms of Members Stresses and Lateral Displacement of Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery
which are shown in Table 2 and Fig. 5 respectively. Lateral Displacement of Diagrid’s
periphery calculated 582.7 mm and 595.9 mm at top storey by Manual calculation and
ANSYS software respectively (Table 3).
Table 2. Maximum and minimum axial deformation in elements found by ANSYS software.
Axial Stress Comp. (N/mm2) Min Values (Elm. No. 1115) Max Values (Elm. No. 1120)
−290.73 243.85
Axial Force Comp. (N) Min Values (Elm. No. 132) Max Values (Elm. No. 134)
−0.35362E+07 0.64740E+06
Axial Strain Comp. (N/mm2) Min Values (Elm. No. 840) Max Values (Elm. No. 867)
−0.93912E−04 0.21381E−03
Hand Calculation
Storey Displacement (mm)
ANSYS, Inc. Calculation
Storey Level at Diagrid 's Periphery (mm)
48
42
36
30
24
18
12
6
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Displacement (mm)
Fig. 5. ANSYS and manual calculation displacement calculation.
Table 3. Maximum load distribution comparison on 48 stories steel Diagrid structure.

Loading on Diagrid Loading on Loading on Total load on
columns internal columns diagonal columns Diagrid columns
(KN) (KN) (KN)
Gravity loads 84,821.30 16,244.60 101,065.90
Lateral WIND-X 1,487.04 5,950.48 7,437.52
loads WIND-Y 1,671.96 6,023.44 7,695.40
EQ-X 638.08 1,998.95 2,637.03
EQ-Y 715.86 2,015.59 2,731.45
The Dynamic Analysis performed by ETABS software results in terms of Time

History, Time Period, Storey Displacement, Storey Drift, Storey Shear, and Load
Distribution in Diagrid. The first mode time period is calculated 3.1 s, while by manual
calculation as per IS:1893 Part-1 it is found 4.05 s. It is observed that Displacement,
Inter-Storey Drift, and Storey Shear in x-direction and y-direction due to wind load is
higher compared to earthquake load, thus wind load is the governing load for the
design of structure. Results of Dynamic Analysis performed in ETABS software are
shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. Results of Time History Analysis which is
performed as per IS:1893-Part-I based on EL-Centro vibration data for 4% damping
steel structure-MCE with total time elapse of 52 s as calculated, are shown in Figs. 9,
10 and 11.
EQ-X EQ-Y ISCOMBO1-UX ISCOMBO2-UX

WIND-X WIND-Y 48
48 42
42 36
36 30
Storey
30
Storey
24
24
18
18
12 12
6 6
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Fig. 6. Displacement of 48 stories Diagrid structure due to dynamic and combined load.
EQ-X EQ-Y ISCOMBO1-UX

WIND-X WIND-Y ISCOMBO2-UX
48 48
42 42
36 36
30 30
Storey
Storey
24 24
18 18
12 12
6 6
0 0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Storey Drift (mm) Storey Drift (mm)
Fig. 7. Inter-Storey Drift of 48 stories Diagrid structure due to dynamic and combined load
EQ-VX EQ-VY ISCOMBO2-VX

WIND-VX WIND-VY ISCOMBO3-VX
48 48
42 42
36 36
30 30
Storey
Storey
24 24
18 18
12 12
6 6
0 0
0.00E+00 1.00E+07 2.00E+07 3.00E+07 0.00E+00 1.00E+07 2.00E+07 3.00E+07
Storey Shear Force (N) Storey Shear Force (N)
Fig. 8. Storey Shear of 48 stories Diagrid structure due to dynamic and combined load
Time vs. Acceleration of the 48 stories Diagrid structural system

3.5 ACCELERATION UX
Acceleration (m/sec²)
2.0 Storey 48
0.5 Min is -2.419E+03mm/sec²
Max is 3.049E+03mm/sec²
-1.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-2.5 ACCELERATION UX
Storey 1
-4.0 Min is-1.56E+02mm/sec²
Time (sec)
Max is 1.82E+02mm/sec²
Fig. 9. Top and bottom storey time vs. acceleration as Per IS:1893 and El-Centro data.
Time vs. Displacement of the 48 stories Diagrid structural

system
200 DISPLACEMENT UX
Displacement (mm)
Storey 48
100 Min is -1.272E+02mm
Max is 1.17E+02mm
0 DISPLACEMENT UX
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Storey 1
-100
Min is -1.589E+00mm
Max is 1.42E+00mm
-200
Time (sec)
Fig. 10. Top and bottom storey time vs. displacement as Per IS:1893 and El-Centro data.
Time vs. Base Shear of the 48 stories Diagrid structural system

1.50E+08
1.00E+08
BASE SHEAR-X
Base Shear (N)
5.00E+07 Min is -1.79E+07N

Max is 2.04E+07N
0.00E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-5.00E+07 BASE SHEAR-Y
Min is -1.32E+08N
-1.00E+08 Max is 1.29E+08N
-1.50E+08
Time (sec)
Fig. 11. Time vs. base shear X-direction and Y-direction as Per IS:1893 and El-Centro data.
4.2 Discussions
Comparison of Fundamental Time Period of the building (4.05 s) to First Mode Shape
Time Period (3.1 s) shows that, a 23.5% reduction occurs in the time period of the
building by using only Diagrid system (Fig. 12). Comparison of Displacement of
Diagrid’s Diagonal Periphery, found by stiffness formulae and ANSYS, to Maximum
Allowable Displacement (Height of Building/500) [9] (MAD) shows that, Diagrid’s
Diagonal Periphery resists (40 to 42) % of the total lateral displacement of the building.
Displacements found 272.2 mm and 345.6 mm by ETABS (WIND-X) and Maximum
Allowable Displacement (MAD) respectively, shows that Diagrid system resists the
total displacement of the building by 21.2%. From the analysis, it is found that the
Storey Drift of the Diagrid structure is reduced significantly by 100% for all loads by
using Diagrid structural system; it is observed from the Maximum Allowable Storey
Drift as per IS:1893 Part-1 which is calculated 14.4 mm, and the Maximum Storey
Drift by ETABS which are calculated 0.001249 mm, 0.001228 mm, 0.000611 mm,
0.000599 mm, 0.001039 mm, and 0.001808 mm for WIND-X, WIND-Y, EQ-X,
EQ-Y, ISCOMBO1-UX, and ISCOMBO2-UX respectively. It is found that Base Shear
of the Diagrid Structure is reduced by 23.8%, −118.2%, 55.2%, and −61.7% for
ISCOMBO1-VX, ISCOMBO2-VX, EQ-VX-VY, and WIND-VX-VY respectively,
while it can be observed that Diagrid system works best against lateral loads and it can
also be concluded that its contribution to resisting gravity load is also at the range of
satisfaction. It is observed that 21.7% and 78.3% of the Lateral Load is resisted by
Interior Columns and Diagonal Columns respectively, while 83.9% and 16.1% of the
Gravity Load is resisted by Interior Columns and Diagonal Columns respectively
(Fig. 12).
Diagonal Columns Interior Columns

11
100%
Mode shape No.

83.9%
78.3% 9
80% Time
Load Distribution
7 Period
60%
5
40%
21.7% 3
16.1%
20%
1
0%
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Lateral Load Gravity Load
Types of Load Time period (sec)
Fig. 12. Time vs. base load distribution and time period vs. mode shape.
5 Conclusion
In this paper static and dynamic analysis of the 48 stories Diagrid structure is per-
formed by means of Manual Calculation, ANSYS software, and ETABS software.
From the analysis it is found that diagonal periphery resisted 42% of all lateral loads,
while as total building, Diagrid resists about 21% of the total displacement due to all
loads. It is observed that Diagrid system contributes most to lateral loads in tall
buildings, but its contribution to gravity loads is also sufficient. Storey drift of Diagrid
is reduced by 100%.
References
1. Rujhan AM (2014) Analysis and design of high-rise building using diagrid structural system.
Master’s thesis, Civil Engineering Department, University College of Engineering, Osmania
University, Hyderabad, India
2. ANSYS Inc. V12.1 (2012) Finite element analysis package, Pennsylvania, USA
3. ETABS Nonlinear V9.6 (2008) Extended 3D analysis of building systems. Computers and
Structures Inc., Berkeley
4. IS:800-2007 (2007) General construction in steel-code of practice. BIS, New Delhi
5. IS:875-1987 Part-3 (2003) Code of practice for design loads other than earthquake. BIS,
New Delhi
6. IS:1893 Part-1, Part-4 (2002) Criteria for earthquake resistance design of structures. BIS,
New Delhi
7. IS:2062-2011 (2011) Hot rolled medium and high tensile structural steel. BIS. New Delhi
8. Moon KS (2011) Diagrid structures for complex-shaped tall buildings, vol 14. Elsevier
9. Moon KS (2008) Material-saving design strategies for tall building structures. CTBUH
Technical Paper, vol 2008, CTBUH 8th World Congress, Dubai
10. Roelofs R (2008) Trussed façade constructions: a study of the opportunities of a structural
system. Master’s thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherland
11. Baker W, Besjak C, Sarkisian M, Lee P, Doo CS (2010) Proposed methodology to determine
seismic performance factors for steel diagrid framed systems. CTBUH Technical Paper, 13th
U.S. Japan Workshop
Engineered Cementitious Composites
Yogesh Biyani(&), L. G. Patil, and C. N. Kurhe
Civil Engineering Department, Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of

Engineering and Technology, Nanded, Maharashtra, India
{2017mse014,lgpatil}@sggs.ac.in, kurhe2002@gmail.com
Abstract. Cementitious Composite (CC) is the mix of various materials, which

in a combination form a composite, which would help in bonding of various
components in the structure. It is combination used from ancient times and still
used in the construction industry. In this paper, we have tried to modify the mix
to get better results for the composite as CC plays a vital role in strength of
building. It may be any component, masonry, concrete, etc. presence of CC
helps in capacity of building with provision of proper bonding in two elements
of the structure in a form of connection. Therefore, it is necessary to have a
proper CC for the construction. As usually failure in the structure occurs usually
through the CC itself, failure may be in connection, failure in bonding in two
elements or structural component, etc. In this paper, we are discussing the results
obtained of the prepared Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC), which we
found to have higher strength with a Lower Cost and Lower Carbon-Emission as
well as higher ductility. This would help in making the structures more durable
for the lateral shocks due to seismic loads.
Keywords: CC = Cementitious Composite

ECC = Engineered Cementitious Composite
CBFS = Crushed Blast Furnace Slag PVA = Polyvinyl Alcohol
FRC = Fiber Reinforced Concrete
1 Introduction
Cracks are unavoidable during lifetime of a concrete structure. Structures directly

exposed to the outer environment are more susceptible to cracking as they influence by
shrinkage or expansion weighting and drying as well as other environmental conditions
with the factor of excessive loading conditions. These cracks impact the strength of
structures by weakening them as the mechanical property gets reduced as well as
durability gets lowered as these cracks creates path for penetration of harmful agents in
the structures core thus they attack the reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete, as
been stated by Li [4, 6]. Due to this, the loading area of the structures component is been
reduced causing the weakening if the structure, so the maintenance cost of concrete
structures increase and service life is reduced. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a
concrete, which would avoid this problems, or development of concrete, which would
regain this loss of performance, occur due to cracking in due course of time.
Introduction of Fibers in Cementitious Composites can help stabilizing micro-
cracks, as reinforcing the Cementitious Composite by Fibers helps in transfer of the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_27
Engineered Cementitious Composites 207
tensile load in the mix from the Cementitious Composite to the Fibers, as been stated in
various research papers [2, 5]. As we know Concrete is a Brittle material, which makes
it fail during the application of Tensile Loading, while Fibers are strong in Tension
compared to the Cementitious Composite.
Capacity Design Phenomenon states that there occurs failure of chain by breaking if
there would be all brittle links in the chain, but the same chain would be able to take an
excessive load if we replace one brittle link by a ductile link. Similarly, in the designing
of the Cementitious Composite if we add few fibers in the mix there may take place
presence of a ductile link in the loading chain of the system making it more susceptible
to the loading.
This suppression in micro-crack development helps in development of pseudo-
strain hardening behavior of material, making formation of numerous micro-cracks all
over the system instead of a single macro-crack. This behavior makes the Composite
mix to act more like a Metal body instead of a Concrete Body, as this helps in making
the mix ductile instead of its property to be brittle.
2 Materials
A. Cement: Cement used during the work was OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) of
53 Grade.
B. Sand: Sand being used during the work was from Godavari River Bed and was
being provided by the institution (SGGSIE&T, Nanded) itself.
C. Coarse Aggregate: It was been provided from the institution itself, and was been
procured from nearby Stone Quarry, best to my knowledge.
D. CBFS: It stands for Crushed Blast Furnace Slag, CBFS been used in the work was
Iron-based, and was being procured from the crushing plant of Kalika Steels Pvt.
Ltd., Jalna, Maharashtra. It was been crushed to until it can be used as a Fine
Aggregate.
E. Fly Ash: Fly Ash been used for the work was being procured from the Maharashtra
State Power Generation Corporation Limited’s Parli Thermal Power Plant, Parli,
Beed, Maharashtra.
F. PVA Fibers: PVA stands for Poly Vinyl Alcohol, which is plastic based polymer
fiber. These polymer fibers were been procured from, The Yarn Guru India Inc.,
Bhilwara, Rajasthan.
G. Brick: Bricks used in the work were mud-based and made with help of dome kiln
in the kiln-plants near Vishnupuri. It was been provided by Institute itself.
H. Water: Water was been provided by the institution itself and was of slightly basic
nature, which made it more favorable for making concrete or mortar.
208 Y. Biyani et al.
3 Inference
There has been research in the area but maximum of that research took place in the
developed economies, while a negligible research took place in undeveloped or
developing economies. This has been reason that usual criteria of Economy was not
been considered to a mark in maximum of research. So our work is been concentrated
to test the mix for Indian economy and atmosphere, so that we can attain better results
for ECC mix to be used in every part of world. My work is concentrated maximum on
Indian counterpart.
As well as my work is to find the ability of ECC mix to be Eco-friendly.
4 Methodology
Initial work was been done to find the optimum content for replacement of Cement and
Sand by Fly Ash and CBFS respectively [3]. Content must be such that we get
maximum strength with replacement.
Then work was been done to find Optimum Content of Reinforcing Fibers, such
that we get maximum strength in minimum usage of fibers.
The obtained values were been plotted in GeoGebra and maximum value was
obtained for strength with variation in replacement and addition of Reinforcing Fibers [8].
In the application of GeoGebra software, we tried to form a parabolic conic with help of
values obtained by help of experimentation. By preparation of curve, we found the
maximum value of strength with replacement and addition of fibers. All the processes of
GeoGebra were been done to find values of Compressive and Tensile Strength with
variation of values for preparing optimum mix of ECC. All Procedures were processed
with provisions specified in literature by Shetty [9] and Indian Standard Codes [10–12].
Normal mortar of 1:4 proportion was prepared and referred in paper further as
Normal Mortar, while Normal Concrete of M20 grade was prepared with proportion
1:1.5:3 and referred in paper further as Normal Concrete. ECC was prepared with
optimum replacement of Cement and Sand as well as with optimum content of Fiber
Reinforcement with PVA. FRC was prepared with same replacements and same
content of PVA as in the case of ECC.
5 Testing and Results
Firstly, the mixes were been tested for density, to find the change in loading due to self-
weight if any (Table 1),
Table 1. Density of mixes

Material Density
Normal Mortar 2187 kg/cum
ECC 2159 kg/cum
Normal Concrete 2450 kg/cum
FRC 2401 kg/cum
From the above values, we can see that ECC has lower density, which would help
in making the building-structure lighter than other versions, by reducing the sizes of the
support system (Beam and Column) in the framed structure, as well as it would help in
reducing weight of masonry block in the case of LBS structures.
Then the mixes we tested for Compressive Strength, as it is the usual parameter
considered during start of project, it was been calculated for two intervals that is
compressive strength of mix after 7 days of curing and compressive strength of mix
after 28 days of curing (Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2. Compressive strength of mixes after 7 days of curing

Material Compressive strength
Normal Mortar 10.4 MPa
ECC 24.81 MPa
Normal Concrete 16.22 MPa
FRC 20.22 MPa
Table 3. Compressive strength of mixes after 28 days of curing

Material Compressive strength
ECC 41.4 MPa
Normal Concrete 28 MPa
FRC 35.11 MPa
From the above values, we can find that ECC helps in making higher strength mix,
which would help in making the structure with smaller sections helping in reducing
weight and cost of structure.
Further they were tested for Tensile Strength, as usually failure in a concrete
structure occur during application of tensile loading, as concrete is a brittle material it is
weak in tension, so test was performed to find the ability of ECC to resist Tensile
Loads. Specimens for testing were prepared for Split Tensile Testing and testing was
performed on CTM (Compressive Testing Machine) Results obtained were as follows
(Table 4),
Table 4. Tensile strength of mixes after 28 days of curing

Material Tensile strength
ECC 6.67 MPa
FRC 5.56 MPa
From the above values, we can find that ECC helps in making higher tensile
strength mix, which would help in providing better strength in members of structure
during application of lateral loads.
Further they were tested the mixes for Flexural Strength, as concrete is a major
component in the flexural components like beams and slab in the structure. Specimens
of 100 mm 100 mm 500 mm were prepared, and testing performed on UTM
(Universal Testing Machine) on 400 mm span-length. Results obtained were (Tables 5
and 6),
Table 5. Flexure strength of mixes after 90 days of curing

Material Flexure strength
Normal Mortar NA
ECC 6.97 MPa
FRC 3.21 MPa
Table 6. Failure slope during testing for flexure

Material Slope
Normal Mortar NA
ECC 8º11′39.35″
Normal Concrete 1º22′29.41″
FRC 3º07′10.32″
(Flexural strength was calculated with the load at which first crack occurred in the
flexure specimen, while the Slope was found by the help of displacement occurred
during the Flexure testing. Specimen of Normal Mortar was prepared twice but the
specimen failed in Demoulding, which made the results for flexure strength unavailable
for it.)
From the above values, we can find that ECC helps in making higher flexural
strength mix, which would help in providing better strength in flexural members of
structure, as well as help in reducing damages in case of progressive collapse. As well
larger slope help to get greater ductility, which can help in reducing damages due to
lateral shocks, as been stated by Soleimani-Dashtaki [1].
Further the mixes were tested for Water Absorption, during the test the specimens
were firstly heated for 24 h in a oven at 105 °C then cooled at room temperature for
24 h in unquenched manner, further placed in potable water for 24 h and the water
absorption was calculated (Table 7),
Table 7. Water absorption of mixes

Material Water absorption
Normal Mortar 7.53%
ECC 6.73%
Normal Concrete 7.21%
FRC 6.72%
Water Absorption provides us with an estimate of amount of water present in the

voids at the surface or upper sub-surface of the specimen, which is responsible for the
initial deterioration of the structure, as expansion as well as evaporation of the water
reduces the bond strength of the particles ultimately leading to deterioration of the
specimen. From the above figure, we can say that water absorption of ECC is far lower
than Normal Mortar and Concrete, while it is nearly similar for ECC and FRC.
As ECC does not consist of Coarse Aggregates, we can use it as a binder for
Masonry. Therefore, we tested the mixes for Masonry Prism Compressive Strength, as
it is a major component for the health of the structure especially in the case of LBS, as
the failure in it can lead to total collapse of the whole structure. Results obtained for the
test are (Table 8),
Table 8. Masonry prism strength for mixes

Material Masonry prism compressive strength
ECC 1.86 MPa
From above figures we get to know that Compressive Strength of Masonry Prism
increases by 36.67%, this could obtain a greater value. In case of Normal Mortar as
Binder the failure crack passed through the Binding Material itself causing damage to
the whole system, but in case of ECC as a Binder the failure cracks were been placed in
the Masonry Units itself while no visible cracks were observed by naked eye in the
Binding Material.
Usually when a Building Structure goes through an Earthquake (Seismic) Shock,
one reason of failure the Structural Component like Columns is due to failure of
Masonry in Bond Shear. During failure in Bond Shear, there occurs huge displacement
shock to the masonry during Seismic shock, which transfers to the structural compo-
nent weakening the same, thus causing weakening in structure. Therefore, the mixes
were been tested for Bond Shear (Table 9),
Table 9. Masonry bond shear of mixes

Material Masonry bond shear
ECC 0.432 MPa
From above figures, we can see that about increase of Bond Shear of Masonry was
45–50% more for the ECC-mix compared to Normal Mortar, which would help in
making the structure more resistant to Seismic Shocks.
6 Cost Analysis and Carbon Footprint
As Economy is an important criterion for the building construction in all type of

economies, so needs to be in consideration for the work. The costing of mixes were
prepared with market investigation with help of local builders for locally available
resources and the costing of the other materials for the mix were obtained from the
offices of the site of procurement of the materials (Table 10).
Table 10. Cost analysis of different mixes

Mix Cost (Rs/cum)
Normal Mortar 6810
Normal Concrete 6510
FRC 6705
ECC 6465
(Costs mentioned are been calculated according to local market cost analysis, they
may vary for different areas, amount mentioned are been rounded to nearest multiple of
five.)
Being a responsible habitant of Earth, is needed by us to develop better and Eco-
friendly Methods of Construction as well as Materials, which would help in increasing
life of Earth. So during this work we tested all the variation of the mixes that we
prepared for the calculation of Carbon Footprint (Amount of Emission of Carbon
dioxide for production of one unit of mix), to find their ability to be Eco-friendly.
Calculations were been performed by the values of CO2 emissions as been stated in
Research paper by Jiménez et al. [7]. Results obtained by the calculations are as stated
below (Table 11),
Table 11. Carbon footprint of different mixes

Mix CO2 released (kg/cum)
Normal Mortar 521.80
Normal Concrete 539.34
FRC 361.1
ECC 321.19
(No CO2 emission is been considered for Fly Ash and CBFS, as they are by-
products of other industries.)
From above figures we can observe that ECC being prepared, produces the least
emission of CO2, thus causing least Carbon Footprint, making ECC to be most Eco-
friendly in all tested variations of mix.
Therefore, there needs to be proper transmission of the ability of the mix and proper
blending by the industry, during provision of the mix with good quality of components
in mix. As earlier, these issues have lead to lower consumption of PPC by the Con-
tractors, who still prefer OPC at their respective construction sites, due to provision of
inappropriate quality PPC by the cement production plants during that period.
7 Conclusion
The above results in the research-work help us in concluding that,

1. ECC is a Lower-Density Mix.
2. ECC has better Compressive Strength in compared to other mixes (For 7 days
curing and 28 days curing).
3. ECC being a Fiber-Reinforced Mix helps in providing greater Tensile Strength to
the mix.
4. ECC has better flexural strength in combination with a greater deflection, which
helps in providing greater evacuation time in case of Failure during Collapse of a
component providing better ability of Life-Safety in the structure.
5. ECC has a lower Water Absorption value, which helps in increasing the durability
of the structural component from attack of ‘Wet and Dry Cycle’.
6. ECC has better Masonry Prism Compressive Strength to the normal mortar, thus it
can be useful for Rehabilitation of Old-Modern Structures (Building Structures
constructed in late 19th century and early 20th century).
7. ECC being a Fiber-Reinforced Mix helps in increasing Bond Strength in Masonry
and Binder, reducing damage in structure due to Displacement-Shock of Masonry.
8. ECC is cheaper by about 0.65–0.7% than Normal Concrete and cheaper by about
5% than Normal Mortar.
9. ECC has more than 40% lower Carbon Footprint in compared with Normal Con-
crete making it Eco-friendly.
From the points above, it is clear that ECC is a mix having better strength, lower
cost and lower Carbon Footprint in compared to the other mixes tested.
8 Future Works
Recently during this research work, we came in to know that usage of Fibers are
leading to reduction of workability of mix, so this needs to be studied such that we can
obtain a good strength mix with a better Workability.
Acknowledgement. We would also like to acknowledge to Dr. Y. V. Joshi, Director,

SGGSIE&T and Dr. N. H. Kulkarni, Head, Civil Engineering Department, SGGSIE&T for their
helpfulness to provide Testing Labs to complete this work. As well as other Staff from Civil
Engineering Department and other departments at SGGSIE&T, Nanded for their help in this
work.
References
1. Soleimani-Dashtaki S, Ventura CE, Banthia N (2017) Seismic strengthening of unreinforced
masonry walls using sprayable eco-friendly ductile cementitious composite (EDCC).
Procedia Eng 210:154–164
2. Ranade R, Li VC, Stults MD, Rushing TS, Roth J, Heard WF (2013) Micromechanics of
high-strength, high-ductility concrete. ACI Mater J 110:375–384
3. Wang S, Li VC (2007) Engineered cementitious composites with high-volume fly ash. ACI
Mater J 104:233–241
4. Li VC (2003) Engineered cementitious composites: a review on the material and its
application. J Adv Concr Technol 1(3):215–230
5. Redon C, Li VC, Wu C, Hoshiro H, Saito T, Ogawa A (2001) Measuring and modifying
interface properties of PVA fibers in ECC matrix. J Mater Civ Eng 13:399–406
6. Li VC (1998) Repair and retrofit with engineered cementitious composites. In: Proceedings
FraMCoS-3, Freiburg, Germany
7. Jiménez LF, Domínguez JA, Vega-Azamar RE (2018) Carbon footprint of recycled
aggregate concrete. Hindawi Adv Civ Eng 2018, Article ID 7949741
8. Mali JR, Bagul P, Biyani Y, Pandhare P, Bafna H Partial replacement of fine aggregate with
GGBS. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32107.18725/1
9. Shetty MS (2014) Concrete Technology-Theory and Practice, Reprint, pp 180–189, 559–
575, 617
10. IS 3812 (Part 1):2003, Indian Standard for, “Pulverized Fuel Ash—Specification Part 1 for
Use as Pozzolona in Cement, Cement Mortar and Concrete” (Second Revision)
11. IS 2250:1981 (Reaffirmed 2000), Indian Standard for “Code of Practice for Preparation and
Use of Masonry Mortars” (First Revision)
12. IS 2116:1980 (Reaffirmed 2002), Indian Standard for “Specification for Sand for Masonry
Mortars” (First Revision)
Influence of Metakaolin on Stone Waste
Aggregate Concrete
Sakevalla Vinay Babu1(&), U. Raghu Babu2, N. Venkata Ramana3,

and P. Pavithra1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, G. Pullaiah College of Engineering
and Technology, Kurnool 518002, Andhra Pradesh, India
vinaysake@gmail.com, pavithra137.civil@gmail.com
2
Applied Mechanics Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute
of Technology, Surat 395007, Gujarat, India
ammaraghubabu@gmail.com
3
Construction Technology Department, Center of PG Studies, Visveswaraya
Technological University, Kalaburagi 585105, Karnataka, India
rccramana@gmail.com
Abstract. The present paper reports the utilization of industrial stone waste in
construction works as coarse aggregate. The black stone waste (BSW) aggre-
gates collected from the stone industry was used as coarse aggregate by
replacing the natural aggregate with different replacement levels of 0%, 25%,
50% and 75%. In addition, this work also investigates the influence of Meta-
kaolin (MK) on the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of con-
cretes made with BSW aggregates. BSW aggregate concrete mixtures were
prepared the replacement of cement with MK in the replacement levels of 0%,
5%, 10% and 15%. Results have shown that, the addition of MK involve to
increase the mechanical properties of black stone aggregate concrete. The
optimum strength results were obtained at 10% MK replacement level. Beyond
the replacement level of 50% of natural aggregate with BSW aggregate MK
blended concretes the strength results were lessened as compared to that of the
concrete made with natural coarse aggregate (i.e. 0% BSW aggregate).
Keywords: Metakaolin Stone waste Concrete Compressive strength

Splitting tensile strength
1 Introduction
Now a days, metakaolin (MK) has attracted significant attention of researchers due to
its high pozzolanic property. MK is produced by the kaolin clay calcination at high
temperature ranges 500 °C to 800 °C. The percentage of MK addition has significant
influence of porosity of the cement matrix. Bredy et al. [1] stated that the incorporation
of MK below 10% decreases the porosity and the dosage level of more than 30% MK
increases the porosity. The addition of MK enhances the compressive strength of
concretes [2]. Li and Ding [3] were observed supreme compressive strength at 10%
addition of MK to the concrete.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_28
216 S. V. Babu et al.
Rajendra et al. [4] investigated the compressive strength measurements of the waste
cuddapah stone waste aggregate concrete with Pozzolana Portland cement (Fly ash
based). They replaced the natural aggregate (NA) with cuddapah stone aggregate in
20%, 40% and 60% respectively and the specimens were tested for 7 and 28 days. The
compressive strength results had shown that it increases up to 40% replacement of
coarse aggregate replacement with cuddapah stone. After that there is a gradual
decrement in compressive strength measurements of cuddapah stone waste aggregate
concrete.
Kore and vyas [5] were conducted an experimental investigation to examine the
possibility of marble waste utilization in concrete industry as a coarse aggregate with
different replacement levels. The results revealed that the workability of marble
aggregate concrete mixes was 14% higher than that of made with NA. The replacement
of marble aggregate also enhances the compressive strength by 40% and 18% at 7 and
28 days, respectively. The studies conducted by Binici et al. indicated that modified
concretes containing made with marble and limestone dust have good workability,
abrasion resistance and sulfate resistance. Binici et al. [6] also investigated the dura-
bility of the concretes prepared with marble and granite as coarse aggregate, river sand
and ground blast furnace slag (GBFS) as fine aggregate. The results indicated that
concretes with marble and GBFS was shown superior performance in terms of dura-
bility and bonding strength. Venkataramana et al. [7] studied the performance on steel
fiber reinforced stone waste aggregate concrete with compressive and bearing strength
measurements as the parameters. The different replacement levels of (25, 50, 75 and
100%) NA with stone waste produced from the stone polishing industries was used in
concrete with and without steel fibers. The results had shown that 50% replacement of
NA by stone waste aggregate is acceptable. The test results of Li et al. [8] revealed that
adding marble dust as cement replacement can considerably increase the water resis-
tance and carbonation.
In the present experimental investigation, the compressive and split tensile strength
of concrete made with various replacement levels of cement and coarse aggregate were
investigated. In order to investigate the effect of metakaolin, the concrete specimens
were prepared with various replacement levels (0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) of cement by
the metakaolin. Further, to investigate the utilization on Tadipatri black stone in
concrete, the concrete was made with Tadipatri black stone waste aggregate (BSWA)
with different replacement levels of NA.
2 Materials and Experimentation
Concrete mixtures were made with water to binder (w/b) ratio of 0.5, two binders
namely, Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and OPC blended with MK and two types of
coarse aggregates namely natural and Black stone waste aggregate. The replacement
level of cement with MK are 5%, 10% and 15% and natural aggregate was replaced at
different levels of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% with BSWA. The chemical composition
of MK and OPC, is shown in Table 1. River sand confirming to classification Zone II
was used as fine aggregate. Black stone waste aggregate of maximum size 20 mm size
and 10 mm was made by the crushing of raw stone waste material collected from the
Influence of Metakaolin on Stone Waste Aggregate Concrete 217
stone industry, Tadipatri. The performance concretes made with BSW aggregate was
evaluated with reference to the concrete made with locally available normal crushed
coarse aggregate. The specific gravity of sand, cement and MK were observed as 2.58,
3.05 and 2.50 respectively. The coarse aggregates of 20 mm and 10 mm MSA were
mixed in the proportion of 60% and 40% respectively. The specific gravities of natural
and BSW aggregate (combination of 20 mm and 10 mm aggregate) were determined as
2.66 and 2.68 respectively. Three replicates of concrete cube of size 150 150
150 mm for compressive strength and three replicates of cylindrical specimen of size
150 mm diameter and 200 mm height for tensile test were cast with each concrete
mixture. Concrete specimens were casted by using an electrically operated mechanical
mixer, for concrete mixing and vibrating table for good compaction. After 24 h the
concrete specimens were demoulded and transferred into the water curing for 27 days.
Table 1. Chemical composition of MK and OPC.

Substance Al2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 Cao Na2O TiO2 MgO LOI
MK 44 1.2 52 0.5 0.56 0.4 0.4 1.5
OPC 6.02 3.77 21.04 62.93 0.46 – 2.49 1.63

3.1 Effect of Metakaolin
The compressive strength measurements of concrete cube specimens made with vari-
ous replacement levels of MK at the of 28 days were shown in Fig. 1. From this figure,
it is evident that the incorporation of MK increases the compressive strength of the
concrete. It is also observed that the concrete with natural aggregate (i.e. 0% BSWA)
has also shown developed compressive strength with increment of MK dosage.
However, at 15% replacement level of MK with 75% of BSWA aggregate the strength
was lowered as compared to compressive strength at 10% of MK. This can be due to
the fact that the higher dosage of BSWA consumes more water, which results the
insufficient of water for the pozzolanic reaction of MK. Figure 2 shows the combined
effect of BSW aggregate and MK content on the compressive strength measurements of
concrete cube specimens at the age of 56 days. As observed from Figs. 1 and 2, the
incorporation of metakaolin not only increased the 28 days compressive strength, but
also enhanced the strength measurements at 56 days. Concrete made with normal
crushed aggregate the compressive strength was increased significantly, up to 10% of
cement replacement with MK. The high compressive strength value of 35.5 MPa was
observed at 50% BSWA concrete blended with 10% MK. However, the normal cru-
shed aggregate concrete (i.e. 0% BSWA) has shown the highest compressive strength
value of 30 MPa at 15% MK replacement level. It was evident from the compressive
strength results that the effect of MK was lessened on the increment of compressive
strength values of concrete made with BSW aggregates at higher dosage levels.
Figure 3 shows the effect of BSW aggregates and MK addition on the splitting tensile
strength measurements at the age of 56 days. The splitting tensile strength development
trend was also similar to that of compressive strength of different replacement levels of
BSWA concrete with 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% replacement levels of MK. From the
Fig. 3, it was clear, that the splitting tensile strength measurements were increased with
the replacement level of cement with MK.
Fig. 1. Compressive strength of BSWA concrete blended with different levels of MK at the age
of 28 days.
Fig. 2. Compressive strength of BSWA con-

crete blended with different levels of MK at Fig. 3. Splitting tensile strength of BSWA
the age of 56 days. concrete blended with different levels of MK.
3.2 Effect of BSW Aggregate

As already reported, the compressive strength measurements were taken on the com-
pressive strength machine with concrete cube specimens. The compressive strength
values of concrete made with 0% MK at 28 days were observed to be 29.77 N/mm2,
31 N/mm2, 31.8 N/mm2 and 30.5 N/mm2 at BSW aggregate levels of 0%, 25%, and
50% and 75%. The 28 days compressive strength values of the MK blended concretes
with 75% of BSW aggregate have shown lesser strength values than that of the con-
crete made by OPC. But at 56 days age this strength values of concrete with 75% of
BSW aggregate were slightly greater than the OPC concrete up to 5% addition of MK
and decreased beyond 5% of MK. With the addition of MK the strength was increasing
significantly with natural aggregate concrete, but the less strength development was
observed with BSWA concretes. Generally, at lateral ages the strength development
was resulted from the pozzolanic reaction of MK, which needs sufficient water to
develop CSH gel and refine pore structure. Due to a higher dosage of BSW aggregate,
more water was consumed by the BSW aggregates, which leads to insufficient of water
for the progress of pozzolanic reaction. Due to this reason, as the MK content increases
the strength of BSWA concretes is not increasing significantly. The similar trend was
observed in the splitting tensile strength measurements of concretes made with 0%,
25%, 50% and 75% of BSW aggregate and 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% of cement
replacement with MK.
As shown in Table 2, it is observed that concrete splitting tensile strength is closely
related to that of compressive strength. The most commonly 0.5 power relationship
between the concrete splitting tensile strength and compressive strength was used.
For the purpose of evaluating ACI model for the BSWA concrete blended with MK,
the ratio of tensile strength to square root of compressive strength (a) values i.e.,
pffiffiffiffi
a ¼ ft = fc were determined.
Table 2. Proposed modals by several authors

S. no. Reference Proposed function
1. ACI363R-92 ft ¼ 0:59ðfc Þ0:5
2. ACI318-99 ft ¼ 0:56ðfc Þ0:5
3. Mohtarzadeg et al. ft ¼ 0:3ðfc Þ0:66
4. Olukun et al. ft ¼ 0:294ðfc Þ0:69
5. Neville ft ¼ 0:23ðfc Þ0:67
From Fig. 4 it is observed that the a-values for various concrete mixtures prepared
with different dosages of BSW aggregate and MK are in the range of 0.5 to 0.6. It
implies that the present experimental data remarkably in agreement with the relation
proposed by the authors ACI363R-92 between tensile and compressive strength of
concretes.
Fig. 4. Variation of a-values with replacement levels of BSWA and MK dosages
4 Conclusions
Based on the experimental studies conducted on the utilization of stone waste as coarse
aggregate in metakaolin blended concrete, the following conclusions were drawn:
• The replacement of coarse aggregate with BSW aggregates up to 50% is beneficial
regarding the both compressive and tensile strength measurements.
• The addition of metakaolin improves the both compressive and tensile strength
measurements of BSWA concrete.
• The optimum contribution of metakaolin in enhancing the mechanical properties of
BSWA aggregate concrete was obtained at 10% replacement of cement.
• The strength values of BSWA concretes were lessened at higher replacement levels
of metakaolin especially at 15% replacement level.
References
1. Bredy P, Chabannet M, Pera J (1989) Pore structure and permeability of cementitious
materials. In: Roberts LR, Skalny JP (eds) Materials research society symposia proceedings,
vol 137. Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, pp 43 l–436
2. Brooks JJ, Johari MAM (2001) Effect of metakaolin on creep and shrinkage of concrete. Cem
Concr Compos 23:495–502
3. Li Z, Ding Z (2003) Property improvement of Portland cement by incorporating with
metakaolin and slag. Cem Concr Res 33:579–587
4. Rajendra D, Nilgiris T (2017) Effect of strength properties on concrete by partial replacement
of coarse aggregate with waste cuddapah stones. Int J Eng Trends Technol 6:433–437
5. Kore SD, Vyas AK (2016) Impact of marble waste as coarse aggregate on properties of lean
cement concrete. Case Stud Constr Mater 4:85–92
6. Binici H, Shah T, Aksogan O, Kaplan H (2008) Durability of concrete made with granite and
marble as recycle aggregates. J Mater Process Technol 208:299–308
7. Venkataramana N, Reddy Babu G, Babu UR (2018) Bearing strength of steel fibre reinforced
black marble stone waste aggregate concrete. Mater Today: Proc 5:1201–1210
8. Li LG, Huang ZH, Tan YP, Kwan AKH, Liu F (2018) Use of marble dust as paste
replacement for recycling waste and improving durability and dimensional stability of mortar.
Constr Build Mater 166:423–432
Rapid Hardening on the Strength Gain
Admixture on Behavior of Concrete
with Replacement of Binary Cementitious
Materials
R. Kiranmai(&), A. Rohita Susheela, S. Rajkumar, G. Asheesh,

and V. M. Sounthararajan
Department of Civil Engineering, CMR Technical Campus, Kandlakoya (V),

Medchal Road, Hyderabad 501 401, Telangana, India
researchsoundar@yahoo.in
Abstract. The construction industry is being changing rapidly; this change

brings in many new technologies with respect to composition, handling, mixing,
etc. The laboratory experimental investigation promulgated to achieve the rapid
hardening on replacing low calcium fly ash 0–15%, slag (GGBS) 0–25% of
replacement of the OPC, stone dust 0–50% is replaced to river sand along with
rapid hardening admixture and also inclusion of crimped steel fiber to obtain the
maximum strength gain during the first seven days normal curing followed by
four hours hot air oven curing for various mixes. Both the destructive test
(DT) and the non-destructive test (NDT) were being performed.
Keywords: Fly ash GGBS Rapid hardening admixture Flexural strength

Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) Rebound hammer test
1 Introduction
With the increase in the development in the countries around the world, the use of
concrete is increasing which in turn results in great impact on the greenhouse effect.
According to national Ready Mixed Concrete Association a total of one ton of carbon
dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere during the process of cement manufacturing. It
contributes about 5% of the greenhouse gases [1, 2]. To reduce the greenhouse effect
the use of green building materials as a replacement of the cement are used. The
byproduct wastes from various industries such as fly ash, GGBS, rice husk and silica
fume are used as a replacement of cement. The paper focus, on achieving strength by
replacing fly ash 0–15% and slag (GGBS) 0–25% with cement and stone dust about
0–50% with fine aggregate along with the use of rapid hardening admixture [3–7]. The
binary cementitious materials produced from the industrial waste are used in varying
proportions to achieve a great extent of strength in the concrete. Fly ash and slag are the
major products contributing the waste generated from industries. Copper slag is a big
by-product obtained from the smelting and refining of the copper used in the pro-
duction of electricity [8, 9]. The addition of crimped steel fiber in varying proportions
of 0–2% is added to the concrete which increases the durability and strength of
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_29
Rapid Hardening on the Strength Gain Admixture 223
concrete, with the increasing percentage of steel fiber in the concrete there will be a
control over the cracks developing in the structure and obtains the maximum strength
[10–13]. The manufacturing of cement process is consuming the more energy, which
results in emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, these gases adversely
effect on the environment. The examination is about study of impact of using fly ash
with cement and slag with fine aggregate on characteristics of concrete. The charac-
teristics of concrete are tested by both destructive and non-destructive test. The
destructive tested conducted on the concrete cubes to determine the compressive
strength as concrete is a major source for the compressive strength in the concrete, the
strength is improved by the addition of rapid hardening admixture to increase the rate
of hydration resulting in achieving more strength gain in concrete. The bending stresses
developed in the concrete at tested with three point loading. The flexural strength is
improved by the inclusion of crimped steel fibers for various mixes [14–17]. In this
different samples were taken with different percentage of slag i.e. it varies from 0–60%
and 20% of fly ash replaced with cement for every sample. By various quantities of slag
and constant fly ash the compressive strength will be differ and compressive strength is
more as compare to control specimen. If, copper slag more than 30% replacement with
fine aggregate then the outcomes show the reduction of strengths because the water
absorption of copper slag is very less. And this result shows that is 20% as fly ash
substitution with cement and up to 30% as copper slag substitution with fine aggregate
to acquire good mechanical properties of concrete [18–21]. The use of non-destructive
test was conducted for the determining the compressive strength of concrete using
rebound hammer and the quality of the concrete is determined with the help of UPV
[22–25].
2 Materials
2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of grade 53 grade was used for preparing the
structural concrete mix for all the batches in preparation of the prisms and cubes for
destructive testing. The obtained test values of Portland cement is represented in the
Table 1.
Table 1. Test values for Portland cement (physical properties)

Name of the test Obtained values
Specific gravity of Portland cement 3.15
Soundness 3.5 mm
Fineness (IS sieve 90 microns) 3%
Standard consistency test 34%
Setting time - Initial (minutes) 98
Setting time - Final (minutes) 250
224 R. Kiranmai et al.
2.2 Fine Aggregate

The sand available locally is being replaced with stone/quarry dust with 50% of the
total weight of fine aggregate required. The sand is sieved through IS 1.18 mm sieve
and the stone dust is sieved through IS 2.36 mm sieve. The obtained test values of fine
aggregate are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Test values for fine aggregate (river sand)

Water absorption 1%
Fineness modulus 2.98
Density (rodded) 1750 kg/m3
2.3 Coarse Aggregate

Locally available crushed blue stone ballast was used. The coarse aggregate passing
through 20 mm IS sieve and retaining on 12.5 mm sieve. The obtained test results
values are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Test values for course aggregate

Water absorption 1.0%
Fineness modulus 6.81
Density (rodded) 1830 kg/m3
2.4 Fly Ash

The low calcium class F fly ash used for the preparation of concrete as per IS ASTM
C618 [26]. The color is grey and indicates good characteristics as shown in Fig. 1. The
chemical composition of fly ash is rich in SiO2, Fe2O3 with Al2O3 content up to 65%. It
is more suitable for binding content in OPC to produced good strength for different
days.
2.5 GGBS
The slag produced from steel plant as a byproduct of smelting and refining process,
which is more suitable for alternate cementitious materials as a partially replacement of
Portland cement and image of slag (GGBS) as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Image of low-calcium fly ash
Fig. 2. Image of GGBS
2.6 Steel Fibers

Crimped steel fibers of 30 mm in length and a diameter of 0.5 mm was used for the
preparation of the various mix. The aspect ratio of the steel fiber is 60 as shown in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Image of crimped Steel fibers

2.7 Rapid Hardening Admixtures (RHD)

The early gradual strength gain is depending up on the addition of chemical admix-
tures. The chemical limits range was fixed based on the trial and error methods and
exhibited the better improvement range starting from1500 ml–3000 ml for 50 kg
quantity of binder content is used for different mixes and image of RHD is shown in
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Image of rapid hardening admixture
2.8 Curing Methods

The method of curing employed was a regular water bath for 7 days and then dried in
hot air oven for 5 h at 105–110 °C. The use of hot air oven increases the temperature
up to four hours, thus resulting increases the rate of hydration occurred during the
hardening of the concrete.
3 Experimental Program
The M25 grade of standard design mix (1:1:2:0.45) consisting of Eight mixes were
prepared in accordance with IS 10262-2019 [27]. The detailed mix proportion as
represented in Table 4.
3.1 Compressive Strength Test

The axial crushing strength of concrete is determined for various proportions of con-
crete mix. The size of the cubes 150 150 150 mm is casted and used for con-
ducting the test. The sample mix Id C1–C8 load acting on the cube space rate was
constant.
Table 4. M25 grade of concrete mix proportion details

Mix Cement required Fine Coarse Steel fiber Rapid w/cm
ID (kg/m3) aggregate Aggre- hardening (ml ratio
(kg/m3) gate for 50 kg of (kg/m3)
Cement Fly Slag River Stone (kg/m3) % (kg/m3) cement)
Ash sand dust
C1 420 60 120 300 300 1200 1.5 36 18000 270
C2 360 90 150 300 300 1200 1.5 36 24000 270
C3 420 60 120 300 300 1200 2.0 48 18000 270
C4 360 90 150 300 300 1200 2.0 48 24000 270
C5 420 60 120 300 300 1200 1.5 36 30000 270
C6 360 90 150 300 300 1200 1.5 36 36000 270
C7 420 60 120 300 300 1200 2.0 48 30000 270
C8 360 90 150 300 300 1200 2.0 48 36000 270
3.2 Bending Stress Test

The flexural strength of prism is determined with varying percentage (0–2%) use of
steel fiber to attain the maximum strength. The prisms of size 500 100 100 mm
are casted and are tested. Three-point loading was used to determine the bending stress
and the dial gauge was read to 1 division on the dial gauge as 1.25 kN of load.
3.3 Crack Depth by Using UPV

The UPV test mechanism is used to examine the quality owing to rapid hydration
occurred privileged inside the concrete structures, thus indicating the good range of
pulse velocity. Therefore, transit surface time taken and pulse velocity measurement
values are recorded to determine the crack depth with and without crack. The calcu-
lation methodology as mentioned in Eq. (1) and the schematic line diagram as shown
in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Schematic line diagram for measurement of crack depth in beam

Without crack path length ¼ 2x & Surface travel time Ts ¼ 2x

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi V pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Around the crack path length ¼ 2 x2 þ h2 & Travel time Tc ¼ 2 xVþ h
2 2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1Þ
crack depthðhÞ ¼ x ðTc=TsÞ2 1
3.4 Rebound Hammer Test

The Nondestructive test (NDT) method was employed to calculate the cube strength of
concrete as referred from standard chart with the help of a rebound hammer or rebound
index. The index number was recorded due to the external force with perfect 90° angle
applied on the top surface of concrete and noted all the average values for various
mixes.
4 Experimental Test Results and Discussions

4.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete
The compressive strength test results of the specimen are shown in the Fig. 6. The
design mix of M25 was used for the preparation of the samples and achieved the M35
grade of concrete, the best proportions was observed for mix containing of 60% OPC,
25% of slag, 15% of fly ash with rapid hardening chemicals for 3000 ml of 50 kg of
cement content along with 2% of crimped steel fibers exhibited the higher ultimate load
of 1064 kN (C8 mix ID) for 7days strength of 47.25 MPa. The mix ID C1 also had
attained M35 at 7 days.
50
45
Compressive strength of concrete
40
35
30
25
(MPa)
20
15
10
5
0
C1 (M35) C2 (M30) C3 (M25) C4 (M30) C5 (M30) C6 (M30) C7 (M30) C8 (M35)
43.64 38.65 36.5 38.3 39.7 37.45 40.27 47.25
Mix ID - Grade- Strength (MPa)
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of concrete at 7 days

4.2 Bending Stress of Concrete

The bending stress of concrete test values for different curing days is shown in the
Fig. 7. From the various experimental results, the sample C8 specimen obtained more
strength compared to the other specimen. The mix proportions for the specimen C8 is
2% of steel fiber, 3000 ml rapid hardening admixture for 50 kg of cement, and the
Portland cement is replaced with 15% of low-calcium fly ash, 25% of the slag. The
bending stress (flexural strength) of concrete attains the maximum strength 4 N/mm2
and 4.5 N/mm2 for 7 and 14 days curing respectively and remains same for 14 days
curing better results are expected for 28 days because all mix proportions of concrete
test results values are increased in the case of compressive strength.
5
4.5
Bending stress of concrte
4
3.5
3
(MPa)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Mix ID C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
7 days 2.8 2.9 3 3 3 3.1 3.3 4
14 days 3.1 3 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.5 4.5
Fig. 7. Bending stress of concrete at different curing
4.3 Crack Depth by Using UPV

The maximum ultimate load carrying capacity of concrete is depending up on the usage
of materials, mixing, handling and curing methods. An UPV technique is to measure
the presence of cracks, inside transitional weaknesses zone and quality of concrete is
identified in terms of pulse velocity as per IS 13311-1992 part 1 [28]. From Fig. 8
shows the difference in the depth of crack length measured manually and with UPV.
The crack developed for the specimen C8 having composition, 60% OPC, 25% slag
and 15% fly ash along with 2% of crimped steel fiber contribute the bridging the gap
and observed the least crack depth of 73 mm while compared to others obtaining a
maximum bending strength.
120
Crack depth measured 100
80
(mm)
60
40
20
0
Crack depth (mm) 96 95 62 86 71 91 86 73
Depth obtained (mm) 98 99 86 95 88 96 91 83
Fig. 8. Crack depth measured using UPV test results at 14 days
4.4 Rebound Hammer Test Results

By using the rebound hammer, the compressive strength of the cubes is determined and
is shown in the Fig. 9. The rebound hammer gives the strength of the concrete based on
50 50
45 45
Compressive strength (MPa)
40 40
Rebound Number
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
Strength 42.5 40 34 37 31 34 35 47
Number 42 40 36 38 34 36 37 45
Fig. 9. Compressive strength versus Rebound hammer test results

the number a similar graph is drawn and the strength are determined as per IS 13311
part 2 [29]. The compressive strength of the specimen C1 and C8 have attained
maximum strength for 7 days of curing.
5 Conclusion
The following laboratory experimental test results are concluded as given below:
• M25 grade of concrete casted and tested for 7 days curing and achieved the M35
grade of concrete for 7 days of curing followed by 6 h of hot air oven curing and
similarly all mixes was tested.
• The bending stress of concrete beams showed a maximum bending stress 4 N/mm2
for a mix proportion of 25% of slag, 15% of fly ash along with addition of 2% of
crimped steel fibers for 7 days curing.
• The inclusion of crimped steel fibers in varying proportions in the concrete mix
decreases the internal cracks and minimizes the crack depth of the concrete beams.
• The crack depth in the beams is minimized to a great extent with the use of 2% of
crimped steel fiber in the mix proportions.
• The concrete prepared is concluded to be green concrete by using supplementary
cementitious materials which is collected from different industries like waste by
product, and reducing the CO2 emission.
• Usage of rapid hardening chemical admixture for various mixes of concrete exhibits
the rapid hardening of concrete due to increase the hydration gel formation thus
resulting the higher strength at an early age.
• It is more suitable for fast track construction and more economical for structural
concrete.
Acknowledgement. The Authors is thankfully acknowledged to Hon’ble Chairman C. Gopal

Reddy, Dr. A. Raji Reddy - Director and Prof. S. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy- HOD/CED in CMR
Technical Campus, Hyderabad – 501 401, Telangana, India for their motivations and providing
laboratory facilities to carry out this research work.
Conflicts of Interest. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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hammer
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing
Strips Embedded in Cement Modified
Marginal Backfill of Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE) Walls
Pandu Kurre1(&) and Gannavaram Venkat Praveen2

1
Civil Engineering, Sri Indu Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Hyderabad, India
2
Civil Engineering, S. R. Engineering College, Warangal, India
praveensrec@yahoo.co.in
Abstract. Pull–out resistance of reinforcing materials is one of the internal

stability criterions in Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) construction. The
pull–out resistance is normally calculated taking the friction coefficient equal to
tan(d); d being the angle of internal friction in case of rigid reinforcing materials.
For flexible/extensible reinforcing strips, the friction coefficient cannot be
directly taken and in this direction, several attempts have been made by various
researchers to evaluate suitable pull–out parameters. Further, the complexity
increases within the use of marginal backfill soils wherever, suitable soils are not
available. The present work is an effort to determine the pull–out parameters of
different types of reinforcing materials embedded in marginal backfill soil
without and with cement modification. The testing was carried out in laboratory
using a test box and in the field by constructing model embankments. The pull–
out factors F* and a as suggested by FHWA were evaluated using the test data
and compared them with those obtained using conventional sand backfill.
Keywords: Mechanically Stabilized Earth Marginal soil

Cement modification Geotextile reinforcement Pull–out resistance
1 Introduction
Mechanically Stabilized Earth walls gained prominence in place of conventional

retaining walls in view of the inherent advantages of such systems. These walls consist
of free draining frictional backfills reinforced with suitable materials having connected
to facing units. Though the criterion for standard backfill is specified, at several work
sites, such materials are not available in abundance and hence, the use of locally
available marginal backfills is reported by various investigators (Saran 2006; Long
et al. 2007). With this shift from standard backfills, few failures of reinforced soil
structures were reported (Farrag 2004; Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007). It is reported that
majority of failures were attributed to the use of poor quality backfills with high
plasticity and low permeability (Bergado et al. 2001; Hayashi et al. 1999; Glendinning

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_30
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips 235
et al. 2005; Biswas et al. 2003; Saran 2006; Lopez et al. 2005). Few attempts were also
made by investigators to overcome the ill-effects of marginal backfills by the use of
electrokinetic dewatering (Fourie et al. 2007), prestressing and preloading (Stam-
atopoulos and Kotzias 1985; Tatsuoka 2002) and the use of cementitious materials
(Gill and Bushell 1992; Marchal et al. 1996; Lawson 2003; Tatsuoka 2004; Moham-
mad and Mohammad 2006). In order to evolve the design parameters for internal
stability in case of cement modified backfills, an attempt is made to carryout pull – out
tests on various types of reinforcing strips embedded in marginal backfills without and
with cement modification. These results were compared with those obtained with sand
as backfill.
The present investigation is undertaken to characterize the reinforced marginal soil

without and with cement modification for which the following materials and
methodology were adopted.
2.1 Materials Used
2.1 (a) Sand

Sand classified under SP (poorly graded sand) was used as reference material to
compare the performance of cement modified marginal soil.
2.1 (b) Marginal Soil
Locally available soil was used to simulate the marginal backfill soil.
The properties of both the sand and marginal soil were determined as per Bureau of
Indian Standards (SP 36(Part 1): 1987) and presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of sand and marginal soil

Property Sand Marginal soil
Specific gravity 2.65 2.67
Grain size distribution (%)
Gravel 5 0
Sand 95 58
Silt - 24
Clay - 18
Atterberg limits
Liquid limit, wl (%) 39
Plastic limit, wp (%) Non-Plastic 17
Unified soil classification SP SC
(continued)
236 P. Kurre and G. V. Praveen
Property Sand Marginal soil
Compaction properties
OMC (%) 12 16.5
MDD (Mg/m3) 1.58 1.78
Shear strength parameters
(i) UU condition
cu (kPa) - 52
/u - 140
(ii) CD condition
c′ (kPa) 0 20
/′ 410
290
−3
Coefficient of permeability, k (cm/sec) 1.25 10 2.48 10−6
Note: SC = clayey sand; OMC = optimum moisture content;
MDD = maximum dry density; UU = unconsolidated undrained;
cu = undrained cohesion; /u = undrained angle of internal friction;
CD = consolidated drained; c′ = effective cohesion; /′ = effective
angle of internal friction.
2.1 (c) Cement

Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade is used to modify the marginal soil.
2.1 (d) Soil–Cement
The marginal soil–cement mixes with different cement contents were tested for their
Atterberg limits and UCS values as given in Table 2. From this Table, it can be seen
that the soil has become non-plastic (NP) at 2% cement content and in the present pull–
out tests 3% cement content by dry weight of soil was used to avoid non uniform
mixing of cement to soil.
Table 2. Properties of marginal soil–cement mixes

Property Cement content
0% 2% 3% 5% 10%
Atterberg limits (immediately after adding the cement)
Liquid limit, wl (%) 39 35 34 30 NP
Plastic limit, wp (%) 17 17 18 20
Atterberg limits (at 3 days curing period)
Liquid limit, wl (%) — NP NP NP NP
Plastic limit, wp (%)
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) (at 3 days 74 261 334 618 1216
curing period for cement modified samples) kPa
2.1 (e) Reinforcement

The reinforcing materials used and their thickness and tensile strength are given in
Table 3. The properties were determined as per the standard procedures (Mandal and
Divshikar 2002). These reinforcements were chosen with variable tensile strength to
distinguish the pull–out failure mechanisms of reinforced cement modified marginal
soil.
Table 3. Properties of reinforcing strips used for pull–out testing

Type of reinforcing strip Property
POLYFELT Material: Polypropylene, (Non-woven web with woven
interlaces)
Thickness: 3 mm under 2 kPa, Grab strength: 28 kN/m
WOVEN GEOTEXTILE Material: Polypropylene
(PD 381) Thickness: 0.62 mm under 2 kPa, Grab strength: 18 kN/m
FIBERTEX G–100 Material: Polypropylene
(Non-Woven Geotextile) Thickness: 0.6 mm under 2 kPa, Grab strength: 4 kN/m
Q 425 D Material: Polypropylene
(Non-Woven Geotextile) Thickness: 3.80 mm under 2 kPa, Grab strength: 8.3 kN/m
TENSAR GEOGRID Material: Polypropylene
(TYPE 1) Hexagonal openings of 26 28 mm, Grab strength: 7 kN/m
TENSAR GEOGRID Material: Polypropylene
(TYPE 2) Diamond shaped openings of 6 8 mm, Grab strength: 5 kN/m
GEOSTRAP Material: Polyester
Thickness: 0. 7 mm, Grab strength: 9 kN/m
CHICKEN MESH Material: Galvanized iron
Diameter of wire: 0.6 mm, Size of opening: 6 6 mm, Yield
strength: 260 MPa
WELDED WIRE MESH Material: Mild steel, Diameter of wire: 1.2 mm, Size of opening:
18 15 mm
Yield strength: 250 MPa
WELDED ROD Material: Mild steel, Diameter of rod: 6 mm, Yield strength:
250 MPa
G I STRIP Material: Galvanized iron, Thickness: 0.9 mm, Yield strength:
260 MPa
BAMBOO Material: Organic, Thickness: 2 mm, Yield strength: 70 MPa
3 Laboratory Tests
Laboratory pull–out tests were performed to determine the soil–reinforcement inter-

action parameters. The fill materials used were marginal soil and sand for this testing.
3.1 Testing Procedure

The pull–out test apparatus consists of a square box of size 0.30 m 0.30 m 0.30 m,
made of 8 mm thick mild steel plates. The schematic illustration of experimental set up is
shown in Fig. 1. The size of the box is so chosen that the pull–out tests would be done on
smaller length of reinforcing strips such that they tend to slip rather than anchor themselves
within their tensile strength. On one side of the box, a horizontal sleeve was made to allow
the reinforcing strip to be pulled through. The reinforcing strips of 10 cm wide with
different embedment lengths (10, 20 and 30 cm) were placed over the compacted surface
of the respective fill and an over hanging of the strip was left for connection (Fig. 2). The
upper portion of the box was also filled with same backfill and compacted in 5 cm thick
layers at its optimum moisture content to its maximum dry density using a hand hammer.
To minimize the friction between soil and side walls of the box, grease was applied on the
internal sides of the test box. The friction between the strips and the front wall of pull–out
box was assumed to be negligible due to sufficient clearance while no soil escapes through
it (Palmeira 2004).
Normal stress
Proving ring & Dial gauge Metal plate
Electric motor
Movable ram
Clamp Sleeve
Reinforcing strip
Gearbox
Pedestal Pull–out Box
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the pull–out unit during testing.
Fig. 2. Experimental set up to perform pull–out tests on reinforcing strips.
The protruding part of the respective reinforcing strip was clamped at the end by
steel plates with nut and bolt arrangement (Fig. 2) and then connected to a tension
proving ring attached to motorized movable ram of specially fabricated pull–out testing
unit.
The test box was mounted on the pedestal of a compression testing machine and the
respective normal stress was applied through a proving ring on the top of pull–out box
using a steel plate that exactly fits into the box. A series of pull–out tests were carried
out under varied normal stresses (7.5, 15 and 22.5 kPa) using different types of rein-
forcing strips embedded in marginal soil without and with 3% cement modification and
also in plain sand. The pull–out load was recorded from tension proving ring while the
displacement was obtained from dial gauge readings. In case of sand sample, cotton
fabric was used near the sleeve to prevent the fall of sand.
The peak pull–out loads were obtained by drawing the pull–out load versus pull–
out deformation plots. These peak pull–out loads were divided by the gross area of the
respective strip to get the average pull–out resistance (Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007). Then
the pull–out resistance versus normal stress plots were drawn to get the pull–out
interaction parameters (ca and d, the adhesion value and apparent friction angle
respectively). However, these parameters can not be directly used in design calculations
especially for flexible reinforcing strips due to their extensibility and hence, pull–out
design factors, namely, F*(pull–out resistance factor) and a (scale effect correction
factor) were introduced in calculations (FHWA 1998; Mohiuddin 2001; Farrag 2004;
Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007). Pull–out resistance (Pr) is calculated using the above factors
per unit width using the following equation.
Pr ¼ F a rn Le C
Where, F* is the pull–out resistance factor, a is scale effect correction factor, rn is

the normal stress, Le is the length of the embedment of the strip and C is generally
taken as 2. The values of F* and a depend on the type of reinforcement and its
geometry, length and confining pressure. Generally these parameters are determined
from the lab and field pull–out tests.
F a is given by Ci tan/
Where,
Ci ¼ ðrn tand þ ca Þ = ðrn tan/ þ cÞ
The previously obtained ca and d from the pull–out tests are used in the calculation
of Ci under different test conditions. The F* and a values were calculated from pull–out
test results. These test results were presented in Tables 4 and 5.
4 Field Tests
Field pull–out tests were carried out on different reinforcing strips embedded in model
embankments constructed using locally available marginal soil without and with cement
modification to investigate their pull–out resistance. This work is intended to study the
feasibility and practicality of using marginal soils in the field in comparison with con-
ventional backfill and also to ascertain the pull–out resistance of different types of
reinforcing materials embedded in such fills. These tests were performed at optimum
moisture content and in fully wet condition in case of plain marginal soil; and after 7 days
of curing period under inundation in case of cement modified marginal soil. The pull–out
tests were also conducted on strips embedded in sand at optimum moisture content.
The model walls of 1.60 m height, 1.50 m wide and 3.50 m long were constructed
with vertical faces. The vertical faces were maintained with the help of steel posts and
bamboo mats. The backfill was mixed with water content equal to its optimum moisture
content and compacted in 5 cm thick layers to its maximum dry density using a 2 ton
stone roller up to a lift thickness of 40 cm. The maximum dry density was controlled
by core cutter method. Then the different types of reinforcing strips of 10 cm wide and
35 cm long were placed on the leveled compacted surface on both the sides of wall in
replication, in order to conduct the tests both at OMC and after saturation. A metal
sleeve was used at the pull–out end within 5 cm to avoid the near face distribution.
Similar process was adopted at other lift thicknesses also i.e. at 0.80 m and 1.20 m
height. In case of cement modified marginal soil, the pull–out tests were done both at 7
days of moist curing and also after full inundation for 3 days.
The pull–out tests were carried out using a specially fabricated pull–out testing
apparatus with a strain rate of 1.25 mm/min. Figure 3 shows the test set up on model
embankment. The overhanging portion of the reinforcing strips were clamped to the
extension plate using nut and bolt system which in turn was connected to the pull–out
testing unit through tension proving ring. The dial gauge was attached to the welded
flat using magnetic base to measure horizontal displacement of the respective rein-
forcing strips. The maximum pull–out load obtained from tension proving ring reading
was used to determine the soil–reinforcement interface frictional resistance. Further, the
pull–out design factors F* and a were calculated using a similar procedure explained
under laboratory pull–out testing.
Fig. 3. Embedment of various types of reinforcing strips on compacted backfill at different

elevations and pull–out test set up in the field.
5 Discussion on Results
5.1 Laboratory Test Results
These tests were carried out on different reinforcing strips embedded in a pull–out box
and pulled at different normal stresses. Typical pull–out load versus pull–out deformation
plot is shown in Fig. 4 for Polyfelt (non-woven) geotextile strip. It can be seen that the
pull–out load is steadily increased with pull–out deformation beyond the initial extension
of the strip and thereafter, it is decreased. In case of metallic strips, the pull–out load is
steadily increased with deformation up to peak value and then decreased. Similar plots
were drawn for all the strips under different normal stresses and peak pull–out loads were
obtained. As already explained, the peak pull–out load is divided by the original area of
the strip (2 sides) to get the average peak pull–out stress (Abu-Farsakh et al. 2007) for a
given normal stress.
Fig. 4. A typical plot between pull–out load versus pull–out deformation.
6 Field Pull–Out Test Results
These tests were carried out on the same reinforcing strips embedded in model
embankments using a specially fabricated pull–out testing unit. The calculation pro-
cedures are similar to those for laboratory pull–out tests (Table 4).
7 Interaction Parameters (Ca and d)
These parameters were obtained from the plots drawn between peak pull–out stress and
normal stress. The typical plot is shown in Fig. 5 for chicken mesh reinforcing
strip. The intercept on peak pull–out stress axis is referred to as ca (adhesion intercept)
and the slope of the line as d (apparent interface friction angle). These values obtained
from laboratory and field pull–out tests for different test conditions are presented in
Tables 4 and 5. The rest of the calculation to find F* and a were made by following the
procedure already outlined.
It can be observed from these tables that the pull–out design factors, F* and a
values are ranging from 0.3 to 1.9 and 0.2 to 0.6 respectively. The lower values of these
parameters are pertinent to the more extensible materials like geogrid and geonet for
both the test moisture contents i.e., optimum moisture content and fully wet condition.
Fig. 5. A typical plot between peak pull–out stress and normal stress.
For all the reinforcing strips, these parameters were reduced by 50–60% upon wetting
for both laboratory and field testing. These parameters were restored back to their
presoaked values upon 3% cement modification of the marginal backfill. The labora-
tory values are about 85 to 95% of those from field tests. These observations are close
to those made by others (Farrag 2006).
Among the geotextiles, higher values of pull–out design factors (F* and a) were
obtained for polyfelt compared to other fabrics. This could be supported by its higher
tensile strength and rough surface due to longitudinal laces. The descending order of
values of F* and a are observed for polyfelt followed by PD381 and Q425D. The value
of F* bears a good relationship with tensile strength of fabric reinforcement, whereas a
values are not significantly influenced by tensile strength. For any fabric type, the F*
value is slightly decreased with normal stress. Similar observations were also made by
others (Mohiuddin 2001; Farrag 2004; Abu-Farsakh 2006).
In case of geonet and geogrid, the F* and a values are significantly lower than
fabrics due to their higher extensibility as observed during testing. The lower d values
also indicate their inadequate pulling out of the fill. In case of low extensible materials
like geostrap, bamboo and metallic strips, the F* and a values are observed to be higher
than for geosynthetic strips. This could be supported by their ready slippage during
pull–out testing.
Further, it can be noted that the F* and a values for 3% cement modified marginal
soil are almost close to or in certain cases higher than those obtained in sand backfill. It
is also interesting to note that the smooth surfaced fabrics have shown relatively lower
F* and a values in sand compared to those in cement modified backfill. This could be
supported by the fact that the adhesion component in cement modified backfill is higher
than that in sand backfill. However, in case of geogrid and geonet, higher values of F*
and a were obtained in sand backfill than in cement modified backfill. This could be
due to more interlocking and dilatancy effects of sand backfill compared to cement
modified backfill. Such observations were also made by other investigators (Johnston
and Romstad 1989; Hayashi et al. 1995).
Table 4. Laboratory and field pull–out test results
Type of Pull–out Normal stress Marginal soil Sand
reinforcement test (kPa) At OMC At saturation At 7 days of curing At OMC
period
Ca do Ci a F* Ca do Ci A F* Ca do Ci a F* Ca do Ci a F*
Chicken mesh Lab 7.5 19 27 0.95 0.45 1.12 17 22 0.83 0.37 1.00 31 18 1.45 0.55 1.40 9 18 1.75 0.58 0.69
15 0.91 1.00 0.79 1.00 1.39 1.31 1.59 0.78
22.5 0.89 1.02 0.77 0.98 1.35 1.28 1.45 0.90
Field 7.5 21 30 1.05 0.50 1.15 18 25 0.89 0.4 1.02 32 19 1.51 0.60 1.45 10 17 1.89 0.61 0.70
15 1.05 1.15 0.88 0.96 1.38 1.26 1.25 1.00
22.5 1.03 1.13 0.87 0.92 1.28 1.17 1.20 1.75
Welded Wire Lab 7.5 13 35 0.76 0.45 1.05 7 24 0.43 0.41 0.78 20 29 0.94 0.50 1.20 10 19 1.93 0.50 1.77
mesh 15 0.75 1.00 0.40 0.81 1.01 1.12 1.00 1.05
22.5 0.70 0.95 0.35 0.78 1.19 1.05 0.77 1.09
Field 7.5 15 40 1.08 0.51 1.14 9 26 0.52 0.41 0.69 25 41 1.30 0.55 1.30 12 16 1.89 0.56 1.85
15 0.98 1.05 0.58 0.78 1.34 1.34 1.25 1.25
22.5 1.02 1.10 0.60 0.81 1.37 1.37 0.92 0.96
Welded rod Lab 7.5 21 31 1.06 0.45 1.45 10 8 0.46 0.30 1.10 25 29 1.21 0.48 1.37 19 21 1.55 0.54 1.51
15 1.07 1.39 0.41 1.06 1.15 1.33 1.45 1.45
22.5 1.02 1.20 0.39 0.99 1.01 1.29 1.36 1.56
Field 7.5 25 37 1.27 0.50 1.45 15 9 0.69 0.29 1.20 27 28 1.29 0.51 1.39 19 18 1.75 0.58 1.69
15 1.29 1.42 0.63 1.15 1.24 1.34 1.05 1.50
22.5 1.27 1.39 0.57 1.09 1.18 1.27 0.98 1.40
(continued)
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips
243
244

period
GI strip Lab 7.5 27 18 1.22 0.41 1.45 2 13 0.15 0.18 0.35 18 23 0.88 0.48 1.01 10 15 1.84 0.43 1.26
15 1.12 1.32 0.12 0.31 0.87 0.97 1.57 1.01
22.5 1.00 1.00 0.10 0.36 0.83 0.78 0.91 0.98
Field 7.5 25 25 1.14 0.45 1.40 1 14 0.11 0.20 0.30 19 29 0.96 0.55 0.96 9 18 1.75 0.50 1.93
15 1.14 1.39 0.16 0.29 0.97 0.97 1.06 1.17
22.5 1.07 1.31 0.20 0.55 0.95 0.95 0.81 0.89
P. Kurre and G. V. Praveen
Bamboo Lab 7.5 9 38 0.65 0.34 1.28 3 15 0.25 0.17 1.34 16 40 0.92 0.33 1.56 8 21 1.67 0.48 1.68
15 0.61 1.30 0.21 1.28 1.04 1.30 1.05 1.43
22.5 0.58 1.35 0.18 1.43 1.13 1.62 0.74 1.29
Field 7.5 10 43 0.72 0.29 1.34 6 16 0.35 0.15 1.26 15 42 0.92 0.28 1.78 8 17 1.08 0.50 1.70
15 0.86 1.62 0.38 1.40 1.02 2.00 0.96 1.53
22.5 0.96 1.82 0.39 1.40 1.10 2.14 0.74 1.22
Table 5. Laboratory and field pull–out test results
period
Polyfelt Lab 7.5 16 13 0.73 0.40 1.00 11 10 0.51 0.25 1.22 24 21 1.11 0.41 1.48 5 15 0.91 0.49 1.02
15 0.69 0.94 0.48 1.02 1.06 1.42 0.89 0.99
22.5 0.64 0.88 0.45 0.99 0.98 1.31 0.75 0.84
Field 7.5 22 15 0.99 0.38 1.44 21 7 0.90 0.26 1.28 32 25 1.49 0.44 1.87 5 17 1.12 0.50 1.85
15 0.91 1.31 0.80 1.09 1.39 1.75 0.73 1.21
22.5 0.86 1.23 0.73 1.03 1.32 1.66 0.69 1.14
PD 381 Lab 7.5 14 20 0.69 0.40 0.95 12 10 0.55 0.27 1.12 30 14 1.32 0.42 1.72 5 14 0.97 0.44 1.21
15 0.67 0.92 0.52 1.05 1.20 1.57 0.83 1.03
22.5 0.66 0.90 0.44 0.89 1.07 1.40 0.81 1.01
Field 7.5 15 21 0.74 0.40 1.02 13 10 0.59 0.25 1.28 32 25 1.49 0.43 1.90 6 15 1.23 0.43 1.37
15 0.73 1.00 0.55 1.20 1.44 1.83 0.77 1.18
22.5 0.72 1.97 0.52 1.12 1.38 1.76 0.60 1.15
Q425D Lab 7.5 10 10 0.47 0.31 0.83 5 12 0.29 0.28 0.56 21 5 0.90 0.40 1.23 4 11 0.63 0.39 0.88
15 0.45 0.79 0.27 0.53 0.79 1.08 0.53 0.74
22.5 0.42 0.72 0.26 0.51 0.69 0.95 0.41 0.60
Field 7.5 11 10 0.51 0.32 0.88 5 12 0.27 0.25 0.56 25 5 1.06 0.38 1.52 4 10 0.81 0.51 1.31
15 0.48 0.81 0.28 0.60 0.92 1.31 0.51 0.83
22.5 0.46 0.78 0.30 0.64 0.83 1.21 0.39 0.63
(continued)
Evaluation of Pullout Resistance of Reinforcing Strips
245
246

period
Fibertex G – Lab 7.5 23 12 1.02 0.41 1.32 3 12 0.19 0.20 0.31 20 24 0.97 0.51 0.94 7 15 1.05 0.45 1.56
100 15 0.93 1.27 0.15 0.29 0.91 0.91 0.98 0.99
22.5 0.89 1.20 0.12 0.32 0.89 0.89 0.93 0.89
Field 7.5 25 25 1.14 0.45 1.40 1 14 0.11 0.20 0.30 19 29 0.96 0.55 0.96 9 18 1.25 0.50 1.93
15 1.14 1.39 0.16 0.29 0.97 0.97 1.06 1.17
22.5 1.07 1.31 0.20 0.55 0.95 0.95 0.81 0.89
P. Kurre and G. V. Praveen
Geogrid Lab 7.5 7 10 0.34 0.32 0.58 6 8 0.29 0.24 0.56 8 10 0.38 0.30 0.70 4 14 0.93 0.40 1.27
15 0.33 0.56 0.28 0.44 0.36 0.66 0.91 1.25
22.5 0.31 0.53 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.60 0.89 1.22
Field 7.5 7.5 8 0.35 0.33 0.57 5 8 0.27 0.24 0.62 8.5 8 0.39 0.31 0.67 5 13 1.03 0.42 1.95
15 0.33 0.54 0.26 0.58 0.37 0.64 0.65 1.28
22.5 0.32 0.51 0.25 0.54 0.35 0.61 0.51 1.00
Geonet Lab 7.5 6 10 0.31 0.22 0.77 3 5 0.15 0.20 0.41 7 11 0.35 0.21 0.91 4 15 0.91 0.30 1.66
15 0.30 0.75 0.13 0.35 0.31 0.81 0.90 1.65
22.5 0.28 0.70 0.10 0.27 0.29 0.75 0.88 1.61
Field 7.5 5 5 0.21 0.22 0.50 4 5 0.18 0.18 0.50 5 8 0.21 0.22 0.50 6 15 0.93 0.38 1.03
15 0.20 0.50 0.17 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.77 1.67
22.5 0.19 0.45 0.16 0.44 0.19 0.45 0.60 1.31
Geostrap Lab 7.5 13 31 0.78 0.25 1.71 4 21 0.38 0.16 1.30 14 30 0.76 0.28 1.49 7 17 1.42 0.31 1.51
15 0.74 1.56 0.34 1.16 0.80 1.57 1.31 1.32
22.5 0.72 1.58 0.32 1.10 0.81 1.59 1.29 1.28
Field 7.5 12 30 0.69 0.25 1.52 3 31 0.31 0.17 1.00 14 31 0.76 0.27 1.51 8 18 1.56 0.61 1.12
15 0.74 1.64 0.42 1.35 0.81 1.57 0.94 1.27
22.5 0.79 1.72 0.50 1.58 0.84 1.64 0.76 1.03
Pull–out resistance of reinforcing materials embedded in backfill soil is one of the

essential requirements of internal stability of reinforced soil structures. Though the
soil–reinforcement interaction can be studied by direct shear testing, pull–out testing
was considered to be superior as it better represent the in-situ conditions. Several
investigators have attempted the pull–out testing on different reinforcing materials with
varying test conditions to evaluate the pull–out parameters. The complexity of their
assessment increases further with the use of marginal backfills which are susceptible for
moisture variations. The present work is attempted to overcome the deficiencies of
marginal backfill soils by adopting cement modification and study the pull–out resis-
tance of different types of reinforcing materials embedded in marginal backfill soil
without and with cement modification and compared the results with that of conven-
tional sand.
The marginal soils could retain its resistance to pull–out of reinforcement even
under fully wet condition by 3% cement modification at which the soil became non-
plastic while retaining the flexible nature of reinforced soil. The pull–out factors a and
F*, as envisaged by FHWA to account for extensibility of flexible reinforcing materials
and the geometric variations were determined for different reinforcing materials under
different test conditions. The values of these factors are observed to be in the range of
those reported in the literature and close to those obtained in sand backfill when
marginal soil is modified by 3% cement. In case of virgin marginal soil, the pull–out
resistance is reduced to about one-third of its value at optimum moisture content.
References
Fourie AB, Johns DG, Jones CJFP (2007) Dewatering of mine tailings using electrokinetic
geosynthetics. Can Geotech J 44:160–172
Vidal H (1978) The developments and future of reinforced earth. In: Proceedings of symposium
on earth reinforcement. ASCE, Pittsburgh
Bergado DT, Teerawattanasuk C, Wongsawanon T, Voottipruex P (2001) Interaction between
hexagonal wire mesh reinforcement and silty sand back fill. Geotech Test J 24(1):23–38
Glendinning S, Jones CJ, Pugh RC (2005) Reinforced soil using cohesive fill and electrokinetic
geosynthetics. Int J Geomech 5(2):138–146
Saran S (2006) Reinforced soil and its engineering applications. IK International PVT Ltd., New
Delhi
Tatsuoka F (2002) Geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining wall as permanent structures. In: Indian
geotechnical conference, vol 2, pp 681–699
Mohammad JK, Mohammad A (2006) Durability and mechanistic characteristics of fibre
reinforced soil-cement mixes. Int J Pavement Eng 7(1):53–62
Abu-Farsakh M, Coronel J, Tao M (2007) Effect of soil moisture content and dry density on
cohesive soil–geosynthetic interactions using large direct shear tests. J Mater Civ Eng
19:540–549
Identification of Artificial Recharge Zones
Using GIS
K. A. Patil1, Noopur D. Khatik1, and Shriman N. Jirapure2(&)

1
Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Wellesley Road, Shivajinagar,
Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India
{kap.civil,khatiknd17.civil}@coep.ac.in
2
College of Engineering, Wellesley Road, Shivajinagar, Pune 411005,
Maharashtra, India
jirapuresn17.civil@coep.ac.in
Abstract. Water is one of the most dynamic and important resources of the
world. Hence, it needs special attention towards its conservation. Fresh water is
mainly obtained either from surface source or as a ground water. Artificial
recharge is the most appropriate practice, which traps the unused surface runoff
which leads to increase the groundwater recharge. The present study aims to
identify artificial recharge zones. Formation of different thematic layers such as
soil, slope, land use, drainage and geomorphology were carried out by using
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS). These maps
were combined in GIS tool to categorise artificial recharge zones. The
knowledge-based weightage was assigned. These thematic maps were used for
weighted overlay analysis and the final map was prepared showing artificial
recharge zones which are categorised as good, moderate and poor. The infor-
mation regarding groundwater recharge zones is useful for locating water har-
vesting structures.
Keywords: Artificial recharge structure Ground water potential zones

Thematic maps and GIS
1 Introduction
In our day to day life, water is most abundantly used natural resource. Day by day, it is
exhausting at very fast rate in both rural as well as in urban areas. This is probably due
to increase in per capita demand and irrigation. Ground water is attracting an attention
due to scarcity of good quality water. In overcrowded country like India, requirement
of ground-water resource is very high. Due to irregularity in monsoon and misman-
agement leads to depletion of ground-water levels. This results in increase in the
operational costs which leads to increase in investment. To overcome this problem
there is a need to increase recharging potential of aquifers by providing artificial
recharge structures. So, resourceful planning and management of sub-surface water is
getting more importance. For delineating the artificial recharge zones, GIS tool found
to be very effective [1].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_31
Identification of Artificial Recharge Zones Using GIS 249
GIS is highly accurate and less time-consuming tool. GIS offers skill to analyse the
spatial and non-spatial data to fulfil desired objectives. It allows us to develop different
thematic layers and merge these thematic layers into a single layer. Modern Remote
Sensing tools enable delineation of required areas for groundwater replenishment. It
also accounts the diversity of different factors which influences groundwater recharge
like geomorphologic parameters including faults, lineaments, land use and soil etc.
These factors control ground water potentiality.
2 Study Area
A study area is a sub watershed of BM 49. Figure 1 shows the details of study area i.e.
Kurukumbh watershed, which lies between latitude 18° 25′ to 18° 15′ N and longitude
74° 25′ to 74° 49′ E in upper Bhima watershed basin in Daund Taluka of Pune district,
Maharashtra. This covers an area of approximately 43.15 km2 and perimeter 35.92 km.
The study area falls in the semi-arid zone and the average temperature of the study area
ranges between 24 °C to 40 °C in summer season and goes down to 10 °C during
winter season. The maximum relative humidity ranges 70% to 80% during the rainy
season, while in summers it lies near to 30%. Winds flows from light to moderate in dry
season. The rainy season starts from second or third week of June and continues till the
last week of the September. The region receives its annual precipitation from south
west monsoon. The average annual precipitation varies from 400 to 600 mm. The
highest elevation ranges from 612 m to lowest elevation of 420 m above the mean sea
level.
Fig. 1. Study area

250 K. A. Patil et al.
3 Materials and Method
Five hydro-geological parameters that are drainage, slope, soil, geomorphology and
land use have been considered to find out the artificial recharge zones. Various maps
were obtained from satellite images and existing data sets of respective departments.
Thematic maps for this hydro- geological parameter were obtained, categorised,
weighted, and combined into a GIS environment. Figure 2 shows the stepwise
methodology for preparation of map [2, 5].
Different data such as satellite images, DEM and soil map were obtained from
National Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS) and Land Use Planning (LUP), Nagpur. Land
use map was prepared by using IRS-LISS-III data obtain from Bhuvan site which is
Indian geo-platform of ISRO for month of January 2016. DEM from Shuttle Radar
Topographic Mission (SRTM) having 30 m resolution was used for delineation of
watershed and to obtain the slope map.
The methodology adopted for the work is as given below:
1. Data compilation.
2. Marking of boundary of study area.
3. Geo-processing of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and satellite image using
Geomantic software.
4. Extraction of geomorphological, land use, drainage, soil and slope etc. in Arc-GIS
tool.
5. Spatial and non-spatial data integration GIS environment.
6. Weighted overlay analysis is conducted in GIS environment.
7. Preparation of map showing suitable site for artificial recharge zone.
Fig. 2. Flow chart of methodology

4 Analysis and Results
Soil, geomorphology, drainage, slope and land use plays critical role for identification
of artificial recharge zones. Information regarding various thematic maps is given
below:
4.1 Soil
There are three types of soils and have been delineated in the study area based on
hydrological conditions and details are as shown in Fig. 3. These are very shallow, well
drained and loamy calcareous soils found on mildly inclined undulating area having
reasonable erosion which are categorised as good, slightly deep, moderately well
drained, fine soils which found in very gently sloping plains and moderate erosion
categories as moderate. Shallow, well drained, clayey and moderately calcareous soil
on gently sloping lands which categories as poor.
4.2 Geomorphology
Geomorphology of the study area is categorised into three different classes i.e. struc-
turally origin and moderately dissected upper plateau shown in Fig. 4. Plateaus are flat
topped residual mountains and having high runoff zone. This show green in colour in
map and is classified as poor, it accelerates more run off so that it is treated as poor
artificial recharge zone. Another one is undulation origin and pediment-pedi plane
complex, which have characteristics of highly porous, permeable and having high
infiltration rate. This is good for providing artificial recharge structures. Most of
the agricultural land of the study area is in pediment-pedi plane complex region.
Table 1 shows area under different types of soil and Table 2 shows geomorphology of
the study area.
Fig. 3. Soil map Fig. 4. Geomorphology map

Table 1. Type of soil and area Table 2. Geomorphology area

Sr. Type of soil Area Area Sr. Description Area Area
no (km2) (%) no (km2) (%)
1 Very shallow, well 36 83.45 1 Undulation origin 32.14 74.50
drained, loamy and pediment pedi
calcareous soil plane complex
2 Slightly deep, 4.27 9.89 2 Structurally origin- 10.68 24.75
moderately well drained, moderately dissected
fine soils upper plateau
3 Shallow, well drained, 2.87 6.66 3 Water body 0.32 0.75
clayey moderately Total 43.14 100
calcareous soil
Total 43.14 100
4.3 Slope
The contour is one of the important terrain parameters to find slope. On the basis of
topography and DEM, the study area is classified from undulating terrain having
steeply sloping hill to plane surface. Slope represented in degree which varies from 0 to
22. On the basis of degree of slope, slopes are divided into five classes as shown in
Fig. 5. Slope in the range of 0 to 2° is very good zone and is classified as very gently
slope, which allows more time to percolate the surface runoff is considered good for
artificial recharge zone. Slope in the range of 2 to 4° as good zone and is gentle slope.
Slope in the range of 4 to7° is a moderate zone and moderate slope. Slope in the range
of 7 to 11° as poor zone which is moderately steep slope. Slope in the range of 11 to
20° as very poor zone and is steep slope, which having large surface flow with low
residential time and results in fairly less penetration of water causing low ground water
potential zone (Tables 3 and 4).
Fig. 5. Slope map Fig. 6. Land use map

Table 3. Slope gradient and area Table 4. Land use area

Sr. no Slope Area Area Sr. Type of land Area Area
(degree) (km2) (%) no (km2) (%)
1 0–2 19.32 44.78 1 Agriculture 14.63 33.91
2 2–4 13.69 31.73 land
3 4–7 5.59 12.96 2 Built-up 13.16 30.50
4 7–11 3.15 7.31 3 Barrel land 12.52 29.03
5 11–20 1.39 3.22 4 Fallow land 1.60 3.71
Total 43.14 100 5 Water body 1.23 2.85
Total 43.14 100
4.4 Land Use

Remote sensing plays very vital role in land use mapping and to identify groundwater
resources. Land use controls infiltration, evapo-transpiration and surface runoff in the
water cycle. Study area consists of water body, agriculture area, fallow land, barren
land and built up area as shown in Fig. 6. From land use consideration, built-up land
and barrel land runoff is high and infiltration rate is low so it is categorised as poor.
Fallow land as moderate ground water prospect, and water body and agriculture land
have high infiltration rate and less runoff so it is considered as good artificial recharge
zone.
4.5 Drainage
In this study area, up to five order streams are observed, it is clear from Fig. 7. Fifth
order streams are most suitable for the artificial recharge structures. Other streams are
categorised as good, moderate, poor and very poor in decreasing order respectfully.
Fig. 7. Drainage map Fig. 8. Aritifical recharge zone

4.6 Assign Rank and Weightage

Rank and weight are assigned to different hydrological parameter to obtain the artificial
recharge zones. Based on the relative importance of the parameter weight and ranks are
as shown in Table 5 [3].
Table 5. Rank and weight for different parameter of artificial recharge zone
Sr. Parameter Classes Groundwater Weight Rank
no. prospect (%)
1 Geomorphology Undulation origin and Good 30 3
pediment pedi plane
complex
Water body Moderate 2
Structurally origin- Poor 1
moderately dissected
upper plateau
2 Soil Very shallow, well drained, Good 20 3
loamy calcareous, soils
Slightly deep, moderately Moderate 2
well drained, fine soils
Shallow, well drained, Poor 1
clayey moderately
calcareous soil
3 Slope (degree) 0–2 Very good 20 5
2–4 Good 4
4–7 Moderate 3
7–11 Poor 2
11–20 Very poor 1
4 Drainage 1 Very poor 15 1
(order) 2 Poor 2
3 Moderate 3
4 Good 4
5 Very good 5
5 Land use Agriculture land Very good 15 5
Water body Good 4
Fallow land Moderate 3
Barren land Poor 2
Built-up land Poor 1
4.7 Artificial Recharge Zone

All hydrological parameter maps were integrated based on the rank and weightage,
artificial recharge zone map is obtained which is as shown in Fig. 8. Recharge zones
are classified as excellent, good, moderate and poor recharge zones having area 2.94,
27.47, 12.11 and 0.35 km2 respectively (Table 6).
Table 6. Recharge zones of study area

Sr. no Recharge zone Area (km2) Area (%)
1 Excellent 2.94 6.82
2 Good 27.58 63.93
3 Moderate 12.26 28.43
4 Poor 0.35 0.82
Total 43.14 100
4.8 Artificial Recharge Structures

Analysis of artificial recharge zones is helpful to locate the artificial recharge structures.
Based on the above condition map is prepared showing recharge structures the details
are as shown in Fig. 9. Check dams, contour bunding, nala bandhs, contour trenching,
recharge pits and wells are considered as recharge structures [6, 7].
• For 3rd and 4th order streams check dam can be provided on upstream, as flow is
continuing and straight.
• On downstream of check dam; percolation tank, recharging pond, injection well and
recharge shaft should be provided.
• Recharge shaft should be sufficiently enough deep to recharge the ground water
level.
• Contour bunds may be located where irrigation is required and have possibility of
erosion hence provide minimum gradient.
• In continues sloping region contour trenching may provide for rainwater runoff.
Fig. 9. Location of artificial recharge structure

5 Conclusions
Artificial recharge is the need of the day. Based on the study carried out the different
conclusions arrived at are as given below.
1. Five different thematic layers viz. geomorphology, soil, drainage, slope lineament,
and land use are integrated in GIS environment. This study area is divided in to
excellent, good, moderate and poor artificial recharge zones and their respective
areas are 2.94, 27.58, 12.26 and 0.35 km2.
2. The area having slope 0 to 2°, 5thorder drainage underneath pediment-Pedi plain
and agriculture land is identified as excellent artificial recharge zone and incorpo-
rating area is 2.94 km2.
3. Area having pediment-Pedi plain, water body and cover with fallow land, having
slope 2 to 4°, and 4th order drainage is identified as good artificial recharge zone and
its area is 27.58 km2.
4. The area under slope 4 to 7°, 3rd order drainage under pediment-Pedi plain and
moderately dissected upper plateau and with fallow and barren land is detected as
moderate artificial recharge zone and its area is 12.26 km2.
5. The area under slope 7 to 11°, 2nd and 1st order stream under moderately dissected
upper plateau with barren land and built-up land is found as poor artificial zone and
its area is 0.35 km2.
6. This artificial recharge zone is very much useful in locating the artificial recharge
structure such as check dams, contour bunding, contour trenching, nala bandhs, and
recharge pits and wells.
7. The numbers of artificial recharge structures suggested are percolation tank 9 in
number, check dam 7 in number with medium runoff and contour bunds are 6 in
number.
References
1. Mishra RC, Chandrasekhar B, Naik RD (2012) Remote sensing and GIS for groundwater
mapping and identification of artificial recharge sites. Am Soc Civ Eng 3:216–221
2. Bhowmick P, Sivakumar V (2015) GIS based fuzzy modelling approach to identify the
suitable sites for artificial recharge of groundwater. Int J Remote Sens Geosci 4:68–79
3. Riad PH, Billib MH, Hassan AA, Omar MA (2011) Overlay weighted model and fuzzy logic
to determine the best locations for artificial recharge of groundwater in a semi-arid area in
Egypt. Nile Basin Water Sci Eng J 4:24–35
4. Tiwari A, Lavy M, Amanzio G, Maio MD, Singh P, Mahato M (2017) Identification of
artificial groundwater recharging zone using a GIS-based fuzzy logic approach: a case study
in a coal mine area of The Damodar Valley, Indian. Appl Water Sci 7:13–24
5. Jaiswal RK, Mukherjee S, Krishnamurthy J, Saxena R (2013) Role of remote sensing and GIS
techniques for generation of groundwater prospect zones towards rural development an
approach. Int J Remote Sens 24:993–1008
6. Bamne Y, Patil KA, Vikhe SD (2014) Selection of appropriate sites for structures of water
harvesting in a watershed using remote sensing and geographical information system. Int J
Emerg Technol Adv Eng 4:270–275
7. Haji B, Patil KA, Vikhe SD (2015) Identification of suitable sites for water conservation
structures in a watershed using RS and GIS approach. Int J Sci Res Dev 3(9):45–48 ISSN
2321-0613
8. Waikar ML, Nilawar AP (2014) Identification of groundwater potential zone using remote
sensing and GIS technique. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 3:12163–12174
Seismic Analysis and Design of Mass
and Stiffness Irregular R.C. Building Frames
with Different Code
Nishant C. Chandanshive(&) and Santosh S. Mohite
Department of Civil Engineering,

Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering and Technology,
Ashta 416301, India
nchandanshive13@gmail.com,
hod_civil@adcet.in
Abstract. From past seismic hazardous it is conclude that many structures

are fails during seismic activity. So it is important to determine seismic response
of such structures during earthquakes. It is necessary to determine how the
structure behave during earthquake. The structure having mass and stiffness
irregularity and what is the effect of these irregularities on structure by carry out
the response spectrum analysis is the objective of the research. After the analysis
compare the results of regular and irregular structure.
Keywords: Seismic analysis Mass irregularity Stiffness irregularity

RSA Staad Pro
1 Introduction
Earthquake forces are the occasional forces that may or may not occur on the structure
but when they occur, causes serious impact on structure, which may lead to collapse of
structure. Hence in case of multistoried structure, it becomes mandatory to consider
response of the structure for earthquakes. As per Indian seismic code IS 18932016,
there are five seismic zones having different potential for shaking intensity. During
earthquake, failure occurs due to mass and stiffness irregularity present in the structure.
The 2016 version of Indian seismic code clearly defines the irregular structure.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_32
Seismic Analysis and Design of Mass and Stiffness Irregular R.C. Building Frames 259
1.1 Mass and Stiffness Irregularity
2 Literature Review
Carried out numerical analysis due to this results showed that the first store, not be
softer than the storey above or storey below that. The mass irregularity is present in the
structure which increased the response of the structure during analysis of the structure.
It is required the irregularities provided by proper design and analysis.
Carried out performance of structure of R.C. building with mass and stiffness
irregularities. These irregularities decrease the seismic response of the structure during
seismic activity. The study is carried out for what is the effect of these types of
irregularity on the building and what is the effect of influence on the various parameters
of the structure.
260 N. C. Chandanshive and S. S. Mohite
3 Objective
Design the frame models in Staad Pro.

To study the effect mass and stiffness irregularity in R.C. Building frames. And
compare the results.
3.1 Methodology
In this problem configuration of frames is as given below (Table 1).
Table 1. Probleme statement

Structure type Residential building
No. of stories 14(G + 13)
Height of floor 3m
Column size (1) G.F and F.F 300 mm 500 mm
(2) all above 300 mm 450 mm
Beam size 230 mm 450 mm
Slab thickness (T.W) 150 mm
Masonry wall thickness 230 mm
Plan area 26.5 m 29.0 m
3.2 Results
Seismic Analysis and Design of Mass and Stiffness Irregular R.C. Building Frames 261
4 Conclusion
1. Decrease in response of irregular structure as compared to regular structure.
2. If increase the column stiffness base shear increases.
3. Higher the stiffness Displacement, storey drift, Time period reduces.
References
1. IS 13920: Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structure Subjects oo Seismic Forces
(1993)
2. Soni AG, Agrawal DG, Pande AM (2015) Effect of irregularities in buildings and their
consequences. Int J Mod Trends Eng Res 2:14–21
3. Hassaballa AE, Adam MF, Ismaeil MA (2013) Seismic analysis of a reinforced concrete
building by response spectrum method. IOSR J Eng (IOSRJEN)
4. Himanshu Bansal G (2012) Seismic analysis and design of vertically irregular RC building
frames. Int J Sci Res (IJSR) 2012:2319–7064
5. Poonam AK, Gupta AK (2012) Study of response of structurally irregular building frames to
seismic excitations. Int J Civ Struct Environ Infrastruct Eng Res Dev Sci Res (IJSR)
(IJCSEIERD) 2:25–31
6. Sarkar P, Prasad AM, Menon D (2010) Vertical geometric irregularity in stepped building
frames. Eng Struct 32:2175–2182
7. Athanassiadou CJ (2008) Seismic performance of R/C plane frames irregular in elevation.
Eng Struct 30(2008):1250–1261
Assessment of Spatial Interpolation Techniques
on Groundwater Contamination
G. Shyamala1(&), B. Arun Kumar1, S. Manvitha2, and T. Vinay Raj1

1
S R Engineering College, Warangal, India
shyamala@srecwarangal.ac.in
2
Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Warangal, India
Abstract. The selected study area, Mettupalayam, India is an important trading

hub and transit center for hill products. The hydrochemistry of the groundwater
is deteriorated in the past years, but the literature revealed that the groundwater
pollution in the study area was not concentrated. Sixty-two discrete locations
were selected in the study area. The ground water samples were collected, and
the Electrical Conductivity is analyzed, as it is the important irrigation param-
eter. The spatial interpolation technique such as Spline, Inverse Distance
Weightage (IDW) and Kriging is used to predict the value of unknown location,
from the known sample location. Cross validation is performed using univariate
statistical analysis for the predicted surface to choose the best model. The
evaluation of interpolation method by univariate statistical analysis indicated the
Root Mean Square Error is least in Kriging method; it indicates Kriging as the
best method for interpolating surfaces followed by IDW and Spline.
Keywords: Univariate statistical analysis Kriging Spatial interpolation
1 Introduction
Our planet earth has one unique quality which makes us to survive in this planet, its
termed as “water” which supports the life form in bountiful ways. Every species in the
world depend on groundwater for their existence. Threat on quality and quantity of
groundwater is caused due to the improper management and reckless use of water
system [1]. Urban growth, industrialization and agricultural activities has imposed
greater stress on soil and groundwater and the risk of contamination have been
amplified [2]. Large quantum of groundwater is pumped each day for various usage,
the water pollution threats human health, social environment and economic growth of
the area [3]. In industrial area there are chances for the pollutants to percolate and
migrate through soil and reaches the groundwater. Analyzing the groundwater char-
acteristics in a large space and solving geochemical problem is a challenging task [4].
The constrains in time and cost allows the groundwater data collection and monitoring
at a restricted number of sites [5]. The ArcGIS 9.2 is a the spatial analyzing tool for
managing, compiling and analyzing data set of sample points representing the changes
in pollution is used to visualize variability of observed data across the surface. The
interpolation technique is used to estimate the surface values at locations without taking
the sample measurement [6]. The selection of algorithm is based on actual data,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_33
Assessment of Spatial Interpolation Techniques on Groundwater Contamination 263
accuracy level and software resources available. The spatial interpolation analysis is
performed by using the techniques such as Spline Inverse distance Weightage
(IDW) and Kriging with the goal of determining the best method to create continuous
surface. The area selected for study is Mettupalayam, India, the important trading hub
in the foothills of Nilgris. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the spatial dis-
tribution of groundwater quality and analyse the limitations and benefits of each
method. The data set were obtained from eighty-five stations. The different methods of
interpolation result in different surface and arrive at different results. The best method
of spatial distribution is analyzed using univariate statistics.
2 Spatial Interpolation
The focus of this research is on the spatial interpolation technique to analyze the
pollutants in the urban area, which enable to target the pollutants as close as possible.
ArcGIS 9.2 spatial analyst is used for managing, compiling and analyzing data that the
value of unknown sampled location is predicted based on the known set of readings.
The estimated cell values are to estimate the real value of the selected location [7]. The
individualities of the spatial surface are controlled by limitation of the input points to
calculate the output cell values. Characteristics of different interpolation methods can
be generated in different predictions at same locations. The data’s are collected for
specific location, interpolation techniques and mathematical function is used to esti-
mate the values at the uniform location. The spatial data is involved in the geographic
information science research. The point data of the area is varied and continuous
according to space [8]. The data at any location within the boundary is calculated using
interpolation formulas and arrived in a spatial pattern. The predicted data are accurate if
the data set is closer and is not precise if they are spaced out. Based on these
assumptions the interpolation methods are formulated.
The data’s collected at discrete locations are used for creating continuous data. The
objective of interpolation technique is to create a layer that is intended to represent
empirical reality those the method is selected, is assessed for accuracy. The valuable
and legitimate method for data creation is interpolation method, which is accepted in
Arc GIS.
3 Methodology
3.1 Interpolation Technique

Geo-statistical interpolation techniques is rolling on both statistical and mathematical
methods to create surfaces & asses the uncertainly of prediction. The ArcGIS 9.2 was
employed as the software for this study. The methods used in this study are stochastic
method of Kriging, Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and Spline, to retain actual
electric Conductivity in the final surface. The exact value of Electric Conductivity is
expected in the final output surface. The deciding parameters vary in these spatial
interpolation method, it include the options & values used in different modules of
264 G. Shyamala et al.
ArcGIS. Samples were taken from 8 locations in the study area to create the interpo-
lated surface. As the weight increased the more value confirm to the range of sample
data. In the study area the range of EC is from 1.7 dS/m to 7.1 dS/m. 10 new Sample
locations were selected in the study area and analyzed to validate the interpolation
method. Univariate statistical method is used to validate the best fit out of three
methods.
3.1.1 Spline Interpolation

In ArcGIS Spline Interpolation is a Radial Basis Function (RBF). The perfect smooth
curve or close-fitting straight edges can be fitted among measured features. The ade-
quate accuracy between the sampled locations is obtained in the spline method.
Fig. 1. Spatial map of EC-Spline method
The degree of accuracy in the interpolated surface varies based on the data set. The
utilities are complex to outliers due to the inclusion of original values at the selected
points. Spline works well for Smooth Varying Surfaces. The parameters given as input
are Mettupalayam, India boundary, Sampled points interpolation attribute (Electrical
Conductivity), the type (tension), weight point to be considered for each know value
and the output cell size (Fig. 1). The weight set of 1.0 and the cell size of 100 is taken
as the input. The Spline surface is bounded to the observed data range. The cell size of
100 m2 was selected based on the ability to interpolate within the selected area.
3.1.2 Inverse Distance Weightage (IDW)

In Inverse Distance Weightage (IDW) method the observation made with greater
distance have less impact to the interpolated value than the values taken at the nearer
area. The benefit of inverse distance weightage method is, it has the finest fit with
uniformly distributed points. If data set is randomly distributed it leads to familiarized
errors. Smooth deviation in the interpolated surface is noticed in the central part of
Mettupalayam, India, where the data set are closer and sharp drastic variation and errors
are noted in the north eastern and south western part of the study area (Fig. 2). Smooth
diversity is observed in IDW with that of the tension Spline. The parameters Indicated
are power option, Search radius number of points a possible maximum distance for
impact on the data and output cell size. The input locations (sampling points) contained
within a specific area are same for spline, Kriging & IDW methods. The 100 m2 cell
size was fixed, power was set to 4 and search radius was represented to variables.
Fig. 2. Spatial map of EC-IDW method
3.1.3 Kriging Interpolation

The impact of the adjoining data point is used to incorporate the values of indefinite
locations. There are two different functions in Kriging 1: computing the three-
dimensional structure of the data and creating a prediction. 2: Enumerating the struc-
ture, where the spatial-dependence model is fit to the data [10]. Kriging is not for-
mative; it extends the familiarity weighting approach, to comprise unselective modules
where precise point location is not known by the function [11]. The Spatial & arith-
metical association between the points is used to compute the interpolated surfaces. The
major two steps performed in Kriging are semi variance assessment & interpolation.
The advantage of this method is the interdependence of the variables and surface errors
can be obtained. The disadvantage of Kriging is it required high input and requires
more computing and modeling time. Variation in the north eastern part of the study
area was observed in kriged surface than that of Spline or IDW Surface (Fig. 3). There
are two options in Kriging: ordinary method and universal method [12]. In the study,
the ordinary Kriging was selected, as it is the most widely used method. Variable radius
of spherical model was selected for analysis due to parse & irregular sampling location.
Fig. 3. Spatial map of EC-Kriging method
4.1 Method of Analysis

Evaluation of spatial interpolation method approached by Wilmot is used for analyzing
the three interpolation methods. The statistical error between the observed value and
predicted electrical conductivity value is evaluated, summated univariate measure
(Table 1) include the mean of observed (OEC), mean of predicted (PEC) and their
standard deviations (So, Sp). Wilmot used the following measures to evaluate the
performance of the interpolation methods.1. Mean Absolute Error (MAE) 2. Root
Mean Square Errors (RMSE) 3. Systematic Root Mean Square Errors (RMSES). 4.
Unsystematic Root Mean Square Errors (RMSEU) and 5. Index of agreement (d) [13].
The simple regression coefficients a & b are used to compute the systematic &
unsystematic root mean square errors. MAE is loss sensitive to extreme values. The
better agreement between 0&P is noticed if the d value is closer to 1.0 & complete
disagreement if it is 0.0. The analysis of three interpolation method was performed by
univariate statistics method.
Evaluation Metrics
P
N
Mean Absolute Error MAE ¼ N 1 jPi Oi j
i¼1
N
P 1=2
Root Mean Square Errors RMSE ¼ N 1 ðPi Oi Þ2
i¼1
N
P 2 1=2
^
Systematic Root Mean Square Errors RMSEs ¼ N 1 P i Oi
i¼1
N
P 1=2
^ i 2
Unsystematic Root Mean Square Errors RMSEu ¼ N 1 Pi P
i¼1
2
Index of agreement d ¼ 1 NRMSE
PE
Where P* = a + b Oi; a & b are the coefficients of an ordinary least- squares simple
linear regression between O and P.
Table 1. Summary univariate measures-EC

Sample no Observed Value (OV) Predicated Value (PV) OV-PV
Spline IDW Kriging Spline IDW Kriging
1 3.41 3.12 3.71 3.68 0.58 0.3 0.07
2 2.61 4.85 3.12 2.15 1.38 0.51 0.46
3 5.84 7.65 6.55 5.45 1.853 0.71 0.17
4 1.26 2.65 1.78 1.56 2.73 0.52 0.3
5 4.68 2.98 3.89 4.95 0.693 0.79 0.27
6 6.14 4.67 6.78 5.62 2.153 0.64 0.52
7 2.98 3.98 3.45 3.18 1.01 0.47 0.2
8 4.68 3.48 4.35 4.78 0.693 0.33 0.2
9 5.12 8.01 4.59 4.87 1.133 0.53 0.25
10 3.15 4.12 4.52 3.1 0.84 1.37 0.21
Summary statistics the mean of observed (OEC), mean of predicted (PEC) and their
standard deviations (So, Sp) is displayed in the Table 2. It shows that the surfaces
predict the unknown EC value at the Selected Locations. The Largest average error
0.11 is found in the Spline data and the smallest is found in Kriging Data and it is
followed by IDW data. The standard deviation suggests the Kriging method fits good,
followed by IDW method and the Spline method. To get the best fit average standard
error and the mean standardized prediction error should be as small as possible; further
the root-mean-squared standardized prediction error should be close to one [14]. The
five difference measures are shown in the Table 2 below. The least value of mean
absolute error (MAE) was found in Kriging method. The similar response as MAE is
found in RMSES & RMAEu. The Kriging method can be improved by refining the
parameters as the majority of the RMSE error is the systematic RMSE.
Table 2. Comparisons between three interpolation methods

Method So Sp MAE RMSE RMSEs RMSEu d
Spline 1.55 1.87 1.50 0.52 0.60 1.50 0.0521
IDW 1.55 1.50 0.63 0.22 0.29 0.50 0.0058
Kriging 1.55 1.41 0.27 0.09 0.17 2.17 0.001
The final error difference measured indicates Kriging is better than both Spline &
IDW method. The examined data is analyzed, followed by empirical semivariogram
estimation & interpolation model. The sampling points are closer in the central part of
the study area; hence the predicted value is closer to the observed value.
To make an informed decision, validation is carried out before producing the final
surface. Cross validation (Fig. 4) of the semivariogram model and covariance was
performed by selecting ten new sample locations. The predictions are centered on the
measurement value. The closest true value is obtained if the root-mean-square pre-
diction errors are minimum. The average standard error and the mean standardized
prediction error should be minimum for the ideal prediction. The root- mean-squared
standardized prediction errors should be close to one [15].
The evaluation of interpolation method by 5 different measures indicated the Root
Mean Square Error is minimum in Kriging method, it indicates Kriging as the best
method for interpolating surfaces followed by IDW and Spline. Kriging method has
done a responsible job in predicting Electrical Conductivity Value in the unknown
location. The 86 Sample locations are worthy over study area of 7.20 Km2. If the
number of samples have been increased still an accurate prediction can be made in the
study area.
Fig. 4. Cross validation of predicted data
5 Conclusion
Surface generation was done to produce the electrical conductivity map that shows the
spatial variation in the groundwater contamination, which is high in the Thekampatti
and Ramampalayam village. The validation of the model is carried out using cross
validation statistics. Best estimate of continuous surface of EC is produced by Kriging
Method. Nevertheless the evaluation illustrates that regardless approach taken in these
interpolation methods it does not adequately address the electrical conductivity and
variability in an urban setting. To get more realistic representation of the area, addi-
tional factors of the urban environment may be incorporated.
References
1. Jaiprakash N, Vijaya K, Puttaiah ET (2007) Fluoride distribution in groundwater of Magadi
taluk, Bangalore, rural district of Karnataka. J Curr Sci 10(1):279–282
2. Ackah M, Agyemang O, Anim AK (2011) Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking
and irrigation: the case study of Teiman-Oyarifa Community, East Municipality, Ghana.
Proc Int Acad Ecol Environ Sci 1(3–4):186–194
3. Milovanovic M (2008) Water quality assessment and determination of pollution sources
along the Axios/Vardar River, Southeastern Europe. Desalination 213:159–173
4. Cheboterev II (1955) Metamorphism of natural waters in the crust of weathering-I.
Geochimica et Cosmochima Acta 8(1–2):22–48
5. Batisani N (2012) Groundwater hydrochemistry evaluation in rural Botswana: a contribution
to integrated water resource management. Ethiop J Environ Stud Manag 5(4):521–528
6. Kholghi M, Hosseini SM (2008) Comparison of groundwater level estimation using neuro-
fuzzy and ordinary Kriging. Environ Model Assess 14:729–737
7. Lillesand TM, Kiefer RW, Chipman JW (2004) Remote sensing and image interpretation,
6th edn. Wiley, Hoboken
8. Hartkamp AD, De Beurs K, Stein A, White JW (1999) Interpolation techniques for climate
variables. NRG-GIS Series 99-01, pp 1–34
9. ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited (2007) Tamil Nadu Urban infrastructure
Financial Services Limited (TNUIFSL) Final Report. Conversion of City Corporate plan to
Business Plan for Mettupalayam Municipality
10. Burrough PA, McDonnell R (2000) Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford
University Press, New York
11. Kumar D, Ahmed S (2000) Seasonal behavior of spatial variability of groundwater level in a
granitic aquifer in monsoon climate. Curr Sci 84(2):188–196
12. Kumar V, Ramadevi (2006) Kriging of groundwater levels-a case study. J Spat Hydrol 6
(1):81–94
13. Willmott CJ (1984) On the evaluation of model performance in physical geography. In:
Spatial statistics and models, vol 18, pp 443–460
14. Schut G (1976) Review of interpolation methods for digital terrain models. Can Surveyor
30:389–412
15. Meyers DE (1994) Spatial interpolation: an overview. Geoderma 62:17–28
Sustainability Concepts in the Design
of Tall Structures
Prashant Sunagar1(&), Aravind Bhashyam2, B. R. Neel1,

and Abhishek Kumar Chaurasiya1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Ramaiah Institute of Technology,
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Prashanth.sjce@gmail.com
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Christ University, Bengaluru,
Karnataka, India
Abstract. Construction industry is a rapid growing industry with various new

technologies coming into practice. Sustainability concept is also a call for the
present generation as many natural resources are getting exhausted. Thus the
new era of development of Tall Structures with respect to Sustainability concept
is being studied by concentrating on the Structural systems that can be adopted
for construction of the same. In the present study we have considered two
different 3D RC frame structural systems i.e., normal Beam-Column structural
system and Outrigger structural system. The following two systems were
modelled in ETABS 15.2 software in seismic zone V with three different heights
that is 150 m (50 storeys), 240 m (80 storeys) and 300 m (100 storeys).
Response spectrum analysis is carried out considering Earthquake forces and the
results are tabulated for maximum storey displacement and maximum storey
drift. Then finally the structural system which is sustainable in construction of
Tall structures is identified.
Keywords: Sustainability Structural systems Outrigger

Storey displacement Storey drift
1 Introduction
Sustainable development means the development that can meet the needs of today
without compromising the requirements of future generations to meet their own needs.
One of the important aspects is to see that all the resources available are efficiently
utilized taking into account other Social, Environmental and Economic factors. Best
way to achieve Sustainability in construction field with this rapid growth of population
is only through effective usage of all available resources. The Structural system adopted
for construction also has a major impact on the Sustainability aspect which is identified
and discussed in this work.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_34
Sustainability Concepts in the Design of Tall Structures 271
1.1 Outrigger Structural System

This system is a very effective lateral load resisting system where in external columns
are connected with central core wall with highly stiff outriggers at one or multi levels.
The stiffness invoked in outer columns uplifts the resistance against overturning
moments.
This structural form comprises a central core with braced frame/shear wall with
cantilever truss/girder known as Outrigger truss. With core centrally located outrigger
extends on both sides or it may be on one side of the building.
2 Modelling and Inputs
In the present work 3D models of two different structural systems with 50, 80 and 100
storeys are being modelled in seismic zone V to study and compare the performance of
the structures subjected to Earthquake forces with respect to Sustainability of struc-
tures. The two different 3D RC frame models considered are Column-Beam structure
and Outrigger structure. Outrigger element is modelled at three fourth height of the
building as it is found to be the optimum location from previous literature study. All the
models have same structural plan dimensions with six bays in both X and Y direction.
Column to column spacing in each bay is 5 m. All the columns are considered as
Fixed. The Response Spectrum analysis is performed for all the structures using
ETABS version 15.2.0 (Tables 1, 2 and Figs. 1, 2).
Table 1. Section properties

Number of floors 50/80/100
Height of each floor 3m
Size of the column (800 800) mm/(1000 1000) mm/(1200 1200) mm
Size of the beam 300 mm 450 mm
Thickness of the slab 175 mm
Thickness of shear wall 300 mm
Size of outrigger element 300 mm 600 mm
Table 2. Loading
Loading
Dead load
Floor Finish 1 kN/m2
Live load on the slab 2 kN/m2
Seismic loading
Seismic zone Zone V
Soil type Medium soil (Type II)
Importance factor 1
Response reduction factor 5
272 P. Sunagar et al.
Fig. 1. Plan and elevation of beam-column structure
Fig. 2. Plan and elevation of outrigger structure
3 Results
3.1 Maximum Storey Displacement
The following plots were obtained from E-tabs for Maximum Storey Displacement for
50 storey Beam-Column structural model and Outrigger structural model in both X and
Y Directions (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6):
Similarly the Plots are obtained for 80 and 100 storeys in both X and Y Directions
and are compared, because of the symmetry of the plan of the structure the displace-
ment and drift values in both X and Y direction are almost identical, the values
obtained in X direction are tabulated (Table 3).
Fig. 3. Maximum storey displacement for 50 storey beam-column model in X-direction
Fig. 4. Maximum storey displacement for 50 storey beam-column model in Y-direction
Fig. 5. Maximum storey displacement for 50 storey outrigger model in X-direction

Fig. 6. Maximum storey displacement for 50 storey outrigger model in Y-direction
Table 3. Maximum storey displacement for 50/80/100 storey models in X-direction

Maximum storey displacement for 50/80/100 storey
models in X-direction
Type of system 50 Storey 80 Storey 100 Storey
Beam-column 387 1181 2118
Outrigger 135 568 1139
% Reduction 65.116 51.905 46.223
3.2 Maximum Storey Drift

The following plots are obtained from Etabs for Maximum Storey Drift for 50 storey
Beam-Column model and Outrigger model in both X and Y Directions (Figs. 7, 8, 9
and 10):
Fig. 7. Maximum storey drift for 50 storey beam-column model in X-direction

Fig. 8. Maximum storey drift for 50 storey beam-column model in Y-direction
Fig. 9. Maximum storey drift for 50 storey outrigger model in X-direction
Fig. 10. Maximum storey drift for 50 storey outrigger model in Y-direction
Similarly the plots are obtained for 80 and 100 storey Beam-Column and Outrigger
models in both X and Y Directions and the values are compared and tabulated below
(Table 4):
Table 4. Maximum storey displacement for 50/80/100 storey models in X-direction

Maximum storey drift for 50/80/100 storey
models in X-direction
Type of system 50 storey 80 storey 100 storey
Beam-column 0.0036 0.0067 0.009
Outrigger 0.0011 0.0032 0.0053
% Reduction 69.444 52.239 41.111
4 Conclusions
(a) From the study it can be observed that Sustainability in Tall structures has various
aspects to be considered out of which Structural form adopted in construction
plays a vital role.
(b) It is observed that the maximum storey displacement for a 50 storey 3D RC frame
structure varies in accordance with the structural form adopted. For a normal
Beam-Column structure the displacement is found to be 387 mm in X-direction.
(c) The maximum storey displacement reduces by 65.16% for an Outrigger system in
comparison with normal Beam-Column system. Thus it can be concluded that the
Outrigger structural form is more Sustainable against Displacement due to seismic
forces.
(d) The maximum storey drift for a 50 storey Beam-Column structure is found to be
0.0036 and as per IS 1893 the maximum storey drift shall not exceed 0.004 times
the storey height which turns out to be 0.012 for all the models considered in this
study.
(e) The maximum storey drift reduces by 69.44% for an Outrigger system in com-
parison with normal Beam-Column system. As in case of displacements even
when storey drift is considered the Outrigger structural form proves to be more
Sustainable against Earthquake forces.
(f) Similarly for 80 storey structural models the maximum storey displacement is
reduced by 51.90% for an Outrigger system in comparison with normal Beam-
Column system and for 100 storey structural models the reduction is 46.22% for
an Outrigger system on comparison with normal Beam-Column structural system.
(g) For 80 storey structural models the maximum storey drift is reduced by 52.23%
for an Outrigger system on comparing with Beam-Column structural system and
similarly for 100 storey models the reduction in maximum storey drift is 41.11%
for Outrigger system when compared with normal Beam-Column system.
(h) Even when the height of the building is increased with increase in number of
stories the two main parameters maximum storey displacement and maximum
storey drift is found to be majorly reduced at least by 40–50% for an Outrigger
structural system in comparison with normal Beam-Column system which proves
that the Outrigger structural system to be the sustainable system against seismic
forces in Tall structures.
References
1. Sharath BN, Claudiajeyapushpa, D (2015) Comparative seismic analysis of an irregular
building with a shear wall and frame tube system of various sizes. IJECS. ISSN 2319-7242
2. Itware VA, Kalwane UB (2015) Effects of openings in shear wall on seismic response of
structure. IJERA. ISSN 2248-9622
3. Nair RS (1998) Belt trusses & basements as virtual outriggers for tall structures. Eng J
35:140–146
4. Kogilgeri SS, Shanthapriya B (2015) A study on behavior of outrigger system on high rise
steel structure by varying outrigger depth. IJRET. eISSN 2319-1163
5. Bayati Z, Mahdikhani M, Rahaei A (2008) Optimized use of multi-outriggers system to stiffen
tall buildings, Beijing, China, October
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal
and Correlation with Its Intrinsic Properties
Using Adiabatic Oxidation Method
Ravi Varma Rambha(&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GITAM (Deemed to be University),

Hyderabad, India
ravivarma.rambha@gitam.edu
Abstract. Self-heating of coal promotes spontaneous combustion during

mining, transportation, storage, handling and milling processes leading to risk of
fires and consequent loss of calorific value of fuel. Adiabatic oxidation method
was adopted in this investigation whereby spontaneous heating potential was
measured according to total temperature rise (TTR) of coal sample versus time.
Aim of this study was to investigate correlation of intrinsic properties of coal
and its propensity for spontaneous combustion. Tests were conducted on 14 coal
samples at an initial temperature of 40 °C to mimic typical conditions in coal
storage and handling plant. A correlation of the TTR values with the proximate
and ultimate analyses of the coal samples has been obtained.
Keywords: Spontaneous combustion Coal Adiabatic oxidation
1 Introduction
Spontaneous combustion of coal has been a persistent and widespread problem during
underground and surface mining, stockpiling, sea-borne transport and handling in coal
milling systems. The loss of coal cargoes, ships and life had become a significant
problem through known cases of spontaneous combustion. Although the hazards from
such occurrences have been effectively under control, there have been many cases
recently where consequences have been costly in terms of lives, equipment and large
reserves of coal.
Conversely, thousands of underground coal fires around the world could be fuelling
toxic pollution, contributing up to 3% of the rate of global warming and threatening
wildlife [1, 2]. Such coal fires usually start from spontaneous combustion as the seams
react with oxygen and moisture to release heat.
Recently concerns have been raised on spontaneous heating problems in Indian
coal mines [3, 4]. Recently, power-generating companies in India are importing coals
with unknown histories from the world trading market. Spontaneous combustion of
coal in milling systems and stockpiles has become a major concern in the selection of
coals. Processing of coals including the separation, blending and mixing has increased
in recent years. Blending of coals has become popular for improving the performance
of coals to meet the specifications of power plants and for reducing cost of coals.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_35
Spontaneous Combustion of Coal and Correlation with Its Intrinsic Properties 279
The manipulations in these processes will most likely lead to higher susceptibility of
the pulverised fuel deposits to spontaneous heating. With the increase in coal trade,
large amounts of coal are being trans-shipped. Stockpiles usually serve the purpose of
short-term and long-term storage as a reserve for high tonnage users i.e. energy gen-
erating companies. Storage of coals in coal handling plant has presented problems in
spontaneous heating for power plants across India.
In order to develop a hazard management plan, there is a need to have a better
understanding of the self-heating behaviour of coal. Previous experimental investiga-
tions in India have been carried out with a heating system used to initiate the self-
heating process [5]. The spontaneous combustion index parameters resulting from such
tests can produce misleading evaluations of the propensity of a coal to self-heat [6]. On
the other hand, adiabatic oxidation test method allows the coal sample to exhibit its
self-heating behaviour without any external heating system. This method can be
modified to closely replicate in situ conditions in a coal mine and coal handling plant
and thus providing a means for benchmarking laboratory determined results [7].
2 Methodology
Adiabatic oxidation test apparatus previously developed to study spontaneous com-

bustion liability of pulverized coal samples [8] was used in this study. Samples of coal,
pulverized to grind size of −75 lm to +300 lm, and weighing 200 g, were placed in
the reaction vessel encased in a calorimeter (Fig. 1) for drying at a preset temperature.
The reaction vessel consisted of thermostat cabinet with thermocouples connected to a
temperature control unit.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of reaction vessel within the calorimeter. Calorimeter with
temperature control unit and data acquisition.
Test conditions that demonstrated maximum oxidation potential of the coal sample
were established. Detailed description of the test conditions are explained in a previous
280 R. V. Rambha
study [9]. Coal samples were nitrogen dried at an initial temperature of 40 °C before air
supply was introduced at flow rate of 200 cc/min. Self-heating rate was measured for
approximately 8 h. Initially self-heating increased at constant rate. Approximately after
4 h of testing there was no increase in temperature rise. Total temperature rise
(TTR) was considered as the difference between the initial temperature and the max-
imum temperature observed expressed in °C.
To check accuracy and sensitivity of the apparatus and verify the self-heating curve
is representative of coal sample, repeatability tests were carried out. At least three
repeatability tests were conducted within 3 to 4 days for a given coal sample to ensure
no pre-oxidation and ageing effect (Fig. 2). Variation in total temperature rise between
each test was within ±0.5 °C.
Fig. 2. Self-heating curves of repeatability tests on DM Coal samples.
3 Results and Analyses
Tests were carried out on 14 different coal samples and corresponding spontaneous
heating propensity was recorded according to the total temperature rise (TTR). Coal
samples were selected on basis of commonly used coals from nearby thermal power
plant. The results were interpreted by spontaneous combustion liability index based on
the TTR values obtained (Table 1). TTR values less than 5 °C were categorized as low
risk, coals with values between 5 °C and 10 °C were medium risk and coals which
gave values above 10 °C were high risk.
Results for proximate and ultimate analyses (percentage, dry ash free basis), and
spontaneous combustion test results (TTR values) carried out on each sample are
presented in Tables 2 and 3. Moisture content varies from 1.9% to 17.9% for the given
coal samples. It was observed that there is no clear trend emerging from the results.
Previous studies have suggested that low moisture content tends to be more liable to
spontaneous combustion [10]. Volatile matter ranges between 24.7% to 38.1%. There
is no clear trend observed from the results. Coals with higher volatile matter have
exhibited high risk potential for spontaneous combustion by earlier studies [11].
Table 1. Criteria used for spontaneous combustion liability.

Category
Very high TTR > 15 °C
High 10 °C < TTR < 15 °C
Medium 5 °C < TTR < 10 °C
Table 2. Proximate analysis and corresponding adiabatic oxidation data for coal samples.
Coal TTR (°C) Risk category Proximate analyses
Moisture Ash Volatile FCC
HL 27 V.High 17.9 12 29.4 40.7
DM 20.6 V.High 7.4 14.3 31 47.3
SA54 18.3 V.High 8.7 13.5 24.7 53.1
SA56 16.6 V.High 8.6 13.7 24.7 53
RA 13.2 High 17.1 3.9 31.8 47.2
HU 11.2 High 3.2 10 30.7 56.1
BA 11 High 2.4 8.9 35.2 53.5
CO 10.2 High 15.1 8.9 30.7 45.3
HA14 9.4 Medium 1.9 6.2 33.9 58
BA 8.8 Medium 4.8 7.6 27.8 59.8
LI 8.2 Medium 13.9 19.7 38.1 28.3
HA16 6 Medium 2.3 17.7 29.6 50.4
KU 5.3 Medium 4.7 11.9 32.1 51.3
TS 3.2 Low 4.6 13.9 26.2 55.3
Ash content varies from 3.9% to 19.7% for the given coal samples. Variation in the
ash content could be attributed to the changes during pre-oxidation of coal. Lesser the
pre-oxidation of coal the lesser the ash content. Coals with low ash content are
expected to show higher risk. However, the results did not indicate any such trend.
Fixed carbon content varies between 28.3% and 59.8% for the coal samples. Both the
coal sample BA with the highest and LI with lowest fixed carbon content indicated
medium risk potential. Results do not seem to show any direct relationship. Also, the
intrinsic properties obtained from ultimate analysis – Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen,
Sulphur and Oxygen percentage did not seem to show any direct relationship with the
liability for spontaneous combustion risk.
282 R. V. Rambha
Table 3. Ultimate analysis and corresponding adiabatic oxidation data for coal samples.
Coal TTR (°C) Risk category Ultimate analyses
C H N S O
HL 27 V.High 75.6 5 1.3 4.1 14
DM 20.6 V.High 81.3 4.8 1.3 2.2 10
SA54 18.3 V.High 86.3 5.2 2 0.7 5.8
SA56 16.6 V.High 85 5.2 2 0.8 6.9
RA 13.2 High 79.8 6.7 1.5 3.5 8.5
HU 11.2 High 83 4.9 1.9 0.5 9.7
BA 11 High 83.7 5.3 1.7 1.4 7.7
CO 10.2 High 88.3 6.6 1.8 0.7 2.6
HA14 9.4 Medium 83.1 5.4 1.8 2.9 6.6
BA 8.8 Medium 81.8 4.5 1.8 0.4 11.5
LI 8.2 Medium 67.9 5.1 1.4 2.7 22.9
HA16 6 Medium 83.1 5.4 1.8 3 6.3
KU 5.3 Medium 82 5.1 2.4 0.4 10.1
TS 3.2 Low 83.6 4.7 1.9 0.8 9.1
3.1 Statistical Analysis of Intrinsic Properties of Coal

Initial evaluation of results was based on TTR values and the intrinsic properties of coal
samples. Data was grouped into dependent and independent variables. Statistical
analysis was conducted by correlating coal intrinsic properties as independent variables
with the values of TTR as dependent variables. R-squared values and correlation
coefficients were used to measure the trends and determine any significant relationships
between intrinsic properties and TTR values.
3.2 Linear Regression Analysis

Statistical methods were used to analyse the data obtained from spontaneous risk tests
and intrinsic factors for the 14 coals. Table 4 gives the results of linear regression
analyses for coal samples. The spontaneous risk increases with increasing moisture
content and decreases with increasing nitrogen content. The proximate and ultimate
analyses indicate that moisture content and nitrogen are the factors influencing the
spontaneous risk of coal. The linear regression identifies linear relationships with
intrinsic properties and thus indicating the major factors affecting the spontaneous
combustion risk of coal.
Correlation coefficient/R-squared value between ±0.95 to ±1 was considered a
perfect positive or negative linear relationship. Correlation coefficient/R-squared value
between ±0.51 to ±0.94 was considered a strong positive or negative linear rela-
tionship. Correlation coefficient/R-squared value between ±0.25 to ±0.50 was con-
sidered moderate positive or negative linear relationship. Correlation coefficient/R-
squared value between ±0.1 to ±0.24 was considered weak positive or negative linear
relationship. Correlation coefficient/R-squared value less than ±0.1 was considered
very weak positive or negative linear relationship.
Moisture content of coal gives R-squared values of 0.26 indicating a moderate

positive correlation for coals’ self-heating potential. The R-squared value for nitrogen
is 0.26 thus indicating a moderate correlation. The data obtained in this study has
shown no strong correlations with individual factors for the prediction of self-heating
potential of coal. To improve the correlations between the intrinsic properties and their
corresponding self-heating potential, multiple regression analysis was employed.
Table 4. Correlation coefficients and R-squared values obtained from linear regression analysis.
Independent variables Dependent variable (TTR)
R-squared Correlation coefficient
Moisture 0.26 0.51
Ash 0.00 −0.03
Volatile 0.05 −0.23
FCC 0.05 −0.23
C 0.01 −0.11
H 0.00 −0.02
N 0.26 −0.51
S 0.13 0.37
O 0.00 0.04
3.3 Multiple Regression Analysis

Independent factors were grouped as proximate analysis (moisture, ash, volatile matter,
carbon content) and ultimate analysis (daf C, H, N, O, S) were taken into account in
multiple regression. The deduced model indicates laboratory measurements of inherent
properties of coal could be weighed and summed to obtain the best possible prediction
of the self-heating of coal. The resultant correlation coefficients shown in Table 5 are
much better than those obtained from linear regression analysis.
Table 5. Model developed by multiple regression analysis.
The equation gives R-squared value of 0.88 which is a strong positive correlation.
This indicates that the adiabatic oxidation method could be used to predict self-heating
risk of coal. The model also points out that spontaneous heating occurs due to com-
bined effect of various intrinsic factors. On the other hand, the standard error of 3.97
obtained from the model is very high. The sample base should be enlarged to include
coals of varying classification to obtain improved results.
284 R. V. Rambha
4 Conclusions
Spontaneous combustion risk in coal can be measured using intrinsic properties of coal.
Moisture and nitrogen contents indicate linear relationships with spontaneous com-
bustion risk. Multiple regression analysis shows that spontaneous combustion liability
has high correlation coefficients with intrinsic properties. However the standard devi-
ations are high. More number of coal samples with varying classification rank should
be tested to obtain benchmark values. Spontaneous combustion liability of coal can be
predicted by a model consisting of intrinsic factors. Such a model could be incorpo-
rated in spontaneous combustion management software by the coal industry to predict
the propensity of coal for spontaneous ignition in storage, preparation and handling
systems.
Acknowledgments. The author acknowledges the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) for its financial support of this study. Thanks are due to University of Nottingham, UK
Coal, PowerGen Plc, and TXU Europe for their support and generosity in providing useful
discussions and information.
References
1. Sloss L (2015) Assessing and managing spontaneous combustion of coal. IEA Report
CCC/259
2. Arisoy A, Beamish B (2015) Reaction kinetics of coal oxidation at low temperatures. Fuel
159:412–417
3. Singh RVK (2013) Spontaneous heating and fire in coal mines. In: The 9th Asia-Oceania
symposium on fire science and technology, procedia engineering, vol 62, pp 78–90
4. Zutshi A, Ray SK, Bhowmick BC (2001) Indian coal vis-à-vis spontaneous heating
problems. J Mines Met Fuels 44:123–128
5. Mohalik NK, Lester E, Lowndes IS (2016) Review of experimental methods to determine
spontaneous combustion susceptibility of coal – Indian context. Int J Min Reclam Environ
31:301–332
6. Beamish BB, Theiler J (2017) Recognising the deficiencies of current spontaneous
combustion propensity index parameters. In: The Australian mine ventilation conference,
Brisbane, Qld., pp 113–117
7. Beamish B, Beamish R (2010) Benchmarking moist coal adiabatic oven testing. In: 10th
underground coal operators’ conference. University of Wollongong & The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pp 264–268
8. Ren TX, Edwards JS, Clarke D (1999) Adiabatic oxidation study on the propensity of
pulverized coals to spontaneous combustion. Fuel 78:1611–1620
9. Rambha RV, Ren TX (2018) Study of the susceptibility of coal for spontaneous combustion
using adiabatic oxidation method. Chem Eng Trans 65:271–276
10. Bhat S, Agarwal PK (1996) The effect of moisture condensation on the spontaneous
combustibility of coal. Fuel 75:1523–1532
11. Onifade M, Genc B (2018) Prediction of the Spontaneous Combustion liability of coals and
coal shales using statistical analysis. J South African Inst Min Metall 118:800–808
Extraction of Electricity from Blast Induced
Ground Vibration Waves – Case Study
Raghu Chandra Garimella1(&) and Rama Sastry Vedala2

1
Department of EEE, Methodist College of Engineering and Technology,
Hyderabad, India
raghuchandhra@gmail.com
2
Department of Mining Engineering, NIT Karnataka, Surathkal, India
Abstract. Generation of Electrical Energy has become a basic aspect in Power

System because of increase in demand from the electrical community. Power
can be generated in a different number of ways. Numerous developments were
made in power generation technology for the generation of electricity, but those
are all dependent on conventional sources. Generation of Electrical Energy
using Piezo Sensors will efficiently convert unwanted vibrations into direct
electricity. It is also evident that obtained electrical energy will be in the par with
the input vibration intensity from the research studies.
Keywords: Seismic energy Electricity generation Piezo electricity

Seismograph
1 Introduction
The detonation of explosive charge in a typical blasthole under confinement releases a

pressure in the form of chemical energy. The obtained chemical energy will further be
converted into heat along with some force at the surroundings with a massive pressure
[1]. Detonation of a explosive charge in a rock mass creates three major regions:
(1) Explosion cavity, where explosion energy is liberated and the process is hydro-
dynamic; (2) Transition zone, where plastic flow, crushing and cracking occur; and
(3) Seismic zone, where strain waves travel as seismic waves [2–4].
The process of detonation in a typical mine/quarry blast is dependent on the end
effects involved. Initially, a part of the ruptured rock is closely associated to the strain
wave, makes the ground vibrations to flow near the blasted hole. Later, the rock
movement will begin due to fracture of rock mass. The energy transfer in to a rock
mass will takes place in steps. Primary, development of fractures, also called as elastic
and plastic deformation of the rock mass, will happen. Further, heat transfer in the rock
mass will occur. Finally, movement of rock mass will be observed due to gases venting
through open fractures and stemming [5].
In the earlier research, various monitoring instrumentation tools were used (viz.
Vibration monitors, high-speed camera of 1000 fps capacity, and fragmentation
monitoring systems), to analyze the dynamics of the blast and thereby the vibration
parameters.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_36
286 R. C. Garimella and R. S. Vedala
2 Piezo-Gen Technique
Piezoelectricity is a generation of electricity in some solid substances due to application

of mechanical stress/pressure. The word “piezo” originated from the Greek literature
“piezein” indicates to squeeze or press, and “electric” or “electron”, originated from
“amber”, which is an ancient source of electricity. French physicists, Curie and Curie,
had discovered the concept of piezoelectricity in the year 1880 [6–8].
Piezoelectricity is also the competence of solid materials, viz. crystalline, ceramic
substances, to produce an electric potential (EMF) due to the mechanical stress or heat
on them [7, 9]. Nevertheless, piezoelectricity is not due to change in the surface charge
density, however, by dipole density of the material. From the earlier literature, appli-
cation of 2kN force over a 1 cm3 volume of quartz material can generate an electrical
voltage of about 12500 V [10]. Physical expansion and contraction of a piezoelectric
material changes the dipole moment (p = q.d), creating a voltage (Fig. 1).
where,
p = q.d = dipole moment, C-m
q = magnitude of electrical charge, C
d = distance between two poles, m.
Fig. 1. Working mechanism of simple piezo transducer [11]
3 Assessment of Seismic Energy
3.1 Ground Vibrations Monitoring

During the research studies, the intensity of blast induced ground vibrations was
monitored using three units of Minimate Plus, Instantel, Canada. These ground
vibration monitors are of 8-Channels. In the four channel instruments, the first three
channels record three mutually orthogonal ground vibration components, namely
Transverse, Vertical and Longitudinal. The fourth channel records the noise level-using
microphone. Minimates with geophones and microphones connected were placed at
different distances covering both short and long distances, from the blast site. The
vibration events were later transferred to a computer using advanced blastware soft-
ware. Generally, the dynamics of blast induced ground vibrations were monitored at
Extraction of Electricity from Blast Induced Ground Vibration Waves 287
specified distances from blast site with a geophone/ground vibration monitor in three
mutually orthogonal – longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Among all these
waveforms, whichever is the peak, that particular absolute value was taken as peak
particle velocity (PPV). Seismic energy was estimated for all the signals in three
directions using DADiSP signal processing software. DADiSP is a signal processing
tool/software, using which shock energy dissipated in the form of waves is calculated.
Longitudinal, Transverse and Vertical component of blast vibration event were
imported from blastware software to digital signal processing software DADiSP in
ASCII format. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) was performed subsequently to find
the frequency component of the time domain of blast wave signal as blast wave
recorded by Minimate Plus and processed by Blastware falls in the category of random
progressive signal. The estimation of absolute area describes the intrinsic energy of the
blast wave signal distributed in various frequency bands. The energy of the signal x(t)
R1
is given by 1 jxðtÞj2 dt [12].
4 Field Investigations and Results
Blasts were carried out in various mines for the extraction and assessment of seismic
energy. Ground Vibration monitors were placed near blast field at various distances to
find the impact of blast on nearby structures. Geophones were attached to the ground
with the help of Plaster of Paris for proper contact. The developed piezo generator
circuits were placed in the similar locations where conventional seismographs are
positioned [13]. Altogether, 55 blasts were studied and electrical energy was tapped. In
total, 10 blasts were carried out in Choutapalli limestone mine, 11 blasts were carried
out in Yepalamadhavaram limestone mine and 34 blasts were carried out in Singareni
Collieries Company Ltd.
The following are some photographs depicting obtained electricity from undesir-
able seismic waves, extracted through the developed piezo-gen circuit in various mine
locations (Figs. 2, 3 and 4) [13]. The various seismic data collected at various distances
in different blasts are compared with the obtained electrical energy data as shown in the
below Tables 1 and 2.
Fig. 2. Extraction of electricity using Piezo-Gen circuit from undesirable blast vibrations at
limestone mine
Fig. 3. Observation of obtained voltage from the blast vibrations by multimeter for the
assessment of seismic energy
Fig. 4. Piezo-Gen circuit placed beside the geophone underground coal mine
Table 1. Summary of extracted electricity from blasts conducted in limestone mines

Sl. Distance MCD PPV Seismic energy Electricity extracted
no. (m) (kg) (mm/s) (MJ) (MJ)
1 100.00 30.17 30.60 248254 245232
2 125.00 30.17 22.40 1299398 1202928
3 130.00 30.17 9.40 80993 76343
4 108.00 36.67 6.10 347919 300540
5 120.00 36.67 4.95 49502 42653
Table 2. Summary of extracted electricity from blasts conducted in underground coal mine
Sl. Distance MCD PPV Seismic energy Electricity extracted
No. (m) (kg) (mm/s) (MJ) (MJ)
1 54.75 2.59 2.67 156122 123185
2 58.28 2.59 1.02 59990 44402
3 67.80 2.59 4.19 7133334 5250688
4 61.85 3.33 7.49 486001 439429
5 63.64 3.33 5.08 61229 33356
6 68.74 3.33 5.08 4500852 3037611
7 61.81 2.96 3.55 405538 320185
8 66.67 2.96 1.52 98359408 81513971
9 73.62 2.96 2.15 3215421 2113462
10 98.28 2.96 1.52 4766935 3618080
11 110.26 2.96 0.64 92201932 71141568
12 88.71 2.59 0.63 84232644 71975752
13 101.08 2.96 0.63 75042381 71675872
14 40.00 3.33 7.37 543915 303769
15 60.00 3.33 6.10 40070581 31248263
16 62.09 3.33 5.08 920512 757222
17 35.00 2.96 5.59 33162509 22980792
18 55.00 2.96 5.72 28491223 21762289
19 61.85 2.96 4.83 1388977 1122289
20 70.00 2.96 4.45 8638939 7328110
21 35.11 3.33 22.22 37634381 17394886
22 45.08 3.33 17.40 7741455 7402328
23 55.07 3.33 7.24 55507124 22103881
24 40.00 2.59 8.38 17768342 11519133
25 50.00 2.59 1.78 33645 18533
26 60.00 2.59 4.70 5883851 4534639
27 60.00 2.96 5.59 30312788 21312155
28 80.00 2.96 6.73 150689 125553
29 100.00 2.96 2.54 5659210 3921140
Typical sample event report and FFT reports generated (Figs. 5 and 6). Seismic
energy has obtained from the events recorded using signal-processing tool,
DADiSP. Sample of signal processing window is shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
Fig. 5. Typical event report Fig. 6. Typical FFT Report from Blastware
Fig. 7. Sample of signal processing window

Fig. 8. Estimation of seismic energy
Also, comparison of seismic energy with the generated electrical energy has made
to observe the amount of undesirable vibrations which were converted to electricity
(Figs. 9 and 10). From the analysis made (Figs. 9 and 10), it is observed that amount of
seismic energy extracted in the form of Electricity is 80–90% of the total seismic
energy in limestone mines and that is about 75–80% in the case of underground mine
locations.
Fig. 9. Electricity extracted in limestone mine Fig. 10. Electricity extracted in coal mine
5 Conclusions
In the research study, detailed field investigations were carried out to estimate the
seismic energy dissipated by ground vibrations caused due to blasting operations, using
signal processing approach and to tap electricity from blast induced ground vibrations
by piezo generator. Following are the main conclusions drawn from the research study:
• It was observed from previous literature, the amount of explosive energy distributed
would be more in seismic form. From the results, it is observed that the amount of
seismic energy is being increased with the increase in Maximum charge per delay;
hence, the optimal usage for MCD will improve the performance of blast by
reducing seismic losses further optimizing explosive utilization.
• From the research studies, it is clear that blast induced ground vibrations may be
effectively tapped and converted into useful electrical energy with the developed
patented Piezo-Gen circuit (Indian Patent Application No.: 201941002334A, pub-
lished on Jan. 25, 2019).
• The use of DADiSP for the assessment of seismic energy is an excellent advantage
to the industry for doing effective signal processing mechanisms in a simple
manner.
• It is also observed that amount of seismic energy obtained in case of limestone
mines is much higher than underground coalmines. Therefore, explosive energy
losses in limestone mines are more than in case of underground coal mine.
• In addition, it is observed in the case of underground mine that even with the parting
more than 70 m between the blast location and monitoring station, the vibrations
will travel effectively giving tendency to get more energy loss. In such cases, the
application of Piezo-Gen circuit will gives a chance to extract some amount of
undesirable blast wave energy.
• Hence, the Piezo-Gen circuit has become as a renewable source for generation of
electricity from blast vibrations and further will be more useful in assessing the
seismic energy in blast field.
References
1. Johansson CH, Persson PA (1970) Detonics of high explosives. Academic Press, Cambridge
2. Atchison TC, Duvall WI, Pugliese JM (1963) Effect of decoupling on explosion-generated
strain pulses in rock. Bureau of Mines, College Park, MD (USA)
3. Nicholls HR (1962) Coupling explosive energy to rock. Geophysics 27:305–316
4. Sastry VR (1989) A study into the effect of some parameters on rock fragmentation by
blasting. Unpubl. Ph Thesis BHU India (1989)
5. Sanchidrian JA, Segarra P, Lopez LM (2007) Energy components in rock blasting. Int J
Rock Mech Min Sci 44:130–147
6. Anon: All About Heaven - Some science behind the scenes. https://allaboutheaven.org/
science/piezoelectricity/121
7. Curie J, Curie P (1880) Development by pressure of polar electricity in hemihedral crystals
with inclined faces. Bull Soc Min Fr 3:90
8. Imai K, Tingley D, Yamamoto T (2013) Experimental designs for identifying causal
mechanisms. J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc 176:5–51
9. Pramathesh T, Ankur S (2013) Piezoelectric crystals: future source of electricity. Int J Sci
Eng Technol 2:260–262
10. Curie J, Curie P (1881) Contractions and expansions produced by voltages in hemihedral
crystals with inclined faces. C R 93:1137–1140
11. APC International Ltd. (2002) Piezoelectric ceramics: principles and applications. APC
International
12. Sastry VR, Ramchandar K (2014) Assessment of performance of explosives/blast results
based on explosive energy utilization. RD Proj. Rep.
13. Garimella RC (2019) Tapping of electricity from ground vibrations caused due to blasting
operations in mines and quarries
Evolution of the Probability Distribution
Function of Shovel – Dumper Combination
in Opencast Coal Mine Using ANN and RWB
N. S. Harish Kumar1(&), R. P. Choudhary2, and Ch. S. N. Murthy1

1
Department of Mining Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, India
harishkumarns11@gmail.com, chsn58@gmail.com
2
Department of Mining Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture,
Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur, India
rpkhokhar@yahoo.co.in
Abstract. This article presents a new analytic calculation for the shovel –
dumper combination in opencast coal mine evolution of the one and two galaxy
probability distribution function (PDF). To develop a nonparametric PDF for a
combination of shovel and dumper in a opencast coal mine, the historical
breakdown data such as time between failure (TBF) of a shovel and dumpers
were collected from the mine. Based on the collected TBF, Weibull parameters
such as the shape parameter (b), scale parameter (η) and location parameter (c)
were calculated under the K-S test (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test). A Weibull
distribution model has been developed to obtain the one and two galaxy
probability distribution function (PDF) for a collected failure data of shovel-
dumper system using Reliability Isograph Workbench (RWB). Also, Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) model has been developed to predict the PDF for the
same shovel-dumper system and compared with the actual obtained value of
Reliability Isograph Workbench (RWB). It was found that the values of RMSE
and R2 were 0.00068 & 0.9465 for PDF. The statistical results showed that the
proposed Reliability Isograph Workbench and ANN model successfully predicts
PDF for the shovel-dumper system.
Keywords: Nonparametric model Opencast coal mine K-S test

Weibull distribution Time between failure Failure frequency
RMSE and ANN
1 Introduction
The function of the PDF to the sum of any random number of independent variables is
important for many programs in science and technology [1]. This issue is not entirely
clear and there is a theoretical solution in some cases [2–5]. In addition, in some cases,
this theoretical solution is applicable for engineering purposes (see, for example, [2–6])
and here, especially in [4, 5], where it is examined and the rate of compression in
different metrics as studied well. The purpose of this article is to find a better estimate
of PDF files of random variables (RV) 5, the sum of the number of variables Number of
independent distribution and the independent and identically distributed (IID) real RVs

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_37
294 N. S. Harish Kumar et al.
Xi (i = 1, 2, …, N). The new model also benefits from providing intuitive support for
physical interpretation. In simple terms, the amount of PDF is represented by the sum
of ordinary PDF files, according to the N PDF file. Two practical results have been
achieved, namely, RWB and ANN.
In MATLAB, ANN sample consists of three layers namely information layer,
centre as the last layer and a problem-solving layer as production [7]. The statistics for
Feedforward System are shown in Fig. 1, each result of the entry into the components
(ai) and (wij) is promoted to increase neurons as follows Eq. (1) [8]. In Fig. 1, every
result of entering components (ai) and weights (wij) are nourished to accumulation
intersection and is added with bias (bj) of neurons as follows Eq. (1) [8]
Fig. 1. Schematic structure of ANN
X
n
X¼ð wij ai Þ þ bj ð1Þ
i¼1
In hidden layers, the most normally used migration functions are “Tansig and
Logsig”. The function which is in activation, is not generally functional line is known
as a series function, the output is between zero and one. the summation (X) passes
through the transition function (F) that produces equality using the Eq. (2) [8]
X
n
FðXÞ ¼ uj ¼ F[ ðwij ai Þ þ bj ð2Þ
i¼1
The obtained values of RWB and the predicted values of the ANN are interpolated
by means of biases and weights of the network to organizing to reduce the error among
them.
Evolution of the Probability Distribution Function of Shovel 295
2 Failure Data Collection
This case study was carried out at Opencast-I (OC-I), The SCCL, Kothagudem area,
Telangana. This mine using a number of shovels and dumpers of dissimilar make i.e.,
Komatsu and BEML having dissimilar capacity. The capacity of the shovel include 12,
11 and 6.5 m3 and dumper includes 100T, 65T and 35T. In this article, one shovel i.e.
11 cubic meters which is made by Komatsu and four dumpers i.e., 100 T each which is
made by Komatsu and BEML both were selected based on the match factor (i.e., 1:4).
Also, in this case study, the breakdown (TBF) and repair (TTR) details of a shovel and
four dumpers were collected for the one-year period during working hours.
3 Estimation of MTBF
The basic failure data is analyzed using the trend test and series correlation test [9, 10].
It can provide statistical measurements of mean time between failure (MTBF) for the
shovel and dumpers considered. However, the maximum likelihood estimation
(MLE) is the method that tests the originally collected failure data of a shovel and
dumpers [10]. The calculated MTBF from failure data (TBF and failure frequency) by
the Eq. (3) mentioned below. The summary of the failure data of one S1, D1, D2, D3 &
D4 from the field such as MTBF and failure frequency are shown in Table 1.
P
n
ðt1 þ t2 þ t3 . . .tn Þ
n¼1 Total Operating Time
MTBF ¼ ¼ ð3Þ
n Total No: of Failures
Table 1. Summary of breakdown characteristics

Systems No. of failures MTBF in hr
S1 181 43.71
D1 54 117.35
D2 46 138.48
D3 88 78.42
D4 141 54.80
4 Non-parametric Weibull Analysis
The K-S test is used to analyze the best-fit distribution functions for TBF data of the S1,
D1, D2, D3 & D4. The values of b, η and c are obtained directly by fitting the data
collected (TBF) from the mine to cumulative TBF conducted using the RWB software
package. The results of the modified K-S test for the three distributions, the best-fitted
distribution, and predictable Weibull parameters of the best-fitted distribution function
of an S1, D1, D2, D3 & D4 for TBF are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Best fit the distribution of S1, D1, D2, D3 & D4 TBF

S. no Systems Best fit distribution Weibull parameters
η b c
1 S1 2P-Weibull 29.83 0.7139 0
2 D1 3P-Weibull 115.7 1.018 −3.967
3 D2 3P-Weibull 83.12 0.5357 −0.2365
4 D3 1P-Weibull 54.37 1 0
5 D4 1P-Weibull 43.61 1 0
5 Estimation of the Probability Density Function
The probability density function (PDF) was obtained by using Maximum Likelihood
Estimation under Isograph Reliability Workbench as mentioned in Table 3. Also, the
numerical interpretations were carried out using Eq. (4) [11].
bðt cÞb1 ðtcgÞb

f ðtÞ ¼ e ¼ kðtÞ RðtÞ ð4Þ
gb
Table 3. PDF of S1, D1, D2, D3 & D4

S. no Systems Weibull parameters MTBF in hr PDF f(t)
η b c
1 S1 29.83 0.7139 0 43.71 0.0057681
2 D1 115.7 1.018 −3.967 117.35 0.0011329
3 D2 83.12 0.5357 −0.2365 138.48 0.000774
4 D3 54.37 1 0 78.42 0.0024717
5 D4 43.61 1 0 54.80 0.0042954
Fig. 2. PDF for a shovel (S1) with different Weibull parameters

From Fig. 2, it is observed that the two galaxy PDF (left & right) of the shovel (S1)
is 0.0057681 at MTBF is 43.71 h with b = 0.7139 (b < 1). It can be concluded that the
PDF of a shovel S1 was found to reject the null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of
significance for obtained data of a shovel [12].
Fig. 3. PDF for a dumper (D1) with different Weibull parameters
From Fig. 3, it is observed that the one galaxy PDF (Right) of dumper D1 is
0.0011329 with MTBF is 117.35 h and b is 1.018 (b > 1). It can be concluded that the
PDF of a dumper D1 were found to reject the null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of
significance for obtained data of a dumper D1 [12]. From Fig. 4, it is observed that the
one galaxy PDF (Right) of dumper D2 is 0.000774 with MTBF is 138.48 h and b is
0.5357 (b < 1). It can be concluded that the PDF of a dumper D2 was found to reject the
null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of significance for obtained data of a dumper D2 [12].

From Fig. 5, it is observed that the two galaxy PDF (right & left) of dumper D3 is
0.0024717 with MTBF is 78.42 h and b is 1 (b = 1). It can be concluded that the PDF of
a dumper D3 were found to reject the null hypothesis at 5% (0.05) level of significance
for obtained data of a dumper D3 [12]. From Fig. 6, it is observed that the two galaxy
PDF (right & left) of dumper D4 is 0.0042954 with MTBF is 54.80 h and b is 1 (b = 1).
It can be concluded that the PDF of a dumper D4 were found to reject the null hypothesis
at 5% (0.05) level of significance for obtained data of a dumper D4 [12].
6 Generation of ANN Model for PDF
In the present work, failure date of a shovel and four dumpers were taken out of the field.
The anticipated ANN model to calculate the PDF of a shovel and dumpers in open cast
coal mine is shown in Fig. 7. The neural structures are formed using three layers namely
input, output and hidden layer in among them. In the input layer, four parameters were
taken in MTBF, b, η, c and one parameter, i.e. the PDF output layer (f (t)).
In this model, 5 data sets and outputs have been taken. In this, three sets of data are
used for training, one set of data for a fixed validation and for the test. In this model,
Progression Learning Algorithms Feed has been applied even more to learn. Before
sampling the neural network, predictions of prediction and output data should be the
norm for accuracy. The following Eq. (5) are used to provide the data (−1) and (1) [7].
In this model, 5 data sets and outputs have been taken. In that, three data sets are
used for training, one set for testing and one set of data for validation. In this model,
before the neural network is modelled, the input and output data must be normal for the
precision of the predictions. The subsequent Eq. (5) is used to facilitate data between
(−1) and (1) [7]
Yi YMin
Y ¼ ðHighValue LowValue Þ þ LowValue ð5Þ
YMax YMin
In the current study, the Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) back propagation was used for
the study training process. The number of neurons in hidden layers is evaluated by trial
and errors. Using this technique, 8 neurons are selected for PDF with hidden single
layers, as shown in Fig. 7. The LEARNGDM was chosen as a function of training
coordination after selecting exercise. Transmission features are chosen as hidden layers
and linear functions for the resulting layer (output layer).
The ANN model is trained by the LM training functions, which include 8 neurons
for PDF of shovel and dumper. Each neuronal pattern has been trained more than 100
times. This training algorithm has adjusted the weight and biases to reduce the errors
between the values obtained by the RWB and the expected values of the ANN model. It
was found that LM, which includes 8 neurons for PDF, is better than the R2 error and
the highest value. Several models of ANN are shown in Table 4. Several sampling
processes are based on RMSE and R2, which are counted calculated using the Eqs. (6)
and (7) [7]. From Table 4, it has been calculated that the RMSE and R2 values are
0.00068 & 0.9465 for PDF in LM-8.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u1 X
RMSE ¼ t ðy y0 Þ2 ð6Þ
N i¼1
P
N
ðy y0 Þ2
i¼1
R ¼1
2
ð7Þ
P
N
ðy0 Þ2
i¼1
Fig. 7. The present study of the ANN model
Table 4. The training performance of PDF for different neurons

Neurons R2 RMSE
5 0.9383 0.00071
6 0.9128 0.00083
7 0.9444 0.00073
8 0.9465 0.00068
In comparison with the values obtained by the RWB, with the predicted value of
LM-5 offered by the ANN models and its error is described in Table 5. From Table 5,
it has been found that the highest error is at 9.04E-5 at sample 5. Least error in the
sample −9.33E05 in PDF.
The regression calculation for ANN neuron with LM-5 of the training, testing and
verification procedure is shown in Fig. 8. It has be concluded that the value of R2 is
close to unity and linear, which gives the accurateness of performance of the model.
Table 5. Comparison of the obtained and predicted values of PDF

Sl. Systems Weibull parameters MTBF Obtained Predicted Error
no in hr values by values by
RWB ANN
η b c PDF f(t)
1 S1 29.83 0.7139 0 43.71 0.0057681 0.0056349 0.000133
2 D1 115.7 1.018 −3.967 117.35 0.0011329 0.0009658 0.000167
3 D2 83.12 0.5357 −0.236 138.48 0.000774 0.0008723 −0.00984
4 D3 54.37 1 0 78.42 0.0024717 0.0039640 −0.00149
5 D4 43.61 1 0 54.80 0.0042954 0.0043207 −0.00253
Fig. 8. R2 plot for predicted and obtained values by ANN and RWB respectively
7 Conclusion
In this paper, one and two galaxies of the probability density function, along with the
Weibull distribution of S1, D1, D2, D3 and D4 used in open cast coal mine for the
period of 1 years. The influencing Weibull parameters b, η, & c were found from the
observation and result obtained. It was concluded that the level of significance of 5%
(0.05) for the data obtained for S1, D1, D2, D3 and D4. The ANN model has been
formed with MTBF, b, η, & c, an output parameter such as one output parameter
namely PDF f(t). With the propagation of the forwarded feed backup, the LM algorithm
is used to exclude the best model. The hidden layer, LM learning algorithm with 5
neurons for PDF has been found increasingly based on data analysis. The obtained and
the predicted value of PDF of a shovel and dumpers with the highest R2 value give
satisfactory results.
Acknowledgement. The authors are thankful to The General Manager (HRD), HR/Employee
Relation Department, The SCCL, Kothagudem, Telangana for giving the authorization to gather
the breakdown data of shovels and dumpers and publish this work. Also, wish to convey our
gratitude to Dr Ranjan Kumar, Senior Scientist and Dr P K Mandal, Senior Principal Scientist,
CIMFR, Dhanbad for supporting us in carrying out research work.
References
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CRC Press, Boca Raton
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variables. Bull Am Math Soc 54(12):1151–1161
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independent identically distributed random variables. Commun Korean Math Soc 25
(1):119–128
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of a random number of independent random variables. Lith Math J 52(3):326–333
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independent random variables. Lith Math J 52(4):435–443
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rate function. Reliab Eng Syst Saf 76(3):279–285
11. Ghodrati B, Kumar U, Ahmadzadeh F (2012) Remaining useful life estimation of mining
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12. Dubey SP, Uttarwar MD, Tiwari MS (2015) Reliability study of 42 cu. M Shovel and 240 Te
Dumper Equipment System with Special Reference to Gevra OCP, SECL, Bilaspur.
Procedia Earth Planet Sci 11:189–194
Temperature Measurement During Rotary
Drilling of Rocks - A Statistical Approach
Vijay Kumar Shankar(&), B. M. Kunar, and Ch. S. N. Murthy
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, India

vijaykumarstnp@gmail.com
Abstract. This paper discusses a statistical analysis to measure the temperature

during rotary drilling of fine-grained sandstone (pink) using embedded ther-
mocouple method. The regression models consist of three input variables such
as diameter of the bit, rpm and rate of penetration for different depth of ther-
mocouples. Experimental test were conducted in computer numerical control
(CNC) vertical machining centre. The measured temperature has been applied to
study the influencing parameter using statistical technique. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) shows that the percentage contribution ratio of each operational
parameters on temperature (output response). The most influencing parameter
for temperature is rate of penetration with a percentage contribution of 71.32%,
followed by drill bit diameter and spindle speed which contribute 19.27% and
2.99% respectively. The ANOVA and regression models for temperature give p-
values of less than 0.05. Hence the predicted regression models are statistically
significant and good predictive capabilities with acceptable accuracy.
Keywords: Drilling Fine grained sandstone (pink) Temperature

Embedded thermocouple Regression analysis
1 Introduction
Drilling is the process used to drill a hole for placing explosives in blasting, petroleum
extraction, mining and so on. The two important drilling methods used in mining
industries are percussive drilling and rotary drilling. Rotary drilling is a major process
in large open pit mines. During drilling process the temperature in drill bit and rock is
around several degrees centigrade, depending on operating conditions and time to drill.
Many researchers have conducted experiments to measure transient temperature during
drilling operation. Che et al. [1] found that, some of the traditional temperature mea-
surements techniques (e.g., embedded method and infrared radiation pyrometer) in
machining processes metal have also been used in the rock cutting/drilling domain with
minor adaptations. Szwarc et al. [2] developed a model to predict the drilling tem-
peratures of limestone, by using RTD (Resistance temperature detector). Dreus et al.
[3] developed a mathematical model, for the heating process of diamond drill bit. The

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_38
304 V. K. Shankar et al.
difference between experimental and calculated data temperature of the diamond drill
bit was more than 12%. Zacny et al. [4] conducted drilling experiment under Martian
condition; the results found that the drilling efficiency is much greater than under
terrestrial pressures and temperature. Gunes Yilmaz et al. [5] derived a predicted model
for temperature for hard rock and could be applied to rocks which have uniaxial
compressive strength in the range of 85–150 MPa. Rittel [6] found that the time
response of thermocouple to be generally a limiting factor for the transient temperature
to assess in solids. The embedded thermocouple method used as a tool, the response
time of the thermocouple of the order of 10 microseconds. Agapiou and Stephenson [7]
measured the temperature by using thermocouple method, standard welded thermo-
couple, and the insulated wires were embedded in the work piece near the drill zone.
They found that measured temperatures are reasonable and concluded that the thermal
inertia of welded thermocouple is high, with a good time response thin-wire insulated
in the workpiece to form a thermal junction measurement to obtain temperature data
also considered. Samy and Kumaran [8] used contact measurement techniques such as
K-type thermocouple with 1 mm diameter. They also used avoiding contact type
measurement of the temperature using FLIR E60 infrared thermal image camera with
different operating parameters such as rpm and feed rate conditions. It was concluded
that operational parameters increase, the temperature range from 66 °C–135 °C. Cui
et al. [9] Developed a prediction model by considering radiation effects, configuration
of bit and source of heat. Model shows that the radiation can be calculated for a limited
from the drill head.
From the above survey it is observed that a limited work has been reported on
temperature measurement during rotary drilling using embedded thermocouple tech-
nique. Hence this article aims to present the percentage contribution of operational
parameters such as bit diameter, rpm, and rate of penetration at different depth of
thermocouples and also to identify the temperature for varying all three parameters.
2 Temperature Measurement Techniques
In rock drilling, the temperature of the rock sample is very high depending on drilling
conditions. To measure these temperature thermocouples are used as it is an extremely
versatile device. Measurements of the temperature at the bit-rock interface were made
using thermocouple, thermometers, resistance temperature detector (RTD), thermistors,
etc. A set of experiments were conducted to develop a thermal model using 4-wire
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) were placed on the interior of a limestone
block at a various locations [2]. Most of the rocks drilling process used to measure
temperature by thermocouples and are made of two dissimilar metals with good
physical contact, to achieve a good agreement of measurement. The K-type
Temperature Measurement During Rotary Drilling of Rocks 305
thermocouple is most commonly used in all industrial purpose. This thermocouple is

made up of chromal (Ni-cr) - alumel (Ni-al), ranges from 0 °C to 1200 °C with a
minimum voltmeter reading of 0 mv to 48.838 mv. The thermocouple sensor is
inserted in a 3 mm diameter stainless steel tube, it gives a better sheathing and good
contact between the tip of the thermocouple and the covering material for essential to
ensure good heat transfer. At the exit of the tube spring contact is used to maintain this
contact. In this experiment for measuring transient temperature during the drilling
operation, a grounded thermocouple was used and is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Fabricated grounded thermocouples
3 Experimental Procedure
The rock drilling experiments were carried out on fine-grained sandstone (pink).
A commercial masonry drill bit diameters of 6 mm to 16 mm with a U flute of tungsten
carbide was used in this experiments. Thermocouples are commonly used versatile
device for temperature measurement. These thermocouples are used to measure the
actual interface temperature between two dissimilar metals, most of the thermocouples
are made of two different pieces of wire, and it is welded into the bead called as a
grounded thermocouple with an appropriate size of the wire. K-type thermocouples are
measuring range from 0 °C to 1200 °C. In this experiment grounded thermocouples are
used, in which the wire can be inserted into the predrilled hole of the rock sample in a
Computer Numerical control (CNC) vertical machine centre [10] (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. CNC vertical machining center (BMV 45 T20)

4.1 Analysis of Drilling Temperature
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis is used to identify the influence of parametric
level of the temperature produced during rock drilling and observe the percentage
contribution of the input variables.
Table 1. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis of fine-grained sandstone (pink)

6 mm depth
Source DF Seq SS Contribution Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value
DD (mm) 1 3327.60 48.62% 269.09 269.09 84.38 0.000
SS (rpm) 1 155.24 2.27% 155.24 155.24 48.68 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 2669.96 39.01% 637.96 637.96 200.06 0.000
DD2 1 70.07 1.02% 70.07 70.07 21.97 0.000
PR2 1 241.95 3.54% 241.95 241.95 75.87 0.000
Error 119 379.48 5.54% 379.48 3.19
Total 124 6844.29 100.00%
(continued)
14 mm depth
DD (mm) 1 6810.4 11.91% 650.5 650.5 33.66 0.000
SS (rpm) 1 2016.4 3.53% 2016.4 2016.4 104.35 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 45778.8 80.06% 1058.4 1058.4 54.77 0.000
DD2 1 197.0 0.34% 197.0 197.0 10.19 0.002
PR2 1 81.6 0.14% 81.6 81.6 4.22 0.042
Error 119 2299.6 4.02% 2299.6 19.3
Total 124 57183.6 100.00%
22 mm depth
DD (mm) 1 13518 9.12% 1399 1399 50.20 0.000
SS (rpm) 1 4822 3.25% 4822 4822 173.08 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 125888 84.90% 7262 7262 260.65 0.000
DD2 1 452 0.30% 452 452 16.21 0.000
PR2 1 285 0.19% 285 285 10.24 0.002
Error 119 3316 2.24% 3316 27.9
Total 124 148281 100.00%
30 mm depth
DD (mm) 1 10103 7.45% 928 928 12.75 0.001
SS (rpm) 1 3968 2.93% 3968 3968 54.49 0.000
PR (mm/min) 1 110292 81.32% 7691 7691 105.60 0.000
DD2 1 2030 1.50% 2030 2030 27.88 0.000
PR2 1 571 0.42% 571 571 7.84 0.006
Error 119 8666 6.39% 8666 72.8
Total 124 135630 100.00%
Where DD = Drill bit diameter, SS = Spindle speed, PR = Penetration rate
Fig. 3. Pie-chart of percentage contribution of operational parameters on temperature

Table 1 shows percentage contribution and significant values of all depth of ther-
mocouples for fine grained sandstone (pink). ANOVA table reveals that the F-value is
higher for rate of penetration followed by the diameter of the bit and rpm. Figure 3
Show the pie chart of individual parameter contribution for the response output. From
the pie chart it is clear that the penetration rate is the most influencing parameter of
71.32% followed by diameter of the bit of 19.27% and rpm is the least effect of 2.99%
respectively.
4.2 Regression Analysis

Regression model was developed for temperature with respect to each depth of ther-
mocouples position. In this method to observe realistic models, a backward elimination
method was used as the test procedure. ANOVA was performed for bit-rock interface
temperature, corresponding to thermocouple positions (6 mm, 14 mm, 22 mm, and
30 mm) with significant of 95% confidence interval [10]. Influence of the parametric
level of the temperature produced were compared using (ANOVA) with Minitab 17,
where the P-values equal to or smaller than 0.05 were considered to be statistically
significant and corresponding data is shown in Table 1. Multiple regression models to
predict temperature for various depths of thermocouple are as follows (Eqs. (1)–(4)).
The correlation coefficients (R2) of the obtained models for the rise in temperature are
94.46%, 95.98%, 97.76% and 93.61%.
Regression models of bit-rock interface temperature for fine-grained sandstone (pink)
Temp: at 6 mm depth ¼ 11:37 þ 3:031D þ 0:01576 SS

ð1Þ
þ 4:128 PR 0:0691 D2 0:2079 PR2
Temp: at 14 mm depth ¼ 4:90 þ 4:712 D þ 0:05680 SS þ 5:317 PR

ð2Þ
0:1158D2 þ 0:12078 PR2
Temp: at 22 mm depth ¼ 26:29 6:909 D þ 0:08784 SS þ 13:929 PR

ð3Þ
0:1754 D2 0:2257 PR2
Temp: at 30 mm depth ¼ 61:90 5:63 D þ 0:0797 SS þ 14:33 PR

ð4Þ
þ 0:3719 D2 0:319 PR2
5 Conclusions
In the present study, thermocouple technique has been used to measure the temperature
during rotary drilling of rocks. The three controlled parameters has been considered in
this study i.e., diameter of the bit, rpm and rate of penetration at different depths of
thermocouple to find the most influencing parameters on temperature rise during dril-
ling. The result shows that the penetration rate of 71.32% is the most influencing
parameter followed by the diameter of the bit of 19.27% and rpm of 2.99%.
The ANOVA analysis revels that the overall contribution of the controlled parameters
and P-value is less that or equal to 0.05 is considered to be a statistically significant.
Coefficient of determination (R2) for all the four models for different depths of ther-
mocouple are 94.46%, 95.98%, 97.76% and 93.61% respectively. Hence the operational
parameters are statistically significant and the values are within the expected range.
References
1. Che D, Han P, Guo P, Ehmann K (2012) Issues in polycrystalline diamond compact cutter–
rock interaction from a metal machining point of view—part I: temperature, stresses, and
forces. J Manuf Sci Eng 134:64001
2. Szwarc T, Aggarwal A, Hubbard S, Cantwell B, Zacny K (2012) A thermal model for
analysis and control of drilling in icy formations on Mars. Planet Space Sci 73:214–220
3. Dreus A, Kozhevnikov A, Lysenko K, Sudakov A (2016) Investigation of heating of the
drilling bits and definition of the energy efficient drilling modes. East-Eur J Enterp Technol
3:41–44
4. Zacny KA, Quayle MC, Cooper GA (2004) Laboratory drilling under martian conditions
yields unexpected results. J Geophys Res 109:E7
5. Gunes Yilmaz N (2007) Prediction of radial bit cutting force in high strength rocks using
multiple linear regression analysis. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 44:964–970
6. Rittle D (1998) Transient temperature measurement using embedded thermocouples. Exp
Mech 38:73–78
7. Agapiou JS, Stephenson DA (1994) Analytical and experimental studies of drill
temperatures. Trans Am Soc Mech Eng J Eng Ind 116:54
8. Samy GS, Kumaran T (2017) Measurement and analysis of temperature, thrust force and
surface roughness in drilling of AA (6351)-B4C composite. Measurement 103:1–9
9. Cui J, Hou X, Deng Z, Pan W, Quan Q (2017) Prediction of the temperature of a drill in
drilling lunar rock stimulant in a vacuum. Thermal Sci 21:989–1002
10. Vijay Kumar S, Kunar BM, Murthy ChSN (2018) Experimental investigation and statistical
analysis of operational parameters on temperature rise in rock drilling. Int J Heat Technol 36
(4):1176–1180
Safety in Coal Mines in India-Its Perspective
K. Srihari(&) and A. Sandeep Kumar
Godavari Institute of Engineering and Technology (A)., Rajahmundry, India

hod.mining@giet.ac.in, sandeep.asarapalli@gmail.com
http://www.giet.ac.in
Abstract. Mining is a hazardous industry as the working places are always

moving ahead, strata conditions and environment are always changing from day
to day. Mining industry growth is linked with safety and sustainable minerals
development in mines. Always employees should be encouraged for participa-
tion at all levels to promote pro-active safety culture awareness up to grass root
level. Various initiatives are to be taken on continual basis at all levels to
translate the vision of “Zero Harm Potential (ZHP)” into a reality. Mining
accounts for only 1% of World Employment but it accounts for 7% of fatal
accidents at work place. Companies have to identify work places of hazards and
risks in each mining operations, prepare a risk assessment and Safety Man-
agement Plan for every mine. Accident rate in mines came down but still it is
high as compare to foreign countries. This paper is focused on safety man-
agement in coal mines in India for sustainable development.
Keywords: Mines safety Accidents statistics in mines Issues in mines

Recommendations
1 Introduction
Mining is a vital contributor for industrial development and to the country’s economy.
About 565 Coal Mines, 85 Oil & Gas Projects and Over 8268 Non-Coal Mines are
being worked in India employing over one million persons directly on daily average
basis. India produces 95 minerals as per the Annual Report 2016–17 of the Ministry of
Mines [2]. As per the International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook-2018, coal
will continue to be the country’s largest source of energy, maintaining a crucial role in
fueling, developing economies and infrastructure. Despite of the significant growth of
renewable, coal still accounts for the primary share of 74% of its electricity in India.
The government strives to ensure universal electricity access by the early 2020s, India’s
power system will need almost quadruple its size by 2040, and investments up to $2
trillion will be required to keep pace with increasing demand [6].
India is the world’s second largest coal producer. In 2017, India produced 716
million metric tons of coal (294 million tons of oil equivalent), accounting for 9.2% of
the world coal production (in term of metric tons). Coal plays a vital role in meeting
global energy needs and is critical to infrastructure development – 38% of the world’s
electricity and 71% of the world’s steel is produced using coal [6].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_39
Safety in Coal Mines in India-Its Perspective 311
Accident rate in coal mines 5 yearly average fatalities in CIL came down from 196
in 2075-79 to 45 numbers in 2015-17 and 5 yearly average of serious injuries came
down from 1278 in 2075-79 to 116 numbers in 2015-17. Still it is high in Indian mines
due to lack of automation and skilled labor in mine operations [1] (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. 5 yearly average fatalities in CIL since Fig. 2. 5 yearly average of serious injuries
1975 [1]. since 1975 [1].
2 Safety Management in Coal Mines
Safety and sustainable development must always be top most priority of any company.
Company has to frame a well-defined safety policy to ensure safety in all mines and
establishments. Company has to establish a multi-disciplinary Internal Safety Orga-
nization (ISO) in all subsidiaries for the implementation of the Mine Safety Plan. Safety
Management Plan (SMP) has to be prepared and implemented as per 104(3) of Coal
Mines Regulations 2017.
2.1 Causes of Accidents in Mines [6]
a. Ground Movement (fall of roof, fall of side and other ground movement)
b. Transportation machinery (Winding in Shaft)
c. Transportation machinery (other than winding in shaft)
d. Rope haulage, Wheeled Trackless Transportation and other transportation
machinery
e. Machinery other than Transportation Machinery
f. Explosives
g. Electricity
h. Gas, dust & other combustible material
i. Fall (other than falls of ground): Fall of persons, fall of objects, other falls
312 K. Srihari and A. Sandeep Kumar
2.2 Accident Analysis in Mines in India

Mining is a hazardous occupation as it fights against natural forces. Coal mines have
high rates of accidents and less productivity as compared comparison to other
industries.
Rajmahal (OC mine) disaster in 2016 considered as the worst disaster ever in Indian
mining history. It is caused due to the slope failure and killed 23 miners.
a. In coal mines, major concern is the occurrence of disasters at regular intervals.
About 55% of fatalities are due to the disasters of fires/explosions and inundations
in the past. Strata failures are common causes. This needs a focused effort from all
the stake holders.
b. For fatal accidents, roof fall continues to be the area of major concern followed by
accidents caused by dumpers and trucks in coal mines.
c. Death rate per million tonnes coal raised reduced from 0.38–0.08 (2006–2015
years).
d. Seriously injured rate per million tonnes coal raised reduced from 2.07–0.47 (2006–
2015 years) as per Table 1 (Figs. 3 and 4).
As per the Fig. 5, the no. of fatal accidents in India is more than US and Australia.
Table 1. Trend in number of accidents in coal mines, rates of casualties/seriously injured

persons [6]
Year Fatal accidents Serious accidents Rates per Rates per million
No. of persons No. of thousand persons tonnes coal raised
employed
Killed Seriously Accidents Persons Death Seriously Death Seriously
injured seriously injured injured
injured
2006 137 15 861 876 0.36 2.31 0.32 2.07
2007 78 11 923 940 0.21 2.51 0.16 1.98
2008 93 16 686 693 0.25 1.92 0.18 1.40
2009 93 14 636 646 0.25 1.76 0.17 1.18
2010 118 23 480 488 0.32 1.38 0.20 0.85
2011 67 10 533 546 0.18 1.52 0.11 0.92
2012 83 6 536 542 0.23 1.53 0.13 0.89
2013 82 11 456 457 0.23 1.31 0.13 0.74
2014 62 3 379 391 0.17 1.11 0.10 0.61
2015 55 9 302 307 0.16 0.93 0.08 0.47
1000
900
Killed/ seriously injured
800
700
600
500
Persons killed
400
300 Seriously injured
200
100
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year
Fig. 3. Persons killed and seriously injured for 10 years (2006–2015).
6
Death / seriously injured rate
5
Rate of seriously injured/million
4 tonne
3 Rate of death/ million tonne
2 seriously injured rates/ thousand

persons employed
1
Death rates/ thousand persons
employed
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 years
Fig. 4. Death/seriously injured rates from 2006–2015.
Fig. 5. Number of fatal accidents UG coal mines in India, the USA and Australia.
3 Issues Faced by Mining Industry in India

a. Slow automation of operations/use of IT in mining sector.
b. Lack of skills/competency of work persons,
c. Occupational health & safety issues in mines,
d. Occurrence of disasters in mines,
e. Illegal mining/theft of minerals,
f. Lack of indigenous machinery for mining sector development,
g. Delay of amendment of statute for the industry need.
h. Ensuring long-term viability of the minerals industry.
i. Control, use, and management of land.
j. Making a positive impact on local communities.
k. Managing the environmental impact of mines.
l. Integrating the approach to using minerals so as to reduce waste and inefficiency.
m. Giving stakeholders access to information to build trust and cooperation.
n. Sector governance: clearly defining the roles, responsibilities, and instruments for
change expected of all stakeholders.
High tax rates, poor manufacturing Mining machinery and financing support are
major challenges. In spite of adversities, there is a huge scope for technology providers
to come forward and meet this challenge of exploration in the mining technology in
India.
3.1 India’s Natural Resources Share in World

See (Table 2).
Table 2. India’s natural resources share in world.

Sl. No. Resources Share (%)
1 Human population 17%
2 Livestock >11%
3 Geographical area 2.4%
4 Water resources 4.2%
5 Forest cover pastures 1%
6 Arable land 51%
3.1.1 Challenges Faced by India

Global environmental Performance index is 177 out of 188 countries.
• A population of 1.3 billion likely to stabilize only in 2160 at about 1.6 billion.
• Average age of Indians in 2020 will be 26 years.
• 70% of Indian population in rural areas depends entirely on agriculture contributing
only about 14% of GDP.
• Population below poverty line is estimated at 20.2% in 2017.

• Human Development Index of India dropped to 100 out of 187 countries in 2017.
4 Recommendations for Safety Management in Mines

in India
(a) R & D works required to be directed towards the expected future scenario in the
coal, metalliferous, oil and gas sectors in the country.
(b) R & D work should be focused on identified application research projects in
association with national and international institutions through mutual
cooperation.
(c) In order to reduce the accidents, disasters and dangerous occurrences in the mines,
automation of mines is required to achieve the expected results.
(d) The hazardous mining sector requires effective emergency response and disaster
management system installed at mine level, rescue station level as well as at
DGMS level.
(e) International standards in occupational health needs to be adopted and strategies
formulated for its implementation to properly diagnose and detect Occupational
Health Hazards and many dust borne diseases notified under the Mines Act 1957.
(f) A Center for Standardization, Testing and Certification needs to be developed in
DGMS with a National Centre and its branches at identified locations.
(g) Mines Safety and Health Academy (MSHA) at DGMS, Dhanbad should impart
specialized OSH Training not only to DGMS Officials but also to the Managers,
Safety & Ventilation Officers, Supervisors, Workmen’s Inspector etc.
(h) Automation in mining can improve the safety, sustainable mining and streamline
operations efficiency.
(i) Innovations using in mineral mining operations includes, satellite imaging, remote
sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS) maps, Global Positions System
(GPS) and low-impact seismic methods that minimizes environmental pollution,
increases safety and productivity.
4.1 Mine Safety Inspection
• Round-the-clock Supervision of all mining operations by adequate number of

competent & statutory supervisors and mine officials.
• Periodic mine Inspections by Head Quarter and Area level senior officials.
• Surprise back shift mine Inspections by mine and area level officials.
• Regular Inspection by Workmen Inspectors appointed in each mine.
• Regular mine Inspection by officials of Internal Safety Organization of respective
subsidiary and CIL (Fig. 6).
Exploration
Mine
Mine
planning
closure
and design
Safe
mining
operations
Environmental
Management Exploitation
Plan
Project
monitoring
and control
Fig. 6. Stages of safe mining operations.
Steps for Prevention Accidents in OCPs

a. Formulation and Implementation of Mine-specific Traffic Rules.
b. Code of Practices for HEMM Operators, Maintenance staff & others.
c. Sensitization training of Contractor’s Workmen involved in contractual jobs.
d. Training imparted to dumper operators on Simulators.
e. Lighting arrangement using high mast towers for enhancement of illumination as
per stipulated guidelines.
f. Eco-friendly Surface Miners for blast free mining and avoidance of associated risks.
g. Dumpers fitted with Proximity Warning Devices, Rear view mirrors and camera,
Audio-Visual Alarm (AVA), Automatic Fire Detection & Suppression System
(AFDSS) etc.
h. Ergonomically designed seats & AC Cabins for operators’ comfort.
i. Wet Drilling & water Sprinklers for dust suppression.
j. Use of Shock Tubes & Electronic Detonators for control of ground vibration & fly
rocks.
k. GPS based Operator Independent Truck Dispatch System (OITDS) in large OCPs
for tracking movement of HEMMs inside OC mine.
5 Conclusion
The mineral industry is embracing sustainable mineral development principles, but

much has been focused on the level of language and policy, rather than on the oper-
ational sphere. If the momentum for change is to be maintained it is critical that these
broad principles and commitments are translated into improved performance ‘on the
ground’. This will require a concerted effort by the industry, supported by educational
and research bodies, to develop new skills, new knowledge and new ways of doing
business. Company has to establish a multi-disciplinary Internal Safety Organization
(ISO) in all subsidiaries for the implementation of stated Safety Policy.
All operations, systems and processes are meticulously planned and designed with
due regard to SMP, safety, conservation, sustainable development and clean environ-
ment. Currently, demand for advanced technology is already present in India. In order
to achieve resource efficiency, the Indian mining sector is already looking forward to
adopt advanced mine surveying and exploration technologies (using geophysics
applications using 2D and 3D seismic surveys) along with the usage of software
solutions by utilizing 3D software packages (like Micromine, Gemcom MINEX,
SURPAC, Datamin and Vulcan) in the mine planning and design stage.
References
1. Safety in Coal Mines - Annual Report (2017–18), Ministry of Coal-New Delhi
2. Safety in mines Annual Report 2016–17. Ministry of Mines-New Delhi
3. Coal Mines Regulation (2017)
4. Statistics of mines in India, vol. I. Directorate General of Mines Safety, India. http://dgms.
gov.in/writereaddata
5. World Coal 2018–2050: World Energy Annual Report (Part 4)
6. Statistics of mines in India, vol. I (coal), pp 53–57, Directorate General of Mine Safety (2015)
Reliability Analysis of LHD
Machine - A Case Study
J. BalaRaju(&), M. Govinda Raj, and Ch. S. N. Murthy
Department of Mining Engineering, NITK, Mangalore, Karnataka, India

jakkulabalraj@gmail.com
Abstract. In the present global scenario, survival of the industry is more

critical unless it produces their intended targets. Accomplishment of expected
rate of production levels are depends on the performance of equipment. Hence,
it is very important to predict the maintenance schedules for replacement or
repair actions of the defective parts. Keeping in view, every industry is con-
stantly looking for enhancement equipment life. Reliability analysis is one of the
well appropriated techniques used to estimate the life of the equipment. In this
paper, performance of Load-Haul-Dumper (LHD) has been analyzed. Renewal
process approach has been utilized for reliability investigation. Best fit distri-
bution of data sets were made by the utilization of Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S)
test. Parametric estimation of theoretical probability distributions was done by
utilizing Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) method. Reliability of each
individual sub-system has been computed according to the best fit distribution.
In addition to that, reliability based preventive maintenance (PM) time schedules
were calculated for the expected 90% reliability level. The possible recom-
mendations were suggested for improvement of reliability level.
Keywords: Mining Reliability Maintenance Component Subsystem
1 Introduction
Achievement of the projected level of production mainly depends upon the effective
utilization of men and machinery. In every production industry, maintaining machinery
with a greater level of reliability is also one of the crucial aspects [1]. Underground
metal mine’s production for the last few decades in India is not according to the plan.
The unavailability of the machine is the major cause for a drop in production levels in
the industry [2]. Reliability estimation plays a significant role in the performance
evaluation for a complex repairable system. Performance of equipment is mainly
depends upon the reliability of the usage, working atmosphere, and effectiveness of
maintenance, operational procedures, and technical skill of the operators. These fore-
casts are helpful to organize the maintenance and operational activities [3]. Unreliable
parts lead to fails the system during the operation of the vehicle. Repair and replace-
ment action should be advised to failure components to describe the remaining useful
life [4]. The reliability of a complex repairable system can be enhanced by applying
proper maintenance strategies. Preventive maintenance (PM) is one of the well
appropriate techniques to conduct the maintenance or repair action. The possible

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_40
Reliability Analysis of LHD Machine - A Case Study 319
repairs should be performed at the time of repair action. The part which is not possible
to repair is called censored failures. These can be replaced with a new modified design.
The present investigation has been performed to identify the breakdowns, reasons for
occurrence of breakdowns and frequency of its occurrence, classification of sub-
systems based on the breakdown mode; develop the models to forecast the sub-system
reliabilities.
2 Methodology
The first and foremost step in the reliability analysis is collection of failure data and it’s
classification. The required data should be collected either from real time monitoring of
experiments or from the existence of past historical failure data which was stored in the
maintenance records. The classification of the data can be done in accordance with type
of failure. This data can be useful to estimate the time between failure (TBF) and time
to repair (TTR) [5]. The procedure of reliability analysis for a critical subassembly is
shown in a flow chart (Fig. 1) as follows [6].
Fig. 1. Reliability analysis procedure of a critical subsystem (Source: Ascher et al. [5])
320 J. BalaRaju et al.
3 Case Study
The present case study has been carried out in one of the Indian underground Lead and
Zinc mines of the northeast region. In this study, 4 number of Sandvick made LHDs
(LHD1, LHD2, LHD3 and LHD4) were considered for the analysis. LHD machine is
treated as an intermediate level mechanized system used for transporting the ore in
underground mining operations. Ore extraction is done by drilling and blasting tech-
niques. Transportation of ore is done by LHD from mined out area to the crushing
point. A schematic view of LHD machine at the workshop is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. A typical LHD machine at workshop
Before performing the intended analysis of data sets, every equipment should be
classified into a number of sub-assemblies [6]. These classifications were made on the
basis of described reasoning of maintenance records kept by maintenance personnel
about the failures. LHD machine has been classified into seven numbers such as Engine
(SSE), Brake (SSBr), Tyre (STTy), Hydraulic (SSH), Electrical (SSE), Transmission
(SSTr) and Mechanical (SSM). The failure data (Table 1) of LHDs were collected over
a period of one financial year (2016-17). This was collected in the form of spreadsheets
of maintenance records. This includes the failure frequency (FF), the time between
failure (TBF) and time to repair (TTR) (Table 2).
Table 1. Metrics of one financial year of various LHDs

Equipment Scheduled working Scheduled service Breakdown Idle
hours hours hours hours
LHD1 8680 168 3416 1588
LHD2 8680 311 2295 2100
LHD3 8680 314 1978 2460
LHD4 8680 272 2040 1708
Table 2. Collected data of various LHDs from field visit

Equipment Factor SS E SS Br SS Ty SS H SS El SS Tr SS M
LHD1 FF 38 28 54 37 39 38 50
TBF (Hrs) 166 222 127 195 180 197 108
TTR (Hrs) 45 60 49 49 51 51 58
LHD2 FF 34 26 36 27 29 27 40
TBF (Hrs) 184 260 154 240 252 207 125
TTR (Hrs) 67 89 80 82 90 76 80
LHD3 FF 36 25 36 28 37 24 39
TBF (Hrs) 161 270 148 245 169 236 130
TTR (Hrs) 70 100 88 100 71 111 99
LHD4 FF 25 24 28 22 22 24 36
TBF (Hrs) 230 301 210 328 274 297 170
TTR (Hrs) 85 83 77 95 76 90 64

4.1 Trend and Serial Correlation Tests
These tests are used to test the presence of trend in the collected data can be determined
by plotting the graph between cumulative frequencies of failures (CTFF) versus
cumulative time between failures (CTBF). In a trend test, if the dataset points are
arranged in a linear manner which indicates that the investigated datasets are free from
the trend [7]. Further, the serial correlation test was also carried out to check the
relationship between values. This demonstrates the correlation between ith value of
TBF and (i − 1)th value of TBF. From the graphical analysis (Figs. 3(a) and (b), 4(a)
and (b), 5(a) and (b) and 6(a) and (b)) it was observed that the dataset points are
connected in a straight line manner in the trend test. Therefore there is no trend existed
in the collected data sets. In the case of serial correlation test, the points are scattered
randomly, which exhibited no correlation. The result of these tests shows that, the data
sets of all the subsystems were found as trend-free and the points are identically
distributed. Hence, IID assumption for the data sets was not denied for each subsystem.
4.2 Goodness of Fit/Best Fit Distribution

After completion of the IID assumption, probability distribution of data sets needs to be
performed. These are explained by the goodness of fit distribution analysis. The
analysis has performed by utilization of ‘Isograph Reliability Workbench 13.0’ soft-
ware. In this, a wide variety of parameters, for example, exponential, 1-parameter
Weibull, 2-parameter Weibull and 3-parameter Weibull has examined. From the esti-
mated results (Table 3) goodness of fit, allocation has found as 2-parameter Weibull
and 3-parameter Weibull distribution for various sub-assemblies. Identification of
goodness of fit for the data sets has made by the utilization of Kolmogorov-Smirnov
CTFF versus CTBF ith TBF versus (i-1)th TBF

1400 CTBF
1200 250 ith TBF
1000
200
CTBF
800
ith TBF
600 150
400
200 100
0 50
0 200 400 0
CFF 0 200 400
(i-1)th TBF
Fig. 3. (a) Trend test plot of LHD1 (b) Serial correlation test plot of LHD1

2000 CTBF ith TBF
300
1500 250
CTBF
200
ith TBF
1000 150
500 100
50
0 0
0 200 400 0 200 400
CFF (i-1)th TBF

1500 CTBF
ith TBF
300
1000 250
CTBF
200
ith TBF
150
500
100
50
0 0
0 200 400 0 200 400
CFF (i-1)th TBF

2500 CTBF
400 ith TBF
2000
300
CTBF
1500
ith TBF
1000 200
500 100
0
0
0 100 200
0 200 400
CFF
(i-1)th TBF
(K-S) test. Parametric estimation for theoretical probability distributions has also made
by utilizing the Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) method (Table 4).
Table 3. K-S test results of LHDs

Machine ID K-S statistics Dmax Best fit model
Exponential Weibull 1-P Weibull 2-P Weibull 3-P
LHD1 0.2259 0.2031 0.0579 0.2286 Weibull 2-P
LHD2 0.2196 0.1970 0.0468 0.0451 Weibull 3-P
LHD3 0.2153 0.1924 0.0826 0.0618 Weibull 3-P
LHD4 0.2312 0.2080 0.0500 0.0499 Weibull 3-P
Table 4. Results of MLE with the best fitted distribution model

Machine Best fit ML estimates of the best fit
ID model Scale parameter, Shape parameter, Location
ɳ B parameter, c
LHD1 Weibull 2-P 188.2 4.078 0
LHD2 Weibull 3-P 476.5 9.15 −250.2
LHD3 Weibull 3-P 89.62 1.205 116.3
LHD4 Weibull 3-P 284 4.556 −1.212
4.3 Reliability and Maintainability Analysis

Because of Trend-freeness in the data sets, the renewal process has adopted to estimate
each individual subsystem reliability. On the basis of the best fit model, the results of
reliability percentage (R) (from Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10) and unreliability percentage
(F) was estimated and are illustrated in Table 5. Further, the mean time between failure
(MTBF) and the mean time to repair (MTTR) were calculated to evaluate the metrics of
maintainability and failure rate (Table 6). Maintainability equation for the Weibull
distribution is as follows:
MTTR b
Maintainability ðMwÞ ¼ 1 eð g Þ
1
Failure rate ðhÞ ¼
MTBF
Table 5. Reliability and unreliability percentages of each subsystem

Equipment Factor SS E SS Br SS Bo SS Ty SS H SS El SS Tr SS M
LHD1 F (%) 36.49 80.55 29.97 70.73 50.00 63.51 19.45 36.49
R (%) 63.51 19.45 70.73 29.97 50.00 36.49 80.55 63.51
TBF (Hrs) 166 222 127 195 180 197 108 166
LHD2 F (%) 36.49 80.45 29.97 63.51 70.73 50.00 19.45 36.49
R (%) 63.51 19.45 70.73 36.49 29.97 50.00 80.55 63.51
TBF (Hrs) 184 260 154 240 252 207 125 184
LHD3 F (%) 36.49 80.45 29.97 70.73 50.00 63.51 19.45 36.49
R (%) 63.51 19.45 70.73 29.97 50.00 36.49 80.55 63.51
TBF (Hrs) 161 270 148 245 169 236 130 161
LHD4 F (%) 36.49 70.73 29.97 80.55 50.00 63.51 19.45 36.49
R (%) 63.51 29.97 70.73 19.45 50.00 36.49 80.45 63.51
TBF (Hrs) 230 301 210 328 274 297 170 230
LHD1 Cumulative Probability LHD2 Cumulative Probability
99.9 99.9
99 99
2-parameter Weibull 3-parameter Weibull
Median rank Median rank
90 90
70 η: 188.2 70 η: 476.5
Eta estimator β: 4.078 Eta estimator β: 9.15
50 50
γ: 0 γ: −250.2
30 30
ρ: 0.9802 ρ: 0.9876
20 20
Unreliability (%)
Unreliability (%)
ε: 0.05796 ε: 0.04515
10 10
B10: 108.4 B10: 122.4
5 5
P0: 0% P0: 0.2749%
3 3
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
108 137.3 174.6 222 125 199.8 319.2 510.2
Time Time
Fig. 7. Cumulative probability curve of Fig. 8. Cumulative probability curve of LHD2

LHD1
LHD3 Cumulative Probability LHD4 Cumulative Probability
99.9 99.9
99 99
3-parameter Weibull 3-parameter Weibull
Median rank Median rank
90 90
70 η: 89.62 70 η: 284
Eta estimator β: 1.205 Eta estimator β: 4.556
50 50
γ: 116.3 γ: −1.212
30 30
ρ: 0.982 ρ: 0.9883
20 20
Unreliability (%)
Unreliability (%)
ε: 0.0618 ε: 0.04998
10 10
B10: 130.1 B10: 172.1
5 5
P0: 0% P0: 1.601E-09%
3 3
2 2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
13.7 37.01 99.96 270 170 21 .9 264.1 329.2
Time Time
Fig. 9. Cumulative probability curve of Fig. 10. Cumulative probability curve of LHD4
LHD3
Table 6. Results of availability and maintainability

Machine Total number of MTBF MTTR Failure Maintainability
ID failures (Hrs) (Hrs) rate
LHD1 288 3.99 1.86 0.2165 99.01%
LHD2 221 6.22 2.69 0.1641 100.00%
LHD3 215 6.40 2.80 0.1959 96.48%
LHD4 178 9.98 3.22 0.1004 99.64%
4.4 Reliability Based Preventive Maintenance (PM) Time Schedules

PM is defined as the actions executed in an effort to hold the components in an
indicated condition by giving an efficient assessment, identification of the occurrence of
early failure [8]. In this research, PM time schedules, have been calculated (Table 7)
against the expected rate of reliability level i.e., 90%. From the computed values it was
noticed that if the reliability requirement as 90% for LHD1, then the PM must be
conducted in every 107.63 h. Similarly, for LHD2, LHD3 and LHD4 are 123.41 h,
135.28 h and 172.26 h respectively.
Table 7. PM time schedules of LHD machines

Expected reliability PM time schedules, Hrs
LHD1 LHD2 LHD3 LHD4
0.90 105.30 120.25 134.15 170.45
5 Conclusion
Enhancement of continuous operation of equipment can be achieved by organizing the

proper maintenance practices. Reliability analysis is a technique exclusively used to
estimate the life of the products and to determine the maintenance schedules. This
analysis provides a base to mitigate the uncertainties of equipment. The data sets of
LHDs were analyzed for determination of reliability of each sub-system. From Table 5,
it was noticed that a very least value of the reliability was obtained for SSBr (19.45%),
SSTy (29.97%) and SSM (36.49%). It was concluded that the SSBr, SSTy and SSM
are the most critical subsystems and assessed that more concentration needs to be kept.
Improper or inefficient activities of maintenance and operation are the major cause of
the performance drop of these critical sub-systems. Forecasting of reliability based PM
time intervals will provide the required information to conduct the scheduled mainte-
nance. From the calculated results of PM time intervals, If the requirement of reliability
is 90%, then the PM should conduct for every 105.30 h to LHD1, for LHD2 could be
120.25 h, LHD3 should be 134.15 h and for LHD4 machine should be 170.45 h
(Table 7). This study noticed that due to dissimilar operational and environmental
conditions different LHD machines should require different maintenance plans. For
effective maintenance organization, each equipment’s reliability needs to be evaluated
separately.
References
1. Military Handbook (2003) Military Handbook, MIL-HDBK-5H: Metallic Materials and
Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures, (Knovel Interactive Edition), pp 6–55. U.S.
Department of Defense
2. Dhillon BS (2008) Mining equipment reliability maintainability and safety. Springer, London,
pp 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-288-3_4
3. Jardine AKS (1998) Maintenance replacement and reliability. Preney Print and Litho Inc.,
Ontario
4. Vagenas N, Runciman N, Clement SR (1997) A methodology for maintenance analysis of
mining equipment. Int J Surf Min Reclam Env 11:33–40
5. Ascher H, Feingold H (1984) Repairable systems reliability modeling inference misconcep-
tions and their causes, vol 45, no 4. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 222–232
6. Vagenas N, Kazakidis V, Scoble M, Espley S (2003) Applying a maintenance methodology
for excavation reliability. J Surf Min Reclam Environ 17:4–19
7. Kumar U, Klefsjo B, Granholm S (1989) Reliability investigation for a fleet of load haul
dump machines in a Swedish mine. Reliab Eng Syst Saf 26(4):341–361
8. Nuziale T, Vagenas N (2000) A software architecture for reliability analysis of mining
equipment. Int J Surf Min Reclaim Env 114:19–34
9. Esmaeili M, Aghajani A (2011) Reliability analysis of a fleet of loaders in Sangan Iron Mine.
Arch Min Sci 56:629–640
Emerging Mining Trends: Preparing Future
Mining Professionals
Laxminarayana Chikatamarla1(&)
and Devulapalli Narasimha Prasad2,3
1
RPMGlobal, Brisbane, Australia
lchikatamarla@rpmglobal.com, lchikatamarla@gmail.com
2
Ministry of Coal, Government of India, New Delhi, India
dnprasad2005@gmail.com
3
Mining, Singareni Collieries, PSU of GoTS and GoI, Kothagudem, India
Abstract. The present-day mining operations are increasingly questioned by

various stakeholders i.e. government regulators, non-government organizations,
investors, environmentalists, land affected people, consumers etc., on account of
unsustainable, inefficient, poor planning & implementation practices. Mining
companies cannot succeed in the future unless they adopt business risk man-
agement principles, implement change management with the emerging digital
technologies for transparency and sustainability of operations to renew the
confidence of consumers and regulators. In this changing climate, the new
generation of mining and other engineers are expected to embrace the emerging
digital technologies i.e. real-time data acquisition, improved data analysis,
reporting and enhanced process monitoring covering different aspects right from
exploration, planning, project execution, production and marketing. This paper
focuses on the need for training mining professionals to face the technological
challenges that are pertinent to the mining industry in the rapidly changing
global commodity markets.
Keywords: Emerging mining trends Digital mining

Global Reporting Initiative Business risk management
Mining education and training Problem Based Learning
1 Introduction
With the current climate of global economic uncertainty coupled with adverse impact
on commodity prices and access to finance, mining companies are seeking solutions to
reduce all costs and increase productivity to weather the cyclical downturn of mining
industry tied up to commodity prices. The mining sector has seen the ups and downs in
recent years and the trend continues. During this time, many mining companies started
adopting innovative and transformative practices. These transformations will continue
for the next decade due to declining tier-one assets with poor mineral grades, focus on
shareholders returns with environmental obligations. In this environment, mining
companies must find ways to remain competitive by revising their traditional mining
models.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_41
328 L. Chikatamarla and D. N. Prasad
The miners recognised the power of digital solutions to improve the efficiency of
mining operations and embedding digital thinking into the core of their business
practices for making corporate decisions [1]. The miners should envision the future
digital mine transformation and flow of information to back-office processing for
decision making [2–4]. Academic institutions should focus on this direction to train
future mining professionals.
1.1 Reforming Talent

Evolution of digital technologies is rapidly changing the innovation every 5 to
10 years. This means today’s innovative technology could be obsolete in the next 5 to
10 years’ time [5]. Hence, the mine plan needs the flexibility to incorporate capital plan
and workforce for a life of mine that will run for over 20 years. Thus, there is a
mismatch between the lifecycle of technologies and the life cycle of mining projects.
Hence, building flexibility in capital investments is critical for mining companies to be
competitive in the volatile markets i.e. providing scope for adoption of changing
technologies and commodity prices [6].
Considering the rapid changes in technological innovations, the mining companies’
traditional strategy of talent recruitment and training needs a change. They must think
out of the box for talent strategy and recruit talent from non-traditional sources to
provide a range of skills to enable miners to deal with future technological challenges.
To encourage innovation, an entrepreneurial mindset and a startup mentality should be
nurtured [6]. Traditional skill set recruitment from a narrow pool of talent will not work
in the rapidly growing digital world.
To cite examples, Australia’s mining industry use data analytics and information
management to achieve automation with the use of robots and remote-controlled
equipment [7]. Major mining companies have already implemented driverless trucks,
automated drilling, driverless trains to transport ore from pit to port, remote operations
in UG mines, application of UAVs to detect greenhouse gas emissions, rehabilitation of
land sites, etc.
1.2 21st Century Mining Challenges

21st-century mining poses many challenges as a result of a new cycle of scientific and
technological discoveries in mining engineering [8, 9]. Significant challenges are likely
to be encountered due to:
• Remote mine sites coupled with deeper mineral resources;
• Exploring possibilities for subsea mining and asteroid mining;
• Evolving new mining technologies, i.e. unconventional gas extraction, i.e. coalbed
methane, shale gas, coal gasification, microbial coal conversion, and shale oil;
• Ongoing mining automation and robotics;
• Increasing environmental restrictions and groundwater management;
• Satellite-based technologies for discovery of minerals and environmental
monitoring;
Emerging Mining Trends: Preparing Future Mining Professionals 329
• Data mining, i.e. need for increased real-time monitoring (of machinery movement,
temperature, gaseous emissions, wear and tear); and
• The need for collaborations with local communities for sustainable mining
operations;
The biggest challenge the mining industry facing globally is attracting talent to the
mining profession. Harsh and remote working conditions in the mining industry cou-
pled with the cyclical nature of ‘booms and busts’ talented students are not getting
motivated to opt for a mining engineering discipline. The mining industry should
incentivise for driving innovation and encourage contributions from the workforce with
a commitment to strengthening government and community relations to attract talent.
Hence, the mining engineering education and training must be revised for taking up the
challenges of the fast-changing mining technologies of the 21st century.
2 Emerging Trends in Mining
According to the McKinsey, PwC and Deloitte’s tracking the mining industry reports,
the following trends are fast emerging which will bring a drastic change the way the
mining industry is going to be transformed in the coming decades [1, 5, 6].
a. Evolution of Digital mining: The “big data” transformation significantly improves
the decision-making process of the corporate world. The information and the ability to
sort out, oversee, and process it, is quickly turning into a focused differentiator. Mining
organizations must implant innovative and scientific reasoning into the core of the
business system and practices to change the manner in which corporate choices are
made. The mining companies are not fully utilizing the majority of the information
captured from operational frameworks. Some are currently realizing that capturing and
dealing with the correct information can unravel huge enhancements in operational
profitability, maintenance of assets and safety of workforce [10]. Figure 1 shows an
example of an intelligent data platform for integrated operational planning, control and
decision support for a typical mining project; the Enterprise Planning Framework’
(EPF) facilitates end-to-end design, planning & scheduling, simulation, financial
modelling and execution capabilities across the mining value chain to propel the
mining organization’s productivity.
b. Overcoming innovation barriers: advancement is fundamental for the mining
business to change and it isn’t restricted to technology; it includes the adoption of
innovative approaches to appeal with stakeholders, re-imagining the future of work and
recognizing the products that will be in prominent demand going ahead. Change the
traditional mindset of risk-averse culture hindering the efforts to innovate within the
mining industry;
c. The future of work: the adoption of innovative technologies, such as robotics,
process automation, and artificial intelligence will augment performance in the mining
industry. As opposed to dispensing with occupations, it will probably make endeavours
to retrain individuals to utilize innovation and upgrade employment at both the mine
site and in the back office.
Fig. 1. Coordinated operational planning, control and decision making process (Source:
RPMGlobal intelligent Platform [10])
d. Transforming stakeholder relationships: the mining organizations must decide

how to make a solid social impact that adjusts to the advantage of various stakeholders.
To restore trust with employees, financial institutions, governments, and the general
population, leading mining organizations are embarking on efforts, for example, taking
decisive public stances around corporate social responsibility, sticking to voluntary
sustainability standards and passing shareholder resolutions regarding increased dis-
closure on climate change;
e. Changing shareholder expectations: Key Performance Indicators should reflect
varied objectives to create value for numerous communities i.e. clients, employees,
suppliers, communities and not just shareholders. The corporate boards should focus
more on long-term strategies and leadership development by linking management
compensation to broader corporate goals related to good corporate social responsibility
and ethical behaviour;
f. Water – finding sustainable solutions to a critical issue: as the UN assess that
water shortage impacts about 40% of the worldwide populace, mining organizations
must improve their way to deal with water through innovative techniques intended to
reduce, reuse and recycle water in water-scarce regions and to contain and treat
wastewater to prevent contamination of downstream water streams;
g. Remediation of mined out areas: Land is a key component in all mining tasks, and
systematic reclamation and rehabilitation of mined out zones and dumps are critical for
a maintaining an ‘Ecological Balance’ in the mining business. Thus, mining companies
are using innovative methods to showcase their competences to remediate the land
realistically after mining activities to obtain a social license to operate the mines;
h. Reserve replacement woes: as supply limitations plague the business, the chal-
lenge for mining organizations is to find replacement reserves by engaging innovative
exploration and development techniques that use minimum capital for a short period of
time. Hence, mining companies are using digital technology to overcome this
challenge;
i. Realigning mining boards to drive change: Boards hindered in old mindset will
progressively battle to fulfil new directives, such as taking a more active role in
challenging the executive team on topics from corporate strategy to digital disruption,
talent management, and emerging risk factors. Diverse viewpoints are necessary for the
mining boards to challenge organizational assumptions and help determine if the
organization is taking on too much risk, or possibly not enough risk [6].
3 Global Reporting Initiative
Many mining corporations have a profoundly imbued with conventional thinking of

their industry and the factors controlling the production and mining environment.
However, this mindset won’t work and miners can’t ignore the role they play in a much
wider economic and technological ecosystem, which is fast growing and progressively
complex day by day.
Henceforth, mining organizations are recognizing that profound transparency is a
prerequisite for gaining community trust. Global companies are increasingly definitive
in taking corporate social responsibility seriously. Many mining companies have
started following voluntary sustainability principles, including those set out by the
Taskforce for Climate-related Financial Disclosure, the Global Reporting Initiative
(GRI) and the Carbon Disclosure Project [11]. GRI is the world’s most broadly utilised
benchmark on sustainability reporting and disclosure. This requires mining organisa-
tions coupling their social purpose with financial objectives to articulate the value they
bring to society.
For instance, mining organisations currently empower neighbourhood communities
to test the quality of a field site’s water discharge by setting up CCTV cameras or
applications that provide citizens with online access to water quality data. Others give
community members the option to physically visit water discharge sites to conduct
their own tests. Such type of sweeping transparency urges organisations to keep
themselves truthful and creating an environment of shared responsibility.
Further, mining organizations have started going past generous gifts that normally
end once a mine site closes down. Instead, some companies have begun contributing a
portion of their revenues to local establishments that authorize community members to
allocate funds based on local needs.
4 Present Status of Indian Mining Industry
The Indian mining industry has grown over a period of time. India is currently pro-
ducing about 95 major and minor minerals which include 4 fuel, 10 metallic, 23 non-
metallic, 3 atomic and 55 minor minerals. India’s position in 2015 as compared to
world production was second in barites, and talc/steatite/pyrophyllite, third in coal &
lignite, chromite, and zinc (slab), fourth in kyanite/andalusite/sillimanite, fifth in iron
ore, and Steel (Crude), sixth in bauxite ore, seventh in manganese ore and eighth in
aluminum [12].
Technology wise major opencast mining projects are on par with any advanced
countries and being operated by deploying high capacity shovels and dumpers as well
as specialized mining equipment consisting of bucket wheel excavators and stacker re-
claimers in conjunction with high capacity conveyor belts both for overburden removal
and coal. In-pit crushing and conveying technology, High wall technology has also
been successfully adopted. In the case of underground mining, mechanization was
adopted as per the needs including continuous miner technology and longwall tech-
nology successfully. Extraction and use of Coal Bed Methane (CBM)/Coal Mine
Methane (CMM) have been successfully demonstrated and a couple of commercial
CBM projects are ongoing.
However, automation and application of IoT (internet of things) to mining opera-
tions are required to be adopted in a significant manner. The software is in use for
geological modelling and mine planning for quite some time but needs to be further
enhanced for the actual implementation and monitoring of planned activities as well as
equipment utilisation and maintenance for day to day control of mine operations for
making quick informed decisions.
Majority of the mining industry in India is controlled by Government and Private
sector is slowly making its headway into mining operations since opening up the sector
in early 2000 for private participation. In this context, there is a need for the Global
Reporting Initiative to be taken up seriously for sustainable mining in the country on
par with global mining companies.
4.1 Current Indian Mining Education and Training

Current mining training programs in all mining schools across India have practically
identical curriculum with minor variations as it is centrally controlled by All India
Council for Technical Education (AICTE). Traditionally, basic science fundamentals
such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, and introduction to mining are
taught in the first two years. The advanced mining subjects which include rock
mechanics, mining methods, ventilation, mechanization/mining machinery, mine
planning & design, legislation and management are taught in the last two years of the
engineering course. Most of them are classroom lectures with laboratory exercises. At
the end of each year, students are required to go for practical training in the field of coal
and metal mining (total of 8 to 10 weeks) as a part of the curriculum. This type of
teaching does not prepare the undergraduates for employment unless they are trained
on the job for one year. The mining companies do not have resources or time to train
the graduates to meet their job requirements. Hence, it is suggested that the current
mining curriculum requires total revision in the context of current technology

advancements of the mining industry discussed in the previous sections.
4.2 Proposed Mining Education and Training

In view of the emerging innovation and the application of new technologies, the mining
companies must focus on dealing with the mineral assets, the money matters and
shareholder commitment, public relations and environmental aspects. Hence, financial
and stakeholder management will be as crucial as technical and environmental con-
sultants. Therefore, future mining and other engineering teaching and training require
critical changes to the curricula and the admissions from other disciplines of engi-
neering is necessary for the mining resources industry. It is possible that many more
employment opportunities will emerge within the supporting professional services and
these roles will likely be populated with new graduates and retrained staff.
The new mining course should offer a variety of learning options including inter-
disciplinary education in mining engineering combined with geotechnical, civil,
mechanical, metallurgy, environmental engineering, Information Technology etc. This
augments the position of mining engineering as one of the most sought after profes-
sional qualification in the resource-oriented Indian economy.
As the young generation grew up with technology during their schooling (i.e.
smartphones, basic computing skills, web surfing etc.), the conventional method of
attending lectures needs to change. From the beginning, students should be exposed to
the mining work environment, nearly full-time with short (i.e. week-long) spans of
intensive contact time for lectures and laboratories. The study material could be
accessed online using high-quality audio-visual delivery. The present arrangement of
14–16 weeks of contact time per semester should change to, a month of one-week
sessions allowing the student to complete work experience in their chosen mining field
while obtaining a tertiary education which helps mining employers by creating genuine
job-ready graduates.
The current system of mining education in India does not provide the required skill
set to get on the job in the field. Many a time’s young engineers get frustrated when
they first join the mining industry due to lack of clarity of what they studied in the
school and its applicability in the field. As a result, bright engineers leave the industry
to pursue different fields as they did not get enough challenge in the mining industry.
Hence, it is critical to expose students to the challenge of the mining industry in the
early stages of their engineering studies to create interest and develop innovation to
modernize the current mining industry. Additionally, create courses requiring students
to study across borders as part of their qualifications to understand different educational
and cultural backgrounds as well as to get exposed to different mining environments
overseas.
Further, the training framework should simultaneously focus on the critical thinking
and administration abilities to establish the foundation for the future CEO’s who will
need to be a portfolio chief, expert, strategist and mentor as opposed to the full-time
supervisor. Instilling the fundamental characteristics are basic to establish the frame-
work for postgraduate studies. The challenge to the mining organisations is to ensure to
have a sufficient number of mining resources i.e. mining engineers, geologists,
geotechnical engineers, environmental, mineral dressing engineers etc., to meet their

needs in either boom or bust cycles of resource industry [8].
4.3 Problem Based Learning

The present old-style teaching methods in mining and other engineering should be
replaced with a ‘Problem Based Learning’ (PBL) method. Issue-based learning (i.e.
PBL) is a focused instructional method in which students study about a subject through
the experience of tackling an open-ended problem. Students learn both reasoning
techniques and subject knowledge. The PBL format originated from the medical school
of thought and is currently adopted as a teaching method in other engineering schools.
The objectives of PBL are to help students develop flexible knowledge, effective
problem-solving skills, self-directed learning, active teamwork skills, and natural
inspiration. Problem-based learning is a style of dynamic learning [13, 14].
PBL method encourages students to work in Teams. Working in groups, students
recognise what they knew previously, what they need to know, how and where to get
new data which may lead to the resolution of the problem. The job of the teacher (PBL
Coach) is to encourage learning by supporting, controlling, and checking the learning
procedure. The coach or mentor must encourage and build confidence in students to
take on the challenges while enhancing their understanding. PBL method of teaching is
a paradigm shift and completely different from traditional classroom/lecture teaching
and learning method [15].
The PBL teaching method prepares engineers to truly job-ready and fully-trained
graduates. However, revising the mining curriculum to the PBL method requires lots of
efforts in designing the problems which involve classroom lectures, field visits, and
online resources including audiovisuals for training the teachers.
4.4 Finding Innovative Methods for Mining Engineering Education

The search for innovative teaching and training methods for mining engineering
education in India need to be given a high priority because of the globalisation of the
world economy. This aspect needs to be recognised by the current mining industry
leaders, administrative ministries and universities, local professional bodies to control
and govern the process. The local professional bodies such as Mining Engineering
Association, Institute of Engineers India, mining company CEO’s should get involved
in revising the curriculum and teaching methods. Further, Indian mining professional
bodies should be associated with international mining associations to assure the
required scientific, practical, scholarly and professional skills to ensure sustainable
mining of mineral resources on par with the international mining standards [8, 9].
To achieve success in the areas discussed in Sects. 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4, one must focus
on strong and relentlessly work on excellent HR (Human Resource) practices that go
past planning to implementation and ongoing reviews.
5 Way Forward
Development of mining skillset i.e. teaching and training methods will be playing an
extremely crucial role for shaping the Indian mining economy. Hence, searching for
innovative methods for mining engineering education is of great significance to make
the Indian mining professionals on par with global standards. Benchmarking Indian
mining teaching and training methods with international mining educational standards
is the need of the hour. To achieve this, the involvement of the mining academics,
professional bodies and the participation of mining organisation leaders is critical to
developing a curriculum to take up the challenges of 21st-century mining needs. Thus,
the mining and other engineers trained by the universities are readily employable with a
minimum induction period.
The curriculum of mining engineering at graduate and master’s levels to be
redrawn keeping industry’s requirements in view. Faculty also need to be trained in
these areas such that students find the resource person to repose confidence in learning.
PBL method of teaching should be introduced in the mining education to train,
challenge, innovate and retain the much-needed talent for the mining industry [14].
The approach suggested is similar to the one being followed by the Minerals
Council of Australia to improve the standards of Mining Engineering Education and
skill set of young mining professionals [16].
Continuous efforts of all interested parties i.e. educational institutions, professional
associations (national and international), research organisations, mining companies,
government organisations need to work in a coordinated manner to reach the common
goal of preparing tomorrow’s mining and other engineers to embrace the technological
challenges i.e. digital thinking, training, certification and continuous professional
development of qualified mining professionals for a highly efficient, environmentally
sound mining industry for sustainable development [17].
References
1. Behind the mining productivity upswing: technology-enabled transformation, metals, and
mining practice. McKinsey & Company Report, August 2018
2. Blockchain explained: what it is and isn’t, and why it matters. McKinsey & Company
Report, September 2018
3. Harnessing data to unlock new energy solutions ExxonMobil, 04 February 2019. https://
www.spe.org/en/dsde/dsde-article-detail-page/?art=5065
4. Crompton J (2019) The new world of data science and digital engineering: the hype, the
hope, and the reality. SPE DSDE Upstream Oil Gas J. https://www.spe.org/en/print-article/?
art=4966
5. We need to talk about the future of mining, PwC’s future insights series. https://www.pwc.
com.au/publications/we-need-to-talk-about-future-of-mining-2017.html
6. Tracking the trends 2018 the top 10 issues shaping mining in the year ahead. A report by
Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (2018)
7. Mining industry looks towards a new wave of automation. https://www.abc.net.au/news/
rural/2017-05-23/the-future-of-automation-in-the-mining-industry/8550636
8. Future mining issues and mining education. https://www.ausimmbulletin.com/opinion/

future-mining-issues-and-mining-education/
9. A vision for the new challenges to mining education in Australia. https://www.ausimmbulletin.
com/opinion/a-vision-for-the-new-challenges-to-miningeducation-in-Australia/
10. Enabling the Digital Mine with mining’s only Integrated Mining Operational Platform built
on industry standards. RPMGlobal mining software products. https://www.rpmglobal.com/
software/
11. Global reporting initiative standards. https://www.globalreporting.org/standards/ and https://
www.south32.net/sustainability/our-focus/sustainability-reporting
12. Annual Report 2017-18 of the Ministry of Mines, GoI
13. Problem based learning. https://www.tcd.ie/CAPSL/TIC/guidelines/teaching/pbl.php
14. Problem-based learning: an approach to teaching and learning. https://blogs.shu.ac.uk/shutel/
2014/10/06/problem-based-learning-an-approach-to-teaching-and-learning/?doing_wp_
cron=1550316274.4625930786132812500000
15. Problem based learning. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning
16. Modernising STEM education for Australia’s future mining workforce. Mineral Council of
Australia. https://www.minerals.org.au/news/modernising-stem-education-australia%E2%
80%99s-future-mining-workforce
17. Kazanin OI, Drebenstedt C (2017) Mining education in the 21st century: global challenges
and prospects. Zapiski Gornogo institute. 225:369–375. https://doi.org/10.18454/PMI.2017.
3.369
Prediction of Energy Efficiency of Main
Transportation System Used in Underground
Coal Mines – A Statistical Approach
N. V. Sarathbabu Goriparti(&), Ch. S. N. Murthy, and M. Aruna
Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka,

Surathkal 575025, India
sarathyadav225@gmail.com
Abstract. Transport in underground mines i.e. belt conveyor is used for car-
rying extracted materials from one station to other. Transportation involves
energy as its main consumer. An efficient energy system adapted for trans-
porting extracted materials can minimize energy losses, hence resulting in
reduced cost of energy. Energy to transportation is provided by means of an
electric motor, the efficiency of the electric motor depend on load carried by the
system, the length and height to which the material has to be delivered. The
present study was carried on the energy efficiency of three different trans-
portation systems in GDK-1&3 incline underground mine, The Singareni Col-
lieries Company Limited, Ramagundam. The present study was carried out
considering two cases with first, load varying from 20% to 100% keeping
conveyor speed constant. Secondly, with 20% fixed loading and varying the
conveyor speed from 1 m/s to 2 m/s. Estimation of the energy efficiency for a
unique electric motor was estimated considering both the cases which involved
three different lengths and heights. It was observed that with a constant conveyor
speed of 2 m/s and filling rate varying from 27.775 kg/m to 5.555 kg/m, the
amount of increase in efficiency was found to be 23.92%, 18.75% and 5.25% for
Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively. Also with a constant filling rate
of 5.555 kg/m and conveyor speed varying from 1 m/s to 2 m/s, the amount of
decrease in efficiency was found to be 13.63%, 11.52% and 1.64% for Gantry,
5L and Surface conveyors respectively. Further a prediction study was carried
on the energy efficiency based on the input parameters load, length and height.
The model gives an R2 value 87% which is significant.
Keywords: Belt conveyor Underground coal mines Transportation

Energy efficiency
1 Introduction
Energy is one of the basic requirement for modern civilization. Energy efficiency is the
reduction of energy consumption subjected to key constraints. The importance of
energy efficiency is sustainability and cost reduction. As from ISO 50,001, the energy
saving potential in manufacturing sites is 15–20%. The Global energy potential is
around 36% and an average saving potential of a plant is 20% [1]. The energy cost for

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_42
338 N. V. Sarathbabu Goriparti et al.
transportation in underground mines is about 40% of the operational cost, the

remaining 60% cost is for operation and maintenance [2]. Therefore, energy efficiency
of main transportation system used in underground mines i.e. belt conveyor is a much
significant factor to reduce the operational costs [3, 4]. Belt conveyor, a safe and
efficient transport used in underground mines. The energy share of belt conveyor, in
underground mines is up to 60–70% [5]. DIN 22101 [6] and ISO 5048 [7] are the
standards used to model and design the belt conveyor systems for bulk material
transfer. According to these standards, there is a scope for getting energy saving from
speed control of belt conveyor [3, 8, 9]. The electrical energy given to the conveyor can
be converted into useful mechanical energy to run the conveyor, heat energy, noise
energy and other power losses.
Energy efficiency of belt conveyor is mainly depends on speed of the belt, material
filling profile, dynamic behavior, idler and belt dimensions [3, 4, 8–10]. The energy
efficiency of belt a conveyor can be improved by design, control and audit methods.
The earlier research work was more focused on, equipment design [11] i.e. the design
of idler [12] and drive, and speed control [13–15] of drive motor. A very less work has
been done on the variation of energy efficiency based on length and height at which
material will transfer. In this study an attempt is made to illustrate the influence of load
carried by the system, length and height at which material transferred on energy effi-
ciency of the electric motor.
2 Field Study
The present study was carried at GDK-1&3 Incline, located at RG-I Area of The
Singareni Collieries Company Limited, Ramagundam. The Mine totally consist of 8
belt conveyors to transport the coal from underground to dump area. The specifications
of the belt, idler, drive motor and gearbox were collected from the respective equip-
ment catalogs, which are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Specifications of all conveyors used in GDK 1&3 incline

S.no Name of Details of the drive Details of the belt Lift Tail end Discharge
the Capacity Voltage Type Width Length (m) location location
conveyor (hp) (volt) (mm) (m)
1 Gantry 75 440 PVC 900 60 10 Surface Gantry
2 Surface 75 440 PVC 900 420 40 5L Surface
3 5L 75 440 PVC 900 260 63 12L 5L
4 12L 75 440 PVC 900 260 47 24L 12L
5 24L 75 440 PVC 900 260 45 32L 24L
6 32L 75 440 PVC 900 275 70 40L 32L
7 40L 75 550 PVC 900 150 43 45L 40L
8 45L 75 550 PVC 900 185 41 49L 45L
Prediction of Energy Efficiency of Main Transportation System 339
Table 2. Specifications of the belt and drive head

Details of the belt Details of the drive head
Parameter Value Parameter Value
Maximum capacity, Qm 200 t/h Power, P 75 hp
Belt speed, v 2 m/s Voltage, V 415 V
Belt width, B 900 mm Current, I 90 amp
Loading material weight, ml 27.775 kg/m Frequency, f 50 Hz
Conveying length, L – Power factor, cos u 0.88
Conveying height, H – Efficiency, η 94.3%
Inclination angle, b – Moment of inertia, J 2.3 kgm2
Belt length, l – Torque at full load, Tfl 354 N-m
Belt thickness, tb 20 mm Breakdown torque, Tb 2.5 * 354 N-m
Belt weight, mb 15 kg/m Approximate weight, Mm 540 kg
Idler weight, mr 54 kg/m Rated speed, N 1482 rpm
Radius of drive pulley, r 35.1 cm Pole pairs, p 2
Friction coefficient, f 0.025 Gear reduction ratio, GR 1:30
Made PVC Reduction gear speed, N2 50 r.p.m
Table 3. Details of the conveyors which were studied in this work.

Name of the conveyor Length, l (m) Height, H (m) Inclination, b (°)
Gantry belt conveyor 60 10 9.46
5L belt conveyor 260 63 13.6
Surface belt conveyor 420 40 5.44
3 Belt Conveyor Calculations
Along with the field data, presented in Sect. (2) DIN 22101 was also used to do the belt
conveyor calculations.
The total force to run the conveyor at a given load and inclination can be calculated
by [9].
F = CfL[mr + ð2mb + ml Þ cos bg + Hml g + Fs ð1Þ
where C is represents the Coefficient of secondary resistance, f is the coefficient of

friction, L is the conveyor length (distance between two pulleys), mr, mb, ml are the
unit weight of idlers, belt, material load respectively, b is the inclination, H is the
elevation and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The mechanical power required to run the conveyor, Pm is calculated by [9]
Pm ¼ F v ð2Þ
The electrical power required to run the conveyor, Pe is calculated by
Pe ¼ V I cosu ð3Þ
The efficiency ηd of the drive is calculated by
Pm
gd ¼ ð4Þ
Pe
4 Simulation Study
Among the eight conveyors systems of GDK-1&3 Incline, three conveyors were
considered based up on the conveyor length. These three belt conveyors are modelled
and simulated using Matlab 2009b. The simulation parameters of these conveyors is
same as the parameters of the conveyors used in the field, shown in Tables 1 and 2. The
details of the three different conveyors considered in the present study is given in
Table 3. Gantry, 5L and Surface belt conveyors were modelled and simulated at two
different operating conditions as follows: (1) Variable filling rate and constant speed
(2) Constant filling rate and variable speed. In first condition, the load applied on the
belt is variable and the speed of the belt is almost constant. Where as in second
condition the belt speed was adjusted using a variable frequency drive and the material
filling rate has been maintained constant. The simulation parameters of the induction
motor (IM) are given in Table 4, which are same as the parameters of the IM used in
the field.
Table 4. Simulation parameters of IM

Nominal parameters Values Nominal parameters Values
Rated Power (P) 55 kW Rotor inductance/ph (lr) 0.226 mH
Rated Voltage (V) 415 V Magnetizing inductance (lm) 10.38 mH
Rated Supply Cycles/sec (f) 50 Hz Moment of inertia (J) 2.3 kg m2
Stator resistance/ph (rs) 0.086 X Friction factor (FF) 0.05421
Stator inductance/ph (ls) 0.226 mH Pole pairs (p) 2
Rotor resistance/ph (rr) 0.086 X Rotor inductance/ph (lr) 0.226 mH
Figures 1 and 2 show the variation of motor efficiency of three belt conveyors when
they are operated at two different operating conditions such as (1) Variable filling rate
and constant speed (2) Constant filling rate and variable speed. Figure 1 represents a
graph of efficiency versus load. The data involved motor efficiencies for load varied
from efficiency of the motor 5.555 kg/m–27.775 kg/m with a constant rated speed of
2 m/s for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors. It was observed that with increase in the
load on the conveyor belt the efficiency of the motor increased linearly. The amount of
increase in efficiency was found to be 23.92%, 18.75% and 5.25% for Gantry, 5L and
Surface conveyors respectively.
Fig. 1. Variation of efficiency of motor, Fig. 2. Influence of conveyor speed on motor

when it is connected to three different belt efficiency for a constant filling rate of
conveyors when the load is varied from 5.555 kg/m and speed varied from 1 m/s to
5.555 kg/m to 27.775 kg/m. 2 m/s.
The rated speed of all three belt conveyors is 2 m/s. It is observed that from no load
to full load the speed was dropped by 10% that means at full load condition i.e.
27.775 kg/m the corresponding speed of Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors is same
and it is equals to 1.8 m/s, and when the load is varying from full load i.e. 27.775 kg/m
to 20% of full load i.e. 5.555 kg/m the speed of all three belt conveyors is 2 m/s, as
shown in Fig. 3. It may seems to be the variation of speed is not relaying with load.
Figure 2 represents a graph of efficiency versus conveyor speed. The data involved
motor efficiencies for speed varied from 1 m/s to 2 m/s with a constant filling rate of
5.555 kg/m for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors. It was observed that with increase in
the speed of the conveyor belt the efficiency of the motor decreased linearly. The
amount of decrease in efficiency was found to be 13.63%, 11.52% and 1.64% for
Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively.
Fig. 3. Variation of speed of motor, when it is connected to three different belt conveyors.
6 Statistical Analysis
Using Minitab 17, an ANOVA (Analysis of variance) based regression analysis was
done to predict the most influencing parameters on the drive system efficiency. The
obtained Eq. (5) represents efficiency (η, %) in terms of conveyor height (h in m),
conveyor length (l in m), conveyor speed (v in m/s) and material load (ml, kg/m)
(Tables 6 and 7).
Table 5. ANOVA results

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value Contribution
Regression 4 1813.98 1813.98 453.494 42.85 0.000 87.27%
Height 1 391.64 0.3 0.297 0.03 0.868 18.84%
Length 1 700.5 683.49 683.493 64.58 0.000 33.70%
Speed 1 1.29 99.44 99.438 9.39 0.005 0.06%
Load 1 720.54 720.54 720.543 68.08 0.000 34.67%
Error 25 264.61 264.61 10.584 12.73%
Total 29 2078.58 100%
Table 6. Model summary

S R2 Adj R2 R2 (predicted)
3.25335 87.27% 85.23% 81.2%
Table 7. Coefficients of regression model

Term Coef SE Coef T-Value P-Value
Constant 77.68 3.41 22.75 0.000
Height −0.0058 0.0348 −0.17 0.868
Length 0.04117 0.00512 8.04 0.000
Speed −6.03 1.97 −3.07 0.005
Load 0.6612 0.0801 8.25 0.000
Fig. 4. Normal probability and residual plots of output (efficiency)
g ¼ 77:68 0:0058 h þ 0:04117 l 6:03 v þ 0:6612 ml R2 ¼ 87:27% ð5Þ
From the analysis done with Table 5, it was observed that the most influencing
parameters among the input parameters are load, conveyor length and conveyor speed.
All the parameters have P-Value less than 0.05 except one parameter i.e. conveyor
height (insignificant). Figure 4 shows that normal probability and residues of
efficiency.
7 Conclusions
1. With a constant conveyor speed of 2 m/s and filling rate varying from 27.775 kg/m
to 5.555 kg/m. The amount of increase in efficiency was found to be 23.92%,
18.75% and 5.25% for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively. The highest
variation was found to be in Gantry conveyor system.
2. With a constant filling rate of 5.555 kg/m and conveyor speed varying from 1 m/s
to 2 m/s. The amount of decrease in efficiency was found to be 13.63%, 11.52% and
1.64% for Gantry, 5L and Surface conveyors respectively. The highest variation
was found to be in Gantry conveyor system.
3. It was a common observation found with both the cases that for Gantry conveyor
the amount of variation is higher compared to 5L and surface conveyors. With a
long distance to travel the efficiency of the conveyor motor the variation in effi-
ciency is lesser which indicates that as the length increases the efficiency becomes
high and smooth.
4. A regression model was developed considering the above two cases the model had
an R-square value of 87.27%, and found to be statistically significant.
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industry and on possible policy mechanisms. Technical report, ICF Limited
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Shortcomings of Vibrating Screen
and Corrective Measures: A Review
S. Bharath Kumar1(&), Harsha Vardhan1, M. Govinda Raj1,

Marutiram Kaza2, Rameshwar Sah2, and H. Harish1
1
Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, India
shanmugabharathkumar@gmail.com
2
R & D and SS, JSW Steel Limited, Vijayanagar Works, P.O. Vidyanagar,
Ballari 583275, Karnataka, India
Abstract. Screening is a process of separating two or more materials of size

ranging from fine to coarse of different shapes, particle sizes and densities. The
conventional vibrating screen is widely used in mineral and mining industries
for performing sizing operation. This paper will be on the review of the various
shortcomings of the conventional vibrating screen. The review was carried out
through literature survey and plant visit. The paper also involves the remedial
measures to be taken to overcome the shortcomings of the conventional
vibrating screen. Some of the corrective measures are reduction in number of
components also reduces overall screen load, angular velocities, stress, wear or
damages to the screen, screen replacement, downtime and overall cost of pro-
duction. The circular vibrating motion provided to the screen will give larger
amplitude and stroke length of the screen which increases screening efficiency.
The overall outcome of remedial action will lead to improved screening effi-
ciency. This paper also provides the idea for the optimization of the vibrating
screen design which can reduce the power consumption, friction and also pro-
vide high screening output.
Keywords: Vibrating screen Power requirement Friction Support system

Screening efficiency
1 Introduction
The screening process is usually carried out for separating two or more materials of
different shapes, particle sizes and densities [1]. The vibrating screen has wide range of
application in minerals industries for the screening of minerals, mineral ores and ore
slurries [2]. It also has applications in mining industries especially in coal mining
industries [3]. Other applications of screening are in cement industries, food industries
and pharmaceutical industries [1]. The two major process of screening are particle
stratification and the passage of particles through the screen aperture [4]. During
screening process, the feed material is poured on the downwardly inclined vibrating
screen deck. Because of the vibration provided to the screen deck, the fine particles will
pass near the screen aperture and the process is referred as particle stratification. The

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_43
346 S. Bharath Kumar et al.
present investigation will be on the review of the various shortcomings of conventional

vibrating screen. The review on the shortcomings of the conventional vibrating screen
was carried out through literature survey and visit to the plant. The investigation also
involves the remedial measures to be considered to overcome the shortcoming of the
conventional vibrating screen.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Review on the Basics of Screening and Screening Efficiency
[5] theoretically studied the screening efficiency with respect to the screen slot size,
particle size and time length of screening. [4] utilized a flow model to determine the
interrelation, the stratification and the passage of particle through the screen aperture.
[6] utilized a flow model to study the influence of particle size distribution, feed rate
and bed thickness on the stratification and particle passage through the screen aperture.
[7] developed a method to control the efficiency of vibrating screens. The authors
noticed that the constant feeding rate and the percentage of particle passing during the
operation need to maintained for efficient screening process. [8] studied the particle
screening efficiency for the various effects of vibration parameters such as frequency
and swing declination angle. [9] studied the circularly vibrating screen performance
index such as screening efficiency and throughput capacity by considering the effects of
the amplitude, frequency and inclination angle of the screen deck. [10] analysed the
frequent failure occurrence in the vibrating screen.
2.2 Review on the Different Configuration and Motion Provided

to the Vibrating Screen
[11] developed gyratory screen with the increase in the relative movement of the deck
and also with improved efficiency. [12] developed a screen deck assembly system for
vibrating screen. [13] developed an independent screen deck assembly comprising of at
least one positive displacement mechanism and a hinge point about which angle of
inclination ‘a’ was provided to the screen deck. The range of angle of inclination ‘a’
provided to the screen are ±5°, ±15° and ±30°. The author described that the material
flow rate on the screen deck can be varied by varying the angle of inclination ‘a’ and
also the screen deck direction i.e., upward direction (for example −30°) or downward
direction (for example +30°). [14] developed a vibrating screen with angle adjustable
feeder. The vibrating screen consist of a vibrating motor with vibration force adjust-
ment and a front bracket with a pin and holes at various angle. Several others such as
[15, 16] have done significant works in developing different configurations of a screen.
2.3 Review on the Various Parts of the Screen Such as Screen, Motor
[17] developed an improved seal between the hopper and the vibrating box. [3]
developed a supporting frame for screening assembly. The authors suggested that the
support frame facilitates easy and rapid removal of the screen panel. The authors also
suggested that the reduction in downtime of the screen deck and improved efficiency
Shortcomings of Vibrating Screen and Corrective Measures: A Review 347
could be obtained from the installation of the support frame. [1] developed a method to
detect the breakage of a screen system. [2] developed a snap fit fastening arrangement
for fixing of the screen panel. [18] developed a screen clamp which can be attached
with sealing element such as chemical adhesive, mechanical fasteners or any other
method. [19] developed a mechanism for preventing the failure screen modules. [20]
developed a screen which is secured with the wedge like screen frame without the use
of bolts, clamps or additional parts reducing the number of the parts which reduces the
risk of accidental damage of vibrating screen. [21] developed a motor group for pro-
viding proper balance on the control of the larger vibrating force and the mass of the
vibrator to the vibrating screen.
3 Discussion on the Major Drawback of Conventional

Vibrating Screen
3.1 Basic Details of the Conventional Vibrating Screen

The study of the conventional vibrating screen was carried by visiting JSW cement
plant, Ballari. The vibrating screen used in cement plant was used to screen the cement
residues of particle size under 2 mm. The conventional vibrating screen mainly consists
of a base, screen, screen frame, two vibrators and four helical springs. The screen mesh
was fixed to the screen frame with fasteners as shown in Fig. 1. The angle of incli-
nation of the screen deck was found to be 7°. The vibration to the screen deck was
provided by two vibrating motors which was connected on the two sides of the
vibrating screen as shown in Fig. 2. The helical springs was connected between the
screen frame and the base structure at the four corners of the vibrating screen as shown
in Fig. 3. The fine materials collected from screening was utilized for the concrete
manufacturing.
Fig. 1. Screen connected to the screen frame with fasteners

Fig. 2. Vibrating motor in the conventional vibrating screen
Fig. 3. Helical springs attached between the screen frame and base structure
3.2 Shortcoming of the Conventional Vibrating Screen

The aim of the present study is to determine the shortcomings of conventional vibrating
screen. Some of the observation made on the shortcomings of the conventional
vibrating screen are as follows.
1. The vibrating screen has larger force of vibration and friction which causes the wear
of the machine parts. The higher friction of the conventional vibrating screen leads
to higher power requirement for instance in industries the motor power requirement
is around 7.5 kW to 15 kW.
2. The moisture content of the feed materials causes clogging of screen slots which
reduces the screening efficiency of the machine. The conventional vibrating screen
has reduced effect on the screen clogging because of the type of motion provided on
the screen.
3. The vibrating screen will have isolated system for instance in the Fig. 3 which
shows the helical springs used to carry out the load of the vibrating screen. If the
isolated system is not perfectly maintained, then there will be screen imbalance,
loosening of the mechanical fasteners, wear and fatigue of the machine parts.
4. The vibrating screen requires higher structural strength to withstand the load of the
machine parts and vibration produced by the machine defects.
5. The drawback such as loosening of the mechanical fasteners will produce the
variable critical frequency of one or more machine components which will be
vibrating at different stroke compared to the overall machine. The variable critical
frequency of one or more machine components will reduce the overall machine life.
6. The vibrating screen has reduced amplitude and stroke length. The amplitude and
stroke length can throw the material ahead causing loosening of the particle and also
helps stratification of the material on the screen.
7. The vibrating motion and the downward inclination of the screen will provide less
residence time to the feed materials on the screen thereby the time required for the
particle to meet the screen aperture will be reduced.
8. The overall screening efficiency in the vibrating screen will be reduced because of
large number of machine parts, larger force of vibration, friction, wear of the
machine parts, overloading, clogging of screen and low residence time of the feed
material.
3.3 Corrective Measures Need to Be Considered to Overcome

the Drawback of the Conventional Screen
1. The machine should be designed to have reduced number of machine components

thereby reducing the friction and power requirement. The reduction in number of
machine components will avoid the requirement of the higher structural strength of
the machine.
2. The reduction in number of machine components also reduces overall screen load,
angular velocities, stress, wear or damages to the screen, screen replacement,
downtime and overall cost of production.
3. The linear vibrating motion of the conventional vibrating screen needs to be
replaced with a motion such as circular vibrating motion in such a way that the
screening operation can be carried out with reduced blinding of the screen. The
circular vibrating motion provided to the screen will provide inertial force to the
screen
4. The circular vibrating motion provided to the screen will give larger amplitude and
stroke length of the screen which increases stratification of the particles on the
screen.
5. The circular vibrating motion provided to the screen will also reduce the velocity of
the particles on the screen which increases the residence time of the feed materials
on the screen.
6. The angle of screen inclination can be adjusted which can also be used to control
the residence time of the feed material.
The need of utilizing the circular motion to the screen can be seen from the work of
[22]. The work consists of development of a DEM model for the various vibrating
mode of the screening such as linear and circular vibration of the screen. It was found
that the travel velocity of particles on the screen was found to be higher for the linear
vibration and lower for the circular vibration. The results showed that the screening
efficiency of the machine was found to be higher for the circular vibrating screen when
compared with the linear vibrating screen. From the result, it was cleared that the linear
vibrating motion of the vibrating screen can be replaced with circular vibrating motion
which increases screening efficiency.
4 Conclusion
Some of the observation on the shortcomings of conventional vibrating screen has been
presented. The review was carried out through literature survey and plant visit. The
remedial measures such as reducing the number of machine components and
replacement of linear vibrating motion with circular vibrating motion to the vibrating
screen need to be mainly considered to overcome the shortcomings of the conventional
vibrating screen. The reduction in number of components also reduces overall screen
load, angular velocities, stress, wear or damages to the screen, screen replacement,
downtime and overall cost of production. The circular vibrating motion provided to the
screen will give larger amplitude and stroke length of the screen which increases
screening efficiency. The overall outcome of remedial action will lead to improved
screening efficiency.
References
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3. Ronald Johnson RM (2006) Support frame. International publication number-
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4. Soldinger M (1999) Interrelation of stratification and passage in the screening process. Miner
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5. Victor Grozubinsky IJL, Sultanovitch E (1998) Efficiency of solid particle screening as a

function of screen slot size, particle size and duration of screening: the theoretical approach.
Int J Miner Process 52(4):261–272
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Miner Eng 13(3):297–312
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screens. International publication number-WO2007014444A1
8. Xiao J, Tong X (2013) Characteristics and efficiency of a new vibrating screen with a swing
trace. Particuology 11(5):601–606
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based on DEM simulation and taguchi orthogonal experimental design. Powder Technol 3
(10):307–317
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reconfigurable vibrating screen using finite element analysis. Case Stud Eng Fail Anal 9
(June):40–51
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13. Carr BS (2004) Independent deck assemble. Patent Publication number-US20110084004A1
14. Right C (2012) Angle-adjustable feeder. International publication number-CN102641849A
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International publication number-US20130037450A1
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17. Lower WE (1981) Screening machine. International publication number-US4251354
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number-US20100006481A1
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publication number-US20110133583A1
22. Dong H, Liu C, Zhao Y, Zhao L (2013) Influence of vibration mode on the screening
process. Int J Min Sci Technol 23(1):95–98
Quantification of Rock Strength Using
the Mechanical Drilling Parameters
C. R. Lakshminarayana1(&), Anup K. Tripathi1, and Samir K. Pal2

1
Department of Mining Engineering, N.I.T.K,
Surathkal 575025, Karnataka, India
crlaks042@gmail.com, anuptripathitech@gmail.com
2
Department of Mining Engineering, IIT,
Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India
palsk@mining.iitkgp.ernet.in
Abstract. The estimation of rock strength is most often required for the pre-
liminary stage of rock engineering projects. The determination of rock strength
properties in the laboratory is reliable, but the availability of a number of fine
quality core samples for lab testing is very difficult. In this study, an attempt is
made to investigate the usability of variations of thrust developed at the rock-bit
interface and vibration frequency generated in the drilling machine head for
estimation of rock strength during the rotary drilling. The variation of thrust and
vibration frequency during drilling is measured using sophisticated digital type
drilling dynamometer and data acquisition system (DAQ) with accelerometer
sensor respectively. The second order regression models were developed to
predict the rock strength such as uniaxial compressive strength considering the
machine operating parameters and measured variables. The evaluation of the
prediction ability of the developed models was checked using the three per-
formance indices known as VAF, RMSE, and MAPE. The results revealed that
the approached method is highly efficient for estimation of rock strength during
rotary drilling.
Keywords: Uniaxial compressive strength Vibration signal

Vibration frequency FFT Frequency domain Drilling dynamometer
1 Introduction
Rock mechanics deals with the study of mechanical and physical properties of rocks.
The vital mechanical property of rocks such as a uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS) is often used in many engineering projects concerned with a rock engineering
background [1]. The determination of UCS in the laboratory is reliable, but it is
expensive, time-consuming and often high-quality core specimens are needed for the
test [2]. It is not always possible to obtain a sufficient amount of fine quality drilled
cores from weak, highly fractured, weathered and thin layers of rock matrix [3].
Therefore, the engineers and geologists have been attracted to quantify the rock
strength indirectly through the use of predictive empirical models [4]. Some of the
indirect tests such as point load, Schmidt hammer, and p-wave velocity tests are often

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_44
Quantification of Rock Strength Using the Mechanical Drilling Parameters 353
used to estimate rock strength [5–7]. However, the standard samples for the indirect test
may not always possible for weak or soft rocks such as sedimentary rock type.
Recently, the quantification of rock properties during the drilling was investigated by
many researchers with acceptable level errors. The mechanical drilling parameters such
as bit diameter, bit speed, weight on bit and corresponding penetration rate, sound level
and many more physical parameters have been used to correlate with various rock
properties. From the earlier investigation on the characterization of rocks, estimation of
rock properties during drilling is found easy, less time consuming and also economical
as no core samples of rocks are required. The mechanical drilling parameters like bit
load or thrust, speed and penetration rate of diamond drill bit have a strong relationship
with rock mass strength [8]. Finfinger et al. [9] attempted to identify the properties of
overlaying rocks in underground mines during rock bolting operation. It was observed
that there is considerable variation of thrust and torque as the drill bit moves to different
rock layers. Stuart et al. [10] proposed a method for quantification of formation
properties around an oil well by analyzing the acoustic waves generated at the bottom
hole assembly of drill unit. An investigation on sound level produced during the
drilling of different rocks using a portable pneumatic drilling machine was made by
Vardhan et al. [11]. The results revealed that the sound level linearly increases as the
UCS of rocks increases. Kumar et al. [12] attempted to predict the uniaxial compressive
strength, tensile strength and porosity of sedimentary rocks using sound level produced
during rotary drilling. The prediction mathematical model for each property was
developed using the drilling parameters and equivalent sound level. It was observed
that the sound level produced during drilling was increased as the UCS of rocks
increases and the sound level was decreased as the porosity of rocks increases. The
evaluation of the prediction model concluded that the equations would be useful for the
preliminary stage of mining engineering design projects. Yari and Bagherpour [13, 14]
have conducted the experimental investigation to estimate the geomechanical proper-
ties of igneous rocks as well as sedimentary rocks using the five dominant frequency of
an acoustic signal acquired during rotary drilling. The dominant frequency was
extracted from the time domain acoustic signal using Fast Fourier transformation
(FFT). The results revealed that the fourth dominant frequency is capable of predicting
the UCS and tensile strength with a high coefficient of determination value. The study
on identification of rocks based on acoustic signal parameter gathered while drilling
was made by the Zborovjan et al. [15]. The results revealed that the analysis of the
frequency component of the acoustic signal is useful for identification of rock type and
controlling the rock disintegration process. Lakshminarayana et al. [16] attempted to
predict some physico-mechanical properties of sedimentary rocks using the drilling
parameter and the maximum or sometimes referred as dominant frequency of vibration
induced at spindle head of conventional rotary drilling machine. It was observed that
the vibration frequency at spindle head was increased as the properties of rocks such as
uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength increases during the drilling. During
drilling, an attempt was made by Rostami et al. [17] to detect the voids in rocks using
the vibration data acquired at the drill head. It was observed that the amplitude of
vibration would be less when the drill bit enters into the porous region of rocks.
In this study, an attempt is made to estimate the UCS of sedimentary rocks using
the machine operating parameters (penetration rate, bit dia, bit speed) and the
354 C. R. Lakshminarayana et al.
mechanical data measured during the rotary drilling such as thrust or weight on the bit
and vibration frequency of machine head. The different amount of thrusts acting on the
bit during drilling was measured by dynamometer and the vibration parameter was
measured using the data acquisition system (DAQ).
2 Experimental Investigation
The experiment was conducted using the sedimentary rock samples such as shale,
sandstone and limestone. The samples were directly collected from the field. The rock
specimens were prepared by cutting off the rock samples into a cubic block of size
15 cm 15 cm 15 cm. While collecting the rock samples, a proper inspection was
carried out for macroscopic defects such as fractures and joints.
2.1 Experimental Setup

In this experiment, a heavy duty BMV 45 T20 computerized numerical control
(CNC) vertical machining center was used for drilling the rock samples as shown in
Fig. 1. The thrust and torque variations of the drill bit during the drilling of each type of
rock sample were measured using the drill tool dynamometer. Similarly, the vibration
frequency of the machine head was measured using the vibration data acquisition
system (DAQ). The drilling operation was done using the diamond core drill bits of
uniform shank length 30 mm and diameter of 12 and 16 mm. The different drilling
operational parameters such as rotational speed of bit and penetration rate were set in
the CNC machine by numerical control (NC) programming method.
Accelerometer
Fig. 1. Experimental setup

Drilling Dynamometer
During the drilling of different rocks, the amount of thrust acting and torque developed
at the bit-rock interface were measured using the sophisticated drilling dynamometer.
The measuring range of thrust in the dynamometer was 0 ± 5000 N and the measuring
range for the torque was 0 ± 50 N-m. Basically, the dynamometer consists of a
cylinder fitted with steel plates at both ends. The bottom plate can be fixed to t-slots of
machine table using bolt and nut. Similarly, the machine vice used for holding the rock
sample can be fixed directly to the top plate of dynamometer using suitable bolt and
nuts. The analog output from the dynamometer is connected to the digital indicator of
dynamometer which shows the numerical value of thrust and torque.
Measurement of Vibration Frequency of the Machine Head During Drilling
The vibration frequency of the CNC machine head was measured using the
sound/vibration data acquisition system (DAQ). The DAQ system basically consists of
DAQ hardware, IEPE accelerometer and LabVIEW application software. The NI-9234
model DAQ hardware was used for converting the analog signal into a digital type. The
important specification of DAQ hardware is as follows
• Number of the channel - 4
• ADC resolution - 24 bits
• Sampling rate -1.652 Ks/s to 51.2 Ks/s.
• Frequency - 13.1072 MHz
The mounting of an integrated electronic piezo-eclectic (IEPE) accelerometer on
the machine head using the magnetic type mount is shown in Fig. 1. The specification
of IEPE accelerometer as follows.
• Model: YMC121A10 IEPE
• Sensitivity: 9.81 Mv/g
Initially, the accelerometer is fixed on the machine head using the magnetic mount.
The output from the accelerometer is connected to DAQ hardware using the single-
ended BNC connector. The DAQ is a signal conditioning device which converts the
analog signal captured from the accelerometer into a digital signal. The digital signal
coming out from the DAQ hardware is in turn connected to laptop installed with
LabVIEW application software. The application software process the signal and rep-
resenting the vibration data in the time domain as shown in Fig. 2. The maximum
vibration frequency (Z) or dominant frequency is usually meant the one that carries
more energy with respect to all the other frequencies in the considered spectrum. The
example of dominant frequency at which the machine head (Z = 327 Hz) was vibrating
for a particular operating parameter during the drilling of shale is shown in Fig. 3. The
extraction of frequency data from the time domain vibration signal was achieved using
the Fast Fourier transformation (FFT) graphical program in LabVIEW application
software.
Fig. 2. Time domain signal
Fig. 3. Frequency domain signal
3 Methodology
3.1 Determination of Thrust, Torque and Vibration Frequency

During the drilling of different sedimentary rocks using the CNC vertical machining
center, the variations of thrust acting and torque developed at the bit-rock interface, and
the variations of vibration frequency at the machine head were recorded. The stan-
dardized cubical rock sample of size 15 cm 15 cm 15 cm was tightly fixed in the
CNC machine vice. The different machine operational parameters such as drill bit
diameter, drill bit speed, and penetration rate were used for drilling the rock samples.
For each rock type, a total of 32 holes having a constant depth of 50 mm are drilled
using the 32 (2 drill bit dia 4 drill bit speed 4 penetration rate) combinations of
machine operational parameters (12 and 16 mm drill bit, 400, 500, 600 and 700 r.p.m
drill bit speed and a penetration rate of 2, 3, 4 and 5 mm/min). During the drilling for a
particular machine operational parameter, the numerical value of thrust was continu-
ously varying as the drill bit was advancing through a 50 mm depth hole. As the drill
bit is moving to 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mm depth, the corresponding reading of five
thrust values were taken down at those depths using the digital indicators of the
dynamometer. Later, the arithmetic average of five thrust was calculated for a particular
machine operating condition. Similarly, the vibration signal of 1 s having 5 iterations
emanated from the machine head was captured and its corresponding vibration fre-
quency was noted down at the same mentioned depths using the frequency domain data
in LabVIEW application software. But the vibration frequency captured five times for a
particular operating condition was found almost consistent.
The direct measurement of UCS is measured in well-established rock mechanics
laboratory. The uniaxial compressive strength of different sedimentary rocks was
measured using the micro-controlled type AIM-317E-MU compression testing

machine. An NX size specimen having a diameter of 54 mm and a length of 135 mm
were prepared and the UCS of rock specimen was determined as per the guidelines
suggested by ISRM. Before testing the specimen for UCS the specimen was completely
dried using an electric oven. At least three specimens were used for testing the UCS.
The arithmetic mean of all three rock specimen was considered for analysis purpose.
In the current experiment, a total of 192 data (6 rock types 32 test conditions) of
each measured parameters i.e., thrust and vibration frequency is acquired during the
rotary drilling. For developing the multiple regression models, the thrust and vibration
frequency is used along with the machine operational parameters. The maximum and
minimum values of measured variables which are selected from the 32 data set of each
rock sample are summarized in Table 1. During the drilling process, the variation in
thrust and vibration frequency is affected by so many factors in a complex way.
Therefore, a detailed process is defined by second-order multiple regression models.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out in order to know which variable is
significantly influencing the response. The considered responses are UCS and BTS.
The machine operational parameters are identified as drill bit diameter (D) in mm, drill
bit speed(S) in r.p.m and penetration rate (PR) in mm/min. Similarly, the measured
variables which are varying due to machine operational parameters and rock properties
are thrust (T) in Newton and vibration frequency (Z) in Hertz.
Table 1. Mechanical rock properties and range of measured variables during drilling
Rock sample UCS (Mpa) BTS (Mpa) Thrust (N) Vibration
frequency (Hz)
min max min max
Shale 19.6 2.3 315 635 327 626
Sandstone-1 37.5 3.4 397 802 330 629
Sandstone-2 63.8 4.1 495 1009 337 642
Limestone-1 93.1 7.5 567 1130 340 656
Limestone-2 119 8.1 617 1207 342 667
Limestone-3 142.6 10.2 672 1315 345 669
The variations of selected measured variables (thrust and vibration frequency) are
the function of machine operating parameters and mechanical properties of rocks. The
mathematical model for establishing the relationship between rock properties and
considered variables can be written as y = f (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) + w where y is the
response and x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 are the machine operational parameter and measured
variables, and w is fitting error. In general, the second order model can be represented
as follows
Xn Xn Xn
f ¼ ao þ ax þ
i¼1 i i
a x2 þ
i¼1 ij i i\j
aij xi xj þ w ð1Þ
where, ai represents the linear effect of xi , aij represents the quadratic effect of xi , and aij
in fourth term represents the interaction effect produced due to the linear interaction of
xi and xj . In developing the multiple regression models, the backward elimination
method was used as a screening technique. In ANOVA table, if absolute t value of an
independent variable was not greater than the tabulated t value at 95% confidence level,
then that particular independent variable was removed and the multiple regression
procedure was continued using the remaining independent variables. The procedure is
repeated until the remaining independent variables could not be removed from the
model and that corresponding generated regression model was selected.
4.1 Prediction of Uniaxial Compressive Strength

The best prediction model developed for uniaxial compressive strength is:
UCS ¼ 77:4 31:60 PR 2:151 S 3:745 D þ 0:1787 T þ 2:861 Z þ 2:698 PR2

0:000804 Z 2 þ 0:01823 PR S 0:01616 PR T
ð2Þ
The Eq. (2) represents the best second-order multiple regression model developed
for prediction of UCS. From Table 2 it was concluded that the developed model
explains 93.60% of the total variation in the observed UCS. The significance of
regression coefficients are illustrated in Table 3. In this, the value of p for all the terms
are statistically significant at p < 0.05 for 95% confidence level and also the calculated
absolute t values are much higher than the tabulated t values (for 95% confidence level
and 9 degrees of freedom, for k = n − 1, t = 1.860). It is therefore concluded that all
the terms generated in the selected regression model are significantly influencing the
UCS. The influence of linear, square and interaction terms of the regression model is
explained in ANOVA Table 4. The linear terms are significantly influencing the UCS.
The calculated F value is sufficiently greater than the tabulated F value of 3.36 to
explain the adequacy of the developed model. Figure 4 indicates the comparison of the
UCS of rocks measured in the laboratory and the UCS predicted using the prediction
model. The predicted values are very close to the measured values. So that it is
concluded that the developed models are highly efficient.
Table 2. Model summary for UCS

2
R Adjusted R2 Predicted R2 Standard error
93.60 93.28 92.89 11.29
Table 3. Regression coefficients and their significance

Predictors Regression coefficients T-value p-value
Constant 77.4 2.66 0.008
PR −31.60 −4.60 0.000
S −2.151 −14.27 0.000
D −3.745 −8.97 0.000
T 0.1787 7.96 0.000
Z 2.861 9.59 0.000
PR2 2.698 3.03 0.003
Z2 −0.000804 −5.14 0.000
PR S 0.01823 2.72 0.007
PR T −0.01616 −3.57 0.000
Table 4. ANOVA (UCS)

Source of variations DF Adj SS Adj MS F-value p-value
Model 9 339185 37687.3 516.66 0.000
Linear 5 58788 11757.4 460.9 0.000
Square 2 4553 2276.45 35.69 0.000
Interaction 2 2560 1279.75 20.07 0.000
Error 182 23214 127.6 – –
Total 191 362400 – – –
Fig. 4. Comparison of measured and predicted UCS
4.2 Evaluation of Prediction Performance of the Developed Model

In the present study, the efficiency or prediction capacity of the developed models are
investigated using the three indices known as variance account for (VAF), root mean
square error (RMSE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE).

varðm pÞ
VAF ¼ 1 100 ð3Þ
varðmÞ
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u1 X
RMSE ¼ t ðm pÞ2 ð4Þ
N i¼1
N
1X ðm pÞ
MAPE ¼ 100 ð5Þ
N i¼1 m
In Eqs. (3)–(5), ‘m’ and ‘p’ are representing the UCS measured in the laboratory
and the UCS obtained using the predictive model respectively. Similarly, the N rep-
resents the number of data used. The model would predict the response with zero errors
if the VAF and RMSE values are 100 and 0 respectively. The MAPE indicates the
absolute percentage error or accuracy of the model in terms of percentage. The values
of VAF, RMSE, and MAPE for the developed models are tabulated in Table 5.
Table 5. Indices of prediction capacity of the derived models

Dependent variable Indices of performance
VAF (%) RMSE (Dependent variable units) MAPE (%)
UCS (Mpa) 93.60 10.99 15.09
5 Conclusions
In this experimental investigation, the machine operating parameters along with the
measured variables such as thrust developed at bit-rock interface and vibration fre-
quency induced at machine head during the rotary drilling were used to predict some of
the mechanical properties of sedimentary rocks. For rock drilling, the CNC vertical
milling centre with different penetration rate, speed and drill bit diameter was used as
the machine operational parameters. The thrust and vibration frequency was measured
for all machine operating conditions and the same was used for developing the pre-
diction models.
• It was observed that the thrust developed at the bit-rock interface was significantly
increased as the UCS of rocks increases during the drilling.
• The vibration frequency was moderately changed as UCS of rocks increased.
• The evaluation of the prediction performance of the developed model indicated that
the predictive models are well efficient to predict the UCS of sedimentary rocks
with an acceptable level error.
• Therefore, it was concluded that the suggested approach can be successfully used
for preliminary investigation of UCS which is often used as a primary data for the
design of mining and civil engineering projects.
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Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy
Earth Moving Machinery Operators
Jeripotula Sandeep Kumar(&), Mangalpady Aruna,

and Mandela Govinda Raj
Department of Mining Engineering,

N.I.T.K., Surathkal 575025, Karnataka, India
sandeepnitk35@gmail.com, arunamangalpady@gmail.com,
mandelaraj88@gmail.com
Abstract. Operators of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery (HEMM) performing

routine tasks in surface mines are highly vulnerable to whole body vibration
(WBV) due to their continuous exposure to vibration. In the present study
seventeen types of machinery were considered for the evaluation of the opera-
tor’s exposure to WBV. The measurements were made by placing the triaxial
seat pad accelerometer on operator’s seat-surface as well as at the seat-back.
Among these machinery one shovel, two front-end loaders, three drills, one
grader and one water sprinkler were found to have RMS values in the severe
zone as per ISO2631-1:1997 standards for seat-surface measurements. Simi-
larly, for the seat-back measurements, one front-end loader, two drills, one
grader and one water sprinkler were experienced the highest RMS value. For
both seat-surface and seat-back measurements, Z-axis (i.e. vertical direction)
was found to be a prominent axis for most of the machinery.
Keywords: Surface mine Whole-body vibration Occupational hazard

Mine safety
1 Introduction
Mechanical oscillation produced by the machinery, when enters the human body
through supporting surface either through lower pelvic bones during sitting posture or
through the feet when in standing posture is known as Whole Body Vibration (WBV).
Professional drivers and industrial vehicle operators are prone to health risk due to
exposure to whole body vibration [1]. Occupational exposure to vibration has a well-
established impact on health [2, 3]. It also has an impact on the operator’s performance
and comfort [4]. During the execution of daily tasks in surface mines, a wide range of
machineries are used, which imparts WBV risk to their operators [5–7]. Workers
exposed to WBV are susceptible to the high prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs). The parts of the body most affected by the vibration depend on direction,
duration, frequency and magnitude of vibration, and also body posture of the person.
Epidemiological studies revealed that long-term exposure to vibration causes health
problems, like lumbar spine degeneration, aggravation of lower back pain etc. [8].
The WBV has accounted for sick leave, loss of working hours, disability and chronic
pain among workers [9].
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_45
Evaluation of Whole Body Vibration of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery Operators 363
A study performed by the National Institute of Miners Health (NIMH) considering

two mechanized mines reported that 18% of the employees were at higher risk due to
occupational exposure to vibration [10]. In India, though the Directorate General of
Mines Safety (DGMS) recommended suitable measures to ensure the safety and
comfort of the workers against WBV, no specific limits of vibration were prescribed for
the miners [11]. The DGMS in its tenth conference on mine safety has strongly pro-
posed to conduct vibration studies of heavy machinery before it is put to use for
fieldwork [12]. Indian mines legislation has not so far designed a unique plan which
deals with measuring and prevention against the vibration exposure.
Previous research findings pertaining to WBV of haul trucks in open pit mines
demonstrated that the vibration level in most of the cases exceeded the threshold values
as prescribed by ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines [13]. Despite drift from non-mechanized
to fully mechanized mines, operators spend more time on Heavy Earth Moving
Machinery (HEMM) [14]. Mechanization of the mining operation has improved pro-
ductivity to a large extent; however risk due to occupational exposure to vibration has
also increased. Studies conducted so far in Indian surface mines for evaluation of WBV
is specifically with respect to the operator’s seat-surface measurements. The main
objectives of the present study are to measure and evaluate the WBV levels of HEMM
operator’s in Indian surface mines by placing the triaxial accelerometer on operator’s
seat-surface as well as at the seat-back. The obtained results were evaluated to perform
risk analysis based on ISO-2631-1:1997 [15] and EU directive 2002 guidelines [16].
2 Instrumentation and Methodology

2.1 Field Study and Instrumentation
For carrying out WBV study on HEMM operators two mechanized surface coal mines
were selected from the southern part of India, which are named as Mine I and Mine II,
here afterward in this paper. Mine I was operated by dragline and shovel-dumper
combination, whereas Mine II was operated by shovel-dumper combination along with
in-pit crusher conveying (ICC) system. The list of machinery considered for evaluation
of WBV from the Mine I and Mine II are encapsulated in Table 1.
Table 1. Machinery considered for the study from Mine I and Mine II
S. no Mine Machinery* Make Model Capacity
1 I Dragline BEML BHEEM 30.6 m3
2A I Shovel TATA-HITACHI EX-1200 5 m3
2B I Shovel KOMATSU PC-2000-8 12 m3
2C II Shovel TATA-HITACHI EX 1200-V 5.5 m3
2D II Shovel KOMATSU PC-2008 12.5 m3
3A I Front End Loader1 L&T 1920 LT-09 4.6 m3
3B II Front End Loader2 Tata 3036 T-18 2.1 m3
4A I Drill 1 ATLAS COPCO DM-37 150 mm
(continued)
364 J. S. Kumar et al.
S. no Mine Machinery* Make Model Capacity
4B I Drill2 REL DM-22 250 mm
4C II Drill3 REL DM-28 150 mm
5 I Crane Escort ACE FX120 12 ton
6 II Spreader KRUPP FORDER TECHNIK GMBH 813 ton
7A I Grader1 BEML MG-11 16 ft blade
7B II Grader2 BEML MG-15 16 ft blade
7C II Grader3 Volvo MG-19 16 ft blade
8A I Water Sprinkler1 BEML WT-20 28 KL
8B II Water Sprinkler2 BEML WT-24 28 KL
*The present study includes seventeen types of machinery with varies make models and capacity.
For measuring the WBV of HEMM operators a triaxial accelerometer named

SV106 Human Vibration Meter and Analyzer was used as a data logger. This data
logger is compatible with the ISO2631-1:1997 Standards. The accelerometer needs a
4.8 V power supply and it is designed to work in the temperature range of −10 °C to
50 °C. The frequency range of the accelerometer was set at 0.1 Hz 2 kHz. The
accelerometer has a data sampling rate of 6 kHz.
2.2 Methodology
As per ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines the readings were taken by placing the
accelerometer on the operator’s seat-surface as well as at the seat-back, as shown in
Fig. 1. Care was taken to confirm that seat pad triaxial accelerometer is firmly fixed to
the operator’s seat-surface and seat-back during the entire measurement process. The
readings were recorded at each position (i.e. seat-surface and seat-back) for 15 min for
all the machinery under consideration.
(a) At operators seat-surface (b) At operators seat-back
Fig. 1. Triaxial accelerometer placed for taking readings

2.3 Ethical Clearance

Prior to the collection of data related to the machine vibration a formal consent was
obtained from the mine management. The operators were informed in local language
about the purpose of the study, and also they were made to understand the risk
underlying while performing daily tasks in the mines.
3 Vibration Standards
As given in sub-clause 5.1 of ISO 2631-1 (1997) standards, the intensity of vibration is
measured considering three orthogonal axes with respect to acceleration values (i.e. in
m/s2). In the event of the absence of shock wave, frequency weighted acceleration
(The r.m.s vibration magnitude represents the average acceleration over a measurement
period) is applied to quantify acceleration intensity, which is given by Eq. (1).
Z T 1=2
aw ¼ 1=T a2w ðtÞdt ð1Þ
0
Where, aw(t) = Frequency weighted instantaneous acceleration at time t (m/s2), and

T = period of measurement (sec).
A parameter is known as Crest Factor (ratio of peak acceleration to RMS) when
exceeds a value of 9, an additional parameter known as Vibration Dose Value (VDV) is
used for evaluation and prediction of health risk, where peak values are more than
9 times the corresponding RMS values. VDV is based on the fourth power of accel-
eration and thus more sensitive to shocks compared to RMS magnitude which is given
by Eq. (2).
Z T 14
4
VDV ¼ ½aw ðtÞ ð2Þ
0
Where, aw (t) = Frequency weighted instantaneous acceleration at time t (m/s2), and

T = Period of measurement (sec).
ISO 2631-1:1997 guidelines provide criteria known as “Health Guidance Caution
Zone” (HGCZ) based on which health risk prediction is carried out. If the exposure is
below HGCZ, it refers to no documentation of any ill health effect. If the vibration
exposure is in the range of HGCZ, the operator must be cautioned with regard to
potential health risk, and when the exposure exceeds the HGCZ there will be likely
health risk for the operator. In addition to ISO 2631-1:1997 guidelines, the measured
vibration levels were also analyzed as per European Union Directive 2002. The EU
2002 directive considers two factors, namely the Exposure Action Value (EAV) and
Exposure Limit Value (ELV). Exposure action value means the level of daily vibration
exposure to whole-body vibration (WBV) for any worker above which steps should be
taken to reduce exposure to WBV. Exposure limit value means the level of daily
vibration exposure to WBV for any worker which should not be exceeded.
The threshold values set for risk assessment based on ISO 2631-1:1997 and EU
Directive 2002 standards are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Table 2. Summarized RMS and VDV threshold values for WBV health risk assessment based
on ISO 2631-1:1997
Parameter Threshold vibration value (HGCZ)*
RMS (m/s2) <0.5 Moderate
0.5–0.8 Caution zone
>0.8 Severe zone (likely risk)
VDV (m/s1.75) <8.5 Moderate
8.5–17 Caution zone
>17 Severe zone (likely risk)
*Health Guidance Caution Zone
Table 3. Summarized EAV and ELV threshold values for WBV health risk assessment based
on the EU 2002 directive
Parameter RMS (m/s2) VDV (m/s1.75)
EAV* 0.5 9.1
ELV* 1.15 21
*EAV (Exposure Action Value)
*ELV (Exposure limit Value)
Three vibration measurement parameters, such as RMS, VDV and CRF for seventeen
types of machinery (i.e. dragline-1nos., shovel-4nos., front end loader-2nos., drill-
3nos., spreader-1nos., crane-1nos., grader-3nos., water sprinkler-2nos.) were recorded
by placing the accelerometer on the seat-surface as well as at the seat-back of the
operators. Tables 4 and 5 indicate the WBV data w.r.t x-axis (i.e. fore-aft direction), y-
axis (i.e. lateral direction) and z-axis (i.e. vertical direction) for seat-surface and seat-
back measurements, respectively.
Table 4. WBV data for seat-surface measurement

a 2
S. no RMS (m/s )* VDV (m/s1.75)** CRF***
Fore-aft Lateral Vertical Fore-aft Lateral Vertical Fore-aft Lateral Vertical
1 0.10 0.04 0.24 0.67 0.28 1.81 6.63 7.70 7.74
2A 0.26 0.27 0.55 1.84 2.04 4.45 6.74 6.65 10.58
2B 0.20 0.39 0.49 2.39 3.75 8.42 9.12 10.69 39.17
2C 0.39 0.37 0.80 2.33 2.13 4.35 5.92 5.77 4.72
(continued)
a 2
S. no RMS (m/s )* VDV (m/s1.75)** CRF***
2D 0.27 0.36 0.61 2.40 2.86 4.47 9.79 7.23 7.77
3A 0.82 0.47 0.36 5.30 3.02 2.39 5.41 5.94 6.97
3B 0.35 0.68 0.92 3.99 4.86 7.95 16.22 7.19 14.27
4A 0.43 0.42 0.96 2.32 2.21 5.48 4.31 4.42 6.14
4B 0.61 0.45 1.09 2.88 2.37 5.32 4.60 6.59 4.91
4C 0.48 0.48 0.8 2.98 2.92 5.24 5.30 5.27 6.36
5 0.29 0.33 0.19 1.62 1.88 1.10 3.77 4.04 5.00
6 0.29 0.26 0.56 2.30 2.04 4.88 6.98 7.35 10.17
7A 0.48 0.47 0.92 3.71 4.75 7.61 8.07 10.91 10.32
7B 0.49 0.62 0.64 6.47 6.65 5.92 31.51 24.41 21.93
7C 0.51 0.47 0.76 5.20 4.68 6.58 15.28 9.18 8.38
8A 0.34 0.41 0.76 2.22 3.17 4.81 13.12 14.74 9.77
8B 0.02 0.58 1.00 0.02 3.94 7.49 37.03 5.22 9.32
*RMS (Root Mean Square Measured in m/s2)
**VDV (Vibration Dose Value measured in m/s1.75)
***CRF (Crest Factor)
a
Machineries are designated with different set of Serial numbers for simplified representation.
Table 5. WBV data for seat-back measurement

a 2
S.No RMS (m/s ) VDV (m/s1.75) CRF
1 0.08 0.08 0.19 0.65 0.68 1.60 8.24 9.71 11.87
2A 0.19 0.30 0.48 1.48 2.22 4.01 9.0 5.53 11.79
2B 0.64 0.38 0.77 5.76 4.56 6.20 18.64 28.12 12.79
2C 0.41 0.28 0.46 2.22 1.62 2.67 4.67 5.82 6.79
2D 0.26 0.24 0.53 1.92 1.89 4.44 6.90 13.76 22.54
3A 0.63 0.65 0.40 4.04 4.18 2.83 5.96 6.52 9.10
3B 0.74 0.73 1.05 4.84 4.77 11.91 6.98 6.98 22.65
4A 0.46 0.59 0.72 3.45 3.35 5.49 5.64 6.38 5.74
4B 0.38 0.39 0.86 2.50 2.67 4.99 6.17 8.11 4.39
4C 0.67 0.51 1.08 2.82 2.25 4.49 4.60 5.16 4.81
5 0.27 0.43 0.40 1.66 2.46 2.67 12.29 4.38 10.21
6 0.36 0.42 0.48 2.22 2.00 4.78 6.12 6.34 10.83
7A 0.70 0.61 1.40 6.06 4.11 12.69 18.79 8.46 16.42
7B 0.61 0.78 0.79 5.28 5.18 8.86 22.00 11.42 31.92
7C 0.77 0.62 0.73 7.89 6.18 11.68 12.16 13.47 34.47
8A 0.86 0.46 0.46 5.11 4.15 5.10 11.16 8.98 19.66
8B 0.06 0.63 0.50 0.02 4.28 3.75 21.45 5.62 9.61
a
Machinery are designated different set of Serial numbers for simplified representation.
4.1 Risk Analysis of Seat-Surface Measurements

As indicated in Table 4, the RMS values of three machineries (i.e., front end loader–3A
reported 0.82 m/s2 followed by drill–4B and grader–7C with 0.61 m/s2 and 0.51 m/s2,
respectively) in X-direction have exceeded the threshold vibration limit value of
0.5 m/s2 as stipulated by ISO-2631-1:1997 and EU directive 2002 guidelines. Among
all the machinery under consideration, though water sprinkler – 8B has shown high
crest factor of 37.03 its VDV remains much below the moderate level, as per by
ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines. When measurements were evaluated in Y-direction, front
end loader-3B has indicated highest RMS value of 0.682 m/s2 followed by grader-7B
and water sprinkler-8B with 0.62 m/s2 and 0.58 m/s2, respectively. Hence, the afore-
mentioned machinery was falling in caution zone as per ISO 2631-1:1997 guidelines
and also they exceed the EAV as per EU 2002 Directive. Though the crest factor of
grader-7B is 24.41, the measured VDV of all the machinery were less than 8.5 m/s1.75
i.e. below moderate zone as per ISO 2631-1:1997 guidelines.
It was evident from the obtained results that the WBV in Z-direction is prominent
when compared to X-direction and Y-direction, which is corroborates with the litera-
ture. Except for four machineries (i.e. dragline, shovel, spreader and front end loader),
the RMS value of six machineries I are in caution zone (i.e. shovel–2A with 0.55 m/s2,
shovel–2D with 0.61 m/s2, crane–6 with 0.56 m/s2, grader–7B with 0.64 m/s2, grader–
7C with 0.76 m/s2 and water sprinkler–8A with 0.76 m/s2) and seven equipments in
severe zone (shovel–2C with 0.80 m/s2, front end loader-3B with 0.92 m/s2, drill–4A
with 0.96 m/s2, drill-4B with 1.09 m/s2, drill-4C with 0.8 m/s2, grader–7A with
0.92 m/s2 and water sprinkler–8B with 1.00 m/s2).
In Z-direction, the crest factor of the shovel–2B is 39.17, which is quite high
compared to all the other machinery. However, it’s RMS and VDV are just nearing the
moderate zone values, as stipulated by ISO 2631-1:1997 guidelines. The RMS values
in Z-direction for all the machinery was found lower than ELV of 1.15 m/s2, whereas
for except four types of machinery (i.e. dragline, shovel–2B, spreader and front end
loader–3A), the EAV of all the others were exceeding 0.5 m/s2, as per EU 2002
directive. Among all the machinery under consideration, drill (which is crawler
mounted) experiences highest RMS due to frequent marching and drilling operation.
Similarly, grader being the earth cutting machine suffers sudden jolting and jarring
action when boulders and hard formation hit the cutting blade en route of its move-
ment. Also, front end loader when moving on uneven terrains, its tyres roll over a small
boulder, which emanates vibration beyond normal levels (whereas in case of dragline
and shovels there will be the only movement of the bucket and its arm during loading
and unloading operation). Further, front end loaders are often required to change its
direction suddenly, causing lateral and fore-aft vibration.
4.2 Risk Analysis of Seat-Back Measurements

As indicated in Table 5, considering the health risk evaluation in X-direction, water
sprinkler-8A was the only machinery found to have RMS value of 0.86 m/s2, which is
in the severe zone as per ISO-2631:1997 guidelines. All graders (i.e. 7A, 7B and 7C)
showed RMS values in the caution zone with 0.70 m/s2, 0.61 m/s2 and 0.774 m/s2,
respectively. Likewise, among four shovels, only one shovel (i.e. shovel–2B) of 12 m3
capacity depicted an RMS value of 0.64 m/s2. Despite the high crest factor 22.00 of
grader–7B, its VDV is below the moderate zone as per ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines.
Though many types of equipment surpass EAV, their ELV value is within the
prescribed limit as per EU 2002 Directive.
Measurements in the Y-direction revealed the highest RMS value for grader–7B
with 0.78 m/s2. As indicated in Table 5, in total eight machineries were crossing
moderate zone (i.e. RMS of 0.5 m/s2) and falling in caution zone, as per ISO2631-
1:1997 guidelines. However, there was no indication of a moderate zone based on
VDV measured in the lateral direction. Further, the ELV of all the machinery were
within the safe limit of 1.15 m/s2, as per EU 2002 Directive.
A close look at Tables 4 and 5 reveals that the VDV of four machineries (front end
loader-3B, grader-7A, grader-7B, and grader-7C) w.r.t. Z-direction was found to be in
caution zone, whereas no machinery has shown any indication of VDV in caution zone
as far as seat-surface measurements are concerned. The RMS of four machineries was
in the severe zone and that of six machineries in caution zone. The highest RMS value
in the vertical direction was evinced by the grader–7A with 1.40 m/s2. Among all the
machinery under consideration, ten were found exceeding EAV, out of which grader-
7A exceeded ELV as per EU 2002 directive.
For ready reference, a critical review of Tables 4 and 5 was done to highlight the
dominant axis of vibration based on ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines for all the machinery
and also its associated health risk as per EU Directive 2002. Table 6 indicates the
dominant axis of vibration and health risk based on ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines and
Table 7 gives health risk prediction based on the EU 2002 Directive, for both seat-back
and seat-surface measurements.
Table 6. Dominant axis of vibration and health risk prediction for different types of machinery
based on ISO2631-1:1997 guidelines when measured at operator’s seat-surface and seat-back.
S. RMS measurement VDV measurement RMS measurement VDV measurement
noa at seat-surface at seat-surface at seat-back at seat-back
Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ
axis axis axis axis
1 Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
2A Z Caution Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
2B Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Caution Z Moderate
2C Z Severe Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
2D Z Caution Z Moderate Z Caution Z Moderate
3A X Severe X Moderate Y Caution Y Moderate
3B Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Caution
4A Z Severe Z Moderate Z Caution Z Moderate
4B Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Moderate
4C Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Moderate
(continued)
S. RMS measurement VDV measurement RMS measurement VDV measurement
noa at seat-surface at seat-surface at seat-back at seat-back
Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ Dominant HGCZ
axis axis axis axis
5 Y Moderate Y Moderate Y Moderate Y Moderate
6 Z Caution Z Moderate Z Moderate Z Moderate
7A Z Severe Z Moderate Z Severe Z Caution
7B Z Caution Y Moderate Z Caution Z Caution
7C Z Caution Z Moderate X Caution Z Caution
8A Z Caution Z Moderate X Severe X Moderate
8B Z Severe Z Moderate Y Caution Y Moderate
a
Machineries are designated different set of Serial numbers for simplified representation.
Table 7. Health risk prediction for different types of machinery based on EU 2002 Directive
guidelines w.r.t operator’s seat-surface and seat-back measurements.
S. no Type of machinery For seat-surface For seat-back
measurement measurement
Based on Based on Based on Based on
RMS VDV RMS VDV
EAV ELV EAV ELV EAV ELV EAV ELV
1 Dragline XX* XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
3 p
2A Shovel1 (Tata-Hitachi) 5 m XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p
2B Shovel2 (Komatsu) 12 m3 XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p
2C Shovel3 (Tata-Hitachi) 5.5 m3 XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
3 p p
2D Shovel4 (Komatsu) 12.5 m XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p p
3A Front End Loader1 (L&T 1920) XX XX XX XX XX
p p
3B Front End Loader2 (Tata 3036) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
4A Drill 1 (Atlas Copco DM-37) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
4B Drill 2 (REL DM-22) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
4C Drill 3 (REL DM-28) XX XX XX XX XX XX
5 Spreader XX XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p
6 Crane (12 ton ACE FX120) XX XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p p p
7A Grader1 (BEML) XX XX XX XX
p p
7B Grader2 (BEML) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p p
7C Grader3 (Volvo) XX XX XX XX XX
p p
8A Water Sprinkler1 (BEML) XX XX XX XX XX XX
p p
8B Water Sprinkler2 (BEML) XX XX XX XX XX XX
*XX refers to not exceeded
p
** refers to exceeded
5 Conclusions
The whole body vibration of heavy earth moving machinery operators in Indian surface
mines were measured with regard to seat-surface and seat-back using a triaxial
accelerometer. The obtained results were evaluated based on guidelines as stipulated by
ISO2631-1:1997 and EU 2002 Directive. The following conclusions were drawn from
the analysis of collected WBV data:
1. The RMS of twelve machineries under study were exceeded EAV with respect to
seat-back measurements, whereas for seat-surface measurement it was exceeded for
fourteen machineries. From this comparison it is evident that seat-surface vibration
is more prominent than that of seat-back vibration.
2. Among all the machinery under consideration, the measured vibration for a grader
operator with regard to seat-back was exceeding ELV. Hence, there should be
prompt health surveillance especially for grader operators.
3. The WBV of machinery operators demonstrates that nine (as per Table 6)
machineries were in the severe zone as per their RMS values; hence these
machinery needs suitable mitigation intervention.
4. Crest factors were found to exceed a value of 9 in 44 cases out of 102 measure-
ments, which constitutes 43.13%. This indicates noticeable shock magnitudes
during the measurement period.
5. In spite of the high crest factor, VDV of water sprinkler is within the safe limits.
This is mainly because this unit is not directly involved in any mining operations,
such as loading, excavation, transportation etc.
6. For both seat-surface and seat-back measurements, Z-axis (i.e. vertical direction)
was found to be a prominent axis for most of the HEMM.
The mine management can adapt the following few recommendations/guidelines to
minimize the industrial exposure to vibration, as addressed in this study.
5.1 Recommendations Based on the Present Study
1. Since the dominant axis of the vibration for most of the equipment under consid-
eration is in Z-axis, it is suggested to use pneumatic suspension seats, which can
attenuate the vibration in the vertical direction.
2. Since the dragline and spreader operators are exposed to low vibration levels, these
operators can be put to work for longer hours.
3. It is recommended to maintain good work conditions, such as smooth terrain
especially for loaders in surface mines.
4. Implementation of the participatory ergonomics can boost the safety compliances of
the workers which enhances productivity and also the quality of their life.
5. Mechanized mines should strictly comply with the regular vibration monitoring
scheme as per DGMS guidelines.
6. By inducting Multi Skilled Operator System the overall exposure to vibration of an
individual operator would be minimized.
5.2 Limitations of the Study
1. There should be a spurt in the sample size of the machinery tested to decrease
sampling error.
2. The measurements taken in this study were not included in all seasons of the year.
References
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whole-body vibration exposure of agricultural tractor with the large square baler. Int J Ind
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exposure to whole-body vibration for a case-control study. J Occup Environ Hygiene 9
(6):371–380
3. Paschold HW, Sergeev AV (2009) Whole-body vibration knowledge survey of US
occupational safety and health professionals. J Saf Res 40(3):171–176
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workload during whole-body vibration exposure while seated in upright and twisted postures
with and without armrests. Int J Ind Ergon 38(5–6):499–508
5. Eger T, Salmoni A, Cann A, Jack R (2006) Whole-body vibration exposure experienced by
mining equipment operators. Occup Ergon 6(3, 4):121–127
6. Eger T, Stevenson J, Boileau PÉ, Salmoni A (2008) Predictions of health risks associated
with the operation of load-haul-dump mining vehicles: part 1—analysis of whole-body
vibration exposure using ISO 2631-1 and ISO-2631-5 standards. Int J Ind Ergon 38(9–
10):726–738
7. Smets MP, Eger TR, Grenier SG (2010) Whole-body vibration experienced by haulage truck
operators in surface mining operations: a comparison of various analysis methods utilized in
the prediction of health risks. Appl Ergon 41(6):763–770
8. Bovenzi M, Hulshof CTJ (1999) An updated review of epidemiologic studies on the
relationship between exposure to whole-body vibration and low back pain (1986–1997). Int
Arch Occup Environ Health 72(6):351–365
9. Boshuizen HC, Hulshof CT, Bongers PM (1990) Long-term sick leave and disability
pensioning due to back disorders of tractor drivers exposed to whole-body vibration. Int
Arch Occup Environ Health 62(2):117–122
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Asian Pac Newslett Occup Saf Health 13(2):38–40
11. Kaku LC (2004) DGMS classified circulars. Lovely Prakashan, Dhanbad, p 604
12. Directorate General of Mines Safety. Recommendations of 10th National Conference on
Safety in Mines (2008). https://www.dgms.net/circulars.html. Accessed 11 Feb 2019
13. Kumar S (2004) Vibration in operating heavy haul trucks in overburden mining. Appl Ergon
35(6):509–520
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shock – Evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibration – Part 1: General
requirements. Geneva, Switzerland (1997)
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Parliament and the Council of 25 June 2002 on the minimum health and safety requirements
regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from physical agents (vibration)
(sixteenth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of Directive
89/391/EEC). Official J Eur Commun L, 117(13):6–7
Assessment and Prediction of Specific Energy
Using Rock Brittleness in Rock Cutting
Vijaya Raghavan(&) and Ch. S. N. Murthy
Department of Mining Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, India

raghavan_pp@rediffmail.com, chsn58@gmail.com
Abstract. In this study, we used picks with point attack angles of 45°, 50°, 55°,
and 65° and 45°, 55°, and 65° attack angles in rock cutting experiments. The
main objective is to estimate specific energy during the cutting process based on
rock brittleness and study the influence of attack angle on specific energy. From
the experimental data, we compared the obtained results using multiple linear
regressions and ANOVA to predict the specific energy and found that the model
developed were statistically significant. R2 of the brittleness B4 is 0.79 in
comparision with R2 of density, UCS, BTS and abrasivity as 0.74, 0.83, 0.84
and 0.73. Specific energy not only be predicted from density, UCS, BTS,
abrasivity, it can also be predicted using rock brittleness.
Keywords: Rock cutting Mechanical properties Brittleness Regression

ANOVA Students t test
1 Introduction
Many researchers have studied the brittleness and its effects on the cutting efficiency of
picks in rock cutting mechanisms. In fact, there is no globally accepted concept of
brittleness to measure cutting efficiency and the brittleness and its effect has not been
completely enlightened on rock cutting. Thus, the objective of these findings is to
establish relationships between rock properties with specific energy (SE) and brittle-
ness. Also, investigated the different brittleness significance and techniques for rock
cutting efficiency.
The researcher studied the mechanics of rock cutting whereas the rock and coal
brittleness’ effect on cutting pick efficiency has been examined. Brittleness usually
measures a materials relative susceptibility to competing two mechanical responses,
fracture and deformation, and is characterized by a transition from ductile to brittle. The
brittleness concepts we used in this study are given in Eqs. 1, 2 and 3 below.
Equation 1 utilise the ratio of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) rc to the
Brazilian Tensile Strength (BTS) rt to evaluate brittleness of the rock (Figs. 1a and b).
B1 ¼ rc =rt ð1Þ

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_46
Assessment and Prediction of Specific Energy 375
Equation 2 utilise the UCS and BTS to evaluate rock brittleness.
B2 ¼ rc rt =rc þ rt ð2Þ
Equation 3 evaluate the rC - rT area under the line of graph (Fig. 1b),
B2 ¼ rc xrt =2 ð3Þ
Fig. 1. The graph for the relation between (rc) to (rt) of the rock
In his study, he used information derived from earlier research work and investi-
gated the correlations between SE and rock brittleness. In his study, evaluated
two earlier used brittleness concepts, B1 (the ratio of (rc/rt), and B2 (the ratio of
(rc − rt/rc + rt), and a new concept brittleness named B3 (rcxrt/2). He established
regression analysis to correlate between the concepts of brittleness for rock cutting
efficiency. He investigated that brittleness B3 value was correlated strongly with the SE.
This demonstrates that the brittleness B3 could be used to indicate rock cutting effi-
ciency analysis [1].
The researchers have performed rock cutting with fully instrumented laboratory
drilling tests to determining values of SEcut and SEdrill on five types of rocks. They then
performed regression analyses to get relationships between SEdrill and SEcut with rock
brittleness values B1 (rc/rt), B2 (rc − rt/rc + rt), and B3 (rc * rt/2). Their results
specify strong relationships exists logarithmically, linearly and exponentially between
the B1, B2, and B3 brittleness values and the SEcut value of circular diamond saw
blades, with R2 of 0.98, 0.93, and 0.85, respectively. They could not get a strong
relation between brittleness values of B1 and B3 and picks of diamond impregnated
core and picks of non-core and SEdrill of poly diamond crystalline [2].
The researchers have conducted experiments on natural stone cutting based on rock
properties and operational parameters of block cutters and predicted SE for large
circular saws. They used apparent density, UCS, BTS, bending strength, Shore hard-
ness test, seismic velocity, Schmidt hammer hardness, water absorption at atmospheric
pressure, open porosity, point load strength, depth of cut values and saw blade
diameter, as input parameters to predict SEcut values in their statistical analysis. SEcut
values for Carbonate rock can be predicted using the model developed successfully
with large-diameter circular saws in natural stone processing [3].
The researchers have developed a prediction model for SEcut with circular diamond
saw blades when sawing granite. They investigated how operating parameters and rock
properties influenced SEcut. Statistical analysis were carried out and developed a model
to predict which operating parameters and rock properties had most significantly
influenced on SEcut [4].
The researchers carried out rock cutting experiments with abrasive water jet cutting
(AWJC) and circular sawing (CS) machines on 12 types of rock samples. In their study,
376 V. Raghavan and Ch. S. N. Murthy
rock cutting efficiency was compared with SE values. Their results showed that SE
values of CS were lower than AWJC. With multiple regression equations, they found
the relationship between SE values and rock properties for AWJC system SE
(R2 = 0.95) and CS system SE (R2 = 0.98) which were statistically significant [5].
Artificial neural networks were used in evaluate and predict brittleness in hard rock
using elastic properties of rocks. A predictive model was developed by Earth
Mechanics Institute (EMI), Colorado School of Mines. The model uses density, P and
S wave velocities and elastic properties. The results showed that this model is a
improved method compared with multiple regression techniques and conventional
destructive strength test in predicting rock brittleness. This methodology can be
explored to rock mass problems in both tunnelling and underground mining [6].
2 Mechanical Properties of Rock Tested
Coal and sandstone blocks were collected from M/S The Singreni Colliery Coal Ltd
(SCCL), Ramagundem Area I Telangana, India, and limestone and dolomite blocks
were collected from sites operated by Chaitanya Industries, JK cements, in Mudhapur,
Bagalkot, Karnataka and Anantapur and Cuddapah districts, Andhra Pradesh. Core
samples were prepared and mechanical properties tested were density, UCS, BTS, and
Abrasivity of rocks as per ISRM standards and shown in Table 1.
2.1 Density
The density of rock is determined by taking a graduated cylinder filled half full with
water. Then find out the exact water volume using cylinder scale. Then dip the rock into
the graduated cylinder completely immersed into the water, then note down the level of
the water. Again measure the volume of the cylinder. After that subtract the initial volume
from the final volume in the cylinder to evaluate the volume of rock and divide mass of
the rock by its volume as shown in (Eq. 4) and results of test is shown in Table 1.

Density gm=cm3 ¼ mass of the sample=volume of sample: ð4Þ
2.2 Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)

Core samples of 54 mm in diameter with a length-to-diameter ratio of 3 were prepared to
conduct UCS tests. A loading rate within the range of 0.5–1.0 MPa/second was applied,
and the load was applied continuously, at which time the maximum load at failure (in kN)
was recorded. The specimen’s UCS was calculated by dividing its maximum load at
failure by is original cross-sectional area and the results is shown in Table 1.
2.3 Brazilian Tensile Strength (BTS)

BTS tests were conducted on core samples 54 mm in diameter with a length-to-
diameter ratio of 1. The tensile load on the specimens was applied at a stress rate of
200 N/s until the sample failed, and the maximum load at failure (in kN) was recorded.
The specimen’s BTS was calculated by dividing its maximum load at failure to its
original cross-sectional area and the results is shown in Table 1.
2.4 The Abrasivity of the Rocks

The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in an oven at 105 °C–110 °C. The
abrasive charge and test specimen was placed in the Los Angeles abrasive testing
machine. The machine was allowed to rotate for 500 revolutions. The rocks retained
after 500 revolutions on the 4.75 and 1.70-mm sieves were combined, weighed and the
values were recorded to the nearest 1 g. If the mass of rock retained on the 1.70-mm
sieve was determined after 100 revolutions, the entire test specimen, including the rock
passing the 1.70-mm sieve, was returned to the testing machine. The opening in the
testing machine was closed and operated for the required number of additional revo-
lutions and calculated using the Eq. 5 and values are shown in Table 1.
% Wear ¼ ðA B=AÞ100 ð5Þ
Where, A = Mass of original test specimen, to the nearest 1 g, B = Mass retained

on the 1.70-mm sieve after the specified number of revolutions, to the nearest 1 g.
2.5 Brittleness
Brittleness is a concept obtained by the UCS and BTS values of rocks tested in this
study. A modified formula was proposed as mentioned in (Eq. 6) to determine brit-
tleness in rock cutting. Brittleness values are shown in Table 1.
Brittleness ¼ rc xrt =rc þ rt ð6Þ
Where
rc ¼ UCSðMPaÞ; rt ¼ BTSðMPaÞ
Table 1. Mechanical properties of rocks tested in laboratory.

Rock Density UCS BTS Abrasivity of rock Brittleness
gm/cm3 MPa MPa (%) B4
Coal 1 1.41 14.2 1.4 17 1.27
Sandstone 1 1.92 14.1 1.4 21 1.27
Sandstone 2 1.94 18.3 1.8 22 1.63
Sandstone 3 1.95 24.2 2.5 25 2.26
Limestone 1 1.99 46.8 4.4 28 4.02
Limestone 2 2.2 58.6 5.6 23 5.11
Limestone 3 2.69 69.7 6.8 26 6.19
Limestone 4 2.7 70.3 7.1 38 6.44
Dolomite 1 2.5 44.4 4.2 47 3.83
Dolomite 2 2.5 71.2 7.2 54 6.53
3 Description of Rock Cutting Machine (RCM)
The RCM, shown in Fig. 2, was fabricated to study the influence of cutting parameters
like thrust, torque, and speed on cutting process results. The RCM consists of a firm
base with two protruding parts, one of which has a prime mover (motor) mounted on it.
The cutter head, which consists of a drum with 12 picks mounted on it, is attached to
the shaft by a flange. The sample holder can accommodate a block with dimensions of
0.3 0.3 0.45 m. In laboratory rock cutting, speed and thrust are varied from
225 to 350 rpm and 1.3 to 2.1 kN, respectively. During the cutting process, the cutting
force and torque were measured by a cutting tool dynamometer that is calibrated in the
rock mechanics laboratory. Ten types of rocks were considered for laboratory exper-
iments: like coal, three types of sandstone, four types of limestone, and two types of
dolomite. For each combination of speed and thrust, rock fragments produced during
the cutting process were collected and weighed. This experiment considered attack
angles of 45°, 55°, and 65°, and four pick angles (45°, 50°, 55°, and 65°) were
considered for each attack angle for every pick-rock combination and operational
parameter (i.e., speed and thrust) considered during the investigation. The influence of
wear on the cutting rate and SE were considered, with a wear rate of 5 mm fabricated
and used for all considered pick-rock combinations. Additionally, experiments were
carried out for all speed and thrust combinations used. Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the
relationship between SE and rock brittleness in this study.
Fig. 2. (a) Rock cutting machine (b) Line diagram of Rock cutting machine
Influence of Brittleness on Specific energy

3.6 Variable
45 degree bit angle R Sq=79.5
3.4 50 degree bit angle R Sq=78.8
Specific Energy (KJ/Cu m)

3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
Fig. 3. Influence of Brittleness (B4) on Fig. 4. Influence of Brittleness (B4) on

Specific Energy at 45° attack angle. Specific Energy at 55° attack angle.
Fig. 5. Influence of Brittleness (B4) on Fig. 6. Influence of Brittleness (B4) on

Specific Energy at 65° attack angle. Specific Energy at 45° attack angle with
5 mm wear for all picks.
4 Experimental Result and Discussion

4.1 Linear Regression Analysis
It was found with linear regression analysis that, a strong relationship exists between
rock properties and SE which were statistically significant. Through this analysis,
independent variable value can be predicted from any dependent variable values.
A relationship between SE and rock properties were established with linear regression
analysis based on the least squares method as shown in Eq. 7.
Regression Equation
The obtained Eq. (7) represents specific energy in terms of speed of cutting drum (v in
rpm), attack angle (ha in °), pick angle (hp in °), cutting force (Fc in kN), torque (s in
N − m), depth of cut (d in mm), density (q in gm/cm3), BTS (rt in MPa), UCS (rc in
MPa), brittleness (B), Abrasivity (A in %)
Ws ¼2:631 þ 0:000023v þ 0:003456ha þ 0:006703hp þ 0:9585Fc þ 0:1051s 0:47146d

0:0111V 0:0225q þ 0:2635rt þ 0:02758rc þ 0:000003B 0:005373A
ð7Þ
Table 2. Regression model summaries

Predictors R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. error of estimation
Density 0.862 0.743 0.384 12.744
UCS 0.902 0.836 0.764 14.211
BTS 0.942 0.846 0.798 12.899
Abrasivity 0.736 0.730 0.518 14.166
Brittleness 0.748 0.795 0.442 13.877
Regression analysis along with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the F-test were
carried out and found that independent variables could be used in establishing the
relationship between SE from the linear equation at a 95% confidence level.
Table 3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results (F tests)

Source DF Sum of squares Mean squares F-value Significance of P-value
Regression 12 749.027 57.617 2708.83 0.000
RPM 1 0.002 0.002 0.08 0.050
Attack angle 1 1.117 0.709 34.52 0.011
Pick angle 1 3.310 3.310 155.63 0.000
Cutting force 1 1.979 1.979 93.04 0.000
Torque 1 2.312 2.312 108.72 0.000
Depth of cut 1 158.578 158.578 7455.36 0.000
Volume broken 1 0.006 0.006 0.28 0.045
Density 1 0.008 0.008 0.38 0.036
UCS 1 0.598 0.598 28.10 0.000
BTS 1 0.605 0.605 28.45 0.000
Abrasivity 1 1.783 1.783 83.81 0.000
Brittleness 1 0.001 0.001 0.06 0.003
Error 1457 30.991 0.021
Lack of fit 1355 30.976 0.023
Pure error 102 0.015 0.000
Total 1470 781.135 DF- Degree of freedom
Table 4. Significance of model components with Student’s t-test

Term Coef SE Coef T-value P-value
Constant 2.631 0.119 22.04 0.000
RPM 0.000023 0.000081 0.28 0.042
Attack angle 0.003456 0.000588 5.87 0.000
Pick angle 0.006703 0.000537 12.48 0.000
Cutting force 0.9585 0.0994 9.65 0.000
Torque 0.1051 0.0101 10.43 0.000
Depth of cut 0.47146 0.00546 −86.34 0.000
Volume broken −0.0111 0.0208 −0.53 0.045
Density −0.0225 0.0363 −0.62 0.036
UCS −0.02758 0.00520 −5.30 0.000
BTS 0.2635 0.0494 5.33 0.000
Abrasivity −0.005373 0.000587 −9.15 0.000
Brittleness 0.000003 0.000012 0.25 0.023
ANOVA results for all the attack angle are shown in Table 3. Based on results,
models like density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity, and brittleness were predictors and were
statistically significant in terms of linearity. The P-values for all the parameters are less
than 0.05; therefore all the parameters are statically significant at 95% confidence
intervals.
After verifying these regression models through ANOVA to establish whether they
could be used to predict SE reliably, we used Student’s t-tests. We tested the model
components to find the significances of each at a 95% confidence level. Depending on
the (P-values obtained, each of the model components mentioned above could be
established statistically significant or not. All the regression models for all attack angle
verified through ANOVA were understood to have statistically significant (Table 4).
This reveals that, the practicality of these models in predicting SE values [7]. Further,
coefficients of determination (R2) to measure the goodness of the proposed regression
models. R2 is equal to the square of the correlation coefficient between observed and
predicted values.
The two statistical measures calculate values of these for the model are given in
Table 2. According to these values, most of the SE value changes can be successfully
expressed individually by density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity, and brittleness, in line with
the ANOVA shown in Table 3 and Student’s t-test results shown in Table 4.
5 Conclusions
1. Rock properties such as density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity and brittleness influence
SE. It was observed that increases in density, UCS, BTS, Abrasivity, and brittleness
correlated with increases in SE. This is because the rock’s resistance to cutting
increases with the increase in the rock’s strength.
2. Regression model results showed that attack angle, pick type, and rock mechanical
properties are the important operating variables affecting the SE.
3. R2 of the brittleness is 0.79 in comparison with R2 of density, UCS, BTS and
abrasivity as 0.74, 0.83, 0.84 and 0.73 respectively.
4. Specific Energy can be efficiently predicted not only with rock properties but also
using rock brittleness.
References
1. Altindag R (2003) Correlation of specific energy with rock brittleness concepts on rock
cutting. J South Afr Inst Min Metall 103(3):163–171
2. Atici U, Ersoy A (2009) Correlation of specific energy of cutting saws and drilling picks with
rock brittleness and destruction energy. J Mater Process Technol 209(5):2602–2612
3. Yurdakul M, Akdas H (2012) Prediction of specific cutting energy for large diameter circular
saws during natural stone cutting. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 53:38–44
4. Aydin G, Karakurt I, Aydiner K (2013) Development of predictive models for the specific
energy of circular diamond saw blades in the sawing of granitic rocks. Rock Mech Rock Eng
46(4):767–783
5. Engin IC, Bayram F, Yasitli NE (2013) Experimental and statistical evaluation of cutting
methods in relation to specific energy and rock properties. Rock Mech Rock Eng
46(4):755–766
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hard rock tunnelling. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 8:533–540
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cutting of sandstones by picks. Rock Mech Rock Eng 39(2):89–120
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting
the Performance of Roof Bolts for Continuous
Miner Working
K. M. Tejeswaran(&), Ch. S. N. Murthy, and B. M. Kunar
Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka,

Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, India
tejeswarankm@gmail.com
Abstract. Optimum support design of roof bolts based on axial load of the bolt
plays the major role for effective development of coal seam with continuous
miner. Axial load on the roof bolts gives a clear understanding of the behaviour
of roof bolts in different working conditions. Therefore, estimation of axial load
on the bolts is important for supporting the immediate roof, helps in higher
production, productivity and safety. By using the software FLAC 3D, the axial
load for different gallery widths and working depths was estimated. From the
simulation results, it was observed that for shallow depths of 100 and 200 m, the
axial load acting on the bolt is 15% of the bolt capacity at gallery widths of 4 m
and 5 m. Whereas for moderate depths 300 m and 400 m, its value is found to
be 75% at gallery widths 6 m and 7 m. But, for deeper depths of 500 m and
more, its values reaches maximum capacity of roof bolts.
Also, the roof convergence in junction, for moderate and deeper depths is
80 mm to 150 mm, whereas for shallow depths its value is 10–25 mm, at 6 m,
7 m and 8 m gallery widths.
Keywords: Continuous miner Roof bolts Axial load

Numerical modeling FLAC 3D Convergence
1 Introduction
Extraction of coal by mechanisation with continuous miner technology has brought

huge hope for the underground coal mining industries in India. Application of con-
tinuous miner technology is been proven that, it is protective for the coal extraction in
Indian geomining condition [1, 2]. Continuous miner based mechanized is preferring
by most the coal mining industry in India mainly due to its adaptability in Indian
geomining conditions and a moderate level of investments with comparatively higher
production and productivity [3]. Ground control is the major problems faced during the
extraction of coal by continuous miner technology. Roof bolts are the primary supports
system that are used for supporting the immediate roof. Because roof bolts support
system does not affect the movements of continuous miner and shuttle car in the
gallery, with carrying a huge load upto 27 tonnes, easy initialization and ensured safety
of the working [4–6]. Research has been carried out by various investigators on the
design of roof bolts, and have found the serval factors that influence the design of roof
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_47
384 K. M. Tejeswaran et al.
bolts, these includes the roof bolt type, roof bolt length, roof bolt capacity, and pattern
of bolting for a particular application. The present research contexts on the attributes of
roof bolts including anchorage mechanism, pretension, bolt length, capacity of bolt,
installation timing and quality of installation [4, 7, 8]. Roof bolting design is indeed
mainly based on the experience and its appears that rock bolting design is simply a
business of selecting a rock bolt type. Along with, determination of bolt length and
spacing. A study was carried out in 37 U S Mines the parameters affects the roof bolt
design where roof geology and stress level by numerical modeling and statistical
analysis where carried out to find the significant parameters and some of the prelimi-
nary guidelines have been proposed [7]. According to [6], the selection of roof bolt is
based on the pressure arch theory resulting in the formation of the natural pressure arc
in the rock. If the failure is small, then the roof bolt length should be long enough such
that it reaches the nature pressure arc. It is indeed that, the bolt length should be at least
1 m beyond the failure zone [8]. Parameters of resin bolt, such as gloving and back
pressure, also effect the roof support performance [9]. Though selection of roof bolts is
carried out in various ways the present study focus on behaviour of roof bolts under
different gallery widths and different working depths, resulting to the correlation of
selecting the roof bolts. Numerical modelling finds wide application in solving
geotechnical problems and platform for parametric study, which saves time and money
[10]. The objective of this paper is to study the behaviour of roof bolt considering
different gallery widths and different working depths in development working with
continuous miner.
2 Numerical Simulation
2.1 Selection of Simulation Location

For the parametric study Zero seam of Anjan hill mine, SECL is selected for the study.
For the estimation of the roof bolt axial load requires studying the characteristics of the
particular mining site, which helps in achieving supports design. Under this study, the
elasto-plastic modelling is developed using FLAC3D with the matching Indian geo-
mining conditions of coal mines. Bore hole number CHA-5 of Anjan Hill mine as
shown in Fig. 1 is used in the development of a numerical model in FLAC 3D software
package. The gallery widths and working depths are varied to assess the roof bolt axial
load and convergence in roof.
The average thickness of Zero seam of Anjan hill mine, SECL is 5.33 m was
developed in a single section along floor. Development is made leaving 0.6 to 1.0 m
thick coal along the roof. Average size of the development pillar is 33 m 33 m
(centre to centre), working height 4.8 m and average gallery width is 5 m. Total reserve
of zero seam (thickness range from 3.0 to 5.33 m) is 1.1 million tons in the lease hold
area of the mine. Non extractable overlaying seam is present over the zero seam panel
C of the mine as selected for application of the continues miner for development of coal
seam.
Numerical Investigation on Factors Affecting the Performance of Roof Bolts 385
Fig. 1. Bore hole of Anjan hill mine.
2.2 The Input Parameters for the Numerical Modelling

The various strengths and elastic constants of the rock mass for the numerical mod-
elling using FLAC3D in the strain-softening mode is shown in Table 1. The friction
angle and shear strength is estimated by using Sheorey’s failure criterion for rock mass.
As mentioned below, this criterion uses the 1976 version of rock mass rating (RMR) of
Bieniawski (1976) for reduce the laboratory tested strength parameters to rock mass
values. This criterion defined as:

r3 bm
r1 ¼ rCm 1 þ MPa ð1Þ
rtm

RMR 100
rCm ¼ rC Exp ð2Þ
20

RMR 100
rtm ¼ rt Exp ð3Þ
27
bm ¼ bRMR=100 ð4Þ
Where, r3 is the minor principal stress in MPa, r1 is the major principal stress in
MPa, rC is the intact rock Compressive strength, MPa, rt is the intact rock Tensile
strength, MPa, b is the Exponent of intact rock which controls the curvature of the
triaxial curve. rCm is the Compressive strength of rock mass, MPa, rtm is the Tensile
strength of rock mass, MPa, RMR is the Bieniawski (1976) Rock Mass Rating and bm
is the Exponent for rock mass corresponding to the intact rock constant lesser than
0.95.
The rock mass shear strength ssm the coefficient l0m and the angle of internal
friction ;0m are obtained as
1=2
bbmm
ssm ¼ rCm rtm 1 þ bm ð5Þ
ð 1 þ bm Þ

s2sm ð1 þ bm Þ2 r2tm
l0m ¼ ð6Þ
2ssm rtm ð1 þ bm Þ
;0m ¼ tan1 ðl0m Þ ð7Þ
It is observed that the values of shear strength and friction angle determining from
the above equations should be done slightly adjustment. This slight adjustment is
required to incorporate the fact that the Mohr-Coulomb strain softening plasticity
model in FLAC3D uses the linear Mohr-Coloumb criterion, where as the Sheorey
criterion is nonlinear in Table 2. To compensate for the differences, the value of ssm
obtained from the Sheorey criterion is increased by 10% and that of ;0m is reduced by
5° to use them as Mohr-Coloumb parameters, Fig. 2 validate this practice.
Table 1. Physico-mechanical properties of rock strata

Formation Young’s Density Compressive Tensile strength RMR
modulus (kg/m3) strength of intact of intact rock
(MPa) rock (MPa) (MPa)
Floor 7 2500 40 2.67 55
Coal seams 3.02 1380 42.73 3.25 52
Coal (in 3.02 1380 42.54 2.62 50
roof)
Immediate 3.61 1910 34.23 2.01 45
roof
Shale 5.7 2310 24.37 2.38 40
Table 2. Change in cohesion, friction angle and dilation angle with shear strain
Shear strain Cohesion (ssm ) (Mpa) Freiction angle (;0m ) (°) Dilation angle (u) (°)
0 1.1 −5 15
0.005 1.1/5 −7.5 5
0.050 0 −10 0
0.500 0 −10 0
In addition to the peak friction angle and cohesion, the Mohr-Coulomb strain
softening model also requires to describe the parameters that the rate of cohesion and
friction drop as a function of plastic strain in the post-peak region.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram showing the linear Mohr-Coulomb criterion adopted from the non-
linear Sheorey criterion in FLAC3D.
In-situ stresses
Both vertical and horizontal in-situ stresses play an major role during the performance
evaluation of roof bolts through numerical modelling. For this study, it is necessary to
estimate the in-situ stresses with in the coal seam as exists in the field. The vertical
stress and horizontal stress can be determined using the following formulas:
rv ¼ 0:025H ð8Þ
rh ¼ 2:4 þ 0:01H ð9Þ
where, rv is the vertical stress in MPa, rh is the horizontal stress in MPa, and H is the
depth of working in m.
In this simulation study, the value of in-situ stresses is calculated using Eq. 8 and 9.
The values of both minor and major horizontal stresses were taken the same.
2.3 Methodology for the Numerical Modelling

The condition of the site has been simulated in three-dimensional numerical modelling
using FLAC3D software, which is based on a finite difference code. The steps
involving in modelling gallery and bolts are (i) generating grid as shown in Fig. 3,
(ii) Selecting of the appropriate model. (iii) Incorporation of the in-situ stresses,
boundary conditions and material properties. (iv) solving the elastic model for equi-
librium to generate the in situ stresses. (v) Changing to the strain softening model from
elastic model and incorporation of the properties. (vi) Development of different gallery
widths. (vii) the roof bolts are modelled using structure elements in the FLAC 3D as
shown in Fig. 4, (viii) solving the models and monitoring of the axial load on the bolt
[3]. For the galleries with 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m widths and depth 100 m,
200 m, 300 m, 400 m and 500 m are considered in this simulation. The roof bolt
properties and grout properties used in the modelling are given in Table 3.
Fig. 3. FLAC3D showing grid of a quarter pillar model for study.
Fig. 4. Shows the 4 rows roof bolts installed in model
Table 3. Grouting properties and Rock bolt properties used in the FLAC3D software.
Cross- Young’s Tensile Bond Bond Pre-tension
sectional modulus yield stiffness, cohesive in N
area (sq.m) (Pascal) strength (N/m/m) strength,
(Newton) (N/m)
3.80 10−4 20.60 1010 27.0 104 2.00 109 2.5 105 2.94 104
2.4 Validation of Numerical Modeling

Validation of the model is done by the field-measured instrumented data from the
Anjan hill mine, SECL. The instrumented rock bolt is installed in the development
gallery of Anjan hill mine of panel C at the junction and the load on the bolt is
measured. Similarly, the load on the bolt is measure in the numerical modeling. The
graphs are plotted as shown below.
Fig. 5. Comparing the model results with field measured data
Figure 5 shows the comparison of model results with field measured data. The
maximum load developed in the bolt after final stage of development is plotted along
with the maximum axial load obtained from the model after reaching equilibrium. Both
field data and model data almost matches each other that the model is validated.

3.1 Influence of Working Gallery Widths and Working Depths for 4 Row
Bolt on Bolt Axial Load
For the parametric study, we have considered 2.4 m bolt length with 22 m bolt
diameter and hole diameter is 28 mm. The 0.5 m spacing from pillar edge is kept
constant for all the gallery widths. The spacing between each bolt is varied for different
gallery width 0.6 m, 0.8 m, 1 m, 1.2 m, and 1.4 m for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m
gallery widths respectively. According for the 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m gallery
widths the depth is varied for 100 m, 200 m, 300 m, 400 m and 500 m. The graphs are
plotted for maximum axial load developed in the bolt for development stage with
continuous miner for the different gallery widths and different depth of working. Bolt
length in meters is taken along the y-axis, and axial load in tons is taken along the x-
axis. The maximum load-bearing capacity of the roof bolts considered for the para-
metric study is 27 tons.
The Fig. 6 shows the graphs plotted for 100 m depth working for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m,
7 m and 8 m gallery widths. The maximum axial load is observed at the middle of the
bolt length for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m gallery widths the maximum axial load is
observed from numerical modelling at junction is 2.9, 3.18, 3.29, 3.56 and 3.9 tons
respectively as the gallery width increases the axial load in the bolt increases.
Fig. 6. Axial load for 100 m depth vers different gallery widths
Figure 9 shows the graphs plotted for 400 m depth working for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m
and 8 m gallery widths. The maximum axial load is observed at the middle of the bolt
length for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m and 8 m gallery widths the maximum axial load is
observed from numerical modelling at junction is 5.9, 9.29, 13.48, 19.19 and 27 tons
Figure 10 shows the graphs plotted for 500 m depth working for 4 m, 5 m, 6 m,
observed from numerical modelling at junction is 7.6, 13.7, 14.4, 27 and 27 tons
3.2 Influence of Working Gallery Width and Working Depth for 4 Row
Bolt on Roof Convergence
Figure 11 shows the convergence plot for different gallery widths observed at junction
using FLAC 3D from the graph it is observed that, as depth increases the convergences
also increases.
Fig. 11. Convergence at junction for different gallery widths

For working depth of 100 m, the minimum convergence is 4.3 mm, which is in
4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 12 mm, which is in 8 m gallery
width. For working depth of 200 m, the minimum convergence is 8.8 mm, which is in
4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 26.3 mm, which is in 8 m gallery
width. For working depth of 300 m, the minimum convergence is 15 mm, which is in
width. For working depth of 400 m, the minimum convergence is 23.3 mm, which is in
width. For working depth of 500 m, the minimum convergence is 33.81 mm, which is
in 4 m gallery width, and the maximum convergence is 150 mm, which is in 8 m
gallery width.
4 Conclusions
In this paper, the effect of gallery width and working depth on bolt axial load is studied.
The observations found are as described below:
1. With increase in gallery width, the axial load on the bolt is increases. For wide
gallery widths of 6 m, 7 m and 8 m, the axial load developed in the bolt is more
compared to the smaller gallery widths of 4 m and 5 m.
2. With shallow depths of 100 and 200 m, the axial load acting on the bolt is 15% of
the bolt capacity at gallery widths of 4 m and 5 m. Whereas for moderate depths
300 m and 400 m, its value is found to be 75% at gallery widths 6 m and 7 m. But,
for deeper depths of 500 m and more, its values reaches maximum capacity of roof
bolts.
3. The roof convergence in junction, for moderate and deeper depths is 80 mm to
150 mm, whereas for shallow depths its value is 10–25 mm, at 6 m, 7 m and 8 m
gallery widths.
4. For the wide gallery widths working (6 m, 7 m and 8 m) and for higher working
depth (300 m, 400 m and 500 m), the axial load in the bolt reaches maximum and
roof supports fail.
5. In order to ensure the safety of roof supports the amount of convergence must be on
lower side from the Fig. 11 it can be observed that minimum convergence is
4.3 mm in 4 m gallery for 100 m working depth for 4 bolts row bolting.
6. If the depth of working is greater than 300 m and gallery width more than 7 m with
4 row bolting, the axial load on the bolt reaches maximum bearing capacity and bolt
fails.
Acknowledgement. The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad for his
kind permission to carry out this study at CSIR-CIMFR Dhanbad. Authors also thankful to Dr. P.
K. Mandal senior principal scientist and Mr. Arka Jyoti Das, scientist for the valuable sugges-
tions and help.
References
1. Raghavan V, Ariff S, Kumar PP (2014) Optimum utilisation of continuous miner for
improving production in underground coal mines. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(10):1–10
2. Modi J (2015) Success of continuous miner in bord and pillar method, no. September 2013
3. Mandal PK, Das AJ, Kumar N, Bhattacharjee R, Tewari S, Kushwaha A (2018) Assessment
of roof convergence during driving roadways in underground coal mines by continuous
miner. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 108(May):169–178
4. Kushwaha A, Singh SK, Tewari S, Sinha A (2010) Empirical approach for designing of
support system in mechanized coal pillar mining. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 47(7):1063–1078
5. Jena S (2016) Numerical simulation of roof bolt system during depillaring operation in bord
and pillar panel. In: Rare, pp 69–73
6. Cheng J Development and calibration of a 3D numerical modeling of roof bolts - a case
study, pp 4257–4268
7. Mark C (2000) Design of roof bolt systems. In: Proceedings: new technology for coal mine
roof support, no. February, pp 111–131
8. Li CC (2017) Principles of rockbolting design. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 9(3):396–414
9. Purcell J, Vandermaat D, Callan M, Craig P (2016) Practical investigations into resin
anchored roof bolting parameters, no. February, pp 53–63
10. Mandal PK, Singh R, Maiti J, Singh AK, Kumar R, Sinha A (2008) Underpinning-based
simultaneous extraction of contiguous sections of a thick coal seam under weak and
laminated parting. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 45:11–28
Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine
for Various Inlet Conditions
Nihal Mishra, Shubham Mitra, Abhishek Thapliyal, Aniket Mahajan,

and M. Feroskhan(&)
School of Mechanical and Building Sciences (SMBS), VIT Chennai, Chennai

600127, Tamilnadu, India
feroskhan.m@vit.ac.in
Abstract. A common technique for using biogas in a compression ignition

(CI) engine is to blend it with air in the intake manifold, injecting a small
quantity of diethyl ether during suction stroke and compress this mixture and
ignite it by self-ignition temperature. This is called as homogeneous charge
compression ignition (HCCI) mode. This paper evaluates the effects of various
intake conditions such as methane fraction, compression ratio, diethyl ether
energy fraction, intake temperature and equivalence ratio on output parameters
of maximum cylinder pressure, in-cylinder temperature and indicated thermal
efficiency using single zone modelling. The modelling result is validated with
the experimental data. The increase in compression ratio, diethyl ether energy
fraction and intake temperature increase cylinder pressure and in-cylinder
temperature.
Keywords: Modelling HCCI engine Methane Biogas Compression ratio
1 Introduction
The transportation division has seen an expanding need to create more productive and
environment friendly engine. This is to reduce the regulated allowable limits for pol-
lutants emission originating from internal combustion engines (ICE) and instable oil
costs. IC Engines have a great significance in recent times and have numerous appli-
cations in our society. Much exertion has been put into enhancing and refining engines
throughout the years. Starting late, much intrigue has been put into low temperature
combustion (LTC) engines, which can possibly decrease emissions related with tra-
ditional ICEs while keeping up their high efficiencies [1]. Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion engines are viewed as LTC system. The fuel
and air are premixed to form a homogeneous blend before the compression stroke in
HCCI engines [2]. Therefore, the blend ignites throughout the mass without discernible
fire engendering because of auto ignition at different areas in the burning chamber
(multi-point ignition). This may give rise to a high rates of heat discharge and thus,
high rates of pressurization. In HCCI engines, auto-ignition and burning rates are
fundamentally controlled by the fuel compound energy or in other words to the charge
synthesis and to the pressure and temperature development amid the compression
stroke along these lines HCCI ignition is generally thought to be dynamically

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_48
Modelling of Biogas Fueled HCCI Engine for Various Inlet Conditions 395
controlled [3]. The primary goal of HCCI combustion engines is to lessen the residue
and NOx emissions while maintaining high eco-friendliness [4]. In aspects, HCCI
combustion combines engines the benefits of both spark ignition (SI) engines as well as
compression ignition (CI) engines [5]. The outcomes from analysis and recreation
demonstrate that the HCCI ignition has a low temperature heat discharge and a high
temperature heat discharge and both heat discharges happen inside certain temperature
ranges [3]. The low temperature heat discharge is a standout amongst the most vital
elements for HCCI engine activity and its processes depends synthetically on the fuel
composition [3]. Such a system faces improvement challenges. Ignition timing isn’t
directed by an exact ignition controlling occasion, such as fuel infusion or spark plug. It
is rather a very delicate capacity of the fuel’s auto-ignition properties, the gas blend
synthesis and thermodynamic conditions in the burning chamber [6]. The beginning of
ignition and the resulting heat discharge becomes challenging to anticipate and control.
2 Literature Review
The concept of HCCI engines is a recent development in the automobile sector.

Basically, HCCI engines combine the benefits of SI and CI engines. The main feature
of HCCI engines which distinguishes it from other engines is the fact that fuel and air
are premixed and the mixture ignites automatically as the temperature rises during
compression stroke. There is a possibility of light load operation without throttling [7],
henceforth giving fuel economy like a diesel engine and also allowing full load
operation with homogenous charge thereby giving a power density comparable to a
gasoline engine. HCCI engines also offer high thermal efficiencies due to the fact that it
has low equivalence ratios and rapid energy release [8]. Due to this gaseous and
particulate emissions also decrease drastically [9]. HCCI engines like other engines use
gasoline or diesel as a fuel. But these resources namely natural gas, petrol etc. are non-
renewable which means they will be eventually exhausted and cease to exist. There-
fore, our main objective is to find an alternative fuel which can be used in place of non-
renewable resources and provide us with the same energy output. These fuels are
derived from sources other than petroleum. These fuels are extracted from sources
apart from petroleum oil. The different energy sources which can be used as an
alternate are namely, alcohol, biogas, natural gas and hydrogen.
In this paper, biogas is used along with diethyl ether (DEE). As biogas has a high
self-ignition temperature, so DEE is been used as ignition source. As biogas contains
CO2, so HC emissions are very high. As biogas is a renewable fuel, and also it is easy
to produce so biogas can be a great replacement for diesel and petrol. The problems
mentioned above with SI and CI engines are solved in HCCI Engines because in HCCI
engines homogeneous mixture is used and also NOx emissions are less as in cylinder
temperature is less. Addition of DEE (C2H5OC2H5), in HCCI engines reduces NOx
emissions; as a result, in-cylinder temperature reduces and overall engine performance
was improved [10].
396 N. Mishra et al.
2.1 Alternative Fuels

The world’s essential energy assets, for example, oil, petroleum gas, coal, and atomic
fills are not inexhaustible. Their quick exhaustion, subsequent ascent in costs, expanded
worldwide energy request, and worry for ecological insurance have raised the journey
for option, inexhaustible wellsprings of energy like sun-oriented energy, hydro energy,
wind energy, and biofuels [1]. Besides, oil holds are to a great extent packed in a hardly
any districts of the world. Nations in different locales confront extreme emergency in
crossing over the hole between energy request and fuel supply [2]. Non-renewable
energy source burning likewise results in air contamination, corrosive rain, and develop
of carbon dioxide, hence putting people and nature in danger [3–6, 11]. Among the
options in contrast to petroleum products, biofuels, for example, biogas, alcohols, and
biodiesels have gotten significant consideration due to their inexhaustible nature and
their inborn potential to cut down net CO2 discharge [12–15]. Biogas offers a few
favourable circumstances over different fills got from biomass. It very well may be
transported effectively by means of pipelines or as a packed gas in chambers once the
destructive parts, viz. CO2, H2S, and water vapor are expelled [16]. Compared with
other fuels like coal, biogas consumes quicker and leaves no deposit and is environ-
ment friendly. Biogas can at last be followed back to vegetation. These plants/trees
ingest CO2 amid their lifetime, so regardless of the outflow of CO2amid ignition,
biogas might be considered as a CO2-unbiased fuel [17]. The creation of biogas
additionally requires less efforts and cost compared to other biofuels like alcohols and
biodiesel [18–21]. Biogas holds an excellent potential for creating jobs in the society.
3 Model Formulation
The closed part of the operating cycle of a four-stroke biogas fuelled HCCI engine is
modelled in this work. A single zone model based on the Otto cycle is chosen because
of the near homogeneity of the working fluid before and after combustion and rapid
energy release rate resulting in almost instantaneous combustion. Details of the engine
studied here are given in Table 1. Biogas is modelled as a mixture of methane and CO2.
The effect of methane enrichment is described by the parameter methane fraction (x),
which indicates the fraction of methane by volume in biogas. The range of methane
fraction (x) = 0.5 (raw biogas) to methane fraction (x) = 1 (pure methane) is used in
this study. Equivalence ratio varies from very lean (U = 0.4) to stoichiometric
(U = 0.6).
Instantaneous piston stroke (s) and displacement volume (V) are expressed as
functions of crank angle (h) using the slider-crank relationships [22].
pB2
V ¼ VC þ ðl þ a sÞ ð1Þ
4
1=2
s ¼ a cos h þ l2 þ a2 sin2 h ð2Þ
Where ‘Vc’ is clearance volume and the crank radius is represented by ‘a’ = L/2.
Table 1. Engine specification.

Engine parameter Value
Bore radius 87.5 mm
Stoke length 80 mm
Cubic capacity 481 cm3
Compression ratio 17
Number & arrangement of cylinders 1-vertical
Working cycle 4-stroke diesel
Combustion principle HCCI
Peak pressure 7500 kPa
Maximum power 5.97 kW
Maximum torque 25 Nm
Rated speed 2200 rpm
The chemical reaction associated with combustion, incorporating the parameters

methane fraction (x) and equivalence ratio (U), is expressed as:
/½xyCH4 þ yð1 xÞCO2 þ ð1 yÞC2 H5 OC2 H5 þ ½ð2xÞO2 þ ð7:5xÞN2 !

ð3Þ
/½ð4 3yÞCO2 þ 2xy þ 5ð1 yÞH2 O þ ðyð6 2xÞ 6Þ þ ð2xÞO2
The compression process is assumed to be adiabatic. The variations in the cylinder

pressure (pi) and temperature (Ti) are evaluated at each crank angle interval (i) by
solving the ideal gas and energy balance equations simultaneously:
ðVi Vi1 Þ ðVi Vi1 Þ

Pi þ ncv Ti ¼ ncv Ti1 Pi1 ð4Þ
2 2
Vi Pi nRu Ti ¼ 0 ð5Þ
where ‘n’ is the number of moles of the reactant mixture and ‘Ru’ is the universal gas
constant. The terms on the RHS can be calculated from the values at the previous crank
angle and the equations can be solved to obtain pi and Ti. The effective specific heat
‘cv’ is estimated as the molar average value considering all species at a particular
temperature.
The energy release during combustion is expressed as:
Qin ¼ nCH4 LCV ð6Þ
where ‘nCH4’ is the number of moles of methane and LCV is the lower calorific value
(800000 J/mol).
The resultant product temperature is evaluated from energy balance:
Qin
Tp ¼ Tr þ ð7Þ
np c v p
where subscripts ‘p’ and ‘r’ denote products and reactants respectively. An iterative
procedure has to be used, as the value of cv,p depends on Tp.
The pressure after combustion is obtained from the ideal gas equation.
np Ru Tp
Pp ¼ ð8Þ
Vtdc
The pressures and temperatures during the subsequent expansion are solved in a
manner identical to that of the compression process, as described by Eqs. (4) and (5)
except for the fact that ‘n’ represents the number of product moles.
The model calculations are performed using a MATLAB program which gives the
indicated thermal efficiency and indicator (p-V) diagram as the outputs. The program
can also be used to evaluate the parametric variations of the outputs while varying
methane fraction, compression ratio and equivalence ratio. Table 2 shows various
intake condition taken in this study.
Table 2. Intake condition.

Intake condition Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Methane fraction (x) 0.5 0.8 1.0
Equivalence ratio (U) 0.4 0.5 0.6
Compression ratio (R) 17 19 -
Intake temperature (T) 308 K 373 K -
DEE fraction (1 − y) 0.4 0.5 0.6
4 Validation
The single zone model is validated with the experimental data and the result is shown
in Fig. 1. The model shows good agreement with the experimental data. The single
cylinder CI engine (AV1XL, 1900 rpm) is used for the experimental purpose. Biogas is
used as primary fuel and DEE is used as secondary fuel. Biogas is induced via manifold
and DEE is injected through manifold during suction stroke. Pressure sensor, charge
amplifier, DAQ system and angle encoder are used to take pressure readings. Finally,
pressure reading of experimental data is compared with the data obtained from the
modelling. Inlet conditions of modelling and experiments are same (Intake conditions:
methane fraction = 1, equivalence ratio = 0.6, intake temperature = 308 K, DEE
fraction = 0.5, combustion ratio = 17). A variation of 4%–8% differences is noticed
between modelling and experimental data.
Fig. 1. Pressure data for validation
The parameters such as Maximum cylinder Pressure, In-cylinder Temperature and

Indicated Thermal Efficiency have been studied by varying engine intake conditions such
as Intake Temperature, Equivalence ratio, DEE energy fraction, Compression Ratio.
5.1 Analysis of Maximum Cylinder Pressure with Methane Fraction

Figure 2(a) shows the variation of pressure with respect to methane fraction for various
intake temperatures. This variation arises due to late combustion. When intake
Fig. 2. Effect of (a) Intake temp, (b) Equivalence ratio), (c) DEE energy, (d) Compression ratio
on Max cylinder pressure
temperature is increased, cylinder pressure decreases due to decrease in the density of

intake air. The cylinder pressure is higher at low values of methane fraction due to high
intake of DEE. Figure 2(b) depicts the variation of pressure with respect to methane
fraction for various values of equivalence ratio. Increase in equivalence ratio increases
the cylinder pressure as well as fuel content, which leads to an increase in combustion
temperature. Figure 2(c) shows the variation of pressure with respect to methane
fraction for various DEE energy fractions. Increase in cylinder pressure is observed due
to reduction of biogas consumption. Figure 2(d) depicts the variation of pressure with
respect to methane fraction for various values of compression ratio. Increase in com-
pression ratio leads to an increase in maximum cylinder pressure. This trend is
observed due to a rise in in-cylinder temperature. Henceforth, the maximum cylinder
pressure increases.
5.2 Analysis of In-cylinder Temperature with Methane Fraction

Figure 3(a) depicts the variation of in-cylinder temperature with methane fraction for
various intake temperature. When intake temperature increases, in-cylinder temperature
increases. This is because In-cylinder temperature is directly proportional to intake
temperature. Biogas has high self-ignition temperature, so at high temperature, better
combustion takes place and thus an increase in combustion temperature is observed.
Fig. 3. Effect of (a) Intake temp, (b) Equivalence ratio, (c) DEE energy, (d) Compression ratio
on In-cylinder temperature
Figure 3(b) depicts the variation of in-cylinder temperature with methane fraction for
various equivalence ratio. Increase in equivalence ratio increases the in-cylinder tem-
perature due to higher fuel content. This leads to an increase in in-cylinder temperature
at low values of methane fraction for high equivalence ratio. Figure 3(c) depicts the
variation of in-cylinder temperature with respect to methane fraction for various DEE
energy fractions. At high DEE fraction, in-cylinder temperature increases due to
reduction in biogas intake. Figure 3(d) depicts the variation of temperature with respect
to methane fraction for various compression ratio. On increasing the compression ratio,
the in- cylinder temperature increases due to increase in In-cylinder pressure.
5.3 Analysis of Indicated Thermal Efficiency with Methane Fraction

Figure 4(a) depicts the variation of indicated thermal efficiency with methane fraction
for various intake temperatures. Increase in intake temperature leads to poor air intake
which results in lower indicated thermal efficiency. Figure 4(b) depicts the variation of
indicated thermal efficiency with respect to methane fraction for various equivalence
ratios. On increasing the equivalence ratio, indicated thermal efficiency decreases due
to higher fuel content. Figure 4(c) depicts the variation of indicated thermal efficiency
with respect to methane fraction for various DEE energy fraction. On increasing DEE
energy fraction, indicated thermal efficiency increases due to high ignition energy of
DEE. Figure 4(d) depicts the variation of temperature with respect to methane fraction
for various compression ratio. On increasing the compression ratio, indicated thermal
Fig. 4. Effect of (a) Intake temp, (b) Equivalence ratio, (c) DEE energy, (d) Compression ratio
on Indicated Thermal Efficiency.
efficiency increases as pressure increases. Due to this, combustion temperature

increases, resulting in proper combustion, thereby increasing efficiency.
6 Conclusion
This study shows the effect of intake temperature, equivalence ratio, DEE energy
fraction and compression ratio with methane fraction on maximum cylinder pressure,
in-cylinder temperature and indicated thermal efficiency. A generalised trend is
obtained that on increasing intake temperature, maximum cylinder pressure decreases
as work done is less, but in-cylinder temperature and indicated thermal efficiency
increases. Also, on increasing equivalence ratio, maximum cylinder pressure, in-
cylinder temperature and indicated thermal efficiency increases. As DEE energy frac-
tion increases, maximum cylinder pressure, in-cylinder temperature and indicated
thermal efficiency increases. Finally, on increasing Compression ratio, maximum
cylinder pressure, in-cylinder temperature and equivalence ration increases.
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Studies on Pitting Corrosion of Pulsed
Electrodeposited Nanocomposite Coating
Chitrada Prasad(&), K. Srinivasa Rao, and K. Ramji
Andhra University College of Engineering (A),

Visakhapatnam 530003, A.P., India
chitrada.prasad@gmail.com
Abstract. Present work pertains to studies on the effect of pulsed current

waveforms of rectangular and triangular in the formation of nickel metal matrix
and Zirconium titanium oxide nanocomposite coating and its pitting corrosion
behaviour. Zirconium titanium oxide nanoparticles are synthesized via sol-gel
route and characterized by XRD and FESEM with EDAX. Pulsed electrode-
position was carried out using nickel electrolyte watts bath with suspended
Zirconium titanium oxide nanoparticles on the mild steel substrate. Surface
morphology of the coating was studied using scanning electron microscopy.
Phase identification and particle size were determined using X-ray diffraction.
Potentiodynamic polarization test was used for studying pitting corrosion
behaviour of nanocomposite coating. The hardness of the coating was measured
with Vickers hardness testing. The results have shown that the rectangular wave
pulse at 50% duty cycle produced higher hardness and it may be due to the finer
grain size of the deposited coating obtained with the rectangular waveform.
Increased duty cycle variable from 10% to 50% in both the waveform enhanced
the peak current density leading to higher hardness of the coating. The highest
corrosion resistance was obtained with the triangular waveform with a relaxation
time of 10% duty cycle at 10 Hz frequency. Hence present work established that
a waveform and duty cycle of pulsed currents strongly influences the corrosion
behaviour of nanocomposite coating.
Keywords: Zirconium titanium oxide Rectangular waveform

Triangular wave form Duty cycle Nanocomposite coating
Corrosion resistance Micro hardness
1 Introduction
Mild steel is inexpensive and widely used in several engineering applications such as
naval ship building and automobile industries. It is extremely vulnerable to corrosion
due to its high chemical reactivity [1–3]. Pure Nickel and nickel alloy based inert metal
matrix nanocomposite coatings have been used as protective and functional coatings in
several applications for automotive and aerospace industries due to their beneficial
mechanical and chemical properties [4–10]. In order to improve the utilizable prop-
erties and uniform particle distribution of nickel layers formed with pulsed current
electrodeposition process has its potential applications [11, 12]. Such procedure led to
the production of coating layers with ultrafine composite structure and characterized the
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_49
Studies on Pitting Corrosion of Pulsed Electrodeposited Nanocomposite Coating 405
properties like corrosion resistance [4, 10, 13], micro hardness [10, 14–17]. Modified
wave shapes with considerable wave form variables that increases the peak currents
produces the nucleation growth and generates higher hardness values than with DC
electrodeposition [17]. Conventional rectangular wave form promotes the good quality
of deposition. Sufficient quantities of additives like surfactant CTAB (Cetyltrimethy-
lammonium bromide) added to the electrolyte bath have been strongly used to promote
the codeposition process [18]. Very less research work has been reported with pulsed
current use of triangular waveform [15, 17, 19]. An electrodeposited nickel coating
improves the useful level of hardness and corrosion resistance in industrially utilizing
equipment. Investigations are carried out for mechanical and electrochemical properties
of nickel metal matrix nanocomposite coatings like TiO2 [4, 10], Al2O3 [6, 14], SiC
[15], ZrO2 [20], MoS2 [21]. By mutual influences of ZrO2 and TiO2 films via sol-gel
dip coating process produce high protection efficiency and increase hardness and wear
resistance properties [3, 22]. By consideration of Potentiodynamic polarization results
in Electrodeposited coatings, Ecorr values shifted towards noble values, reduction of
Icorr values yields the high thermal stability, high surface area and strong mechanical
strength [10, 23].
In this paper, electrodeposition of Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 composites coating with
rectangular and triangular shaped waveform pulsed current with relaxation time was
reported. The resultant deposited nickel metal matrix nanocomposite layers on the mild
steel substrate were investigated for phase identification, surface morphology, pitting
corrosion and hardness. These studies are aimed at studying the effect of irregular
waveform shape and duty cycle of pulsed current on the deposition of ceramic
nanocomposites in metal matrix coatings and to improve the corrosion resistance and
hardness of nanocomposite coatings.
2.1 Synthesis of ZrO2-TiO2 Nanocomposites

Nano structured 50% ZrO2-TiO2 powder was synthesized via sol gel route. Powder was
prepared using titanium dioxide (TiO2) [avra-98%], ZrOCl2.8H2O [Himedia-99%] as
the ZrO2 source, isopropanol [PA-CH3CH (OH) CH3, FINAR] used as reciprocal
solvent, 0.1M hydrochloric acid (HCl [ 35% Merck. Himedia]) as catalyst and
Distilled water. All the chemicals were used without further purification.
50% ZrO2-TiO2 prepared as follows. Firstly (Sol1) 1.34M titanium dioxide solution
was prepared by dissolving 1 gm of TiO2 precursors in 9.3 ml of isopropanol then
mixed in 100 ml glass beaker through Sonicating for 3 min at room temperature. The
solution was stirred for 2 h at 70 °C using magnetic stirrer with 550 rpm. Secondly
(Sol 2) 0.8M Zirconium dioxide transparent hydrosol was prepared by adding of
2.6 gm of ZrOCl2.8H2O to 100 ml distilled water, sonicated for 2 min and stirred for
30 min at room temperature. Sol2 was added as droplets using 100 ml of burrete.
Therefore 50% ZrO2-TiO2 mixed solution was formed. Subsequently 0.1M HCl, 0.1M
NH4OH were added to the resultant solution made pH = 1.3 [24] to control the pre-
cipitation. Precipitate solution was magnetic stirred on hot plate magnetic stirrer for 2 h
406 C. Prasad et al.
at 70 °C. Then the solid mixture was taken out and dried at 100 °C for 3 min. 50%
ZrO2-TiO2 powder was obtained later on heat treatment for 3 h at 950 °C [22] in muffle
furnace. Afterwards, the resultant Nano sized ZrO2-TiO2 composite powder was
characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM - JOEL) with
EDAX and X-ray diffraction (XRD).
2.2 Electrodeposition
Mild steel (25 mm 15 mm 3 mm), and a high purity (99.99%) nickel plate
(40 mm 40 mm 3 mm) were used as cathode and anode respectively. Before the
coating process cathode and anode materials were mechanically dry polished with
emery papers series 800, 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, and 4/0. And then wet polished on cloth
polishing machine felt with suspensions of alumina until their surfaces became smooth
and mirror bright finish. Prior to plating the polished substrates ultrasonically cleaned
for 3 min in water and rinsed with acetone, water sequentially for removal of impurities
from the surface and dried [2, 3, 13, 25]. Deposition was done in freshly prepared
aqueous nickel solution, containing materials and quantity listed in Table 1. Here
anode size is greater than that of cathode to minimize the nickel anodic polarization
problems particularly at lower duty cycles [14]. Coating conditions and parameters are
described in Table 1. Anode is placed vertically 3 cm distance from the cathode in the
nickel electrolyte solution. In electrodeposition process the composite coating was
obtained at a constant current density 10 mA/cm2 with rectangular and triangular shape
pulsed current with 10% and 50% duty cycle in two electrode cell. Coated samples
sintered were at 700 °C. Triangular and rectangular wave shape pulsed current used in
this process. Direct current was supplied to the pulse width modulator by GW INSTEK
GPS-3030D d.c power supply unit. In the deposition boric acid was used as buffering
agent. The pH of the electrolyte was 4.21 controlled by addition of 0.1M HCl and 0.1M
NaOH. Cetyltrimethyl ammoniumbromide (CTAB) surfactant used as size and shape
controllable agent. Coated mild steel with triangular and rectangular shape wave pulses
at 10% and 50% duty cycle named as 10%T, 10%R, 50%T, and 50% R respectively.
Table 1. Nickel Electrolyte bath composition and Electrodeposition Parameters.

Materials Quantity Parameter Value
NiSO4.H2O 260 g/l Temperature Room temp. (30 °C)
NiCl2.6H2O 60 g/l Deposition time 15 min
H3BO3 40 g/l Frequency 10 Hz
CTAB 0.5 g/l Wave form Rectangular and Triangular pulses
Polyethylene glycol 1 ml/l Duty cycle 10%, 50%
50% ZrO2-TiO2 3 g/l Voltage 250 mV
Anode Nickle Current density 10 mA/cm2
Cathode Mild steel Stirring speed 250 rpm
NaOH 0.1M Separation 3 cm
HCl 0.1M pH 4.12
2.3 Characterization
The surface morphology of the sol gel synthesized Zirconium titanium oxide powder
was examined by using JOEL–FESEM with EDAX. Similarly surface of electrode-
posited coatings was observed with SEM. Phase, crystalline size and growth was
studied using Cu Ka radiation of X-ray diffraction (XRD) at 40 kV. The electro
chemical corrosion studies were carried out in conventional three electrode cell
GillAC ACM instrument 1130 electro chemical work station (US make) for 15 min at
3.5% NaCl environment at room temperature. Here AgCl as saturated calomel elec-
trode, platinum as reference and counter electrode, and the deposited specimens are
used as working electrode with exposed 1 cm2 area to the 3.5% NaCl corrosive media
solution. The micro hardness of the Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 deposited coating was mea-
sured with Vickers micro hardness indenter by forcing diamond indenter having the
Vickers pyramid geometry, using test load of 50 gf on the individual sample. The
indentation dwell time of 10 s was used as follows ASTM E92-17 standard.
3.1 Surface Morphology

The surface morphology of ZrO2-TiO2 nanocomposites is shown in Fig. 1 and it reveals
that all the particles are having uniform size and regular shape. Orthorhombic structure
exists. No porous structures were appeared due to addition of 0.1M HCl. Hydrochloric
acid advances the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in synthesis procedure.
Fig. 1. FESEM image of Zirconium tita-

nium oxide powder particles
Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction of Zirconium titanium

oxide powder
Fig. 2. EDAX Spectrum of Zirconium

titanium oxide powder particles
Chemical compositions are found to be having EDX of prepared nanocomposites

shown in Fig. 2. It shows that no sulfate and chloride ions are present. Surface mor-
phology of uncoated (Fig. 4a) and Electrodeposited coating substrates under rectan-
gular and triangular wave shape of 10% and 50% duty cycles are shown in Fig. 4(b, c,
d, and e). Here a typical grain microstructure of embedded Zirconium titanium oxide
composites in nickel coating was observed. The coatings shown that surface layer on
the samples distributed homogenously without any agglomeration. Few micro pits were
observed in Fig. 4c and e on coating made with rectangular pulse with relaxation time
of 10% and 50% duty cycle. Electrodeposited nanoparticle size was decreased
appreciably with triangular wave form. More uniform and smooth layer was observed
in Fig. 4b. It was formed due to the gradual increasing and decreasing of peak current
density which develops the formation of uniformly distributed new crystal nuclei in
nickel nanocomposite coatings.
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of uncoated and coated samples annealed at 700 °C

3.2 XRD Measurements

X-ray diffraction patterns of sol gel synthesized Zirconium titanium oxide powder
calcined at 950 °C were analyzed with Philips Xpert High score plus software package.
Peaks and crystalline growth mechanism were shown in Fig. 3. Zirconium titanium
oxide several peaks confirm with ref. 74-1504 and phase is strongly crystalline material
with dominant (111) crystal plane at 2Ɵ = 30.21°, exhibiting Orthorhombic structure,
space group p b c n, density 3.890 g/cm3. Anatase titanium oxide phase peak (200) was
identified with ref. 71-1168 at 2Ɵ = 47.6°. Moreover, Rutile phases titanium oxide
peak present at 2Ɵ = 26.8° with the crystalline plane of (111) compared with ref. 77-
044. It was in tetragonal structure and p42/mnm space group. It was led by sintering at
higher temperature of 950 °C. ZrO2 peaks at 2Ɵ = 29.97°, 34.8°, 50.8° with (111),
(002), (202) planes respectively having tetragonal structure, space group P42/nmc
matched with ref. 71-1282. Average crystalline size was 35 nm calculated using Debye
Scherer equation. X ray diffraction peaks of electrodeposited nickel with Zirconium
titanium oxide coatings on mild steel with rectangular and triangular wave shape of
10% and 50% duty cycle at 10 Hz frequency and annealed at 700 °C are shown in
Fig. 5. The interesting observations of deposits made with 10%T, 10%R, 50%T, 50%R
exhibits several peaks revealed the existence of nickel and titanium oxide phase at
2Ɵ = 35.8°, 65.4° and some associated peaks are appeared due to rutile phase TiO2
(JCPDS card No. 21-1276) and ZrO2 phase at 2Ɵ = 33.4° (JCPDS card No: 01-087-
0712, 00-033-1483). Coatings grain sizes obtained from Debye Scherer equation are
listed in Table 2. Diffraction of coated samples have not shown ferrous peaks com-
pared to uncoated sample. Relatively finer size of grains was identified on coated
samples made with the triangular wave at 10% and with rectangular wave at 50% duty
cycle. This suggests that in electrodeposition, wave form and duty cycle influence
strongly on grain size formation.
3.3 Vickers Hardness

Hardness of electrodeposited nickel metal matrix with Zirconium titanium oxide
composite coating with two different wave shape and duty cycle, specimens annealed at
700 °C was calculated using Hall – Petch equation [17]. Obtained micro hardness
values are given in Table 2. It leads to improvement of hardness values when compared
to bare mild steel metal surface from 170.3 HV to 202.89 HV by the formation of
nickel- Zirconium titanium oxide composite coating.
Table 2. Grain sizes and hardness values of coated substrates annealed at 700 °C
Sample Grain size (nm) Hardness (HV)
Blank – 170.03
10%R 32.41 200.95
50%R 25.36 202.89
10%T 25.89 199.14
50%T 29.23 201.32
In this rectangular and triangular wave shape pulse current at 50% duty cycle
greatly increases the surface hardness of the mild steel sample. It was obtained due to
the same average current density with higher surface concentration of nickel and
Zirconium titanium oxide nanoparticles were formed by pulsed current with longest
transition time.
Fig. 5. XRD patterns of Ni–Zirconium tita- Fig. 6. Potentiodynamic polarization curves

nium oxide composites coating of coated and uncoated steel at 3.5% NaCl
environment. a. Bare Mild steel, b. 10%R, c.
50%R, d. 10%T, e. 50%T.
3.4 Electrochemical Measurements

Potentiodynamic Polarization Curves of the coated samples in 3.5% NaCl acidic
solution was employed to test the pitting corrosion of electrodeposited nickel with
Zirconium titanium oxide composite coating on mild steel substrate. The Potentiody-
namic Polarization curves of coated and uncoated samples were shown in Fig. 6.
Electrochemical test parameters are shown in Table 3. In this the corrosion current
values are observed in the order of uncoated > 10%R > 50%R > 50%T > 10%T
corresponding to −25 mv to +25 mv and Ecorr results also shifted towards noble
positive values. The lower corrosion rate was recorded for Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 com-
posite coating with triangular shape pulsed current at 10% and 50% duty cycle than
rectangular shape pulsed current. In the pulsed electrodeposition at lower duty cycle
(i.e. longer Toff) greatly favored the grain refinement of nickel metal matrix composite
coating on mild steel substrate [26]. Improvement of pitting corrosion resistance of
nanocomposite coating may be due to the presence of ceramic oxide particles
embedded in metallic nickel matrix. At lower duty cycle the titanium nanoparticles gets
adsorbed with metal ions on the substrate [11]. Oxide particles may act as immolating
passives for the electrochemical reactions that cause corrosion. Therefore the protective
ability of the coating is increased by the use of triangular shaped pulsed current at lower
duty cycle in electrodeposition process.
Table 3. Electrochemical parameters of the coated and uncoated mild steel from Tafel plots.
Sample ba bc Ecorr Icorr Corr. rate LPR
mV mV mv mA/cm2 mm/yr. ohm/cm2
Uncoated 24.76 26.19 −700.53 4.92E−02 5.703E−01 1.12E+02
Coated 10%R 17.10 21.11 −320.83 1.24E−03 1.433E−02 3.32E+03
50%R 24.55 20.24 −328.52 3.51E−04 4.066E−03 1.37E+04
10%T 39.94 30.99 57.43 3.25E−05 3.750E−04 2.35E+05
50%T 17.29 19.08 21.99 5.30E−05 2.418E−02 7.44E+04
4 Conclusion
Zirconium titanium oxide powder was successfully synthesized in sol gel route and was
characterized with XRD and SEM. Use of rectangular wave form at 50% duty cycle in
electrodeposition of Ni-50% ZrO2-TiO2 nanocomposite coating resulted in non-
uniform distribution of grains. However triangular wave form at lower duty cycle
strongly influences the surface morphology of nanocomposite coating and resulted in
more uniform formation of grains. Hence it can be concluded that use of triangular
wave form irrespective of duty cycle has significantly improves the corrosion resistance
of mild steel.
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Effect of Condenser Coil Profile
and Subcooling on Performance of Vapour
Compression Refrigeration System
Sreedhar Vullloju1(&), K. Krishna Reddy2, and Madhu Kumar Patil1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vardhaman College of Engineering,
Kacharam, Shamshabad, Hyderabad 501218, India
sreedharvulloju@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Brindavan Institute of Science & Technology, Kurnool, India
Abstract. The objective of paper is to analyze the performance of the Vapour

Compression Refrigeration (VCR) system by change the profile of condenser
coil and with sub cooling system. An experiment is conducted on VCR system
with different condenser profiles and also with sub cooling system at steady state
evaporator temperature and calculated mass flow rate of refrigerant, refrigeration
effect, works done and COP. From results of experiment, Refrigeration Effect in
case of helical coiled condenser is increased by 3 kJ compared to straight coiled
condenser and Refrigeration Effect in case of helical coiled condenser with sub-
cooling is increased by 15.3% compared to helical coiled condenser without
sub-cooling. COP in case of helical coiled condenser is increased by 20%
compared to straight coiled condenser and COP in case of helical coiled con-
denser with sub-cooling is increased by 9.7% compared to helical coiled con-
denser without sub-cooling.
Keywords: Vapor compression refrigeration system

Straight coil and helical coil condenser Sub cooling COP
Symbol Description
VCR system Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
COP Co-efficient of Performance
RE Refrigeration Effect KJ
QC Refrigeration Capacity KJ
moref Mass flow rate of Refrigerant Kg/sec.
Cpref Specific heat of refrigerant = 1.467 kJ/Kg K
ΔTref Temperature difference in Evaporator °c
V Flow velocity of the refrigerant in the system is m/s
qref Density of Refrigerant m3/Kg
d Diameter of coil condenser in mm
h1 Enthalpy of refrigerant before compression
h2 Enthalpy of refrigerant after compression
h3 Enthalpy of refrigerant before throttling
h4 Enthalpy of refrigerant after throttling

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_50
414 S. Vullloju et al.
1 Introduction
Refrigeration can be defined as the process to attain and keep an enclosed space at a
temperature below than its surrounding temperature. This is achieved by continuous
removal of heat from the enclosed space where as the temperature is lower than that of
the surrounding temperature with the help of external work. Refrigerator is working
based on Clausius statement of thermodynamics. Refrigerators are used in domestic
and in industrial applications to preserve products for long duration without damage by
providing low temperature.
Refrigerants used and about the types of refrigeration systems are classified and
type of refrigerant should be used for what kind of refrigeration processes are given in a
detailed manner by Venkatarathnam and Murthy [1]. Ricardo Costa and Garcia [2]
applying design of experiments to a compression refrigeration cycle. To know what
variables effect on efficiency of a compression refrigeration cycle, designed experi-
ments are conducted and analyze the data. A quadratic polynomial model is fitted to
COP and variable arrangements to maximum cycle efficiency observed. ES-
FuelCell2013-18243 [3] focused on the description of the design and the theory
behind the system, design and construction of a solar thermal refrigeration system for
Patna, India. Designing of an evaporator using 16 pipes and manufacturing a cold
chamber, the outline of the refrigeration system working using solar collectors which
can reduce the power consumption. The vapour compression system performs using
main components like evaporator, condenser, capillary tube and heat exchanger if
needed and compressor Arora [4].
Basic components of the refrigeration system and design of the evaporator coil,
condenser, and capillary are to be selected according to the pressure, temperature drops
and requirement of the system, capacity of the system. Prasad [5]. Nussbaum [6]
studied all relevant type of condensers and investigate the effects of advantages and
disadvantages of various condensers on performance of refrigeration systems. Air
cooled condensers with small capacity i.e. 5 to 7.5 Hp is commonly used as indoor
condensing unit. Condenser is selected based on heat rejection and mass flow rate of
refrigerant. Pavkovic [7] studied properties and applications of refrigerants. The
refrigerants are given some class numbers which are meant to reduce the emissions of
the hydrocarbons and properties like physical, chemical properties are discussed.
Saidulu and Guru Dattatreya [8] studied the performance of a domestic refrigerator
by placing shell and tube type heat exchanger after the condenser to extract more
amount of heat by sub cooling process by using ammonia as an external cooling media,
to increase the performance of the system. Vasanthi and Maruthi Prasad Yadav [9] to
enhance the performance of the domestic refrigerator by flooding the evaporator with
liquid refrigerant. To attain this objective, a low pressure vessel is designed, developed,
fabricated and incorporated between evaporator and compressor. The performance of
refrigerator is calculated with and without low pressure receiver and analysis is done
using R134a and R401c refrigerants. Maruthi Prasad Yadav, Rajendra Prasad, Veeresh
[10] studied the performance of refrigerator with liquid line suction line heat exchanger
for different lengths of heat exchanger by using R134a and R404a as refrigerants and
analyzed with various lengths of liquid line- suction line heat exchanger.
Effect of Condenser Coil Profile and Subcooling 415
It is found from the literature review that most of the research carried out is to
increase the COP of the system by change refrigerants, the design of condenser,
evaporator and sub cooling method. The paper deals with improve the COP of VCR
system by change the condenser coil profiles and sub cooling system.
2 Specifications of VCR System

2.1 Condenser
Condenser acts as heat exchangers to transfer heat from one fluid to another fluid. The
selection of condenser is very important as it effect the performance of refrigeration
system. It is arranged between compressor and expansion valve.
2.1.1 Straight Coiled Condenser

Naturally cooled condensers (straight coil condenser) with fins:
1. Diameter of the coil = 50 mm
2. Length of the coil = 25 feet
3. Material of the coil used is mild steel
4. Number of turn = 16
5. Fin thickness = 3 mm
2.1.2 Helical Coil Condenser
1. Diameter of the coil = 50 mm

2. Length of the coil = 25 feet
3. Material used is copper
4. No of helical turns = 9 (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Naturally cooled condenser Fig. 2. Helical coil condenser

2.2 Evaporator
• Evaporator is chosen with dimensions 35 14 22 cm for 160 L of capacity.

• Insulation: polyol, cyclopentane and isocyanate PUF.
• Material chosen for the evaporator coil is copper tube and the evaporator com-
partment is made of cold rolled carbon steel.
• Inner cabinet: Aluminum.
2.3 Compressor
(1) full size refrigerator: compressor probably about 1/8–1/6 hp

(2) full size refrigerator freezer combo: compressor typically 1/6–1/3 hp
(3) chest freezer: compressor typically 1/4–1/2 hp
(4) full size freezer: compressor typically 1/5–1/3 hp
(5) mini fridge: compressor range 1/20–1/8 hp
(6) mini freezer: compressor range 1/10–1/6 hp
We used a 1/10th hp hermetically sealed compressor with model number
THK1330YCF with net weight of 7 kg and voltage 230 V – 50 Hz manufactured by
TECUMSEH (Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 3. Evaporator Fig. 4. Compressor
2.4 Capillary Tube
• Capillary tube is one of the most commonly used throttling devices in the refrig-
eration and the air conditioning systems. The capillary tube is a tube which has very
small l diameter as to decrease the pressure of refrigerant.
• The diameter of the capillary tube is 36 mm.
• Pressure gauges used are of max 500 psi and a 250 psi to note down the suction and
discharge pressure from compressor.
• Filter is used to remove of the moisture and other gases from the condenser coil.
• Refrigerant used is 134a with brazing torch

of isobutene to join the parts and a filler
material is used (Fig. 5).
2.5 Refrigerant
Refrigerant used is 134a (Tetra fluro ethane)
Boiling point temperature @1 atm (K) = 247
Freezing point (K) = 176.55
Critical temperature (K) = 374.25
Critical bar pressure = 40.
Fig. 5. Refrigerant R134a
3 Experimental Setup
Experiments are conducted on VCR system to note required readings manually as seen
figure given below. Measure the temperatures and pressures using a digital ther-
mometer and pressure gauges in below mentioned locations (Figs. 6, 7 and 8).
• Before Compressor
• Before Condenser
• After Condenser
• After Capillary tube
• Inside Freezer/Evaporator
The experiment includes three different types of arrangements as follows (Table 1).
Table 1. Material used for condenser and dimensions

Types of condenser Length Tube diameter
Straight coiled condenser 7.625 m 0.05 m
Helical coiled without sub cooling 7.625 m 0.05 m
Helical coiled with sub cooling 7.625 m 0.05 m
Fig. 6. Straight coiled refrigeration system Fig. 7. Helical coiled type system
Fig. 8. Helical coiled refrigeration system under sub cooling
4 Analysis of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
The performance of vapour compression refrigeration system is measured by the term

Co-efficient of Performance (COP). COP is defined as the ratio between refrigeration
effect and work supplied to the system (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. P-h diagram

COP ¼ T1 =T2 T
1. Net refrigeration effect = h1 − h4 kJ/Kg

2. Mass flow rate to obtain one TR, mr ef = 210/ h1 − h4 = kg/min.
3. Work of compression = h2 − h1 = kJ/kg
4. Heat equivalent of Work of compression per TR = mr ef (h2 − h1) kJ/min
5. Theoretical power of compressor = mr ef (h2 − h1)/60 kW
6. Heat rejected in condenser = h2 − h3 kJ/kg
7. Heat rejection per TR = (210/ h1 − h4) (h2 − h3) = kJ/min
8. Heat rejection ratio = h2 − h3/h1 − h4
9. Compression pressure ratio = discharge pressure/ suction pressure = P2/P1
10. Coefficient of performance (COP) = h1 − h4/h2 − h1
11. QC = moref cp ref ΔTref (ΔTref = temperature drop)
(Cp ref = specific heat of refrigerant = 1.467 kJ/KG K)
QC = Tons of refrigeration capacity 3.5 kJ
qref = 1171 kg/m3 from refrigerant properties chart
ΔTref = 40 °C
QC = moref x cp ref ΔTref
V = flow velocity of the refrigerant in the system is 3 m/s (Taken from the research
and ASHRAE data book)
moref = qref P/4 d2 V.
An experiment is conducted on VCR system with straight coiled, helical coiled con-
denser and helical coiled condenser with sub cooling. Then required parameters are
noted and tabulated in the below Table 2.
Table 2. Straight coiled, helical coiled condenser and helical coiled condenser with sub cooling
Parameters Straight coiled Helical coiled Helical coiled condenser
condenser condenser with sub cooling
Compressor discharge 46 50 46
temp t2 (°C)
Condensing temp t3 (°C) 43 43 40
Evaporator temperature 4 3.5 1.6
t1 (°C)
Compressor suction 3.5 1.37 1.6
pressure p1 (bar)
Compressor discharge 15.5 18 12.3
pressure p2 (bar)
Condenser pressure p3 15.5 18 12.3
(bar)
(continued)
Parameters Straight coiled Helical coiled Helical coiled condenser
condenser condenser with sub cooling
Evaporator pressure p4 3.5 1.37 1.6
(bar)
Result table
Enthalpy h1 (kJ/kg) 395 397 398
Enthalpy h2(kJ/kg) 422 423 422
Enthalpy h3(kJ/kg) 268 270 247.6
Enthalpy h4 (kJ/kg) 268 270 247.6
28
27
27
Work Done in KJ/Kg
26
26
25
24
24
23
22
Srtaight Coiled Helical Coiled (HC) HC with Sub cooling
Fig. 10. Work done vs different coiled condensers & sub-cooling
From the above Fig. 10, it is observed that work done on compressor with straight
coiled condenser is 27 kJ/kg, helical coil without sub-cooling is 26 kJ/Kg and helical
coil with sub-cooling is 24 kJ/Kg as the percentage decrease in compressor work is
12.5% by helical coil with sub-cooling compared with straight coil. Thus it reduces
load on compressor and increases the COP of the system.
200
NET REFRIGERATION
150
150 127 130
EFFECT kJ
100
50
0
Straght Coiled Helical Coiled(HC) HC with Sub cooling
Fig. 11. Refrigeration effect vs different coiled condensers and sub-cooling

From the above Fig. 11, it is observed that Refrigeration Effect in straight coiled
condenser is 127 kJ but in case of helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling is
130 kJ and with sub-cooling is 150 kJ. Refrigeration Effect in case of helical coiled
condenser is increased by 3 kJ compared to straight coiled condenser and Refrigeration
Effect in case of helical coiled condenser with sub-cooling is increased by 15.3%
compared to helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling.
8
COEFFICIENT OF
PERFORMANCE
6 6.2
5.65
4 4.7
0
Straight Coiled Helical Coiled (HC) HC with Sub cooling
Fig. 12. COP vs different coiled condensers and sub-cooling
From the above Fig. 12, it is observed that COP in straight coiled condenser is 4.7
but in case of helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling is 5.65 and with sub-cooling
is 6.2. COP in case of helical coiled condenser is increased by 20% compared to straight
coiled condenser and COP in case of helical coiled condenser with sub-cooling is
increased by 9.7% compared to helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling.
1.22 1.21
HEAT REJECTION
1.2
1.17
RATIO
1.18
1.16
1.16
1.14
1.12
Straight Coiled Helical Coiled(HC) HC with Sub cooling
Fig. 13. Heat rejection ratio vs different coiled condensers and sub-cooling
From the above Fig. 13, it is observed that heat rejection ratio in straight coiled
condenser is 1.21 but in case of helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling is 1.17.
and with sub-cooling is 1.16. Heat rejection ratio in case of helical coiled condenser is
decreased by 3.3% compared to straight coiled condenser. Heat rejection ratio in case
of helical coiled condenser is decreased by 4.1% compared to straight coiled condenser.
6 Conclusions
The experiment is conducted on Vapour Compression Refrigeration System with dif-

ferent types of condensers and with sub cooling system and the following statements
are concluded.
• Work done on compression straight coiled condenser is 27 kJ/Kg and helical coil
with sub cooling is 24 kJ/Kg, the percentage decrease is in compressor work as
12.5% thus it reduces load on the system.
• The refrigerant effect for straight coiled condenser is 127 kJ and for the helical coil
with sub-cooling is increased to 150 kJ and in terms of percentage 18.1% of
refrigeration effect increases by sub cooling system compared to without sub
cooling system.
• COP in straight coiled condenser is 4.7 but in case of helical coiled condenser
without sub-cooling is 5.65. and with sub-cooling is 6.2. COP in case of helical
coiled condenser is increased by 20% compared to straight coiled condenser and
COP in case of helical coiled condenser with sub-cooling is increased by 9.7%
compared to helical coiled condenser without sub-cooling.
• Heat rejection ratio in case of helical coiled condenser is decreased by 3.3%
compared to straight coiled condenser.
From the statements is it concluded that the performance of helical coil condenser
of vapor compression refrigeration system with sub more cooling is more and it is
preferred compared to other two types of condenser without sub-cooling.
References
1. Venkatarathnam G, Murthy SS (2012) Refrigerants for vapour compression refrigeration
system. Resonance 17(2):139–162
2. Ricardo Costa M, Garcia J (2015) Applying design of experiments to a compression
refrigeration cycle. Cogent Eng 2:992216
3. ES-fuelcell, design and construction of a solar thermal refrigeration system for Patna, India
(2013) Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
4. Arora CP, Refrigeration and air conditioning
5. Prasad M, Refrigeration and air conditioning
6. Nussbaum OJ (2009) Condensers, services application manual SAM chapter 620-32A
section 5B
7. Pavkovic B (2013) Properties and air-conditioning applications. REHVA J. Faculty of
Engineering in Rijeka, Croatia
8. Saidulu E, Guru Dattatreya GS (2015) Experimental investigation on domestic refrigerator
by shell and tube exchanger after the condenser using sub cooling of refrigerating fluid.
IOSR-JMCE 12(2):63–67 e-ISSN 2278-1684, p-ISSN 2320-334X
9. Vasanthi R, Maruthi Prasad Yadav G (2015) Experimental analysis of vapour compression
refrigeration system for optimum performance with low pressure receiver. IJSRM. ISSN
2231-3418
10. Maruthi Prasad Yadav G, Rajendra Prasad P, Veeresh G, Experimental analysis of vapour
compression refrigeration system with liquid line suction line heat exchanger by using
R134a and R404a
11. ASHRAE guide and data book (1965) Fundamentals and equipment
12. ASHRAE guide and data book (1977) Fundamentals and equipment
13. Dasthagiri P, Rangamma H, Maruthi Prasad Yadav G (2015) Fabrication and analysis of
refrigerator cum chilled water dispenser. IJSRT. ISSN 2320-3927
14. ASHRAE, guide and data book (1978) Product directory applications
15. Ravindra D (2001) Air cooled condensers; types, rating design, construction, installation and
maintenance. ISHRAE
16. Momin GG, Tupe SB, Parate SA, Yewale OG, Thite AP (2016) COP enhancement of
domestic refrigerator by sub cooling and superheating using shell & tube type heat
exchanger
17. Sunny S, Jayesh S (2015) To improve cop of domestic refrigerator with the help of water
cooling condenser. IJIRSET 4(3). ISSN 2319-8753
Criteria for Drop-in Replacement of Existing
Refrigerant with an Alternative Refrigerant
Srinivas Pendyala(&) and R. Prattipati
GITAM (Deemed to be University), Hyderabad, India

pendyala76@yahoo.com
Abstract. In the present work, criteria for substituting working refrigerant with
alternative refrigerant is given through R134a being replaced with ternary
mixtures of R134a/hydrocarbons. Thermodynamic properties were compared
theoretically using REFPROP software for five refrigerant mixtures. Investiga-
tions have been carried out for different operating temperatures in the range of
50 °C to −20 °C. The criterion is established by analyzing the thermophysical
properties of refrigerant mixtures and comparing saturation pressures. The
procedure to select a drop-in replacement with maximum COP is discussed
against comparison of volumetric cooling capacity of the ternary mixtures.
Keywords: Ternary mixture Coefficient of performance (COP)

Drop-in replacement Alternative refrigerants
Nomenclature:
ODP Ozone Depletion Potential
GWP Global Warming Potential
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
HC Hydrocarbon
RE Refrigeration Effect
HC mixtue 50%R290/50%R600a
Mixture-1 47.5%R290/47.5%R600a/5%R134a
Mixture-2 42.5%R290/42.5%R600a/15%R134a
Mixture-3 37.5%R290/37.5%R600a/25%R134a
Mixture-4 32.5%R290/32.5%R600a/35%R134a
Mixture-5 27.5%R290/27.5%R600a/45%R134a
1 Introduction
The role of CFCs in the process of ozone depletion is now widely accepted and should
be discontinued in spite of its exceptional properties. The search for environment-
friendly refrigerant replacing ozone depleting substances like R12 led to usage of
R134a. The performance parameters of R134a are as good as with that of R12. R134a
has zero ODP but considerable GWP of 1300 [1, 2]. To replace R134a, HC refrigerants
can be considered due to their negligible GWP [3, 4]. They have good thermodynamic
properties and locally available at low cost.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_51
Criteria for Drop-in Replacement of Existing Refrigerant 425
Agarwal [5] has proposed a substitute for R12 with R152a, R124/R22 and mixtures
of R600a and R290. Pendyala et al. [6] investigated drop in substitute of R134a with
HC mixtures and calculated the performance parameters like compressor work, coef-
ficient of performance and refrigeration effect are evaluated at various operating con-
ditions and compared with R134a. Their results show that COP of HC mixture is
superior to R134a. Ravikumar and Mohan Lal [7] have conducted experiments on a
refrigerator to substitute R12 with R134a. R134a is not compatible with mineral oil. To
improve the miscibility, HC mixture was added to the R134a with the mass fraction of
9% and 91% respectively. Sattar et al. [8] examined the substitutes for R134a with a
zeotropic mixture of R600/R290/R600a. They concluded that energy input to the
compressor using zeotropic mixture decreased by 3% compared with R134a. Col-
bourne and Ritter [9] presented the guidelines and various safety aspects of flammable
HC refrigerants. Saravanakumar and Selladurai [10] studied the performance of a
refrigerator to replace R134a using 55% R600a/45%R290. The results showed that
COP of the 55% R600a/45%R290 was better than R134a. Yu and Teng [11] evaluated
experimentally drop-in replacement for R134a using R600a and R290. The experi-
ments showed that optimum mass was obtained at 40% of that of R134a.
From previous studies, it was examined that hydrocarbons mixtures or mixtures of
HC/HFC can be used to substitute R134a. HCs are flammable which restrict the use of
hydrocarbons for commercial purpose. However, small capacity systems like domestic
refrigerator requires charge quantity less than 0.15 kg. A system with refrigerant charge
quantity is less than 0.15 kg can be installed any size of the room [5]. In order to use
drop-in replacement for the existing system criteria for selecting alternative refrigerant
need to be established. In the present work, different masses of R600a/R290/R134a
were considered to establish a procedure for replacing R134a.
2 Methodology for the Selection of Ternary Mixture
Most of the refrigerators in India are operating with R134a as refrigerant. One of the
expensive components of a refrigeration system is the compressor. It would be eco-
nomical to replace refrigerant instead of changing the compressor or any other hard-
ware of the system. In order to check the drop-in replacement of alternative refrigerant,
its saturation properties should match with the base refrigerant. This would not
necessitate any modification of compressor. Isobutane (R600a) and Propane (R290)
mixture is most commonly available HC refrigerant. However, due to flammability
issues, this cannot be used as a refrigerant on its own.
The saturation pressure of HC mixture (50%R600a/50%R290) and R134a matches
closely [12]. Hence, any combination of R600a/R290/R134a can have saturation
pressures close to R134a. For making a ternary mixture, Isobutane, Propane and R134a
are selected. For analysis, mass fraction of R134a is varied from 5% to 45% to bring
GWP down and the remaining HC mixture is divided equally to reduce flammability
issues. Coefficient of performance (COP) is another important parameter to be con-
sidered for selecting alternative refrigerants. COP represents energy consumption for a
given cooling capacity. To find best alternative refrigerant, calculations were performed
at 40 °C and −20 °C of condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. Properties
426 S. Pendyala and R. Prattipati
of the refrigerant are taken from REFPROP software [13]. The performance parameters
of the proposed ternary mixtures are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Performance of the R134a and ternary mixtures.

Refrigerant RE in kJ/kg Compressor work, COP Specific volume,
kJ/kg m3/kg
R134a 130.2 56.4 2.3 0.1474
HC mixture 266.7 97 2.74 0.3343
Mixture-1 261.7 93.4 2.8 0.3187
Mixture-2 249.1 85.6 2.91 0.2876
Mixture-3 233.4 78.7 2.96 0.2565
Mixture-4 215.4 73.2 2.94 0.2257
Mixture-5 195.6 68.6 2.84 0.1954
Figure 1 shows the variation of vapor pressure with saturation temperature for R134a
and selected ternary mixtures with R134a. The graph shows that saturation pressures
from mixture-1 to mixture-5 are vary at higher temperatures from R134a. However, as
the compressor operates at lower temperature, the saturation pressure is equivalent to
that of R134a.
Fig. 1. Effect of saturation temperature with the vapor pressure

To get maximum performance from a VCR system, quantity of refrigerant charge is

one of the influencing factors which affect the COP. Vapor density is an important
physical quantity which influences the charge quantity. The variation of Vapor density
is plotted in Fig. 2. It shows that, vapor densities of the ternary mixtures are 24.57% to
61.3% lower than R134a. Thus the mass flow rate of the ternary mixtures is lower than
R134a due to its lower density when R134a R compressors are used. Any open system
component work done is a function of vdp, where v is the specific volume of the
refrigerant entering into the compressor and dp is the pressure ratio across the com-
pressor. Specific volume of the refrigerant influences the work of compression. The
Table 1 depicts that variation of specific volume for the selected mixtures and R134a. It
shows that specific volume of the ternary mixtures increases from mixture-5 to mixture-
1 due to increasing mass fraction HCs in the ternary mixture. The specific volume of
the ternary mixtures is more than that of R134a.
Fig. 2. Effect of vapor density
Refrigerants with high latent heat (hfg ) can absorb more cooling load for the same
flow rate. The Fig. 3 confirms that high latent heat values of the proposed mixtures
increases from mixture-5 to mixture-1 by 34% to 76%. This is due to increasing mass
quantity of hydrocarbons in the ternary mixture. As a result, there is a chance for the
less mass flow of ternary mixtures for the same cooling load compared with R134a.
Viscosity of the refrigerant influences the capillary length. Pressure loss decreases
with the decrease of viscosity. The Fig. 4 shows that variation of liquid viscosity at
different saturation temperatures. It is observed that viscosities of the ternary mixtures
are 40% to 47% lower than R134a. Thus, for ternary mixtures, to have the same
pressure drop length the capillary length needs to be increased.
Fig. 3. Effect of latent heat
Fig. 4. Effect of liquid viscosity
In vapor compression system, slight superheating is essential to safeguard the

compressor. Specific heat of the vapor controls the degree of superheat. Therefore
refrigerant should have more vapor specific heat to have less superheat. This would
reduce the suction volume and compressor work. The Fig. 5 It is observed that the
specific heat of the ternary mixture is 60% higher than R134a. Hence the degree of
superheating would be lesser for selected refrigerants as compared to R134a resulting
in better performance.
Fig. 5. Effect of vapor specific heat
From the results, it shows that with the increasing HC quantity in the ternary
mixture (R290/R600a/R134) specific volume and latent heat values are increases from
mixture-5 to mixture-1. Results show that cooling capacity of the ternary mixtures is
superior to R134a. However, it consumes more power due to the increase in specific
volume. The COP started increasing with the increasing percentage HCs and reaches
the maximum value at 37.5%R290/37.5%R600a/25%R134a (mixture-3) and then
started decreasing with further increase in HC mixture mass fraction.
Volumetric Cooling Capacity (VCC) is another parameter to check for the drop-in
replacement. Volumetric Cooling Capacity (VCC) represents amount of heat removed
for a given volume of compressor
mr RE RE
VCC ¼ ¼ : ð1Þ
V_ t
Where mr is the refrigerant flow rate in kg/s, RE is the refrigeration effect in kJ/kg,
V_ is the volume flow rate and t is the specific volume at the suction to the compressor.
The Fig. 6 shows that variation of VCC of the ternary mixtures and R134a. VCC for
mixture-3 is very close than that of R134a (deviating 2.9% only). Therefore, mixture-3
is absorbing same amount of cooling load without changing the compressor of R134a.
Fig. 6. Comparison of Volumetric Cooling Capacity
4 Conclusions
This study presents the procedure for drop-in replacement of new refrigerants in the
existing system. Ternary mixtures of R134a and HC mixtures are considered to sub-
stitute pure R134a.
The following were the conclusions from the obtained results.
• Saturation pressures of R134a and HCs match closely. Therefore ternary mixtures
can be considered as direct substitutes for R134a.
• Among the selected ternary mixtures, mixture-3 has better COP.
• Specific work done for the mixture-3 is more than that of R134a. However, energy
consumption can be minimized by optimizing the capillary length.
• The mass fraction of R134a in the ternary mixture has been reduced to 25% thus
reducing the global warming associated with the refrigerant.
• VCC of mixture-3 is the closest match for compressor operating with R134a as
refrigerant.
• Systems with HC refrigerant charge quantity less than 0.15 kg can be installed any
size of the room.
References
1. El-Sayed AR, El Morsi M, Mahmoud NA (2018) Review of the potential replacements of
HCFC/HFCs using environment-friendly refrigerants. Int J Air-Conditioning Refrig 26
(3):1830002-1–1830002-24
2. Srinivas P, Narayana Rao K, SitaRama Raju AV (2010) Optimization of visi cooler with the
low global warming potential refrigerant mixture as an alternative to R134a and HC blend.
Int J Glob Warming 2:316–329
3. Havelsky V (2000) Investigation of refrigerating system with R12 refrigerant replacements.
Appl Therm Eng 20:133–140
4. Lee YS, Su CC (2002) Experimental studies of isobutane (R600a) as the refrigerant in
domestic refrigeration system. Appl Therm Eng 22:507–519
5. Agarwal RS (1996) Comparative study of hydrocarbon mixtures & MP-39 as refrigerants to
retrofit CFC-12 based domestic refrigerator freezers. In: Proceedings of the international
refrigeration conference at Purdue, 23–26 July 1996. Purdue University, Wet Lafayette,
pp 471–476
6. Pendyala S, Prattipati R, Raju AVSR (2017) Optimization process of a visi-cooler using
ternary mixtures of R134a and hydrocarbons. Int J Air-Conditioning Refrig 25(2):1750019-
1–1750019-10
7. Ravikumar TS, Mohan Lal D (2009) On-road performance analysis of R134a/R600a/R290
refrigerant mixture in an automobile air conditioning system with mineral oil as lubricant.
Energy Convers Manag 50:1891–1901
8. Sattar MA, Saidur R, Masjuki HH (2007) Performance investigation of domestic refrigerator
using pure hydrocarbons and blends of hydrocarbons as refrigerants. Proc World Acad Sci
Eng Technol 23:223–228
9. Colbourne D, Ritter TJ (1998) Hydrocarbon refrigerant safety: standards and quantitative
risk assessments. In: IIR conference on emerging trends in refrigeration and air-
conditioning, 18–20 March 1998, New Delhi, India, pp 293–301
10. Saravanakumar R, Selladurai V (2013) Exergy analysis of a domestic refrigerator using eco-
friendly R290/R600a refrigerant mixture as an alternative to R134a. J Therm Anal Calorim
114:933–940
11. Yu C, Teng T (2014) Retrofit assessment of refrigerator using hydrocarbon refrigerants.
Appl Therm Eng 66:507–518
12. Sekhar SJ, Lal DM (2005) R134a/R600a/R290 a retrofit mixture for CFC12 systems. Int J
Refrig 28:735–743
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refrigeration and refrigerant mixtures database, REFPROP V.6.01, NIST
Analysis of Characteristics of Launcher Missile
System and Its Optimization to Reduce Tip-Off
Effect During Launch
P. Ravinder Reddy1, A. Dhanalaxmi1(&), M. Rakesh2,

and G. Chandramouli2
1
Mechanical Engineering, Chaithanya Bharathi Institute of Technology,
Hyderabad 500075, India
dhanalaxmiananthula@gmail.com
2
Defence Research and Development Laboratory, Kanchanbagh,
Abstract. This paper focuses on analyzing the motion characteristics of the

launcher missile system and locations of interactions between missile shoes and
launch rail. The deviation of direction of the thrust force from flight axis of the
missile is known as thrust misalignment. And the deviation of direction of the
missile is known as tipoff rate. The main objective of this paper is to analyze
characteristics of launcher missile system and its optimization to reduce tipoff
rate. The analysis is performed by modeling and simulating the launcher missile
system using CAD package and ADAMS software.
Keywords: Missile Launcher missile system Thrust misalignment

Tip-off rate
1 Introduction
Missile is a self-propelled guided weapon, designed to deliver an explosive warhead at

the target with great accuracy at high speed. It moves in the launcher for a certain
amount of time during launching phase. Launching device, canister is used for
launching of the missile [1].
On application of thrust force, missile attains free flight as it separates from
launcher. With front shoe becomes unsupported while the rear shoe still supported by
launch rail when missile reaches end of launcher, missile deviates from actual flight
path under force of gravity known as known as tipoff rate. Mathematically, the tipoff
rate is represented by the angular velocity of the missile with respect to the Z-axis
(pitch axis), also known as pitch rate.
From the engineering point of view, minimum tipoff rate is desirable [2]. The
purpose of this work is to achieve the minimum tipoff rate by analyzing the motion
characteristics of the system and optimizing the obtained result by varying the
parameters such as clearance between missile shoe and launch rail, location of the shoe
with respect to center of mass of the missile and the number of launch lugs. Cochran,
[3]: Developed a physical model of a launcher system in order to study the factors

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_52
Analysis of Characteristics of Launcher Missile System 433
causing mal-launch of missiles. Dynamic mass unbalance is a primary contributor to

mal-launch of the system. Thrust misalignment is also an important mal-launch factor.
Zeman, [4]: Presented a dynamic simulation of rail launched missile. The shoe reaction
forces can be determined and the missile’s velocity, acceleration can be plotted. For
structural purposes, the missile’s component stresses can be plotted. Dziopa et al., [5]:
Constructed a launcher mathematical model with four DOF. The results show that
missile moving along guide rail causes vibrations of the system.
2 Modeling and Its Description
Modeling of the system is done by using CAD package, Solid Works. The system
analyzed in this work, needed modeling of canister with internal part of launch rail and
missile with external part of launch lugs (Fig. 1).
Launch Lugs
Fig. 1. Missile body with launch lugs
2.1 Modeling of Missile

The missile system is modeled with the weight of 270.078 kg and total length of
4225 mm. The material used for missile is Al with properties, young’s modulus of
72.4 KN/mm2 and density of 2800 kg/m3.
2.2 Modeling of Canister

Figure 2 shows that front view of the launch rail, which has the interaction with the
missile. The material used for canister is stainless steel with the weight of 281.66 kg
and length of 4425 mm. The material properties of canister, young’s modulus is
200 KN/mm2 and density is 7800 kg/m3.
434 P. Ravinder Reddy et al.
Launch Rail
Fig. 2. Front view of launch rail
Model of Launcher Missile System

Figure 3 shows launcher missile system which is being analyzed for motion charac-
teristics using ADAMS.
Center of mass
Canister Thrust force

Missile
Fig. 3. Launcher missile system
Missile has interaction with launcher with the help of launch lugs of missile and
launch rail of canister. The missile moves along the launch rail with help of launch
lugs.
The missile is supported by launcher with the help of two launch lugs, also known
as missile shoes as shown in Fig. 4. When thrust is provided externally, missile starts
moving along the launch rail with the help of these lugs.
Canister
Missile position
Missile
Thrust Misalignment Thrust
Fig. 4. Line diagram of missile represents launching phase

3 Simulation and Analysis of the Developed Model Using

Adams Software
It is recommended to analyze the launcher missile system in order to optimize the tipoff
rate. ADAMS motion software has been employed to perform the motion analysis of
missile. Thrust misalignment, which causes mal-launch errors, exists in reality [6].
Thrust misalignment should be less than 0.25° [7].
The basic conditions to be considered for simulation and analysis of the launcher
missile system are clearance between shoe and launch rail is 0.50 mm, coefficient of
friction is 0.16, launch angle is 45° and thrust misalignment is 0.2° (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Launcher missile system at launch angle of 45°
From the view of the launcher dynamics, only a small portion of thrust force is
needed because there is no effect of the thrust force once the missile leaves the launcher
[6]. Ideally, thrust force should be aligned with the flight axis of the missile.
4 Optimization of Launcher Missile System to Achieve

Minimum Tipoff Rate
Optimization of the launcher missile system is done to achieve the minimum tipoff rate.
In this work, optimization is performed by studying the interaction between the missile
shoe (launch lug) and the launch rail.
Optimization of the launcher missile system is done by varying parameters such as
1. Clearance between the missile shoe and rail.
2. Location of launch lugs with respect to CM position.
3. Number of launch lugs.
The separation time of missile without considering thrust misalignment is 0.00004 s

less than that of considering thrust misalignment (Table 1).
Table 1. Tip-off rate and separation time for an ideal system and real system which has thrust
misalignment
Cases Separation time (sec) Tipoff rate (deg/sec)
Without consideration of thrust misalignment 0.09141 0.0117
With consideration of thrust misalignment 0.09145 −3.2250
The tipoff rate of the missile without considering the thrust misalignment is
3.21 deg/sec less than that of considering the thrust misalignment.
However, it’s not the big difference between separation times in terms of thrust
misalignment but variations in tipoff rates are more.
5.1 Optimization Results

Reference Model: Clearance between the lug and rail is 0.50 mm
Front Lug Center of Mass
Rear Lug
Fig. 6. Front view of missile with two launch lugs
Here, x1 represents the distance between the tip of the missile to the front launch lug
and x2 represents the distance between the front launch lug and rear launch lug (Fig. 6).
Figure 7 is showing the angular velocity w.r.to time (pitch rate) when the clearance
between the missile and the rail is 0.50 mm under the conditions, thrust misalignment
is considered and the launch angle is 45°.
The missile is separated from launcher at 0.09145 s. The angular velocity at this
separating time is −3.2250 deg/sec.
Table 2. Tipoff rates for horizontal Table 3. Tipoff rates for vertical clearance
clearance
Horizontal Vertical Tipoff
Horizontal Vertical Tipoff clearance clearance (deg/sec)
clearance clearance (deg/sec) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) 0.50 0.25 −3.155
0.25 0.50 −3.2362 0.50 0.50 −3.225
0.50 0.50 −3.2250 0.50 0.75 −3.241
0.75 0.50 −3.2252 0.50 1.0 −3.263
From the results obtained for clearance (Tables 2 and 3), it is observed that there is
no much difference for varying horizontal clearance. That indicates this parameter
doesn’t influence the tipoff rate and among those obtained results for horizontal
clearance, minimum tipoff rate, −3.2250 deg/sec, can be achieved for the horizontal
clearance of 0.50 mm. It is observed that vertical clearance influences tipoff rate,
optimum condition to get minimum tipoff rate, −3.155 deg/sec, is when providing the
clearance of 0.25 mm.
Tipoff rate is -3.2250deg/sec at

separating time 0.09145sec for
clearance of 0.50mm
Fig. 7. Angular velocity vs time showing tipoff rate −3.2250 deg/sec when the clearance is
0.50 mm
Table 4. Tipoff rate for varying the location of launch lugs w.r.to C.M of the
missile
Cases Ratio of distances from Tipoff rate (deg/sec)
center of mass to lugs (mm)
Case 1 1:1 −2.9437
Case 2 1:2 −2.0933
Case 3 2:1 −2.313
From results obtained (Table 4) for varying location of launch lugs w.r.to C.M of
missile, minimum tipoff rate can be achieved for placing lugs in ratio of 1:2 w.r.to C.M.
And minimum tipoff rate for this condition is −2.0933 deg/sec.
Table 5. Tipoff rates for placing the three launch lugs in different locations
Dimensions/parameters Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
x1 (mm) 1929 1990 1990 1990
x2 (mm) 1000 1000 1150 850
x3 (mm) 1000 500 350 650
L1 (mm) 500 500 500 500
L2 (mm) 500 500 650 350
L3 (mm) 1500 1000 1000 1000
Tipoff rate (deg/sec) −2.1808 −2.1091 −1.0629 −0.6088
Here, X1 represents the distance between the tip of the missile to front launch lug,
X2 represents the distance between the front launch lug and intermediate launch lug, X3
represents the distance between the intermediate launch lug and rear launch lug, L1
represents the distance from center of mass to the front launch lug, L2 represents the
distance from center of mass to intermediate launch lug and L3 represents the distance
from center of mass to the rear launch lug.
Optimization is done by performing the analysis for four cases.
From Table 5, minimum tipoff rate can be achieved for case 4 in which third launch
lug is placed between C.M and rear launch lug in such a way that it is near to C.M, far
away from the rear launch lug.
The dimensions are as follows:
X1 ¼ 1990 mm X2 ¼ 850 mm X3 ¼ 650 mm

L1 ¼ 500 mm L2 ¼ 350 mm L3 ¼ 1000 mm
The minimum tipoff rate for the above condition is −0.6088 deg/sec.
6 Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from present studies

Tipoff rate of the missile without considering thrust misalignment is 0.0117 deg/sec
and the pitch rate of the missile with considering thrust misalignment is
−3.2250 deg/sec. The tipoff rate of the missile with considering the thrust misalign-
ment is 3.21 deg/sec more than that of without considering the thrust misalignment.
After performing the optimization of the launcher missile system, observed the
optimum condition to achieve minimum tipoff rate, −0.6088 deg/sec, is placing the
front and rear launch lugs in the ratio of 1:2 w.r.to center of mass and placing third
(intermediate) lug in such a way that it is near to the center of mass, away from the rear
launch lug when the horizontal clearance of 0.50 mm and vertical clearance of
0.25 mm.
Acknowledgement. The authors would like to thank Defense Research and Development
Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad, India, for supporting this project and also likes to thank the
Principal, CBIT, Hyderabad, India.
References
1. Acmaz E (2011) Experimental analysis and modeling of wear in rocket rail launchers, 129 p
2. Çiçek BC (2014) Dynamic analysis and modeling of a rocket launcher system, 128 P
3. Cochran EJ (1975) Investigation of factors which contribute to mal-launch of free rockets.
Technical report, RL-CR-76-4, Auburn University, AL
4. Zeman P (2001) Rail launch missile simulation using MSC Nastran software
5. Dziopa Z, Krzysztofik I, Koruba Z (2010) An analysis of the dynamics of a launcher-missile
system on a moveable base. Bull Polish Acad Sci Tech Sci 58(4):645–650
6. Işık Ç, Ider SK, Acar B (2013) Modeling and verification of a missile launcher system. Proc
Inst Mech Eng Part K J Multi-body Dyn 228(1):100–107
7. Knauber RN (1996) Thrust misalignments of fixed-nozzle solid rocket motors. J Spacecraft
Rockets 33(6):794–799
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis
Wind Lens Wind Turbine
P. Usha Sri(&) and Chirla Jeevesh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering,

Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, India
emailushasri@yahoo.com
Abstract. In reaction turbines, the main purpose of draft turbine is to increase

the available net head and to increase the efficiency. By using the same principle
in the case of a wind turbine, we can significantly improve the performance. As
we all know that, the power generated by a wind turbine is always directly
proportional to the cube of wind velocity at the inlet. If we try to increase inlet
velocity by capturing and concentrating locally, there is a significant increase in
the output power of a wind turbine. This is to be done by using wind lens
technology, which comprises of inlet shroud, diffuser and brim. According to
Betz limit, the maximum possible limit of efficiency for any horizontal axis wind
turbine is 59.3% [1–3]. But, recent studies had shown that the maximum power
coefficient from horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) using wind lens tech-
nology can be increased beyond the Betz limit.
This study compares the maximum efficiency possible from a horizontal axis
wind turbine without diffuser and that with diffuser enclosed around a turbine.
A numerical simulation is done for the same model using ANSYS CFX with
different inlet conditions. The geometry of the diffuser is optimized for the
maximum possible efficiency. From this study it is found that a diffuser of
divergence angle 8° around wind turbine operated at an optimum wind velocity
of 2 m/s (for the chosen wind turbine model) gives the power coefficient of 0.6
which is greater than Betz limit.
Keywords: Betz limit Diffuser Wind lens technique Power coefficient

Rotor
1 Introduction
We all know that, fossil fuels are limited, and we have to utilize the renewable energy
resources more effectively [4–6]. Among all these, wind energy has a great advantage
for generating electrical energy, as it’s cheap and free from pollution. In general, wind
turbine converts the kinetic energy of the wind energy into rotational energy which is
further converted into electrical energy when it is coupled to a generator. Wind farms,
which contain a group of wind turbines help in harnessing the wind energy are gen-
erally located far from the urban places [7, 8]. It is difficult and quite expensive to
maintain such lengthy transmission lines that run from wind farms to urban regions. It
is best suited if we could harness more energy from the wind, i.e. increasing the power
coefficient of the wind turbine. We all know that, the power output of a wind turbine is
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_53
Performance Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind Lens Wind Turbine 441
always directly proportional to the swept area and cube of wind velocity at the inlet.
The rotor diameter is limited by the spatial restrictions in the urban regions. The only
option left is to increase the available kinetic energy at the rotor. This is generally done
by placing a diffuser around the wind turbine rotor. It increases the overall mass flow
and kinetic energy available in the rotor by creating a pressure difference, thereby
increasing the energy density of the flow.
In 1919, Betz theoretically calculated that the maximum efficiency possible with a
wind turbine is 59.3% called as Betz limit [9]. A long diffuser is more preferable than a
short one. However a long diffuser makes the setup heavy and out of balance. Hence an
optimum length of the diffuser is chosen keeping in view the stability of the wind
turbine setup. A tip clearance of 0.2D is chosen (D = Diameter of the rotor). As the
wind flows through the diffuser, a low pressure region is created at its entrance; the
inlet wind velocity is further accelerated at the inlet of the diffuser. Thus the accelerated
wind energy possessing high kinetic energy is harnessed by the wind turbine rotor.
Wind with an inlet velocity of Vw approaches the wind turbine and exits with a wind
velocity of V2. Let, q be air density (kg/m3), A1 is the cross-sectional area of a wind
turbine at inlet, A2 is the cross-sectional area of a wind turbine at the outlet.
Power coefficient is defined and calculated as [10, 11]
Turbine output power 14 qAT Vw3 ð1 a2 þ a a3 Þ 1

CP ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 a2 þ a a3
Input Wind power 1
2 qA V
T w
3 2
Where a ¼ VVw2
In this paper, a practical horizontal axis wind turbine is designed and performance
studies are performed by having with and without diffuser around the rotor, and the
results are also compared with computational results by using ANSYS CFX. The three
blade wind turbine rotor of diameter 0.224 m is mounted on a 9 V-2000 RPM DC
motor. An LED (0.5 W) is connected to the DC motor in series with a 1 A–1000 V
Rectifier diode and an ON-OFF switch as shown in the circuit Fig. 1. Ammeter (A) and
Voltmeter (V) are connected in series and parallel to the circuit respectively.
Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of experimental setup

442 P. Usha Sri and C. Jeevesh
An aluminium sheet of 0.3 mm thickness is utilized to fabricate the diffuser around

the turbine rotor. For the given turbine rotor diameter (D = 0.224 m), three Diffusers
namely Diffuser 1 (D1), Diffuser 2 (D2) and Diffuser 3 (D3) of their respective
dimensions are fabricated to study the performance under different wind velocities. The
sizes of the diffusers are shown in the Fig. 2(a)–(c). Figure 3(a) and (b) shows the
completely assembled horizontal axis wind turbine model without a diffuser and with
diffuser respectively. These two models are exposed to various wind velocities. The
anemometer is used to record the inlet and exit wind velocities at the rotor. A digital
tachometer is used to measure the rotational speed of the wind turbine.
Fig. 2. The dimensions of three diffusers (a) D1, (b) D2 and (c) D3.
3 Experimental Facility and Results Analysis
The performance of horizontal axis wind turbine is studied at three different inlet wind
velocities i.e. at 1.7 m/s, 2.7 m/s and 3.7 m/s by using with and without diffuser around
the rotor and power output and efficiency are calculated.
Table 1 shows the performance results for all the cases. It is clearly seen that, as the
wind inlet velocity increases, the rotational speed increase results in an increase in
power output. The power output and efficiency of D1, D2, and D3 wind turbines are
more compared with bare wind turbine. By comparing wind turbines D1 and D2, D2 is
having improved performance compared to D1 due to lengthier diffuser. Comparing
diffusers D2 and D3, the D3 performance is not that much improved due to less
diverging angle. It clearly indicates that, better performance of a wind turbine mainly
depending on the optimum length of the diffuser and diverging angle.
Fig. 3. Experimental test facility (a) horizontal axis wind turbine without diffuser and (b) with
diffuser D1
Table 1. Performance results of different wind turbines

S. Inlet wind Outlet wind Speed of the Power Efficiency
No velocity V1 (m/s) velocity V2 (m/s) turbine N (rpm) output
Wind turbine without diffuser
1 1.7 1.42 673 0.04 31.89
2 2.7 2.05 1098 0.15 32.47
3 3.7 3.17 1370 0.32 29.09
Wind turbine with diffuser D1
4 1.7 1.38 954 0.04 39.32
5 2.7 1.75 1390 0.22 51.24
6 3.7 2.41 1450 0.49 44.87
7 1.7 0.95 878 0.06 57.35
8 2.7 1.04 1282 0.25 59.44
9 3.7 1.85 1490 0.63 56.40
10 1.7 0.82 767 0.06 54.41
11 2.7 1.29 1256 0.24 57.35
12 3.7 2.11 1345 0.61 54.72
4 Computational Fluid Dynamic Simulations
A 3D model of the Wind turbine rotor is modeled using Ansys 19.0 Design Modeler
(Fig. 4(a)). A rotating medium of air is created around the rotor in the form of a
cylinder (Fig. 4(b)). All the diffusers are modeled in Ansys workbench as shown in
Fig. 5(b)–(d). Here we are considering cylindrical domain with 30 cm radius and
having a length of 50 cm on both sides of rotor blades. With three different speeds,
three different diffusers (D1, D2 and D3), total twelve numbers of simulations are
conducted as shown in Table 2. Here we are generated, unstructured mess with an
element size of 1.4 cm and having a growth rate of 1.5 is realistic. The total number of
nodes is 92500 with 1350 mesh elements having inflation size of 5 as shown in the
Fig. 6(a) and (b). The total number of nodes for diffuser D1 is 75005, diffuser D2 is
70259, and for diffuser D3 is 74356.
Fig. 4. (a) Three bladed horizontal axis wind turbine, and (b) Cylindrical rotating medium
After mesh generation, in the ANSYS CFX Preprocessor, the boundary conditions
are applied as shown in Table 2. Here we consider the working fluid is air at 25 °C at 1
atmospheric pressure. In Ansys CFX solver, we are considering k-e turbulence model
with a turbulence intensity of 5%. The selected convergence criteria were set to the
residuals smaller than 10−4, having physical time scale of 0.0002 s with maximum
number of iterations of 10000.
Figure 7(a) and (b) shows the velocity streamlines and pressure contour of the fluid
moving at 1.7 m/s from the inlet to the exit for wind turbine without diffuser. It clearly
shows, the inlet wind velocity reduces from 1.7 m/s to 1.2 m/s at the exit. There is a
loss in kinetic energy of the wind. The changes in pressure and velocity from the inlet
to the outlet is plotted as a graph as shown in the Figs. 8(a)–(d) and 9(a)–(d) for a wind
turbine without a diffuser, diffuser D1, diffuser D2, and diffuser D3.
The velocity ratio, ratio of exit velocity of wind (V2) at the outlet to inlet velocity of
wind (V1) at inlet is also calculated as shown in Table 3. The Table 3 also gives the
output power and efficiency of wind turbine without a diffuser, diffuser D1, diffuser D2,
and diffuser D3 at a different inlet velocity of wind. It clearly shows that by comparing
with diffuser type wind turbine, wind turbines without diffuser produces less output
power.
From Table 3, for wind turbine with diffuser cases, the output power and efficiency is
increased by nearly 2 times as compared with wind turbine without diffuser. From this,
we can conclude that, wind turbine with a diffuser is very efficient as compared to without
diffuser at the same inlet test conditions. It is also important that, diffuser with the angle
of diverging of approx. 8° gives high power output and better efficiency. The power
output and efficiency at different inlet wind velocity is shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b).
Fig. 5. Computational fluid model of (a) Horizontal axis wind turbine without diffuser, (b) with
diffuser D1, (c) with diffuser D2, and (d) with diffuser D3
Table 2. Test conditions for numerical simulations

S. no Inlet wind Diffuser
velocity V1 (m/s)
1 1.7 Wind turbine without diffuser
2 2.7
3 3.7
4 1.7 Wind turbine with diffuser D1
5 2.7
6 3.7
8 2.7
9 3.7
11 2.7
12 3.7
From Fig. 10(a), blue line shows the power output for wind turbine without dif-
fuser, which have least power out as compared with wind turbines with diffusers. Wind
turbines with diffuser D2 (Green line) and diffuser D3 (Purple line) produces high
power out and efficiency as compared with other wind turbines. The same thing is also
supported by Fig. 10(b). From these results, we can conclude that, the wind turbine
with diffuser D2 produces high power output and high efficiency as compared with
other diffusers. It also have power coefficient of approximately 0.6, which is greater
than the Betz’s limit.
Fig. 6. (a) The generated mesh around the rotor (b) The generated mesh in complete fluid
domain and around the rotor
Fig. 7. (a) Velocity streamlines of fluid flow, and (b) Pressure contour at middle cross section
Fig. 8. Variation of pressure along stream line at velocity V1 = 1.7 m/s for (a) wind turbine
without diffuser, (b) with diffuser D1, (c) with diffuser D2, and (d) with diffuser D3
Fig. 9. Variation of velocity along stream line at velocity V1 = 1.7 m/s for (a) wind turbine
without diffuser, (b) with diffuser D1, (c) with diffuser D2, and (d) with diffuser D3
Table 3. Summary of results having horizontal axis wind turbine with and without diffusers
Inlet Diffuser Output power (p0) Efficiency η (%) Velocity
wind length Wind Wind Wind Wind ratio (VV21 )
velocity turbine turbine turbine turbine
without with without with
diffuser diffuser diffuser diffuser
1.7 D1 0.03 0.04 30.8 38.30 0.75
1.7 D2 0.06 56.25 0.50
1.7 D3 0.06 53.40 0.56
2.7 D1 0.13 0.22 31.4 50.20 0.62
2.7 D2 0.25 58.40 0.43
2.7 D3 0.24 56.25 0.51
3.7 D1 0.31 0.49 28.1 43.86 0.69
3.7 D2 0.62 55.10 0.53
3.7 D3 0.60 53.77 0.56
Fig. 10. (a) Output power vs inlet wind velocity, and (b) Efficiency vs inlet wind velocity
5 Conclusions
Based on experimental and computational analysis, the following conclusions can be

drawn:
1. From experimental results, it is clearly evident that, wind turbine with diffuser will
have the efficiency two times more than that of wind turbine without diffuser.
2. Wind turbine with diffuser D2, generates high power out and efficiency as compared
with other wind turbines.
3. It is also concluded that, diffuser with angle of diverging of approx. 8° gives high
power output and good efficiency.
4. Wind turbine with diffuser D2 produces high power output and high efficiency as
compared with other diffusers. It also have power coefficient of approximately 0.6,
which is greater than the Betz’s limit.
References
1. Bryans L, Jenkins N, Milborrow D, O’Malley M, Watson R, Fox B, Flynn D, Anaya Lara O
(2007) Wind power integration: connection and system operational aspects. The Institute of
Engineering and Technology
2. Harries A, Stankovic S, Campbell N (2009) Urban wind energy. Earthscan, Sterling
3. Gilbert BL, Oman RA, Foreman KM (1978) Fluid dynamics of diffuser-augmented wind
turbines. J Energy 2:368–374
4. Gilbert BL, Foreman KM (1983) Experiments with a diffuser-augmented model wind
turbine. Trans ASME J Energy Resour Technol 105:46–53
5. Igra O (1981) Research and development for shrouded wind turbines. Energy Conv Manag
21(1):13–48
6. Bet F, Grassmann H (2003) Upgrading conventional wind turbines. Renew. Energy 28
(1):71–78
7. Ohya Y, Karasudani T (2010) Shrouded wind turbine generating high output power with
wind-lens technology. Energies 3(4):634–649
8. Hjort S, Larsen H (2014) A multi-element diffuser augmented wind turbine Energies 7
(5):3256–3281
9. Foote T (2011) Numerical modeling and optimization of power generation from shrouded
wind turbines. All theses and dissertations (ETDs). 545
10. Aranake AC, Lakshminarayan VK, Duraisamy K (2015) Computational analysis of
shrouded wind turbine configurations using a 3-dimensional RANS solver. Renew Energy
75:818–832
11. Hansen MOL, Sørensen NN, Flay RGJ (2000) Effect of placing a diffuser around a wind
turbine
Experimental Investigation and Optimization
of Electrochemical Micro Machining Process
Parameters for Al 7075 T6 Alloy
K. Samson Praveen Kumar(&) and G. Jaya Chandra Reddy
Department of Mechanical Engineering, YSR Engineering College of YVU,

Proddatur, Kadapa 516360, AP, India
ksamsonpraveen@yahoo.com, jcr.yvuce@gmail.com
Abstract. Electro Chemical Micro Machining (ECMM) is a non-conventional

machining technique. The machine is an advanced description of ECM where
machining is limited to much smaller area on the workpiece to create high aspect
ratio holes, shapes and to machine metals of high hardness. In this paper the
optimal values and influence of process parameters on ECMM while machining
Al 7075 T6 Alloy are presented by using Grey relation analysis and ANNOVA.
The optimum combination levels are presented based on higher MMR and lower
value of OC and confirmation tests were carried out to confirm the prediction.
To know the effect of NaNO3 on anode EDAX APEX™ analysis has been
carried out. Experimental results are in close conformity with the developed
model. The optimal process parameters for maximum MRR and minimum OC
were determined as machining voltage at 6 V, electrolyte concentration at 30 g/l
and frequency at 40 Hz.
Keywords: Al 7075 alloy Electro chemical micro machine

Material removal rate Over cut Grey relation analysis ANNOVA
1 Introduction
In the current development the micro products has been rapidly increasing demand in
the field of automotive, bio-medical, aerospace, biotechnology, optics, avionics
industries and electronics [1] and the quantity materials which are difficult-to-machine
like super alloys has considerably increasing because of their improved properties [2].
While machining with conventional machining process on difficult-to-machine mate-
rials a lot of issues like heat affected zone, tool wear, high surface roughness, thermal
stress and mechanical forces are being occurring [3]. Hence, to attain this requirement,
various advance methods have been developed [4]. ECMM is a non-conventional
machining technique emerging to be assuring method because of its additional
advantages [5]. While machining through ECMM process the complexity of mecha-
nism builds between required performances indicators and process parameters are very
difficult. Hence, proper assortment of process parameters should be done. To work out
this issue researchers have considered different experimental possibilities [6] and
attempted various types of analysis methods [7, 8].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_54
450 K. Samson Praveen Kumar and G. Jaya Chandra Reddy
From the available literature up to now, it is noticed that even though much work
was done on the ECMM experimental process investigations and also developed
numerical models unfolding the performance on process parameters, very few authors
have investigated the optimal process parameters in ECMM and also little attention
towards the machining of super alloys and analyzing the optimal values and influence
of process parameters. Taking the above issues into consideration, the present inves-
tigation focuses on the influence of process parameters (voltage, electrolyte concen-
tration and frequency) on MRR and OC while machining super alloy using ECMM
through measuring the optimum combination for multiple performance using Grey
relation analysis and to know the influence of process parameters ANOVA has been
carried out.
The ECMM works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. The ECMM setup
was developed and is shown in the Fig. 1 (a). The ECMM basically consists of Pulse
generator, tool feeding arrangement, stepper motor, tool holder, tank, machine cham-
ber, filter and electrolyte pumping system. The Pulse generator or rectifier consists of
input power as 110–120 V AC single phase 50–60 Hz, output rating as 0–20 V, 30 A
avg. 100 A peak, output pulse wave shape as Bi-polar square wave–50 µsec rise max.,
50 µsec fall max., and the output resolution as 20.0 V/99.9 A, meter resolution
20.0 V/30.0 A.
Fig. 1. (a) Electrochemical micro machine setup (b) Workpiece holder
A manual tool feeding system with resolution of 4 lm in the direction of z-axis are
provided to stepper motor with motor resolution 1.8°/step and lead screw 30 teeth per
inch for 75 mm. The tool holder which was attached to the tool feeding arrangement
contains the tool moment per revolution of motor is 0.8467 mm and maximum tool
moment is 75 mm. The tank is made with electrically non-conductive material, cor-
rosion resistance, visible and attains capacity of 1.6 L. The electrolyte is filtered up to 5
microns in the filter and the electrolyte is pumped with pump having capacity of 16–
18 L/min. The work holding fixtures are fabricated with non-conductive Perspex
material which is used to hold the workpiece as shown in the Fig. 1 (b) is mounted in
the machining chamber.
Experimental Investigation and Optimization 451
3 Experimental Planning
The procedure for optimization of process parameters are listed below.

1. First make out process parameters and performance characteristics to be analyzed.
2. Find out the process parameters number of levels for analysis.
3. Choose the suitable orthogonal array and allocate the parameters.
4. Carry out the experimental work as per allocated process parameters to OA.
5. The Grey Relational Analysis and ANOVA are used to analyze the experimental
results.
6. Choose the optimal values and conduct confirmation test for verification of the
process parameters.
In ECMM process the parameters used to carry out machining are voltage, elec-
trolyte concentration and frequency which are considered as variables. The other
parameters like current 0.8 A, feed rate 28.2 µm/s and duty cycle 60% are considered
as constants. The corresponding values and levels of process parameters are chosen
based on past information and preliminary experiments conducted are voltage (6, 8,
10) V, Electrolyte concentration (25, 30, 35) g/l and frequency (40, 50, 60) Hz
respectively. The experimental work was designed based of L27 Orthogonal Array
method to perform micro hole on Al 7075 T6 of thickness 0.3 mm and size 20 mm
20 mm using ECMM process. The outputs of MRR and OC are calculated by noting
down the machining time, initial and final weights of workpiece, and diameter of hole
after machining for each trail. In this study the target is to have higher MRR and lower
OC. To achieve this multi-response optimization the GRA and ANOVA technique has
to perform.
3.1 Grey Relational Approach

In this study, the grey relation approach has been used to investigate the multiple
performance characteristics. Here, a single grey relation grade has been calculated from
the multiple performance characteristics [9]. The Grey relation procedure for analyzing
the process parameters is given below. There are 5 steps involved in GRA for analyzing
the process parameters.
Step 1: Calculating the normalized for output response of MRR and OC
Normalize can be calculated for MRR using the following formula, where MRR is the
main response in ECMM which decided the machinability of the material under
concern. Normalize is done to ignore the effect of assuming unlike units and to
decrease variability.
For the higher MRR is the better the original sequence has been normalized as
follows and for the smaller OC is the better the original sequence has been normalized
as follows
jyi min yi j max yi yi

Zim ¼ Zio ¼ ð1Þ
max yi min yi max yi min yi
Where Zi is the normalized sequence, yi is the influence factor of i = 1 to 27 for

experimental numbers.
Step 2: Calculating the deviation sequence of the normalized values
For deviation sequence calculate the maximum value in the normalized sequence. It
will be 1 only, because the values are normalized from in between 0 to 1
Dim ¼ jmax Zim Zim j Dio ¼ jmax Zio Zio j ð2Þ
Where Di is deviation sequence, Max Zim value is 1

Step 3: Calculating grey relation coefficient from deviation sequence values
In this analysis, grey relational co-efficient has been calculated using the following
Eq. 3 and for MRR and OC
Dmin þ nDmax Dmin þ nDmax

nim ¼ nio ¼ ð3Þ
Dim þ nDma Dio þ nDma
Where ni is the grey relational co-efficient, D min = 0 and D max = 1 these are the
values which can get from deviation sequence.n is distinguishing or identification co-
efficient. If equal preference is given to all parameters then n is taken as 0.5.
Step 4: Calculate the grey relational grade by averaging the grey relational
coefficients
The grey relational grade has been calculated with the following Eq. 4
nim þ nio
ci ¼ ð4Þ
n
Where ci is the grey relation grade and n is number of response variables.
In the grey relation grade the higher value reveals stronger relationship between
present sequence and ideal sequence. The higher value of the grey relation grade shows
nearer to the optimal response in the process.
Step 5: Finally rank is given to the grey relation grade and the optimal result has been
chosen
Give the rank according to the grey relation grade obtained. Thus the multiple
output response optimization problems are converted into single response problem
through grey relation analysis with Taguchi method.
4.1 Analysis of Grey Relation Grade

The grey relation grades and ranks which are shown in Table 1 was clearly indicating
that the higher value of grey relation grade response and top rank gives the optimal
result. It is clear from the below Table 1 that the Voltage of Level 1, the Electrolyte
concentration of Level 2 and Frequency of Level 1 got the higher values. Therefore, for
higher MRR and lesser OC, the optimal process parameters are 6 V, 30 g/l and 40 Hz.
Figure 2 (a) shows the main effect of plot for means.
Table 1. Response table of grey relation analysis

Process parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Main effect Rank
Voltage (V) 0.6096 0.5718 0.5892 0.0378 1
Electrolyte concentration (g/l) 0.584 0.6321 0.5545 0.0776 2
Frequency (Hz) 0.594 0.5889 0.5878 0.0063 3
Total mean value of the grey relational grade (cm) = 0.5922.
The optimal combination levels of machining parameters are V1, E2, F1.
Fig. 2. (a) The effect of process parameters on performance characteristics (b) Percentage
contribution of process parameters on Grey relational grade
4.2 Analysis of Variance

The analysis of variance has been carried out with ANOVA using statistical software,
MINITAB 18 on grey relational grade values to evaluate the influence of each process
parameters on combination levels of characteristics. The ANOVA for the grey relation
grade is shown in the Table 2. The parameters which significantly influence the output
characteristics are with p-value 0.05 under 95% confidence levels.
Table 2. Analysis of Variance for Grey relation Grade

Parameters DF SS MS F P-values % of contribution
Voltage 2 0.245494 0.122747 4.88 0.019 72.50
Electrolyte concentration 2 0.037222 0.018611 0.74 0.490 10.99
Frequency 2 0.005580 0.012790 0.11 0.796 7.55
Error 20 0.403369 0.015168 8.96
Total 26 0.691665
MS = Mean of Square, SS = Sum of Square and DF = Degree of Freedom
Table 3. Analysis of variance results OC

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-value P-value
Voltage 2 4.0570 2.0285 10.48 0.001
Electrolyte 2 1.7149 0.8574 4.43 0.026
Frequency 2 0.2129 0.1065 0.55 0.585
Error 20 3.8699 0.1935
Total 26 9.8547
It is clear from the above Table 2 that the Voltage is the most influencing factor for
multiple performance characteristics because the ions increases in the electrochemical
cell which increases the material removal and also increases the current flow through
IEG. For the higher values of current there will be the more current density which leads
to higher removal of material and higher over cut. From the Table 3 it is clear that the
electrolyte concentration is significantly influence factor because when concentration
increases the ions association in the machining zone also increases, a higher ion
concentration improves the current density in the IEG resulting in increasing overcut.
Figure 2 (b) shows the Percentage involvement of process parameters on grey rela-
tional grade. Residual plots was drawn to the grey relation grade to check the Residual,
fitted values and observation order in Fig. 3 (a) and (b) shows interval Plots of Grey
relation grade 95% CI for the mean verses voltage, electrolyte concentration and fre-
quency was drawn which indicates that the lower values of voltage and moderate
values of electrolyte concentration and lower values of frequency gives optimal com-
bination levels of machining parameters.
Fig. 3. (a) Residual Plots for grey relation grade and (b) Interval plots of gray relation grade
verses voltage, electrolyte concentration and frequency
4.3 Confirmation Test

After identifying the influence and optimal combination levels of process parameters,
the results are predicted and verify the progress of optimal combination levels of
machining parameters through the confirmation test. The intention of conducting the
confirmation test is to confirm conclusions drawn throughout the investigation
part. The optimal combination levels for the confirmation test as shown in the Table 4.
X
q
cp ¼ cm þ ðci cm Þ ð5Þ
i¼1
Where cp is the expected grey relation grade, ci is the mean of grey relation grade,
cm is the total mean of the grey relation grade at optimal combination levels and q is the
number of performance characteristics.
The predicted grey relation grade of optimal levels can be calculated using the
above Eq. 5 and with the optimal combinations levels of process parameters new
experiment has been conducted to verify the improvement of optimal combination
levels of machining parameters. Table 4 shows the confirmation test where the pre-
dicted grey relation grade and investigational grey relation grade using optimal process
parameters are compared which clearly indicates that the optimal mixture levels of
process parameters experimental is improved by 10.02% that of the predicted grey

relation grade and 32.55% that of initial grey relation grade.
Table 4. Confirmation test

Initial levels of Optimal combination levels
process parameters of process parameters
Prediction Experiment
Level V1E1F1 V1E2F1 V1E2F1
Observed machining rate value 0.193 0.268
Observed overcut value 81 42
Grey relation grade 0.5406 0.6513 0.7166
Improved grey relation grade is 0.0653
4.4 Analysis Based on SEM Images and EDXAPEX

The SEM diagram of machined micro hole with combination levels of optimal process
parameters (6 V, 30 g/l and 40 Hz) is shown in Fig. 4 (a) at entry and (b) at exit. It is
clear observed that the size of hole at entry was slightly larger than at exit and also at
entry, excess material was removed around the hole, this is because of using of bare
electrode during machining using ECMM. To overcome this issue insulated electrode
has to be used.
Fig. 4. SEM diagram of machined micro holes at 6 V, 30 g/l and 40 Hz (a) at entry and (b) at
exit (c) at machined surface of micro-hole
In ECMM the machining is done by anodic dissolution where the workpiece (Al
7075 T6 alloy) which is having very good corrosion resistance because of the pro-
tection formed on the surface by aluminium oxide is completely immersed in the
electrolyte solution (NaNO3). This oxide layer is formed when it comes in contact with
oxygen. The oxide layer formed is extremely unprotected in nature and delay the
anodic dissolution of aluminium alloy. To know the effect of NaNO3 on aluminium
alloy EDAX APEX™ software has been used. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis
(EADX) is a microanalysis software package which is used to identify elemental
composites of materials. Figure 4 (c) shows the SEM image of Al 7075 T6 alloy at
machined surface micro-hole which is used to analyses through EADX. The EADX for
Al 7075 T6 alloy has been carried out and presented in the Fig. 5 (a) before machining
and Fig. 5 (b) EDAX APEX image of Al 7075 T6 alloy after machining. It was clear
from the Fig. 5 (a) and (b) that there is inclusion of NaNO3 after machining which
supports the development of reactive layer on the workpiece and reduces the disso-
lution process and therefore decreases the overcut.
Fig. 5. EDAX APEX image of Al7075 T6 alloy (a) before machining (b) after machining
5 Conclusion
In this paper, an experimental investigation has been carried out to know optimal
combination levels of process parameters using grey relation analysis method and also
to find the influence of process parameters using ANNOVA method during machining
micro-hole on Al 7075 T6 alloy using ECMM. It has been made an attempt to know the
influence of NaNO3 on aluminium alloy using EDAX APEX™ analysis. Based on the
experimental outcomes and analysis, the following conclusions can be made.
1. The optimal combination levels of process parameters were voltage of 6 (V),
electrolyte concentration of 30 (g/l) and frequency of 40 (Hz).
2. From ANNOVA analysis the most significant process parameter that influences
higher MRR and lower OC is voltage and the contribution of machining parameters
are found to be voltage as 72.50%, electrolyte concentration as 10.99% and fre-
quency as 7.55%.
3. Based on confirmation test the improvement of optimal combination levels of
machining parameters to initial parameters is about 32.55%.
4. Based on EDAX APEX analysis it seems that the NaNO3 was present after
machining which supports the formation of reactive layer on the workpiece and
reduces the dissolution process and therefore decreases the overcut.
Acknowledgement. The authors thank the organization of Sona College of Technology

(Autonomous Institution), Salem. Tamil Nadu, for the encouragement and support. The authors
furthermore thank Dr. P. Suresh in-charge for CNM/CMM lab, Dep. Of Mechanical Engineering,
Sona College of Technology, Salem, Tamil Nadu, for his supervision and allowing me to utilize
the Micro ECM setup with pulse rectifier and optical microscope.
References
1. Rajurkar KP, Levy G, Malshe A, Sundaram MM, McGeough J, Hu X, Resnick R, DeSilva A
(2006) Micro and nano machining by electro-physical and chemical processes. CIRP Ann-
Manuf Technol 55(2):643–646
2. Ott EA, Groh EA, Banik A, Dempster I, Gabb TP, Helmink R, Liu X, Mitchell A,
Sjoberg GP, Wusatowska-Sarnek A (2010) Superalloy 718 and Derivatives. The most
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in EDM process. J Arch Civ Mech Eng 15(1):87–94
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anodic dissolution. Electrochim Acta 201:348–353
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parameters in the Electrochemical micro-machining of nickel. MTAEC 9 52(3):253. https://
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with electrochemical micro-machining. Machines 5:4. https://doi.org/10.3390/
machines5010004
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optimization of electrical process parameters in electrical discharge machining. Indian J Eng
Mater Sci 20(6):471–475
Galactic Cosmic Energy - A Novel Mode
of Energy Harvesting
Uma Maheshwar Vanamala1(&) and Laasya Priya Nidamarty2

1
Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College
of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Telangana State, India
mahesh.v@uceou.edu
2
Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana State 500 007, India
laasyanidamarty@gmail.com
Abstract. Due to the exhaustion of conventional energy resources, cosmic

energy stands as one of the possibilities that could provide energy for future
generations on the planet earth. The cosmic rays are loaded with high energy
particles like protons, alpha particles, and other ionized elements. The paper
sheds light on the availability of cosmic energy surrounding the earth and
intends to theoretically establish a possible way to harvest cosmic energy to
meet the energy requirements.
Keywords: Cosmic rays Galactic cosmic rays

Electric field High energy particle Proton beam Solar sail Compton effect
Inverse compton effect Energy sources
1 Introduction
Man, over centuries, has ventured deep into the secrets that earth has to offer. The
energy requirement in terms of electricity is gargantuan and the current mode of such
energy extraction is through the non-renewable sources. Since these resources are not
everlasting, the quest for finding a better alternative has begun. Many such corners
have been identified that could serve as energy sources. The drawback of such energy
resources is their availability, which is greatly affected by the seasons and the gravity
between the sun, moon and the earth.
The outer space is a home for different and probably unexplainable celestial bodies
and events. Robert Millikan coined the term ‘cosmic rays’, whose exact origin is
unknown. They are predominantly found in the outer space, coming from interstellar
regions - thus named as Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR). It was identified that GCR are
found to be in large quantities surrounding the Earth. These rays are detected experi-
mentally to be a stream of high energy particles possessing the energies ranging from
1.5–10 GeV on an average. If such energy-rich rays could be harvested, a part of the
energy requirement by mankind could be conveniently met.
Radiation is a mode of energy that is emitted in the form of rays, electromagnetic
waves and/or particles. The radiation is classified based on its power into ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation. The non-ionizing radiation is the low energy radiation,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_55
Galactic Cosmic Energy - A Novel Mode of Energy Harvesting 459
comprising of microwaves, visible region, infra-red and radio waves, while ionizing
radiation is the high energy radiation that causes ionisation of an atom and is caused by
a particles, b particles, c rays, protons, electrons and neutrons. Space radiation is
caused due to the particles being trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field. The particles
shoot up into space during Solar Flares and the movement of GCR, which are com-
posed of high energy particles. Space radiation falls into the category of ionizing
radiation [1].
2 Composition of the Cosmic Rays
Due to the supposed origin of the cosmic rays, their composition is still obscure to a
certain extent. Going by Planck’s radiation law, if the radiation is to have high energy
then the wavelength of the rays must be very less, i.e. lesser than the wavelength of c
rays of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The scientists then narrowed down the
scope of the cosmic rays’ composition to high energy protons (90%), a particles (9%),
and atomic nuclei that are found in the interstellar spaces (1%).
The Transition Radiation Array for Cosmic Energetic Radiation (TRACER)
cosmic-ray detector, in 2006 [2] was able to measure the presence of primary cosmic
ray nuclei ranging from atomic numbers 5 to 26 i.e. Boron to Iron. It was stated that the
relative abundances of the nuclei of C, O and Fe, that constitute the primary cosmic
rays are over 10 GeV/amu. The mass composition of the Ultra High Energy Cosmic
Rays (UHECR) has been obtained with the help of Telescope Array Surface Detector
which employed Boosted Decision Tree (BDT) multivariate analysis that is trained
with the Monte-Carlo sets of events induced by Primary protons and Iron thereby
presenting the average atomic mass of UHECR for energies ranging between 1018.0 to
1020.0 eV. The experiment detailed that the atomic mass of the primary articles did not
show significant energy dependence (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Compilation of different energy spectra measured by TRACER. The dashed line
represents simple power law fit over 20 GeV/amu [2].
460 U. M. Vanamala and L. P. Nidamarty
Fig. 2. Average atomic mass <ln A> in comparison with the Pierre Auger Observatory and rise
time asymmetry results. The statistical error is shown with error bars, systematic error is shown
with brackets [3]
3 Availability and Incidence of GCR
Within the Earth’s magnetosphere, two high energy belts are formed by the entrapped
particles due to the magnetic field of the Earth. The inner belt ranges from 800 km to
2,000 km from the earth’s surface, while the outer belt occurs at 18,000 km and
extends upto 25,000 km. These Van Allen belts also called radiation belts, are not
made up of radiation but are made of energy-rich charged particles (Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 3. Temporal profile of the daily values of the geomagnetic Ap index [4]
Fig. 4. Temporal profile of the daily values of the cosmic ray intensity (1965–2018) [4]
It can be deduced from the above figures that the geomagnetic effects on the cosmic
rays are not predominant but is observed to vary inversely especially during 1965,
1985–1990, 2005–2015. For such instances, it is safe to draw that the daily incidence
of Cosmic Ray Intensity is high when the geomagnetic field is less [4] (Figs. 5 and 6).
Fig. 5. Wavelet power spectrum (WPS) computed of Ap index from 1965–2018 [4]
Fig. 6. Wavelet power spectrum (WPS) computed of cosmic rays from 1965–2018 [4]
The maximum power of the cosmic rays, indicated by the red region, is witnessed
to last for a span of a decade. Although the peak geomagnetic effects were found during
the span of 1990–1995, the Wavelet power spectrum of the cosmic rays remained less
affected by it [4].
A short-term average periodicity of 27 days was observed with the geomagnetic Ap
index due to the solar rotation and also with the varying cosmic ray intensities, but the
noticeable power of the Cosmic Ray intensity was abundantly more for 11-year peri-
odicity as observed through the given time span of 1965–2018, recorded by neutron
monitors [4]. The Cosmic ray intensity during the synodic month did not show any
striking variation in the analysis for any range of time periods i.e. long, medium or
short ranges, thereby remaining unaffected (Figs. 7 and 8).
Fig. 7. Lomb–Scargle power spectrum of CRI time series during 1965–2018 [4]
Fig. 8. Hysteresis plot for Solar Cycle 24, and the linear regression fit to the data taken at
MCMD (McMurdo), NEWK (Newark), SOPO (South Pole), THUL (Thule) stations [5]
The count rate of Cosmic rays in the mentioned stations was duly noted and was
computed and compared over a large time interval. The result pointed to the fact that
the Cosmic Ray count doesn’t peak over 2016 as the model seems to compress beyond
that timeline. Also, the Rigidity cut off (Rc) was observed to be the highest at the
NEWK station located at 75.8oW 39.7oN, while the least was found at SOPO station
with the coordinates of 0.0oE 90.0oS [5] (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Cosmic Ray intensity measured by neutron monitors with vertical lines depicting the
approximate epochs of solar magnetic field polarity reversals [5].
4 Cosmic Ray Harvesting
4.1 Solar Sail and Electric Field

The Solar Sail made up of the ultra-thin mirror, of different shapes which when incident
upon by the solar radiation pressure, results in propelling itself. A part of the irradiation
that is absorbed heats up the sail and continues to reradiate thereby causing sufficient
momentum to promote propulsion that overcomes earth’s gravity. It is generally made
up of aluminized 2 lm Kapton film with reflecting film pointing towards the Sun side.
For the uniform intake of charged particles, the Solar sail is made stationary by
adjusting the mirrors to achieve hovering effect and thereby producing continuous
output in the form of energy to be harnessed. A provision for two electrically con-
ducting copper sheets, is provided to establish an electric field at the entry of the solar
sail intake. Due to the electrical field, the charged particles present in the GCR get
deflected accordingly towards the respective electrodes [6] (Fig. 10).
4.2 The Possible Conversion of the Charges into Electricity

Solar Sail converts the high energy electrons produced by Solar winds into electricity.
The GCR are chiefly composed of high energy protons. The high-powered protons that
are deflected by the electric field at the entrance of the sail are to be drawn through a
Fig. 10. Deflection of the charged particles in the presence of electric field [6]
narrow aperture to produce high-intensity beams. Due to high mass compared to the
electron, the scattering of the proton beam is less and thus it helps in promoting better
penetration. The focused ionising proton beam, could be then incident on a photo-
electric crystal. The possibility of inverse Compton scattering effect could be expected
as very high energy proton loses its energy to the metal that could produce relatively
lower energy radiation, compared to the incident energy. The inverse Compton effect is
to be achieved under supervised conditions in the presence of magnetic field, as the
scattering is random motion of particles with high velocities. The scattering of high
energy particles from the photoelectric crystal are to be focused on a lens such that the
emissions from the lens fall under the IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This
set up based on available technology requires high powered lens arranged in series. The
energy developed by the congregation of the powerful lenses will be made to emit the
desired radiation which could be transferred to the ground station on the earth with
minimum losses as it cuts through the atmosphere, in the form of highly focused
LASER and hence could be recovered using Compton’s scattering effect on the earth’s
surface. Once the energy of the CR has been recovered, the electricity could be gen-
erated by using the regular system of energy extraction of using steam cycles where the
steam is generated by the recovered CR energy at the ground station.
4.3 Practical Limitations

The Solar Sail technology is under experimentation and has not been implemented into
practical application to date. Although the launch of the sail could be done by a rocket,
the validity of its energy production peaks once in almost every 11 years. During the
idle time or the low-intensity phase, the rate of energy production will be less compared
to set up cost, there by worsening the impact on the running costs. The orientation of
the sail includes its location inside the atmosphere and in the space orienting itself to
the fluctuating CR intensities. The frequent shifting of altitude is difficult to achieve.
Even if the energy is harvested, the transmission of it from such great altitudes stands
as the biggest challenge considering atmospheric conditions like aeroelasticity, earth’s
varying magnetic field especially during the change of seasons, interruption by
meteorites and meteoroids, solar flares. During the extraction of the energy from the
GCR, there is a possibility of backscatter that may or may not be an interruption,
depending on the interaction of the processed rays with the incident rays.
5 Conclusions
As a part of the efforts to find an alternative renewable mode of energy which has a
scope in the future in regards to the energy generation, the paper presented a hypo-
thetical analysis of the possible conditions that could lead us to harvest the galactic
cosmic radiation. The availability of the cosmic radiation around the earth when pre-
dicted accurately could help us derive the energy from the incoming galactic radiation.
The energy generated in the space could also help the other crafts in the orbits by
providing them with energy thereby standing as an energy bank for the satellites and
spacecraft. The scope for generating such energy is always on the table and research
efforts must be focused to harvest such promising energy resource.
References
1. Jon Rask MA (2008) Space faring-the radiation challenge. Retrieved from NASA. www.nasa.
gov/pdf/284273main_Radiation_HS_Mod1.pdf
2. Obermeier A, Ave M (2011) Energy spectra of primary and secondary cosmic-ray nuclei
measured with TRACER. Astrophys J 742:14 (11p). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637x/742/
1/14
3. Abbasi RU (2019) Mass composition of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays with the telescope
array. Phys Rev D 99:022002-1–022002-11
4. Tsichla M, Gerontidou M (2019) Spectral analysis of solar and geomagnetic parameters in
relation to cosmic ray intensity for the time period 1965–2018. Solar Phys 294:15. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11207-019-1403-0
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activity cycle 24. Solar Phys 294:8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-019-1397-7
6. Abhiyan P (2014) Energy harvesting from solar wind. J Energy Res Environ Technol 1:33–36
Infrared Heating - A New Green Technology
for Process Intensification in Drying
of Purslane Leaves to Reduce
the Thermal Losses
D. Kodandaram Reddy1,2(&), Kavita Waghray2,

and S. V. Sathyanarayana1
1
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, JNTU, Ananthapur, AP, India
dekore20@gmail.com
2
University College of Technology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, TS, India
Abstract. The drying or dehydration of foods is highly important method for

the food industry and offers many possibilities for ingredient development with
lesser water activity and products with longer shelf life to consumers. The
principle of this process is reducing the water content in order to avoid or slow
down food spoilage by microorganisms. But foods being biological in com-
position the contents are more sensitive to heat, as conventional drying methods
(conduction/convection) takes longer duration for drying, probability of losing
some nutrients is very high. Using an alternative thermal source like infrared
heating (radiation) we can reduce the losses during drying by decreasing the
process time. Heating by infrared radiation has advantages over conventional
heating methods, including time of heating, uniformity in heating, less thermal
losses, no migration of solute in food matrix, convenience in handling and
operation, and less energy consumption. This present study emphasizes on
aspects of infrared heating and its higher drying rates, in turn lesser drying times
of purslane leaves and possibilities of reducing the nutrient losses (iron, cal-
cium) and retention of colour using a graphical representation in comparison
with conventional tray drying method at 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C. In tray drying
the duration of drying period decreased from 990 to 270 min, where as in
infrared drying the duration of drying decreased from 100 to 35 min when the
temperature of drying was altered from 50 °C to 70 °C. With the change in the
drying temperature from 50 °C to 70 °C, iron content decreased from 1.599 mg
to 1.338 mg per 100 gm and calcium content decreased from 61.23 to 52.56 mg
per 100 gm during tray drying where as in infrared drying iron content
decreased from 1.78 mg to 1.49 mg and calcium content decreased from 64.17
to 58.44 mg per 100 gm of sample. With the increase in the temperature,
brightness decreased and the samples became lighter. The greenness of the
samples decreased and yellowness of the samples increased with the increase in
the temperature. Infrared radiation could able retain more color than the con-
ventional method of tray drying.
Keywords: Infrared heating Tray drying Drying time Drying rate

Purslane leaves Calcium Iron

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_56
Infrared Heating - A New Green Technology for Process Intensification 467
1 Introduction
1.1 Purslane Leaves
Purslane is a common weed which cultivated/grown on all over the globe. It has high
resistance against infestation because of its high seed production per plant. Purslane is
also called as “power food of the future” as it has many nutritional and medicinal
benefits. It can also cultivate in soil with poor availability of water during germination
period and can with stand the salt content in the soil moderately.
1.2 Health Benefits of Purslane

Consumption of purslane is done in a variety of dishes which includes leaves and
stems, mostly in the form of soups or mixed salads. Because of its high content of
Vitamin C, it can be used like anti-scorbutic as well as antiseptic. It can also reduce the
skin inflammations and mouth ulcers due to its medicinal properties. The purslane
extracts have the anti-fungal effects against the activity of Trichophyton and due to the
high potassium concentration it also has the effect of skeletal muscle relaxant [1].
Along with potassium purslane leaves and stem has good amounts of useful minerals
and micronutrients like calcium and magnesium which are essential for body meta-
bolism. The purslane extract also has polysaccharides which can control the glucose
levels in the blood in turn can act as anti-diabetic when consumed in regular basis. Due
to the presence of ample amounts of catecholamine and dopamine, the purslane con-
sumption also helps in reduction of cancer and heart related diseases, because which
the purslane is called as “vegetable for long life” [12].
It has better protein content as compared to the traditional vegetables and can also
used as alternative protein source for both human consumption as well as animal
consumption. It also added in food ingredients as an emulsifier due the presence of food
grade gums in the purslane.
Purslane is also good sources of omega-3 fatty acids, a very good alternative to
some category of consumers who do not eat animal based food which are rich in
omega-3 fatty acids. The consumption of purslane leaves based foods is giving long-
evity due to the possible reduced rate of cardiovascular diseases.
Purslane is also filled with anti-oxidant vitamins, including pro-vitamin A, vitamin
E and vitamin C, and helps in scavenge free radicals, in turn retards the diseases related
to aging.
Though the purslane is rich in many nutritional and medicinal components, due to
its high water activity or moisture content, the bio-chemical and enzymatic activities
takes place after harvesting leads to the loss/reduction of the nutrients. For which they
can be stored for long periods with fewer storage losses by storing them in the dried
powdered form using drying technology. We can also reduce the thermal losses by
using alternative drying methods such as infrared heating techniques which can give
rapid drying as compared with conventional tray drying methods which have longer
periods of operation.
468 D. Kodandaram Reddy et al.
1.3 Process of Drying/Dehydration

The most common unit operation used in the food industry to reduce the water activity
or water content (dehydration) in foods so as to reduce the rates of biochemical and
enzymatic reactions takes place, in turn, reduces the nutrient losses during the phase of
post-harvest [3]. Drying is a simultaneous process both heat and mass transfer, under
specified and control conditions. The main objectives of dehydration are: 1. To prevent
(or inhibit) microorganisms. 2. To increase shelf life. 3. To increase the convenience in
handling and transport of products by reducing the weight and volume and 4. To make
the product ready for the further unit operations.
1.4 Methods of Drying

1.4.1 Tray Drying
The usual method of operation in tray drying is by batch, which uses multiple trays or
racks to hold the product to be dried. Hot air of pre-decided temperature is circulated
over each tray so as to dry the food material and gets humidified, and then the fresh hot
air is added to the subsequent tray, to maintain the uniform temperature and humidity.
The heat transfer mechanism of forced convection is done with the help of fans inside
the drying chamber. Humidified/moist air is vented out through the outlet duct
continuously.
Usually, the time of drying process is more and leads to some thermal losses with
respect to the nutrition in some of the heat-sensitive food products [5]. The temperature
range is always below the boiling point of water, most preferable temperatures for
drying of vegetables are 50 °C to 70 °C which may take a few hours to dry the
products.
1.4.2 Infrared Drying

Principle and phenomena of infrared drying: “Flameless Catalytic Infrared Energy
(FCIR) is generated by catalyzing natural gas or propane with a proprietary enhanced
platinum catalyst. Natural gas, when combined with air across the platinum catalyst,
reacts by oxidation-reduction to yield a controlled bandwidth of infrared energy and
small amounts of CO2 and water vapor”. (Fig. 1) the significance of this catalytic
reaction is that the most of the radiant energy is produced in food friendly wavelength
of three to seven microns of far infrared range. The advantages of this heating tech-
nique are the uniformity in heat energy distribution and no emission of COx, NOx
which makes the process to be called as green technology. Due to the wide range of
generating temperature, it has multiple applications in thermal processing of foods as an
alternative and quicker process.
Fig. 1. Catalytic reaction


2.1 Tray Drying of Purslane
The moisture content on a wet basis of purslane leaves and stems before drying was
determined using standard laboratory hot air oven method [2]. The average of the
triplicates was taken as the actual moisture content of the sample The percentage
moisture values of purslane stems and leaves was found as 94.23%. The samples were
dried in the cabinet tray dryer. The loss in the weight of samples was recorded.
The samples of the purslane (stems + leaves) weighing about 500 ± 0.5 g were
spread on the tray. The triplicates were dried at 50, 60 and 70 °C. The initial weight of
the tray plus sample was recorded. During the drying process, the tray was weighed at
the intervals of 30 min each. Then, the dried products were collected into aluminum
covers and then stored at ambient temperature followed by heat sealing. Then the
collected data from the triplicates was used to plot the drying curves [13].
2.2 Infrared Drying of Purslane

Infrared drying was conducted using an infrared heater. The purslane (stems + leaves)
about 10 grams were spread evenly on the pan of moisture meter. The infrared drying
was operated at 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C. During infrared-drying, the moisture contents
were noted at every 5 min interval. Then the collected data from the triplicates was
used to plot the drying curves.
Determination of moisture content:
Moisture content ð%Þ ¼ ½ðInitial weight Final weight) ðInitial

ð1Þ
weight)] 100:
Determination of drying rate:
ðInitial weight Final weightÞ ðTime intervalÞ ð2Þ
2.3 Analysis of Micro Nutrients like Iron and Calcium Minerals

Sample Preparation
Principle: “Organic matter in the sample is destroyed by wet digestion. The trace
elements in the sample are quantitatively measured by atomic absorption spectropho-
tometer (AAS) at a specific wavelength”.
Reagents: Triacid mixture: Triacid mixture was prepared by mixing concentrated
nitric acid, concentrated sulphuric acid and perchloric acid (70%) in the ratio of
10:0.5:2 by volume.
Preparation of Mineral Solution: One gram of the finely powdered sample was
exactly weighed into 100 or 150 ml conical flask. 10 ml of the Triacid mixture was
added to the sample and funnel was kept over the flask. The contents were left over-
night for cold digestion. The next day the contents were digested at low temperature for
about 2–3 h on a hot plate. The temperature of the hot plate was increased to 200 °C,
till the contents became white and the major portion of the Perchloric acid ceases to
appear on heating. Then the flask was removed from the hot plate, cooled and diluted to
20 ml, passed through filter paper (Whatman No. 1), this filtrate was used for mea-
surement of micro nutrients
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy: The samples were analyzed using atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) model for determination of Iron at a wavelength
of 499 nm. The method used was by direct aspiration of sample digest, using an air
acetylene flame. “Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) is a technique for measuring
quantities of chemical elements present in environmental samples by measuring the
absorbed radiation by the chemical element of interest. This is done by reading the
spectra produced when the sample is excited by radiation”.
2.4 Colour Measurement for Purslane Powder

Purslane leaves were exposed to infrared radiation by placing the samples in the pan
and then drying is done in the temperature range of 50 °C to 60 °C and 60 °C to 70 °C.
Dried leaves were powdered and used for color measurement. The colour of dried
purslane leaves was measure using Ultra Scan VIS Spectro-colorimeter (Hunter Lab)
and compared with its natural values. The ground samples of both tray drier and
infrared drier about 20 g were used for colour determinations. For each sample, the
average of the triplicates was calculated.
3.1 Drying Curve

From Figs. 2 and 4 It is understood that the percent moisture on wet basis is falling
regularly as the time of drying is increasing. Among the two methods of drying the
time taken in the infrared red is much lower as compared with the tray drying method.
From the Figs. 3 and 5, It is evident that the rate of drying at the initial stage of the
drying is highest and eventually decreases as the drying proceeds, whereas among the
two methods employed, the infrared drying has better drying rates as compared with
the conventional tray drying method at all the temperatures (Tables 1, 2 and 3).
From the Tables 1, 2 and 3, the yield of the dried products also observed more in
the case of infrared drying than tray drying method
80
70
60
MC (kg/kg)
50
40 50˚C
30 60˚C
20 70˚C
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Drying time (min)
Fig. 2. Moisture content vs Drying time of purslane using Tray drier
0.9
0.8
0.7
DR (kg/kg.min)
0.6
0.5 50˚C
0.4
60˚C
0.3
0.2 70˚C
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80
MC (kg/kg)
Fig. 3. Drying rate vs Moisture content of purslane using Tray drier

90
80
70
60
MC (kg/kg)
50 50˚C
40
60˚C
30
20 70˚C
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Drying time (min)
Fig. 4. Moisture content vs Drying time of purslane using Infrared drying method
8
7
6
DR (kg/kg.min)
5
4 50˚C
3 60˚C
2 70˚C
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
MC (kg/kg)
Fig. 5. Drying rate vs Moisture content of purslane using Infrared Drying method
Comparison between Tray Drier and Infrared Drier:
Table 1. Comparison between Tray drier and infrared drier at 50 °C

Type of drying at 50 °C Time (min) Moisture removed (%) Yield (%)
Tray drying 990 92.9 7
Infrared drying 100 90.33 11.6

Tray drying 510 93.5 6.7
Infrared drying 60 91.46 7.6

Tray drying 270 93.9 6.4
Infrared drying 35 92.26 7
3.2 Micro Nutrients

3.2.1 Iron
Table 4. Comparison between Tray drier and infrared drier at 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C
Temperature ( °C) Iron (mg/100 gm)
Tray drying Infrared Drying
50 1.599 1.78
60 1.437 1.61
70 1.338 1.49
From Table 4 it is evident that during tray drying as the temperature is changing from
50 °C to 60 °C, iron content decreased from 1.599 mg to 1.437 mg and from 60 °C to
70 °C, iron content reduced from 1.437 mg to 1.338 mg. Whereas in the infrared
drying, changed from 1.78 to 1.49 mg per 100 gm. The Iron content in fresh purslane
leaves was found to be 1.99 mg. Iron content at 50 °C and 60 °C are closer to the iron
content in the fresh leaves
Table 5. Comparison between Tray drier and infrared drier at 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C
Temperature ( °C) Calcium (mg/100 gm)
Tray drying Infrared drying
50 61.23 64.17
60 57.14 61.32
70 52.56 58.44
3.2.2 Calcium
From Table 5 it is observed that in tray drying as the temperature from changed from
50 °C to 60 °C, calcium content reduced from 61.23 mg to 57.14 mg and from 60 °C
to 70 °C, calcium content reduced from 57.14 mg to 52.56 mg. where as in infrared
drying, with the change in the temperature from 50 °C to 60 °C, calcium content
reduced from 64.17 mg to 61.32 mg and with the change in the temperature from 60 °
C to 70 °C, calcium reduced from 61.32.14 mg to 58.44 mg. Calcium content in fresh
purslane leaves was found to be 65 mg.
Table 6. Color comparison values for Tray dried purslane powder.

Temperature ( °C) Tray dryer Infrared dryer
L* b* b*
L* a* b*
50 52.43 −0.32 15.31 53.63 −1.92 15.51
60 57.76 −1.07 17.68 55.61 −1.47 16.82
70 62.44 1.03 20.82 59.45 0.23 19.27
3.3 Colour
For fresh purslane leaves the values are: L* = 54.37, a* = −2.46, b* = 15.60
With the increase in the temperature, brightness decreased and the samples became
lighter. The greenness of the samples decreased and yellowness of the samples
increased with the increase in the temperature. Infrared radiation could retain more
color than the conventional method of tray drying (Table 6).
4 Conclusions
Infrared heating took lesser time for drying when compared to tray drying. Yield in
Infrared heater is higher when compared to tray dryer. Color measurement indicated
that greenness decreased and samples became lighter with an increase in drying air
temperature. Analysis of iron has shown that with the increase in the temperature iron
content decreased. Iron content at temperature of 50 °C and 60 °C is closer to the iron
content in fresh leaves. Analysis of calcium has shown that with the increase in the
temperature calcium content decreased. Calcium content at temperature of 50 °C and
60 °C is closer to the calcium content in fresh leaves. Infrared radiation could retain
more iron, calcium and color than the conventional method of tray drying.
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank for the supports received from Head, Department
of Food Technology Srinivas Maloo, Principal Prof. R. Shyam Sundar, Dean Prof. Ravindranath
and entire teaching and non-teaching staff of Food Technology and College of Technology,
Osmania University. We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to the entire teaching and
non-teaching staff of JNTU Ananthpuram for their unconditional support
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Grey Relational Analysis of EDM Process
Parameters for Incoloy-800
M. JagadeeswaraRao1(&), Riyaaz Uddien Shaik2, and K. Buschaiah1

1
jaganmuddu@osmania.ac.in
2
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Abstract. This project focuses on electrical discharge machining (EDM) which

is a non-conventional machining process used in almost all manufacturing
industries but finding the optimum process parameters is really a complex task
mainly for alloys. It is known that the demand for alloy materials having unique
properties is increasing but machining of these alloys using traditional method is
becoming tough. So EDM is used in this project for machining alloy material
and few statistical techniques were used to find out the parameters which has
high impact on output. The techniques were implemented to improve Material
Removal Rate (MRR) and to decrease Electrode Wear Rate (EWR) and Surface
Roughness (SR). In this study, the experiments were conducted on INCOLOY-
800 using copper electrode according to L9 orthogonal array to analyse the effect
of input machining parameters viz. current (Ip), pulse on-time (Ton), pulse off-
time (Toff) and flushing pressure (Fp) over the responses of MRR, EWR and SR.
In this project, effect of machining process parameters viz. current, pulse-on
time, pulse-off time and servo-voltage for machining Incoloy-800 using copper
electrode in die sinking EDM was investigated. Experiments were performed in
three levels by varying the machining process parameters. This statistical
technique helps in conducting experiments economically by limiting the number
of experiments. Optimization of input parameters for achieving better output
responses was performed using Grey Relational Analysis and found that
experiment 9’s parameters are highly influencing the output responses.
Keywords: Grey relational analysis Incoloy-800 Copper electrode
1 Introduction
EDM (Electrical Discharge Machine) is one of the oldest non-conventional machining

processes and it uses thermal energy for machining metals that are impossible to
machine with conventional methods. The only constraint is it can machine only
electrically conductive materials. It can cut small angles, intricate shapes and contours
in super alloys and exotic metals such as Kovar, Inconel, carbide, Hastelloy, Incoloy
and Titanium. This method removes material by electric arc formed between workpiece
and electrode by electric field. The electrodes moves to near the workpiece but doesn’t
touch. The spark produced creates micro-craters on workpiece and removes material by
melting and vaporization along cutting path. This process is commonly used for pro-
ducing parts and making mold in aerospace and electronics industries.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_57
Grey Relational Analysis of EDM Process Parameters for Incoloy-800 477
2 Material and Equipment Used
The machine, workpiece and electrode material used to carry out the experiments are
explained below. The methodology implemented including design factors and response
variable for the experimentation is also outlined.
2.1 Electrode Materials

The most required property of EDM electrode material is that it should resist the
erosion and easily allow charges stimulated while machining the metals. Copper have
better EDM wear resistance and also it is common base material as it has high con-
ductivity but comparatively costlier than graphite. Mostly used for EDM machining of
tungsten carbide or in applications where fine finishing is required.
2.2 Workpiece Material

Incoloy-800, a super alloy which has capability to maintain a stable structure even
during prolonged high temperature exposures was considered for investigation. It
became effective material for use in carbonizing equipment and as heating element
because of its high levels of resistance to oxidation and carbonization. This was
introduced into the industries to replace the Inconel-600 alloy. It withstands erosion
and other decay that is often associated with aqueous settings. Notable property
of Incoloy-800 alloy is its higher mechanical strength up to service temperature of
816 °C. Tensile property is most important at that temperature particularly for appli-
cations that require high creep or rupture strength. The mechanical properties of
Incoloy-800 are as tabulated in Table 1 [1–5].
Table 1. Mechanical properties of Incoloy-800

Properties Tensile Yield Elongation Thermal Electrical Poisson’s
strength strength % conductivity resistivity ratio
Metric 500 MPa 210 MPa 45 0.989 W/m °C 11.5 lX ∙ m 0.339
3 Scheme of Experimental Procedure
The Machine specifications, workpiece dimension and conduct of experiments were

described below in this chapter.
3.1 Specifications of EDM Machine

This experimental work was carried out on CNC EDM, model: CREATOR CR – 6C,
die-sinking type having positive polarity for electrode and with servo-head (constant
gap) was used to conduct the experiments. Dielectric fluid used in this experiment
is EDM oil (commercial grade) having specific gravity = 0.763 and freezing
478 M. JagadeeswaraRao et al.
point = 94 °C to flush internally with a pressure of 0.70307 kg/cm2. The pulsed dis-
charge current in positive mode was applied in various steps.
3.2 Selection of Work Piece and Tool Material

Incoloy-800 super alloy steel of size 20 20 6 mm3 plate is prepared as workpiece
for conducting experiments. Before machining, the workpiece material’s chemical
composition was checked using SPECTRO analysis (Table 2).
Table 2. Chemical composition of Incoloy-800

Chemical C Si Mn S Cr Ni Al Cu Ti Fe
analysis (%)
Observed values 0.029 0.340 00.74 0.001 19.546 32.391 0.185 0.029 0.296 46.145
Specified values – – – – 19 30 0.15 – 0.15 39.5
Min.
Max. 0.1 1 1.5 0.015 23 35 0.6 0.75 0.6 –
In this experiment, using three different electrode materials viz. copper, graphite
and composite electrode CW75 (25% Copper, 75% Tungsten) of size 10 100 mm2
were used to find the optimum electrode with respect to better surface finish.
3.3 Selection of Process Parameters

EDM machine has many process parameters that can be considered for study. But the
major four input parameters are considered in this study (i.e.) discharge current (Ip),
spark-on time (Ton), spark off time (Toff) and flushing pressure (Fp).
3.4 Design of Experiments

The experimental parameters are spark-on time (Ton), spark-off time (Toff), discharge
current (Ip) and flushing pressure (Fp) are mentioned in Table 3. Four process
parameters and the three levels were considered. The DoF of all three parameters were
two (i.e. number of levels minus 1) and the total degrees of freedom of all the factor are
(i.e. 4 2 = 8). The degrees of freedom (DOF) for selected Orthogonal Arrays
(OA) (i.e. number of experiments) should be greater than the total number of degrees of
freedom of all factors (8). Hence, L9 orthogonal array is considered for present study as
tabulated in Table 3. It was found that that there is no interaction between the selected
process parameters on the preliminary experimentation.
The main aim is to create robustness against (insensitivity to) noise factors by
optimizing combination of control factor settings under robust experimentation [6].
Table 3. The levels of experimental parameters.

Machining parameter Symbol Unit Levels
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Discharge current (A) I Amps 8 12 16
Pulse-on time (B) Ton µs 50 100 150
Pulse-off time (C) Toff µs 10 20 30
Flushing pressure (D) Fp kg/cm2 0.23 0.46 0.70
3.5 Conduct of Experiment

In this experiment, duty cycle and voltage are kept constant at 50 v and the experiments
conducted are nine. The calculation of surface roughness after machining measured
using roughness tester are tabulated in Tables 5, 6 and 7. This machine capacity and
accuracy are 300 g and 0.001 g respectively (Table 4).
Table 4. Experimental data MRR, EWR and SR.

Exp. number Current TON TOFF Fp MRR EWR SR
1 8 50 10 3.3 0.010848 0.00196 4.2966667
2 8 100 20 6.6 0.011798 0.0005267 6.9433333
3 8 150 30 10 0.011699 0.0001000 5.5866667
4 12 50 20 10 0.015574 0.01082 2.8266667
5 12 100 30 3.3 0.022039 0.0016133 3.6966667
6 12 150 10 6.6 0.021517 0.0007267 6.1773333
7 16 50 30 6.6 0.021398 0.02384 4.76
8 16 100 10 10 0.025524 0.0046533 4.6033333
9 16 150 20 3.3 0.027423 0.00208 3.84
Table 5. Normalized data of responses.

Exp. number MRR (mm3/min) EWR (mm3/min) SR (lm)
1 0.00000 0.92165 0.64291
2 0.05732 0.98203 0.00000
3 0.05134 1.00000 0.32955
4 0.28513 0.54844 1.00000
5 0.67517 0.93626 0.78866
6 0.64368 0.97360 0.18607
7 0.63650 0.00000 0.53036
8 0.88543 0.80820 0.56842
9 1.00000 0.91660 0.75385
Table 6. Deviation sequence.

1 1.00000 0.07835 0.35709
2 0.94268 0.01797 1.00000
3 0.94866 0.00000 0.67045
4 0.71487 0.45156 0.00000
5 0.32483 0.06374 0.21134
6 0.35632 0.02640 0.81393
7 0.36350 1.00000 0.46964
8 0.11457 0.19180 0.43158
9 0.00000 0.08340 0.24615
Table 7. Grey relational coefficient.

1 0.33333 0.86453 0.58337
2 0.34658 0.96530 0.33333
3 0.34515 1.00000 0.42719
4 0.41157 0.52545 1.00000
5 0.60619 0.88693 0.70290
6 0.58389 0.94985 0.38054
7 0.57904 0.33333 0.51566
8 0.81358 0.72275 0.53672
9 1.00000 0.85704 0.67010
Experimental data was analyzed using Grey Relational Analysis (GRA). GRA has
three major steps involved starting with pre-processing of data. This analysis is
required when one data unit is differing from others or if it has large scattering of
sequence range and this is the method for studying date sequence by transferring the
original to a comparable sequence. So, the data needs to follow normalization, scaling
and polarization first into comparable sequence beforehand which is called as gener-
ation of grey relation or standard processing. The other processes involve in these steps
are normalization and representative of data.
4.1 Grey Relational Analysis

Grey Relational Analysis has four steps as shown below stepwise. Considering ‘lower
the better’ and ‘higher the better’ criterion, the normalized data for the responses
should be generated.
(1) MRR needs to be higher so it follows the higher the better criterion, which can
be expressed as
XiðkÞ ¼ ½yi ðkÞmin yiðkÞ=½max yi ðkÞmin yi ðkÞ ð1Þ
EWR and Surface Roughness has to be follow the lower the better criterion, which
can be expressed as
Xi ðkÞ ¼ ½max yi ðkÞyi ðkÞ=½max yi ðkÞmin yi ðkÞ ð2Þ
Normalized data of responses after step 1 is shown in Table 5.

(2) Let the normalized data of MRR, EWR and SR may be represented with k = 1,
2 & 3 respectively.
D0j ¼ kx0ðkÞ xiðkÞk ¼ difference between absolute value of x0ðkÞ and xiðkÞ ð3Þ
Here x0 (k) = 1, let delta = absolute value difference.

The values obtained with step 2 are deviation sequence shown in Table 3.
(3) Grey Relational Coefficient ni (k) can be calculated as
ni ðkÞ ¼ ½Dmin þ w Dmax=½D0i ðkÞ þ w Dmax ð4Þ
w = [0 − 1], in this analysis, it is considered as 0.5.

Let GRC = Grey Relational Coefficient and GRG = Grey Relational Grade.
The grey relational grade ci can be computed by averaging the grey relational
coefficients as:
ci ¼ 1=n Rnk ¼ 1 ni ðkÞ ð5Þ
From the Table 8, it is observed that experiment 9 has obtained rank 1, which
represents that particular experiment’s parameters helps in achieving better output
responses altogether.
Table 8. GRC and GRG table.

Exp. number MRR (mm3/min) EWR (mm3/min) SR (µm) GRG RANK
1 0.33333 0.86453 0.58337 1.7812 6
2 0.34658 0.96530 0.33333 1.6452 8
3 0.34515 1.00000 0.42719 1.7723 7
4 0.41157 0.52545 1.00000 1.9370 4
5 0.60619 0.88693 0.70290 2.1960 2
6 0.58389 0.94985 0.38054 1.9143 5
7 0.57904 0.33333 0.51566 1.4280 9
8 0.81358 0.72275 0.53672 2.0731 3
9 1.00000 0.85704 0.67010 2.5271 1
5 Conclusion
Taguchi method was implemented to conduct the experiments economically by fol-

lowing L9 orthogonal array. The obtained experimental data was analyzed with Grey
Relational Analysis (GRA) to find out the optimum input parameters for achieving
higher MRR and lower EWR and SR. It was found that I = 16, TON = 150,
TOFF = 20 and FP = 3.3 are the input parameters used to conduct experiment 9 has
given optimum output.
References
1. Muthukumar V, Rajesh N, Venkatasamy R, Sureshbabu A, Senthilkumar N (2014)
Mathematical modeling for radial overcut on electrical discharge machining of Incoloy 800
by response surface methodology. Procedia Mater Sci 6(Icmpc):1674–1682
2. Kumar M (2013) Wear studies on Incoloy-800 and prediction of wear by ANN model, pp 1–
12
3. Chen WS, Kai W, Tsay LW, Kai JJ (2014) The oxidation behavior of three different zones of
welded Incoloy 800H alloy. Nucl Eng Des 272:92–98
4. Sherif EM, Seikh AH (2015) Effect of exposure period and temperature on the corrosion of
Incoloy® alloy 800TM in hydrochloric acid pickling solutions. Int J Electrochem Sci 10:1843–
1854
5. P. V. Committee and S. Metals (1969) INCOLOY alloy 800
6. Dongre G, Zaware S, Dabade U, Joshi SS (2015) Multi-objective optimization for silicon
wafer slicing using wire-EDM process. Mater Sci Semicond Process 39:793–806
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy
and Its Workspace in RRRR Planar
Kinematic Chain
Shravan Anand Komakula(&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kakatiya Institute of Technology

and Science, Warangal 506015, India
shravan.komakula@gmail.com
Abstract. A kinematic chain is an assembly of rigid bodies connected by joints

to provide desired motion which gives the mathematical model for mechanical
systems such as robotic arms and manipulators. In these systems, links are
constrained by their connections to other links. The main issue in industrial
robots is to determine its ergonomics and have a better workspace maneuver-
ability, on the same concern in this paper a model of robotic manipulator with
RRRR planar kinematic chain is used to determine the workspace of its
redundant links and the relationship between its various joint parameters with
different end-effector positions is observed using Matlab. This kind of study can
be used to efficiently manage workspace by motion planning and avoid
redundant paths for robots to successfully perform any desired task with
versatility.
Keywords: Kinematic chain Robotic arms Manipulator Ergonomics

Workspace Maneuverability Redundancy Cartesian End-effector
1 Introduction
A resistant body is one which does not undergo deformation while transmitting the
force, each resistant body in a machine that moves relative to another resistant body is
called a Kinematic link. A kinematic chain is an assembly of rigid bodies connected by
joints to provide constrained motion which provides a mathematical relationship for
any mechanical system. When one of the links of a chain is fixed then it is called as a
mechanism, these have always been the subject of extensive research interest. In for-
ward kinematics, we use kinematic equations and relations of a robot to compute the
position of the end-effector from specific joint and link parameters. Inverse kinematics
makes use of the kinematics equations and relations to determine the joint parameters
that provide the desired position for each of the robot’s links and end-effector. Kine-
matic redundancy is having more degrees of freedom than strictly required to perform a
specific task. Specifying the movement of a robot such that its end-effectors achieve the
desired task is known as motion planning.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_58
484 S. A. Komakula
Research in kinematics synthesis has shown that it is feasible to incorporate

complex kinematic requirements in the rational design of such mechanisms. However
prior to wide adaptation of spatial mechanisms and chains in high speed and precision
operating mechanical systems we must have better knowledge of their approach, the
method which based on the matrix method mainly leads to numerical solutions, here
the computation for RRRR planar kinematic chain is done using iteration, it should be
mentioned here that this kind of approach is useful to study the kinematics of rigid
members in any complex mechanical system. If spatial mechanisms and chains can be
synthesized quickly there could be many suitable applications like aerospace industry,
exercise equipment, and rehabilitation in the medical field. Engineers in aerospace are
constantly trying to find ways to make things compact, lightweight and which are able
to perform any specific spatial functions like satellite design and deployment.
When a manipulator is redundant the inverse kinematics admits infinite solutions,
this implies that for a given constant location of the manipulator’s end-effector, it is
possible to induce self-motion of the structure, i.e. without changing the location of the
end-effector [1]. For a particular end-effector position, the area of locus of redundant
joints in a chain helps us to plan the task efficiently by selecting the optimized points in
workspace for motion planning, further the range of angles of these links helps us in
having better control which can further contribute to decreasing the efforts for com-
puting matrix method inverse kinematics in Cartesian workspace.
2 Methodology
The methodology includes three main criterions, firstly preparation of a virtual model
as per our specifications, secondly defining the origin and link lengths, finally com-
puting the results by following the experimentation for end-effector criterions.
‘Q°’ is angle of link in (Degrees), ‘A’ is area of Locus in (cm2), ‘L’ is length of link
in (cm), (x1, y1) is a point of origin of chain, (x2, y2) is Locus of joint-2, (x3, y3) is locus
of joint-3, (x4, y4) is locus of joint-4, (x5, y5) is the position of end-effector.
The mentioned methodology is described in detail below.
2.1 Model
Considering a model of RRRR (R- Revolute) planar kinematic chain of four links with
lengths L1, L2, L3, L4, angles Q1°, Q2°, Q3°, Q4° as shown in Fig. 1a. An angle of a
link is measured relative to the x-axis or horizontal axis where an anti-clockwise
direction is positive (+Q°) and the clockwise direction is considered as negative (−Q°)
as shown in Fig. 1b.
Computation of Kinematic Redundancy and Its Workspace 485
Fig. 1. (a) Model representation, (b) Angle representation method
2.2 Computation Method

The program has been developed in Matlab to divide the circumference of circle paths
traced by link-1 (circle-1) and link-4 (circle-2) with centers (x1, y1) and (x5, y5), radius
L1 and L4 respectively into 2000 points each. Then for link-3, the program computes a
circle path with L3 as a radius and a point on circle-2 as the center and further divided
into 2000 points. For example, to reach the same end-effector point two different
possible paths are shown in Fig. 2, the links that have this kind of characteristics are
called redundant links and contribute to kinematic redundancy.
Fig. 2. Computation process
2.3 Experimentation
The main constraints of this kind of workspace are limiting lengths of links and their
interference. The parameters are as follows: L1 = 30 cm, L2 = 15 cm, L3 = 15 cm,
L4 = 20 cm. After computing arrays of points (x2, y2), (x4, y4) and (x3, y3) distance
from each point on (Circle-1) to (x3, y3) is calculated, if the distance equals to L2 with
precision of 1e−04 cm then the case is considered as a feasible position, later the locus
of (x3, y3) is computed again to next point on circle-2 this process continues till all the
points on circles are completed. This process is done for different end-effector (x5, y5)
486 S. A. Komakula
points (50, 50), (20, 35), (4, 10) with (x1, y1) as origin. The points and links that satisfy
these conditions are plotted between its joint parameters.
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL1 Þ2 : ð1Þ
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL2 Þ2 : ð2Þ
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL1 þ L2 Þ2 : ð3Þ
ðx x5 Þ2 þ ðy y5 Þ2 ¼ ðL4 þ L3 Þ2 : ð4Þ
ðx x1 Þ2 þ ðy y1 Þ2 ¼ ðL1 L2 Þ2 : ð5Þ
ðx x5 Þ2 þ ðy y5 Þ2 ¼ ðL4 L3 Þ2 : ð6Þ
(1) is the equation of circle-1 i.e. end path traced with (x1, y1) as centre and radius
L1, (2) is the equation of circle-2 i.e. end path traced with (x5, y5) as centre and radius
L4, (3) is the equation of circle-3 i.e. end path traced with (x1, y1) as centre and radius
L1 + L2, (4) is the equation of circle-4 i.e. end path traced with (x5, y5) as centre and
radius L4 + L3, (5) is the equation of circle-5 i.e. end path traced with (x1, y1) as center
and radius L1 − L2, (6) is the equation of circle-6 i.e. end path traced with (x5, y5) as
center and radius L4 − L3.
After the experimentation acquired results are presented here with respect to graphs in
detail according to the case study’s I–III.
3.1 Case Study - I

Conditions: End-effector position (x5, y5) = (50, 50) and (x1, y1) = (0, 0).
The number of paths obtained = 1,835.
Figure 3a shows the locus of joints-2, 3, 4 and circles-3, 4, 5, 6. We can observe
that the locus of joint-2 and joint-4 form arcs but whereas the locus of joint-3 lies inside
the overlapping area of circle-3 and circle-4 which is 232.415 cm2. This means any
point inside the overlapping area can be used as a coordinate of joint-3 to plan a motion
with a precision of 1e−04 cm. Figure 3b shows the paths of links in a possible number
of positions obtained in this case in which can be used to efficiently pick a motion plan,
this is the actual redundant workspace of the chain. Figure 3c shows the influence of Q3
on Q1, Q2, Q4 similarly Fig. 3d shows the influence of Q4 on Q1, Q2, Q3, these figures
can be used to determine the effect of range on other angles with respect to a specific
angle, maximum and minimum possible angles at four joints are shown in the table
below, which means a link cannot make an angle out of its range to perform this case.
Here we can observe that Q1 has no negative angles, the redundancy ranges in positive
angles as shown below (Table 1).
Table 1. Joint parameters of case study-I.

Range Maximum angle
Q1 ° Q2° Q3° Q4°
Negative NILL −16.85 −16.74 −0.18
Positive (+8.28 to +81.97) +106.85 +106.74 +89.82
Fig. 3. (a) Locus of joints, (b) Possible paths of links, (c) Angle Q3° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q4°, (d) Angle
Q4° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q3°
3.2 Case Study - II

that the locus of joint-2 and joint-4 form arcs but whereas the locus of joint-3 lies inside
the overlapping area of circle-3 and circle-4, and to the exterior of overlapping area of
circle-5 and circle-4 also exterior of circle-6 which is 1658.4001 cm2, we can observe
488 S. A. Komakula
circle-5 and circle-6 interacting with the locus of joint-3, when distance from origin to
end-effector is less than L1 − L2 + L3 + L4 circle-5 influences locus of joint-3, and
when distance from origin to end-effector is less than L1 + L2 + L3 − L4 circle-6
influences locus of joint-3. Figure 4b shows the paths of links in a possible number of
positions obtained in this case. Figure 4c shows the influence of Q3 on Q1, Q2, Q4
similarly Fig. 4d shows the influence of Q4 on Q1, Q2, Q3, maximum and minimum
possible angles at four joints are shown in the table below. From the above figures we
can observe a complete discontinuity in angle Q4 from −132.1° to −106.9° this is due
to the interaction of circle-6 with circle-3 on the exterior of circle-1 which means for
any possible position of the chain for this case Q4 cannot have these angles (Table 2).
Table 2. Joint parameters of case study-II

Range Maximum angle
Q1 ° Q2° Q3° Q4 °
Negative −28.98 −179.99 −179.82 −179.82
Positive +149.58 +179.98 +180 +180
Q4° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q3°
3.3 Case Study - III

that the locus of joint-2 and joint-4 form circles-1, 2 but whereas the locus of joint-3
lies inside the overlapping area of circle-3 and circle-4 and to the exterior of circle-5
and circle-6 which is 3122.0808 cm2. In this case, circle-5 also interacts with circle-6.
Figure 5b shows the paths of links in the possible number of positions obtained in this
case. Figure 5c shows the influence of Q3 on Q1, Q2, Q4 similarly Fig. 5d shows the
influence of Q4 on Q1, Q2, Q3, maximum and minimum possible angles at four joints
are shown in the table below. We can observe the discontinuities in angles similar to
the previous case (Table 3).
Table 3. Joint parameters of case study-III.

Range Maximum angle
Q1 ° Q2° Q3° Q4°
Negative −179.82 −179.99 −179.82 −179.82
Positive +180 +179.99 +180 +180
Q4° vs Q1°, Q2°, Q3°
490 S. A. Komakula
After the computation has been carried out to determine workspace and kinematic
redundancy of different cases, the summarized results of above all case studies are
presented below in Table 4 with condition (x1, y1) as the origin (0, 0).
Table 4. Summarized results.

Case Link lengths (cm) Point Distance from (x1, Area of locus of
study L1 L2 L3 L4 (x5, y1) to (x5, y5) (cm) joint-3 (x3, y3) (cm2)
y5)
I 30 15 15 20 (50, 70.71067812 232.4157
50)
II 30 15 15 20 (20, 40.31128874 1658.4001
35)
III 30 15 15 20 (4, 10) 10.77032961 3122.0808
From the above case study’s (I-III) we can observe that the coordinates of joint-3
(x3, y3) in Cartesian workspace must satisfy all the below four conditions.
ðx3 x1 Þ2 þ ðy3 y1 Þ2 ðL1 þ L2 Þ2 0: The point must lie on or interior circle-3

ðx3 x1 Þ2 þ ðy3 y1 Þ2 ðL1 L2 Þ2 0: The point must lie on or exterior circle-5
ðx3 x5 Þ2 þ ðy3 y5 Þ2 ðL4 þ L3 Þ2 0: The point must lie on or interior circle-4
ðx3 x5 Þ2 þ ðy3 y5 Þ2 ðL4 L3 Þ2 0: The point must lie on or exterior circle-6
4 Conclusions
The results obtained showed that by changing the end-effector position there is a
significant change in the redundancy of the robot. As the distance from the origin to the
end-effector decreases, there is an increase in the area of locus of joints, redundant
workspace and range of joint angles. This type of analysis helps us in effectively
positioning the end-effector link with respect to other links and joints in a Cartesian
workspace by establishing their angles and locations in order to perform the given task.
The number of redundant paths obtained depends on the precision of computation
but the area and range of angles remain similar. Though computation has been done for
a few points, this kind of study will help us quench the thirst for the hunt of high-
performance robots.
References
1. Campos A, Martins D, Guenther R. Differential kinematics of robot manipulators using
virtual chains. Robotics Laboratory - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Campus
Trindade, 88040-900 Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
2. Tsai L-W (1999) Robot analysis: the mechanics of serial and parallel manipulators. Wiley,
New York
3. Siciliano B, Sciavicco L, Villani L, Oriolo G (2008) Robotics: modelling, planning and

control, 1st edn. Springer, London
4. Angeles J (1997) Fundamentals of robotic mechanical systems. Springer, New York
5. Galletti C (1986) A note on modular approaches to planar linkage kinematic analysis. Mech
Mach Theory 21:385–391
6. Chiaverini S, Oriolo G, Walker ID (2008) Kinematically redundant manipulators. In:
Siciliano B, Khatib O (eds) Springer handbook of robotics, 1st edn. Springer, pp 245–268
7. Merlet J-P, Gosselin C (2008) Parallel mechanisms and robots. In: Siciliano B, Khatib O
(eds) Springer handbook of robotics, 1st edn. Springer, pp 269–285
Physio-Mechanical Properties and Thermal
Analysis of Furcreo Foetedo Mediopicta
(ffm) Fibers: Its Potential Application
as Reinforcement in Making of Composites
Pathan Yasin(&), M. Venkataramana, and Shashidhar K. Kudari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CVR College of Engineering,

Hyderabad, Telangana, India
p.yasin339@gmail.com
Abstract. In the past few decades, vegetable fibers became the viable alter-
native to petroleum-based fibers in composite industry, due to their renewability,
biodegradability and eco-friendly properties. In the present work, a new leaf
fiber extracted from Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto (ffm) plant, has been char-
acterized and reported. Morphological, physical, mechanical and thermal
properties of ffm fiber were examined by performing comprehensive charac-
terization. Findings revealed that ffm fibers have an average low density and
better mechanical properties compared to other fibers. Micro structural exami-
nation revealed the cross-section of the ffm fiber is the honeycomb structure.
XRD analysis indicated the 49.7% crystalline content of ffm fiber. TG and DTA
analysis revealed that ffm fibers are thermally stable up to 360 °C. Present
investigation, indicates that ffm fibers are highly suitable as reinforcement
agents in polymeric matrices for various light weight-medium load-thermal
insulation applications.
Keywords: Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto Tensile properties FTIR analysis

XRD analysis Thermal analysis
1 Introduction
The mechanical use of natural fibers as composite material inclusions began toward the
start of the twentieth century, the synthetic fibers were being the traditional rein-
forcements for various applications, the drawbacks of having properties which include
high density, high cost, non-renewability, non-recyclability, high energy consumption,
non-biodegradability and health hazard contents, led the researchers to shift their focus
to natural fibers. Yet, the natural fibers are not free from few disadvantages which
include moisture absorption and low degree of resilience, people keep investigating to
improve the properties for appropriate applications [1, 2]. For instance, research
method which demonstrated RTM flax embedded polyester-specifically for wind tur-
bine edges application, acquired the Asia 2013 Innovation Award due to potential
supplanting for those embedded with glass fiber [3]. Moreover, due to natural fiber’s
many superlative-unique properties, researchers have started to overcome the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_59
Physio-Mechanical Properties and Thermal Analysis 493
drawbacks. Recently, Popzyk and Klein [4] have won 2017’s DNFI Award for their
submission on “Reduction of the moisture absorption of natural fibers and production
of no-twist yarns for use in structural components” and this shows the continuous
exploration on natural fibers by the researchers.
Since the past 15–20 years, many researchers have investigated few bio-wastes for
various applications. Characterizations of Alfa fiber [5], betel nut leaf fiber [6],
sansaveriacynlindrica fiber [7], Albiziaamara bark fiber [8], fiber extracted Ipomoea
staphylina plant [9] and Prosopisjuliflora bark fibers [10] reflects the serious research
on various species plants which are simply garden plants or plants for no use grown in
wastelands. The present work mainly intended to introduce and characterize one more
new natural fiber for increasing the input of raw fibers for various applications. Fur-
craea Foetida Mediopicto (ffm), is a garden plant native to the Caribbean and northern
South America. It is a perennial evergreen-succulent plant belongs to Asparagaceae
family, consists of a dark green rosette of lance shaped-leathery leaves. Each leaf can
grow up to 150 cm tall and 15 cm wide are not tipped with a sharp spine as in case of
most of the agave plants. Furcreo Foetedo Mediopicta plant will grow in rich well-
drained soils, has a lifespan of 8–22 years and puts a flowering stem towards the end of
its life. Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto is a tropical and subtropical plant, which will live
and grow in the sunshine where the temperatures are above 25 °C [11, 12]. The authors
of present work have observed the fibers in the leaves of Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto
plant and investigated potentiality of the fiber for various applications.
2 Method
The fibers are extracted from healthy leaves of ffm plant; the leaves are retted in water
for 21 days. From there on, juicy ffm leaves were taken from the water, delicately
crushed and beaten to expel the greenish flesh from fiber strands. Each well-grown leaf
of ffm plant approximately weighs 300 gms and contains around 600 fibers of length
0.8–1 m, which are ivory in color and with very less glazing unlike henequen and
agave angustufolia fibers. These fibers have been sun-dried for two days and put in
polythene cover and used for further investigations. ffm plant, identified fibers in the
leaf, retting of leaves, extracted fibers and sundried fibers are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Furcraea Foetida Mediopicto plant and the extracted fibers

494 P. Yasin et al.
The extracted fibers are subjected to following tests to find: Density, Micro
structural analysis through SEM, Thermo Gravimetric Analysis, Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy for finding organic or inorganic material (chemical group), and
tensile properties.

3.1 Density
Density of raw ffm fiber has been determined using Digital Density Meter. Weighed
ffm fibers were cut in to small pieces and introduced in to toluene and acetone sepa-
rately to find out the density. The density of five different ffm fiber samples along with
working liquids is obtained. The average of all these five givens was given the density
of the ffm fibers to be 891.3 kg/m3. It is observed that the density of fft fibers is lower
than several commercially available fibers as shown in Table 1. This indicates that ffm
fibers can be used for light-weight applications due the low density.
Table 1. ffm fiber density is listed in comparison with other natural fibers
Fibre Density (kg/m3)
ffm 891.3
Date (L) 990
Bamboo (M) 910
Jute 1300
sisal 1500
flax 1500
Rectophyllumcamurunense 947
3.2 Micro Structural Characteristics

Longitudinal and transverse views of SEM images of ffm fiber are shown in Fig. 2a. It
is evident from the figure that, the surface of the ffm fiber has grooves and slots. This
indicates the potentiality of ffm fiber, which facilitates good mechanical interlocking
with polymeric matrices and thus made the ffm fibers suitable as reinforcement can-
didate for composite materials application. Two different flaky-honeycombs cross-
sectional cell walls have been observed in ffm fiber. One was circular one at the root
end of the leaf and the other at the tail of the leaf was elliptical approximately. The area
of the cross-section of the ffm fiber along with commercially available natural fibers is
shown in Table 2. Figure 2b shows that ffm fiber might have primary and secondary
walls, middle lamellae and lumens. From the literature [13] it is widely known that
Primary and secondary cell walls are made up of cellulose and lignin respectively,
basically gives the hardness to the fiber strands. It also is known [7] middle lamellae are
the intercellular layer which joins the nearby cells made of hemicelluloses and lignin
and every cell contains free space (lumen) to store water. From the SEM analysis, it can
be assured that ffm fiber contains hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin contents. Beakou
et al. [14] have investigated the microstructure of a Rhectophyllumcamerunense plant
fiber. It is widely known from the literature [15] that, the presence of trichrome can
enhances the mechanical bonding of fiber with polymeric matrices and this fact assures
ffm fibers are good embedment for polymeric composites.
Table 2. ffm fiber geometrical properties

Fiber Area of cross Length of the Diameter of Fiber Lumen
section (mm2) fiber (m) the fiber (lm) area (lm2)
ffm 0.015014 0.8–1 181.95–80.525 659.732–136.034
Fig. 2. SEM images of ffm fiber
3.3 FTIR Analysis

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is an analytical technique used to
identify organic, polymeric, and, in some cases, inorganic materials. The FTIR analysis
method uses infrared light to scan test samples and observe chemical properties.
The FTIR instrument sends infrared radiation of about 10,000 to 100 cm−1 through a
sample, with some radiation absorbed and some passed through. The absorbed radia-
tion is converted into rotational and/or vibrational energy by the sample molecules. The
resulting signal at the detector presents as a spectrum, typically from 4000 cm−1 to
650 cm−1, representing a molecular fingerprint of the sample. Each molecule or
chemical structure will produce a unique spectral fingerprint, making FTIR analysis a
great tool for chemical components identification. Extracted FTIR spectrum of ffm fiber
is shown in Fig. 3. The vibrational FTIR spectrum is captured between wave numbers
650 cm−1 to 4000 cm−1. Notable sharp peaks were observed in the spectra within the
wavelength range of 666 cm−1 to 3477 cm−1. The peaks at 1037 cm−1, 1244 cm−1,
2853 cm−1, 2922 cm−1 and 3354 cm−1 in the spectra of raw ffm fiber, are attributed to
polysaccharides components and alcohol groups which largely contains cellulose [10,
16]. The bands at 3389 cm−1 and 1750 cm−1 in the spectrum can be attributed cellulose
and lignin + carbonyl band, respectively. The peak at 1750 cm−1 wavelength indicates
496 P. Yasin et al.
the stretch of C-O of the acetyl group of hemicelluloses [17, 18]. The peak at
2853 cm−1 shows the alkyl saturated C-H and CH2 (methylene group) stretching
vibrations. The degradation of C-H stretch of alkyl and methylene (CH2) group can be
observed from the peak at 2922 cm−1 [5]. The COOH bending band was present at
666 cm−1 band. The presence of peak at 1372 cm−1 denotes the CH2 symmetric
bending. The peak at 1244 cm−1 shows the stretch of C-O of acetyl group of lignin
[18]. This extracted spectra from FTIR, confirm the existence of hemicelluloses, lignin
and cellulose chemical components in the ffm fiber.
Fig. 3. FTIR spectrum of ffm fiber
3.4 Tensile Behavior

Tensile properties of ffm fiber includes tensile strength, young’s modulus, percentage of
elongation, specific strength have been evaluated according to ASTM D3379-75
standard [19]. Every specimen of ffm fiber was set up with an arrangement of 10 fiber
strands of gauge length mounted on a bit of hard cardboard with a length of 50 mm.
The finishes of the filaments were adhered on to the cardboard with epoxy gum and
tried at a crosshead speed of 0.2 mm every moment. The test was done for 10 test
samples to get substantial confirmation. The diameter of the ffm fiber was extracted
from scanned electron microscopy and used for determining the mechanical properties.
The tensile stress vs % of tensile strain graph of ffm fiber is shown in Fig. 4. It
illustrates that the failure of the ffm fiber has undergone linear correspondence of stress
to strain followed by non-linear variation phase. Similar kind of behavior is observed
[7], in case of few sansaveria cylindrical fibers. According to Murherjee [20] investi-
gations, this kind of behavior is mainly due to collapse of primary walls and delimi-
tation of fiber cells. Tensile properties obtained from the experimentation are reported
in Table 3. From the tensile test results, it can be concluded that ffm fibers are suitable
for medium load application in making composites as reinforcement, specifically in
polymeric matrices.
Fig. 4. Tensile behavior of ffm fiber
Table 3. ffm fiber tensile properties is listed in comparison with other natural fibers
Fiber Tensile Tensile % of Specific Specific Reference
strength Modulus elongation tensile tensile
(MP) (GPa) strength modulus
(MPa/kg m−3) (MPa/kg m−3)
ffm 56 ± 12 4.5 ± 1.85 16.05 ± 5.2 0.06282 ± 0.12 5.04 ± 0.57 Present
work
Date (L) 309 11.32 2.73 0.3121 11.44 [20]
Bamboo (C) 341 19.67 1.73 0.3831 22.10 [20]
Jute 393–773 26.5 1.5–1.8 0.302–0.594 20.38 [21]
Sisal 511–675 9.4–22.0 2.0–2.5 0.3407–0.4233 6.3–14.7 [21]
RC average 557.1 5.8 27.5 0.5883 6.1 [18]
Palm fiber 80–248 0.5–3.2 17–25 0.05161–0.354 0.333–4.571 [22]
Glass-E 2000– 70 2.5 0.80–1.400 28.0 [18]
3500
3.5 Thermal Resistance

In the present work, the thermal degradation parameters have been recorded using a
thermo gravimetric analyzer. The experiment has been conducted within the controlled
temperature starting from 0 °C and carried out till 620 °C. It detects the mass loss with
resolution of 0.1 µg as a function of temperature. The primary and derivative thermo
grams of raw ffm fiber are shown in the Fig. 5. From the existing literature, lignin is the
first component which degrades, amongst the other cellulosic chemical components.
Hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin will degrade between the temperature ranges from
180–240, 230–310, and 300–400 °C respectively [21]. The Initial Degradation Tem-
perature (IDT), Peak Degradation Temperature (PDT), Final Degradation Temperature
(FDT) and percentage of Weight Loss is reported in Table 4. In the ffm fiber, a minor
weight loss (5.9%) has been observed up to 250 °C due to moisture content present in
it. Further increase in temperature, has been allowed to trace IDT and FDT, to be
280 °C with 14% weight loss and 385 °C with 80.3% weight loss, respectively. Yet,
further increase in the temperature degraded almost complete sample slowly and the
498 P. Yasin et al.
left-out fiber probably cellulose content was found to be 19.7% in terms of weight, at
the temperature 620 °C. From the DTG peak, the peak temperature was determined
which shows maximum decomposition rate with respect to time and the tailing region
indicates end of fiber decomposition. From Fig. 5, it is also observed that, the peak
degradation temperature (PDT) for the ffm fiber is 200 °C with the maximum mass
decomposition to be 0.51 mg/min.
110.0
100.0 1.600
90.0
1.400
5.9%
80.0
M o istu re c o n te n t 1.200
70.0 74.4%
1.000
DTG mg/min
60.0 c a rb o n c o m p o u n d s
TG %
50.0 0.800
40.0
0.600
30.0
R e sid u e c o n te n t
1 9 .7 %
0.400
20.0
0.200
10.0
0.0 0.000
50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0 350.0 400.0 450.0 500.0 550.0 600.0 650.0
Temp Cel
Fig. 5. Primary and derivative thermo grams of raw ffm fiber
From the TGA analysis, it can be concluded that the ffm fibers are thermally stable
till 360 °C. This value is higher than carao (190 °C), olive husk (200 °C), areca fruit
(240 °C), grass (301 °C) and henequen (300 °C) [13, 22–25] and indicates outstanding
thermal resistance of ffm against temperature loads. From the literature [26, 27], Net
epoxy will be stable up to 335 °C and the addition of lingo cellulose fibers to the epoxy
can further increase the composite’s thermal stability. This indicates, ffm fibers
embedment in polymeric matrix also, could make the respective composite to sustain
more thermal shocks than unreinforced matrix.
Table 4. IDT, PDT and FDT of ffm fiber

Fiber IDT PDT FDT Weight loss% Residue left after 620 °C
ffm 280 °C 360 °C 385 °C 80.3 19.7
4 Conclusions
Due to ecological concerns, it is necessary to find a viable alternative embedment for

petroleum based-harmful-synthetic fibers in polymeric composites. In the present work,
a new leaf fiber was extracted from ffm plant and investigated for the micro structural,
physico-mechanical properties and thermal stability. From the investigation the fol-
lowing prominent conclusions can be made: The presences of lignin and cellulose have
been confirmed through FTIR analysis ensures better rigidity and strength of ffm fiber.
Rough surface of the ffm fiber confirmed through micro structural analysis offers
mechanical interlocking with polymeric matrices and hence enhances the composite
performance. Additionally, low density (890.3 kg/mm3) and ordinary tensile properties
of ffm fiber gives sufficient specific strength for light weight-low to medium load
applications. The nature of the ffm fiber found to be semi-crystalline and large crys-
tallite size of fiber decreases the chemical and water absorption capacity. TG and DTA
analysis revealed that ffm fibers are thermally stable up to 360 °C. By the present
investigation, it can be bottom lined that ffm fibers are suitable as reinforcement agents
in polymeric matrices for various light weight-medium load-thermal insulation
applications.
References
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reinforced polymer composite and its applications. Int J Polym Sci 1:1–15
2. Lackey E, James GV, Kapil I (2008) Statistical characterization of pultruded composites
with natural fiber reinforcements – part a: fabrication. J Nat Fibers 4:73–87
3. Shah DU, Schubel PJ, Clifford MJ (2013) Can flax replace E-glass in structural composites?
A small wind turbine blade case study. Compos Part B: Eng 52:172–181
4. Popzyk, Klein (2017) DNFI awards. Discovery of natural fibres initiative
5. Paiva MC, Ammar I, Campos AR, Cheikh RB, Cunha AM (2017) Alfa fibers: mechanical,
morphological and interfacial characterization. Compos Sc Tech 67:1132–1138
6. Arifuzzaman Khan GM, Shahrear Palash SR, Shamsul Alam M, Chakraborty AK,
Gafur MA, Terano M (2012) Isolation and characterization of betel nut leaf fiber: its
potential application in making composites. J Pol Comput 33:764–772
7. Sreenivasan VS, Somasundaram S, Ravindran D, Manikandan V, Narayanasamy R (2011)
Microstructural physico-chemical and mechanical characterization of Sansevieriacylindri-
cafibres – an exploratory investigation. J Mater Des 32:453–461
8. Senthamaraikannan P, Sanjay MR, Subrahmanya Bhat K, Padmaraj NH, Jawaid M (2018, in
press) Characterization of natural cellulosic fibre from bark of Albiziaamara. J Nat Fibres.
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9. Santhanam K, Kumaravel A, Saravanakumar SS, Arthanarieswaran VP (2016) Character-
ization of new natural cellulosic fibre from the Ipomoea staphylina plant. IJPAC 21:267–274
10. Saravanakumar SS, Kumaravel A, Nagarajan T, Sudhakard P, Baskarane R (2013)
Characterization of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Prosopisjuliflora bark. Carbohydr
Polym 92:1928–1933
11. Villagenurseries, furcraea-foetida mediopicta. https://www.villagenurseries.com/product/
furcraea-foetida-medio-picta/
12. My bageecha, furcraea-foetida-medio-picta. https://mybageecha.com/products/furcraea-
foetida-mediopicta
13. Binoj JS, Edwin Raj R, Sreenivasan VS, Rexin Thusnavis G (2016) Morphological,
physical, mechanical, chemical and thermal characterization of sustainable Indian Areca fruit
husk fibres (Areca Catechu L.) as potential alternate for hazardous synthetic fibres. J Bionic
Eng 13:156–165
500 P. Yasin et al.
14. Beakou A, Ntenga R, Lepetit J, Ateba JA, Ayina LO (2008) Physico-chemical and
microstructural characterization of ‘‘Rhectophyllumcamerunense’’ plant fibre. Compos:
Part A 39:67–74
15. Yusriah L, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, Mariatti M (2014) Characterization of physical,
mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of agro-waste betel nut (areca catechu.)
husk fibre. J Cleaner Prod 72:174–180
16. Spinace MAS, Lambert CS, Fermoselli KKG, De Paoli M-A (2009) Characterization of
lignocellulosiccurauafibres. J. Carbohydr Polym 77:47–53
17. Biagiotti J (2004) A systematic investigation on the influence of the chemical treatment of
natural fibers on the properties of their polymer matrix composites. Polym Compos 25:470–
479
18. Liu W, Mohanty AK, Drzal LT, Askel P, Misra M (2004) Effects of alkali treatment on the
structure, morphology and thermal properties of native grass fibers as reinforcements for
polymer matrix composites. J Mater Sci 39:1051–1054
19. ASTM D3379-75 (1975) Test method for tensile strength and young’s modulus for high-
modulus single-filament materials. ASTM standard
20. Murherjee PS, Satyanarayana KG (1984) Structure properties of some vegetable fibres, part
1. Sisal fibre. J Mater Sci 19:3925–3934
21. Zeriouh A, Belbirl L (1995) Thermal decomposition of a Moroccan wood under a nitrogen
atmosphere. J Thermochimia Acta 258:243–248
22. D’Almeida ALFS, Barreto DW, Calado V, d’Almeida JRM (2008) Thermal analysis of less
common lignocellulosicfibres. J Therm Anal Cal 91:405–408
23. Amar B, Salem K, Hocine D, Chadia I, Juan MJ (2011) Study and characterization of
composites materials based on polypropylene load with olive husk flour. J Appl Polym Sci
122:1382–1394
24. Sgriccia N, Hawley MC (2007) Thermal morphological and electrical characterization of
microwave processed natural fibre composites. Compos Sci Technol 67:1986–1991
25. Yang H, Yan R, Chen H, Lee DH, Zheng C (2007) Characteristics of hemicelluloses,
cellulose and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel 86:1781–1788
26. Zhang XJ, Yi XS, Xu YZ (2008) Cure-induced phase separation of epoxy/DDS/PEK-C
composites and its temperature dependency. J Appl Polym Sci 109:2195–2206
27. Li G, Li P, Zhang C, Yu Y, Liu H, Zhang S, Jia X, Yang X, Xue Z, Ryu S (2008) In
homogeneous toughening of carbon fiber/epoxy composite using electro spun polysulfo-
nenano fibrous membranes by in situ phase separation. J. Compos Sci Tech 68:987–994
Computational Analysis of Cavitation
Structures on a Ship Propeller
C. Syamsundar1(&) and P. Usha Sri2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CMR Engineering College,
Hyderabad 501 401, India
syamsundariitm@gmail.com
2
Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, India
Abstract. Cavitation phenomenon is an unpredictable issue and intriguing

subject in fluid dynamics and the investigation of cavitation structures around a
ship propeller in a cavitation water tunnel for experimentation is a very com-
plicated and consumes lot of time. In the present paper the consequences of
cavitation structures at design and off design testing conditions are predicted by
utilizing RANS equations in ANSYS CFX. A complete three dimensional ship
propeller is demonstrated to simulate cavitation on screw propeller. From the
literature, it is evident that, the most severe off design operating conditions is not
accurately anticipated. In this paper computational analysis were carried out on
various cavitation numbers at both designed and off designing conditions, to
validate the experimental results. From these results, we have observed that,
cavitating structures, and tip vortex formation on the blades were observed with
good accuracy by competing with experimental results.
Keywords: Cavitation structures Computational fluid dynamics

Ship propeller
1 Introduction
Today the ships can be described in different methods, but most of them have fun-
damentally the same propulsion (Colley 2012; Chen 2015) as shown in Fig. 1. The
back side of the blade, which is in motion direction is always at very low pressures
(Colley 2012). We all know that, cavitation is a multiphase complex occurrence, due to
this here three different definitions is given below (Knapp et al. 1970).
• When the static pressure of liquid reaches to low pressures (vapor pressures) or
below to it (Coutier-Delgosha et al. 2003).
• Formation phase, growth and collapse phase of bubbles in liquid medium (Young
1989).
• The collapse will take place in liquid at high pressures (Franc and Michel 2004).
The repeated collapse of these cavitation bubbles on blade surface causes erosion,
vibration and noise. Frank et al. (2007) studied the ship propeller and concluded that,
by using CFD it is still difficult to predict cavitation at high pressure fluctuations. Chen

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_60
502 C. Syamsundar and P. Usha Sri
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a ship propeller (Chen 2015)
(2015) presented numerical simulation by using a commercial code STAR-CCM+.

Kamal et al. (2017) modelled sheet cavitation at the suction side of the propeller and
found that, they are in close with experimental results.
The thrust force and torque produced by the propeller are represented in non-
dimensional number and it mainly depends on diameter of propeller (D), speed of
rotation (n), advance velocity (VA), acceleration due to gravity (g), dynamic viscosity
(µ), fluid density (q) (Chen 2015).
Therefore, the thrust can be expressed as
T ¼ kDa nb VAc qd le g f ð1Þ
Where k is a proportionality constant, and a, b, c, d, e, and f are property index.

The final expression is

VA nD n2 D2
T ¼ qn2 D4 f1 ; ; ð2Þ
nD v gD
There are three non-dimensional numbers are in this equation

Thrust coefficient KT is defined as

T VA nD2 n2 D2
kT ¼ ¼ f 1 ; ; ð3Þ
qn2 D4 nD v gD
VA 2 2 2
Where nD is coefficient of advance (J), nDv is Reynolds number (Re) and ngDD is
Froude number (Fr). In general, the ship propeller is generally operated far away from
the free surface of liquid and doesn’t produce any surface waves, so Froude number can
be ignored.
Till now, the cavitation effects have been studied by many researchers by experi-
ments. It involves high cost due to construction of cavitation water tunnels. Because of
this, it is highly important to explore the CFD simulation techniques and cavitation
models (Frank et al. 2007; Chen 2015). At the same time, in most of the papers, the most
severe off design operating conditions are not properly studied. In this paper, the CFD
simulations are performed at the same experimental conditions and results are compared.
Computational Analysis of Cavitation Structures on a Ship Propeller 503
2 Computational Analysis of a Ship Propeller
The ship propeller (Marine Trinket propeller) having 6 number of blades is modelled
by using CATIA V5 R 19. The blade is modelled by taking several sections at various
radii, and are rotated through their respective pitch angles as shown in Fig. 2(a). The
computational domain consider for analysis is a cylindrical domain of length and
diameter 23 m, which is ten times the propeller diameter and having a rotational speed
of 1500 RPM as shown in Figs. 2(b) and 3.
Fig. 2. (a) Modelled ship propeller, and (b) Generation of mesh refinement around the blades
In mesh generation, nearly 3 million hexahedral cells are generated as shown in

Fig. 3. Near wall y+ is very sensitive, and it is maintained as y+ < 5.
Fig. 3. Computational fluid domain considered and boundary conditions for CFD analysis
At the inlet boundary, a uniform velocity of 6.22 m/s was prescribed and at the
outlet, the atmospheric pressure was considered. Table 1 clearly shows the detailed
solver control parameters for both non cavitating and cavitating test conditions.
Table 1. Details of solver control parameters

Parameters Non cavitating flow Cavitating flow
Pressure and Velocity coupling: SIMPLE SIMPLE
Discretization scheme: Upwind - Quadratic First order upwind
Turbulence model: K-e K-e
Solver control: Steady state Unsteady state
Multiphase-Mixture
1. Water
2. Water vapor
3 Computational Results and Analysis
Computational simulations have been carried out at six different cavitation conditions
(r) i.e., 7.2, 5.1, 3.7 (design condition), 2.9, 2.3, and 1.9 respectively. The corre-
sponding inlet velocities are 5.2, 6.2, 7.2 (design condition), 8.2, 9.2 and 10.2 m/s. The
experimental and computational results are compared at cavitation number 3.7 (Paik
et al. 2013) as shown in Fig. 4, which shows a good agreement with experiments.
Figures 5 and 6(a–f), shows the variation of pressure on the front and back side of
ship propellers. From these figures, we can clearly visualize that, water got vaporized at
particular low pressure regions, which causes cavitation and flow separation. By clear
observation, it is also concluded that cavitation and flow separation mainly happens at
back side of the ship propeller and also at an outer blade location as shown in Fig. 7
(a)–(f).
Fig. 4. Comparison between (a) Kwang-Jun Paik et al. 2013, experimental results and
(b) Computational simulation outcomes at cavitation number 3.7
Fig. 5. Total pressure distribution at propeller inlet of cavitation numbers (a) 7.2, (b) 5.1, (c) 3.7
(design condition), (d) 2.9, (e) 2.3 and (f) 1.9 at a rotational speed of 1500 RPM
Fig. 6. Total pressure distribution on the propeller back side of cavitation numbers (a) 7.2,
(b) 5.1, (c) 3.7 (operating condition), (d) 2.9, (e) 2.3, and (f) 1.9, at a rotational speed of 1500
RPM
By using experiments, to calculate the cavity thickness is very complicated,

because we have to use image processing on the cavity surface. Using computational
fluid dynamics, we can also obtain the cavity length for different cavitation numbers as
shown in Fig. 8(a)–(c). At higher cavitation numbers, there is a small attached cavi-
tation is observed compared with lower cavitation numbers.
Fig. 7. Velocity stream lines of cavitation numbers (a) 7.2, (b) 5.1, (c) 3.7 (design condition),
(d) 2.9, (e) 2.3, and (f) 1.9 at rotational speed of 1500 RPM
Fig. 8. Different types of cavitation structures on blades of a propeller operating at cavitation

numbers (a) 7.2, (b) 3.7 (design condition), and (c) 1.9 at rotational speed of 1500 RPM
4 Conclusions
From CFD simulations for different cavitation numbers (design and off design con-
dition), the main observations are;
1. Computational results are shown a very encouraging, good agreement with
experiments and they were reproducible.
2. At higher cavitation numbers, there is a small attached cavitation is observed
compared with lower cavitation numbers.
References
Morgut M, Nobile E (2012) Numerical predictions of cavitating flow around model scale
propellers by CFD and advanced model calibration
Sato K, Oshima A, Egashira H, Takano S (2009) Numerical prediction of cavitation and pressure
fluctuation around marine propeller
Kamal IM et al (2017) A CFD RANS cavitation prediction for propellers
Ghose JP, Gokarn RP (2004) Basic ship propulsion. Allied Publishers Pvt. Limited
Knapp RT, Daily JW, Hammitt FG (1970) Cavitation. McGraw-Hill Book Company, London
Coutier-Delgosha O, Reboud JL, Delannoy Y (2003) Numerical simulation of the unsteady
behaviour of cavitating ows. Int J Numer Methods Fluids 42:527–548
Young F (1989) Cavitation. Imperial College Press, London
Franc JP, Michel JM (2004) Fundamentals of Cavitation. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht
Colley E (2012) Analysis of flow around a ship propeller using open FOAM, pp 1–8
Sipilä T (2012) RANS analyses of cavitating propeller flows, Thesis for the degree of Licentiate
of Science in Technology, Aalto University School of Engineering
Frank T, Lifante C, Jebauer S, Kuntz M, Rieck K (2007) CFD simulation of cloud and tip vortex
cavitation on hydrofoils. In: 6th international conference on multiphase flow, ICMF 2007,
Leipzig, Germany, 9–13 July 2007, pp 1–5
Chen Z (2015) CFD investigation in scale effects on propellers with different blade area ratio.
Master thesis, Aalesund University College, Norway
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using
Halogen Lamp
Sowjanya Madireddi(&), V. Siddharth,

Mohd Amaan, and M. Adithya
CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad 510501, Telangana, India

madireddisowjanya@gmail.com
Abstract. Drying of food crop during post harvesting is essential to remove the
moisture content. Moisture removal is required to preserve the food crop from
spoilage due to micro-organisms. Moisture removal depends on the design of
the dryer and the heat distribution inside the dryer. Present work is the exper-
imental investigation to obtain uniform temperatures in a crop dryer by distri-
bution of heat using hot air at various positions in the chamber and using
halogen lamp at different wattage. Usage of two halogen lamps in the opposite
sides of the chamber is observed to get more variable and higher temperatures in
the chamber with lower power input.
Keywords: Heat transfer Post harvest drying Controlled drying

Pulse dryer
1 Introduction
Post harvesting of food crops involves removal of excess moisture from the grains to
protect from spoilage due to the growth of micro-organisms. Farmers usually try to
achieve this by doing open sun drying (OSD). During open sun drying the fresh grains
from the field are dried by spreading either on mud plates or on concrete slabs. By
doing this, continuous monitoring of the drying process is required which further need
man hours and increase in post harvesting costs. Hence, the concept of controlled
drying is introduced in the industry. The drying takes place in a controlled environment
by using special equipment called dryer to remove the moisture content in the fresh
food grains by sending hot air. There are number of industrial dryers but are very
expensive for the farmers and availability is limited at the farm fields. Hence, most
often farmers do only open sun drying and loose a considerable quantity of food crop
due to spoilage [1]. Sahadev reviewed drying of food crops by open sun drying and
green house drying [2]. It was observed that the losses of agriculture products due to
OSD are remarkable and can be reduced by adapting to green house drying techniques.
However, green house drying is also climate dependent. Hence, drying in controlled
environment is most recommended. In open sun drying the solar radiation and con-
vection heat transfer phenomena are principal in drying. The heat required for drying
except in open sun is produced by heating the air using heating element, halogen lamp
or by Infra Red rays. Forced convection phenomenon is employed in the case of
heating element as air is blown over the hot surface. Tolmac et al. studied the
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_61
Heat Transfer in Food Crop Dryer Using Halogen Lamp 509
convection dryer with material transport and observed that the heat transfer during
drying involves loss due to air leaving the cabin, loss due to radiation and loss due to
conduction [3]. The overall convection heat transfer due to losses is found to be
100 W/m2K. Heat and mass transfer coefficients were reviewed [4] for various food
crops and dryers.
1. Heat transfer as per Newton’s law of cooling is given by
Q = hADT ð1Þ
Where
Q is the heat transfer rate from solid surface to the ambient fluid (W)
A is the surface area of the solid surface (m2)
h is the heat transfer coefficient w/m2K
ΔT is the difference in temperature of the solid wall and surrounding fluid
(K or °C)
2. Heat transfer by radiation phenomenon

Q=A ¼ r T4s T4a ð2Þ
Where
Q/A is the radiation heat flux (W/m2)
r is the Stephan-Boltzman constant 5.68 10−8 W/m2K4
Ts is the temperature of the radiation source (K)
Ta is the temperature of the chamber air (K)
3. Nusselt number for heating of foods in the form of slices and cylinders by hot air is
given by [5]
NuD ¼ 0:249 Re0:64

D ð3Þ
Where
NuD is the Nusselt number
ReD is the Reynolds number based
4. Heat gained by the air in the chamber is given by
Q ¼ m Cp D T ð4Þ
Where
m = mass of air = q/v
q = density of air
v = volume of the chamber
Cp = specific heat of air
ΔT = rise in temperature of chamber air
510 S. Madireddi et al.
5. Heat absorbed by the chamber material is given by
Q ¼ m Cp D T ð5Þ
Where
m = mass of chamber material
Cp = specific heat of chamber material
ΔT = rise in temperature of chamber surface
6. Heat energy from halogen lamp ¼ Rated power 96:5 (6)
Halogen lamp converts for every 100 W put in 3.5 W to light and 96.5 W to heat [7]
7. Heat load from lamp = wattage usage factor ballast factor loadfactor (7)
for halogen lamps
usage factor = 1,
Ballast factor = 0.85 and load factor = 1
Wattage is the power input
2 Experimentation
A cubical chamber of 2 ft by 2 ft is employed for the purpose. Figure 1(a) shows the
space volumes in the chamber. The chamber is spatially divided as left, middle and
right planes considered vertically. Figure 1(b) shows chamber with thermocouples
placed in the left plane. Volumes V1 to V9 are the volumes in the right plane. Volumes
V1, V2, V3 are in the front side of right plane. Volumes V4, V5, V6 are in the middle
of the right plane. Volumes V7, V8, V9 are in the backside of the right plane. The
volumes are considered similarly for the middle and left planes. Heating of the space
volumes is done with case(i) hot air at 60 °C and 2.5 m/s speed, case (ii) halogen
lamp. Hot air inlet is once from the backside and once from the top of the chamber. For
case(ii), two halogen lamps are placed opposite to each other near volume V5 on each
side of the left and right vertical planes. The wattage of the lamps is changed from
150 W to 500 W each. Hot air generated by a heater at 1000 W is placed at the back of
the cabin. Temperatures T1 to T9 are measured in all these cases for every 10 min in
one hour duration. The values are plotted to find the distribution of temperature in the
entire chamber.
3.1 Heating by Hot Air from the Center of the Back Surface
of the Chamber
Figure 2 shows the temperatures in the chamber when the hot air is sent into the
chamber from the center of the back surface. The steady state is reached at 60 min for
the vertical middle plane and at 70 min for the right and left planes. Due to symmetry
of the chamber, the temperatures at the right and left planes are found to be same. The
Fig. 1. (a) Space volumes considered in the chamber showing vertical left, middle and right
planes (b) Chamber with thermocouples placed in the left plane.
temperatures are found to be nearly uniform. As the food products are not placed
currently in the chamber the air is free to circulate inside the chamber and escapes
through the 5 mm holes made in the top surface as shown in Fig. 1. The average
chamber temperature is observed as around 55 °C as there is a leakage of air from the
front door due to small gaps near the closing surface. Hence, we can conclude that the
position of hot air from the chamber back surface can create uniform temperatures. If
the chamber is made completely leak proof and let the air escapes only through the
vents in the top surface, higher temperatures can be created. By this the hot air takes
more amount of moisture from the products to be dried which are kept inside the
chamber.
80 Hot Air from Back- 80 Hot Air from Back-

Temperatures in the Middle plane Temperatures at Right/Left plane
70 70
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
60 60
o
o
50 50
T1
T2 T1
40 T3
T4
40 T2
T3
T4
T5
T5
T6
30 T7 30 T6
T7
T8 T8
T9 T9
20 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)
Fig. 2. Temperatures in the chamber with Hot air from the center of the back surface
3.2 Heating by Hot Air from the Center of the Top Surface
of the Chamber
Figure 3 shows the rise in temperatures in the chamber when the hot air is blown into
the chamber from the center of the top surface.
100 80 Hot Air from Top-

Hot Air from Top-
90 Temperatures in Mid plane Temperatures in Right/Left Plane
70
80
Temperature( C)
60
Temperature( C)
70
o
o
T1
60 T2 50 T1
T3 T2
50 T4 T3
T5 40 T4
T6 T5
40 T7 T6
T8 30 T7
30 T9 T8
T9
20 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fig. 3. Temperatures in the chamber when hot air from the center of the top surface
The temperatures are measured for time duration of 1 h. Temperatures in the mid
plane are slightly higher than that at the right/left planes. This is because of the direct
flow of hot air initially into the middle plane and the diffusion of hot air later into the
other planes or space volumes. However, the average temperature in the chamber
obtained is 62 °C which is higher than the earlier case of sending the hot air from the
back surface of the chamber. The power consumed in 1 h is 1 kW and the heat
absorbed by air is 367.75 W (Eq. 4).
3.3 Heating by Halogen Lamps Each One at Left and Right Surfaces
Temperatures are measured using thermocouples at the defined volumes in the chamber
space varying power supply to each bulb as 150 W, 200 W, 250 W and 500 W.
Figure 4 shows the temperatures T1 to T9 in space volumes V1 to V9 in the Mid and
Right/Left vertical planes at 500 W and 250 W.
The temperature near to the halogen lamp in the right/left planes shows the highest
value. The temperatures in the mid plane show slightly less than the right or left planes.
However, the average temperatures are 81.55 °C and 89 °C respectively for mid plane
and right/left plane at 500 W respectively with a difference of approximately 7 °C. The
average temperatures for 250 W are 61 °C and 66 °C with a difference of 5 °C. For
200 W and 150 W the average temperatures for mid and right planes are 53 °C and
59 °C, and 45 °C and 55 °C respectively. The difference in temperatures is 6 °C and
5 °C respectively for 200 W and 150 W. Hence with the halogen lamps on each side of
the chamber near uniform temperatures can be obtained. Figure 5 shows the average
temperatures in the planes. As the halogen lamp is near the right/left plane the tem-
peratures are slightly higher in the right-middle plane. And also the temperatures in the
100 500 W - Temperatures at Mid plane 500 W - Temperatures at Right/Left Plane

90 120
80
100
Temperatures ( C)
Temperatures ( C)
70
o
o
T1
60 T2 80
T3 T1
50 T4 T2
T5 60 T3
40 T6 T4
T5
T7 T6
30 T8 40 T7
T9 T8
20 T9
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
100 250 W - Temperatures at Mid Plane 100 250 W - Temperature at Right/Left plane
90 90
80 80
Temperatures ( C)
Temperatures ( C)
o
70 o 70
T1
60 T2
60
T3
50 T4
T5 50
T1
T2
T6 T3
40 T7
T8 40
T4
T5
T9 T6
30 30
T7
T8
T9
20 20
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fig. 4. Temperatures in the Mid and Right vertical planes at 500 W and 250 W
front and back side space inside chamber are slightly lower in right/left/middle planes
than the middle space due to the effect of location of lamps. i.e. volume V5 in all
planes. However, when the material to be dried is placed in the chamber heat will be
dissipated by the air in the entire chamber. Natural convection takes place between the
wet material and nearby air leading to movement of air. Hence, the small difference in
temperatures (5 °C) can be neglected.
Safe moisture content is different for different food crops [6]. The required tem-
peratures can be obtained based on the quantity of the material to be dried. In the
present work, the chamber size is designed for a batch dryer with a capacity of 5 kg.
Table 1 gives the heat gained by the air in the chamber in one hour duration using the
Eq. 4. Energy from halogen lamp is estimated using Eq. 6. Heat transfer to the cabin
material is estimated using Eq. 5. It is interesting to note that the heat gained by air is
nearly equal to the total energy from the two lamps. With increase in time of heating
this value for 1000 W power input would have been reached to the total energy from
two lamps as the steady state temperatures are not reached in the 1 h duration
considered.
100 Average temperature in

Average temperatures in the
90 90 vertical space of each plane
Middle-Right-Left planes
Average Temperature ( C)
Average Temperature ( C)
o
o
80 80
70
70
60 Middle-Front
60 Middle 50 Middle-Middle
Middle- Back
Left
Right 40 Left/Right-Front
50 Left/Right-Middle
30 Left/Right-Back
40 20
200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000
Power (W) Power (W)
Fig. 5. Temperatures in the chamber in each vertical plane and in the vertical space volumes in
each plane at different wattage of lamp
Table 1. Heat gained by the air in the chamber during heating by halogen bulb.
Power Heat energy Rise in the Heat gained by Heat transfer to the
(W) from halogen temperature of the chamber air cabin material in
lamp (W) air in 1 h (°C) (W) in 1 h 1 h (W)
1000 965 61.5 706.77 276.67
500 482.5 42 482 148.98
400 386 34 390 120.60
300 289.5 26 298 92.22
3.4 Comparison of Heating by Halogen Lamps and Hot Air

Figure 6(a) shows the temperatures obtained in the two cases of 1000 W hot air heat
source and two halogen lamps as heat source at 500 W each on either side of the
chamber.
Temperatures in all the planes for the case of halogen lamp as heat source are found
to be higher than the temperatures with hot air at the same wattage (1000 W) located
centrally at the top surface. The % reduction in average temperatures in the vertical
planes right, center and left plane with fan as heat source is 30.96%, 23.43% and
30.96% respectively (Fig. 6(b)). Moreover, the cost of the hot air source is 86.66%
more than that of two halogen lamps. The temperature usually employed for seed
drying is between 40 °C to 60 °C and for commercial drying it is from 60 °C to 80 °C
for most of the food crops viz. wheat, Jowar, Maize, Ragi etc. At much lower wattages
of 500 W of power, the temperatures obtained are between 50 °C to 65 °C using
halogen heat source. Thus the power consumption is reduced by 50% compared to hot
air at 1000 W. As the cost of industrial dryers is in lakhs, the present equipment can be
used at filed level by the farmers for production of 5 kgs of seed per batch with low
cost. Further investigation is being conducted to find the rate of moisture removal by
placing the wheat grains.
Fig. 6. (a) Temperatures in Left-Center-Right vertical plane space volumes (b) Average
temperatures in the vertical planes with heat source as hot air at top-center and 2 halogen lamps
on either side
4 Conclusions
Dryer cabin for food crops is fabricated and tested for distribution of heat using hot air
at 60 °C with 2.5 m/s velocity and with halogen lamp at different wattage. Hot air
heater at 1000 W could produce a maximum temperature of around 60 to 65 °C where
as by using halogen lamp higher temperatures (80 to 90 °C) are obtained for the same
power input. By varying the power input to halogen lamps the rise in chamber tem-
peratures observed are from 60 to 25 °C than the initial cabin air. As different food
crops need different drying temperatures, the results obtained from the present work
can be used to design the dryer with required capacity. The present chamber can also be
used for seed/commercial drying of different food crops like wheat, Ragi etc.
Acknowledgments. Authors sincerely thank the management of CVR College of Engineering

for the continuous support for the research work in the Department of Mechanical Engineering.
References
1. Government of Telangana Agriculture and cooperation department, Agriculture challenges
and way forward, A task Force report - NITI Aayog (2016)
2. Sahdev RK (2014) Open sun and greenhouse drying of agricultural and food products: a
review. Int J Eng Res Technol 3(3):1053–1066
3. Tolmac D, Prvulovic S, Radovanovic L (2008) Effects of heat transfer on convection dryer
with pneumatic transport of material. FME Trans 36:45–49
4. Krokida MK, Maroulis ZB, Marinos-Kouris D (2002) heat and mass transfer coefficients in
drying: compilation of literature data. Drying Technol: Int J 20(1):1–18
5. Ratti C, Crapiste GH (1995) Determination of heat transfer coefficients during drying of

foodstuffs. J Food Process Eng 18:41–53
6. Ofor MO, Nwufo MI, Ibeawuchi II (2010) Solar drying for value addition and to minimize
post-harvest losses. Ann Arid Zone 49(3&4):259–265
7. Web source Bob MacCargar. https://www.reptileuvinfo.com/html/watts-heat-lights-lamp-
heat-output.html
Progressive Damage Analysis
of Laminated Composites
Yashasvi Achanta1(&), P. Ramesh Babu2, and D. Sandeep2

1
UCE, OU, Hyderabad, India
rawasangeeta@gmail.com
2
MED, UCE, OU, Hyderabad, India
Abstract. Laminate composites are used widely in diverse fields because of the
ubiquitous advantages it provides compared to others. These materials are
susceptible to developing of micro cracks which will change the global response
of material thus creating high stresses and heightened damage in the other part.
To precisely predict its life and practical applications, considering material
strength and its capability to resist damage is important. This paper intends in
finding out optimum conditions for minimum damage progression. A flat plate
with stress concentrations in form of cut-outs made up of Epoxycarbon UD
(Prepreg) and [45 0 −45 90]s layup has been modelled; progressive failure
analysis under uni-axial tension loading is performed. Comparison of failure
criteria is done and ultimately Hashin failure criteria is chosen for static analysis
with different layups, cut-out shapes, sizes, orientations and multiple cut-outs.
The observations are noted and outcomes are compared.
Keywords: Laminate composites Progression Static analysis

Hashin failure criteria
1 Introduction
Laminates have many practical applications as engineering materials in many different

fields as it has the ability to manage the fibre alignment. Unlike metals, where trade-offs
has to be made between strength and toughness, these can be optimized to offer high
strength, stiffness and also robustness. This paper seeks a comparison of the obser-
vations of six failure criteria which are Maximum strain [1–3], Maximum stress [1–3],
Hashin [1–3], Puck [1–3], LaRC03 [1–3], LaRc04 [1–3] on progression [4] of damage
on a flat plate made from Epoxy Carbon UD (Prepreg) with a circular hole [5] on it, and
a uni-axial tension load is applied. A comparison is performed by plotting Load-
Displacement graphs for all the selected criteria and because of the numerous advan-
tages, Hashin failure theory is selected for the later part of the problem. The second part
of analysis includes progression of damage for circular cut-outs with increasing radius
and also increasing the number of notches. Also, different shaped cut-outs were
analysed and compared with the usual circular cut-outs. Load-Displacement graphs are
plotted and optimum conditions for minimum damage progression are mentioned.
These observations are connected to practical uses involving flat plates with cut-outs.
This research is not intended to develop a model for finding out composites damage

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_62
518 Y. Achanta et al.
and failure, rather it will review the failure criteria and progression damage models and
specify the optimum shapes which can be used in the real world. The scope of this
paper is limited to laminate composites under pure tensile stress.
2 Problem Statement
The objective of this research is to analyse the progressive damage on a plate made
from EpoxyCarbon UD [15] with cut-outs in the form of stress concentrations.
Dimensions of the specimen: 152 38 mm2
Radius of the notches: 4 mm
Layup: [45° 0° −45° 90°]s
No. of plies and thickness of the whole: 8 mm and 8 mm.
This model is chosen because of its real-life applications in aerospace industries
etc.; for example, in aircraft wings notches are needed for delivering fuel with the help
of fuel lines and also to decrease the structural weight of the air-craft as a whole, they
are also convenient for inspecting, maintaining and also Non-Destructive testing.
2.1 Comparison of Different Failure Criteria

MaximumStrain, MaximumStress, Hashin, Puck, LaRc03, LaRc04. Among all of these
Hashin criteria is chosen for the second part of analysis as it is more advantageous in
comparison with others and also it is more reliable.
2.2 Effect of Geometry of Cut-Outs

For every analysis varied shapes and sizes of the cut-outs are selected and the obser-
vations are compared.
Progressive Damage Analysis of Laminated Composites 519
2.3 Effect of Lay-Up of Plies
(a) Symmetric lay-out of ply [45 0 −45 90]s

(b) Asymmetric lay-out of ply [45 0 −45 90 −45 0 45 −90]
(c) Anti-symmetric lay-out of ply [45 0 −45 90 −90 45 0 −45]
(d) Symmetric Cross lay-out of ply [0 90 0 90]s
(e) Symmetric Angle lay-out of ply [0 45 −45 0]s
3 Solution Methodology
3.1 Stress Analysis

Stress analysis is applied to laminates having stress concentrations so that it can analyse
the distribution of stress in each and every layer of a ply in all modes i.e., tension, sheer
and compression for fibre and matrix separately and also can find out the status of
damage. Selecting a failure criteria being the most important part is done accurately to
find out damage for different modes of damage. The Hashin theory [8] is applied to find
failures because unlike any other criteria having been limited by the traditional pre-
dictions and its inability to find out the failure modes. The laminate will lose its
capability of supporting any loadings when the damage accumulates and ultimately
reaches a critical point, which will finally make it catastrophic (final failure)
3.2 Degradation Rules for Properties of the Material

The properties of the material will be degraded [9, 10] in the areas of damage once
damage takes place in laminate. In this research, damage detected is analysed by
continuously degrading the properties of the failed areas of the material by a factor of
0.75. The ply discounting method [11–13] is utilised as the laminate material property
degradation factor.
3.3 Finite Element Analysis

A damage model [4, 14] is created in ANSYS WORKBENCH according to the geo-
metric restraints as per the problem. The properties of the chosen material have been
assigned ultimately creating a model with different sizes, layers and also properties.
Meshing has been done denser around the hole intentionally to analyse distributions of
stresses very accurately. The material degradation is applied to the laminate accord-
ingly. The extreme left side of the plate is fixed i.e., given zero degrees of freedom and
the right edge of the laminate has been given an incremental load of 50,000 N in
X-Direction from 0 to 5 s with an increment of 10,000 N per second. Starting with 0 N
to 10,000 N in the first step, if damage has not been occurred in all the elements, the
load is increased by a factor of 10,000 N every time and a stress analysis is done in the
further steps. If damage is found and the final failure has not occurred, the material is
further degraded in the areas of the elements that have been damaged in regard to the
property degradation criteria that have been mentioned above and an analysis of stress
is further done to find out the damage yet again. This continues until a catastrophe has
taken place.
4 Results
4.1 Damage Progression

Analysis is done for each and every case of the problem statement. Only the obser-
vations of elliptical, circular and square holes is mentioned, a complete analysis of all
the other cases also done (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Fig. 1. Status of damage circular hole with radius of 4 mm
Fig. 2. Status of damage of an elliptical shaped hole.
Fig. 3. Status of damage of a square shaped cut-out
4.2 Load vs Displacement Plots

Load versus displacement graphs has been done for every case which further enables to
give an accurate comparison of the optimum shape of all types of cut-outs on a scale
common to all. The presence of a kink in the graph indicates failure and the stop of the
graph indicates catastrophe (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Load vs Displacement plot for Failure criteria.
First Ply failure: Maximum stress > Puck > Hashin > LaRc04 > LaRc03 >
Maximum strain
Fig. 5. Load vs displacement plot for circular cut outs with radius 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm.
First Ply failure: Rsmall > Rbig
Fig. 6. Load vs displacement plots for multiple cut-outs.

First Ply failure: Vertical > Inclined > Horizontal
Fig. 7. Load vs displacement plots for elliptical cut-outs.
First ply failure: Ellipse 1 > Ellipse 3 > Ellipse 2 > Ellipse
Fig. 8. Load vs displacement plots for different square cut outs.
First Ply failure: Horizontal > Horizontal (fillet) > Tilted > Tilted (Fillet)
Fig. 9. Load vs displacement plots for different shapes.

First Ply failure: Ellipse > Square > Circle
Fig. 10. Load vs displacement plots for different layup of cut-outs.
First Ply failure: Symmetric > Anti-symmetric > Asymmetric
5 Conclusions
In laminates failure begins at the most weakest link. By keenly observing the pro-
gression of failure in the model, it was found out that the matrix failure occurs first in
this loading condition. Although, the model failure does not occur immediately because
the fibres are intact and helps carrying and redistributing the load again and again.
Catastrophe occurs when all the fibres fail. Different failure theories are used to analyse
the model. Among all these, Hashin theory gave approximately an average prediction
of all different theories. Among the ones with different radius of circular cut-outs, as the
radius of the circle increases, the peak of the curve (Fig. 5) lowers i.e. the force that the
laminate can withstand before failure decreases. As the radius of the circle increases,
the peak of the curve shifts to the left i.e. the time after which it fails was less. From the
Fig. 6, for multiple circular configurations it is observed that slope of the curve for all
the three configurations are same till the first ply failure and also vertical configuration
takes higher load than other two configurations. From Fig. 7, when the ellipse is in
horizontal position, failure occurs at lower values of force. Comparing ellipses of same
geometry, ellipse with major axis in vertical direction sustains more force than the other
one. Comparing ellipses of same orientation (major axis horizontal), the ellipse with
smaller major axis sustains more force before failure. Comparing ellipses of same
orientation (major axis vertical), the ellipse with longer major axis sustains more force
than the other before failure. From Fig. 8, when the side of the square was in line with
loading axis, failure occurs at higher values of force also the square with fillet sustains
higher load but the square without fillet sustains more force before failure. It was also
observed that in squares with the same orientation, the second ply failure occurs later in
the one with the fillet. From the Fig. 9, it is evident that an elliptical cut-out would take
the maximum load when compared to a circle or a square. From Fig. 10, a symmet-
rically laid up laminate holds up more amount of load before failure of the first ply
occurs while anti-symmetrically laid up plies sustain more even after the failure of the
first-ply occurs. All these analysis performed in this paper states that the size,
orientation and shape of the holes play a very important role in the progression of
damage. Although the effect of taking different stacking sequences is over-shadowed
by the other major factors, it still plays a major role in the failure envelope develop-
ment. The effect of all these factors can be very large when combined and can lead to
better designs when taken into consideration.
6 Future Scope
The primary focus in this research has been to analyse the optimum factors to slow
down the failure in progression in real-life structural models. Zhu et al. utilised a
micromechanical approach to develop the failure envelope for a unidirectional com-
posite laminate. They came to a conclusion that not even one of the existing failure
theories are in comparison with their theory in the entire range and also that the
combination of Maximum stress and Tsai–Wu theory is the best alternative for finding
out failure in an uni-directional composites. It would further be interesting to analyse
the effect of different combinations of different failure theories in analyzing the model.
There are many ways to improve the strength of the laminate. As mentioned above,
stacking sequence and also the geometry have an important effect on failure. The effect
of properties of the material, volume fraction of the fiber and also the orientation of the
fiber is not investigated. Hygrothermal stresses and other ambient conditions have not
been taken into consideration. There is scope of analysis in above mentioned areas.
Also, it would be very interesting to analyse the damage progression in composite
structures with bolted connections and hybrid joints.
References
1. Hiton MJ, Soden PD (1998) Predicting failure in composite laminates: the background to the
exercise. Compos Sci Technol (Impact Factor: 3.63) 58(7):1001–1010. https://doi.org/10.
1016/s0266-3538(98)00074-8
2. Sun CT (2008) Strength analysis of unidirectional composites and laminates. Compr
Compos Mater Sci 1:641–666
3. Icardi U, Locatto S, Longo A (2007) Assessment of recent theories for predicting failure of
composite laminates. Appl Mech Rev 60:76–86
4. Camanho PP, Matthews FL (1999) A progressive damage model for mechanically fastened
joints in composite laminates. J Compos Mater 23:2248–2249
5. Nguyen BN (1997) Three-dimensional modeling of damage in laminated composites
containing a central hole. J Compos Mater 31:1672–1693
6. American Society for Testing and Materials (2006) Standard test method for short beam
strength of polymer matrix composite materials and their laminates. ASTM Standard D
2344/D 2344M, ASTM International
7. Tirkas K, Kortschot MT (1995) The relationship between critical strain energy release rate
and delamination Mmde in mutidirectional carbon-fibre/epoxy laminates. ASTM STP
1285:283–304
8. Hashin Z (1980) Failure criteria for unidirectional fiber composites. J Appl Mech 47:329–
334
9. Lessard LB, Chang FK (1991) Damage tolerance of laminated composites containing an

open hole and subjected to compressive loadings: part II – experiment. J Compos Mater
25:44–64
10. Chen WH, Lee SS, Yeh JT (1995) Three-dimensional contact stress analysis of a composite
laminate with bolted joint. Compos Struct 30:287–297
11. Ochoa OO, Reddy JN (1992) Finite element analysis of composite laminates. Kluwer
Academic Publishers
12. Sleight DW. Progressive failure analysis methodology for laminated composite structures,
NASA/TP-1999-209107
13. Chang FK, Lessard LB (1991) Damage tolerance of laminated composite containing an open
hole and subjected to compressive loadings: part I – analysis. J Compos Mater 25:2–43
14. Tserpes KI, Labeas G, Papanikos P, Kermanidis T (2002) Stength prediction of bolted joints
in graphite/epoxy composite laminates. Compos: Part B 33:521–529
15. Venkateshwar Reddy C (2018) J Eng Res Appl 8(7):21–24 (Part -III). www.ijera.com. ISSN
2248-9622
Optimization of Pecking Order Layout
with Job Shop Scheduling as Constraint:
An Approach of Metaheuristics
K. Mallikarjuna1(&), V. Veeranna2, and K. Hemachandrareddy3

1
ME Department, Mallareddy Engineering College, Misammaguda, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India
mallikarjuna.gtl@gmail.com
2
Department of ME, St. John College of Engineering, Yemmiganoor, AP, India
3
Department of ME, JNTU Ananthapuram, Anantapur, AP, India
Abstract. Globally experts and researchers believe that litheness play a critical
role in industrial sector. Exclusively connected with tiny lot size production
because litheness flexible is a vital part to be include in arrangement of racks in
layout design among the manufacturing segment. With regards to such condi-
tions, considering NP hard dual objective issues is, commonly, a very cum-
bersome task. In this paper, authors addressed about a population based
metaheuristics like differential evolution (DE) and sheep flock method
(SFM) for cracking Pecking order layout design issues in flexible lot arrange-
ment environment. The originators concentrated on double target advancement
of which essential goal is worried about the adaptable occupation (FJSP)
planning issue, the following goal concentrated on Pecking request Layout
issues where removing the demand of machines with in lead-ins of ladder to
restrain hard and fast transportation cost and amassing lead time of vocations on
machines. The execution of the estimation (SFM and DE) is checked by
benchmark issues. Finally, it is contemplated that SFM outfits perfect results
when differentiated with DE.
Keywords: Pecking order layout FMS layout Job shop scheduling

Differential evolution Sheep flock method
1 Introduction
Flexibility in FMS is concern with dealing the machines, breakage of tools, changes in
scheduling, part mix and alternative routing. Actually, this works relates Ladder layout
design which is a plan of setup requirement for yielding products or rendering services
with job shop scheduling as constraint. Problems concern with outline of a plant are
commonly observed in industries linked to a position [1] of capacity in a plant.
Abbas and Khan et al. presented a contextual analysis for planning of jobs during
processing of chunks on existing machineries. Further they estimated the Throughput
and motion stint and action stint in terms of entire dispensation time [2]. Chaudhry and
Luo reviewed that during 1990–2001 nearly 21 major production journals published
genetic algorithm related papers [3]. Ku, Hu, Wang et al. addressed on how to crack the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_63
Optimization of Pecking Order Layout with Job Shop Scheduling as Constraint 527
static FLP with matching areas by applying parallel simulated annealing (SA) and
genetic algorithms (GAs) using a coarse grained model in retrieving the solution [4].
Ripon et al. focused about two major issues such as FLP and JSSP that affect the
efficiency of manufacturing systems [5].
2 Problem Portrayal
The issue plan received from Liu et al. [6] taken reference for this work. researcher’s
accentuation on structure of Ladder format in adaptable arrangement of assembling
with [FJSP] adaptable jobshop booking as limitation.
2.1 Multi Goal Mathematical Representations

In this area, creator acquaint the double target condition with break the adaptable
variable cluster planning issues which are brought together with Ladder format con-
figuration primes to reduce the make range, Throughput
Goal of Work
Diminish MAKSP, F (Smaxi)
Minimize; FðS maxÞ ¼ Sn; m ð1Þ
Imperilled To
Si;j;k Si;j þ 1;k Ti;j þ 1 ; for j ¼ 1; 2; 3. . .p
Si;j;k 0; for j ¼ 1; 2; 3. . .p
3 Projected Practices
The elucidation of the recommended measures is communal as trails.
3.1 Sheep Flock Method

Sheep rush (SF) strategy is a developmental high level search method dependent on
sheep advancement. This strategy [5, 6] recreates hereditary qualities of lamb runs
basically.
Give us a chance to expect of two runs of sheep’s in a structure which is being these
two runs are taken consideration via two propels. At the point when propels occupied
in chitchat, an opportunity of blending of herds been takes place, in such circumstance
both the propels reach the blended group and attempt to isolate the lamb’s from
blended rushes and keep the herds as already. In reality, the impact of legacy will
blemish on particular rushes. In this, pairwise reverse transformation assume key job
which is given beneath.
528 K. Mallikarjuna et al.
Psuedo code for pair wise inverse mutation for sheep flock method
// Pair wise interchange mutation

for (int p = 1; p <= no_populations; ++p) {
int *tt;
tt = pairWiseInterChangeMutation(chs[p],
size*subChsCrossOverRatio, size);
for (int b = 1; b <= size; b++) {
chsPICM[p][b] = tt[b];
}
tt = repairChromosome(chsPICM[p], size);
for (int b = 1; b <= size; b++) {
chsPICM[p][b] = tt[b];
}
chsPICMMakespan[p] =
makespan_Odject(represtatives, chsPICM[p]);
if(chsMakespan[p] > chsPICMMakespan[p]){
chsMakespan[p] = chsImMakespan[p];
for(int i=1; i<= size; i++){
chs[p][i] = chsIM[p][i];
}
}
}
3.2 Differential Evolution

DE is presented during 1996 by the minds of storn and Price. It is one of a kind sort of
the stochastic hunt strategies. It is created to improve genuine parameters and genuine
esteemed capacities. In different Engineering issues, enhancement remain with a basic
job that too worldwide ideal are especially fundamental in building, the executives parts.
Differential evolution (DE) is like molecule swarm advancement, here each twine is
pickled as candidate. These competitors are exemplified as quality based on skimming
point numbers. Here, there are three vectors which impact the result of issues those are
preliminary vector, boisterous vector, target vector. In this calculation, target vector
arrangements are exasperates with a contorted factor to produce a freak people. The
pseudo code for target vector is referenced beneath.
PSuedo code for target vector in Differential evolution
cout<<"\nBest Target Vector Of Generation

:"<<g;
cout<<"\nJob Representation:\n";
for (int b = 1; b <=
no_operations*no_batchs; b++) {
btv[g][b] = tv[btvmI][b];
cout<<btv[g][b]<<" ";
}
cout<<"\nMakespan :"<<tvm[btvmI]<<endl;
btvgm[g] = tvm[btvmI];
if(g == 1)
{ Gbtvm = btvgm[g] ;
GbtvgmI = g;
}
else if(Gbtvm > btvgm[g])
{
Gbtvm = btvgm[g] ;
GbtvgmI = g;
}
}
cout<<"\n---------------------------Optimized
Solution-----------------";
cout<<"\nBest Target Vector From All
Generation :"<<GbtvgmI;
cout<<"\nJob Representation:\n";
for (int b = 1; b <= no_operations*no_batchs;
b++) {
cout<<btv[GbtvgmI][b]<<" ";
}
cout<<"\nMakespan :"<< Gbtvm;
}
4 Schematic Outline of Pecking Order Layout
(See Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Schematic Representation of Pecking order layout design
5 Input Facts Particulars for Pecking Order Layout for FJSP
A Pecking order layout design framework with the immediate group scopes and the
FMS format are appeared Tables 1 and 2. Let parts be taken care of on machine for
various activities needs the handling time and part directing with the task arrangement
of chunks is considered.
Table 1. Framework of Production system load

Layout Machines in Batches in Operations in Cargo/uncargo
shape count count count stations
Ladder 9 9 9 2
5.1 Input Data of Lot Differences and Sizes
Table 2. Lot contrasts with clump sizes of the PECKING ORDER Layout with 9 machines with
9 bunches
Batch number B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9
Batch variety Constant batch size 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Charge per unit distance = 1Rs
Cargo Conveyance charge per unit distance = 1Rs
6 Result Analysis
The proposed SFM for taking care of the combinatorial advancement issues identified
with stepping stool format plan with planning is mimicked utilizing created cryptogram
in C++ and keep running in an intel i5-8G processor utilizing Interactive Development
Evaluation programming tool. A relative investigation is done among SFM and DE by
assessing the calculations more than 3 benchmark issues [2, 4] accessible in survey.
Table 3. Evaluation of MAKESPAN of the projected evolutionary algorithms

Problem instance/MxJxO SFM DE
MAKSP (min) MAKSP (min)
KM 1/(9x9x9) 120 125
KM 2/(9x8x8) 115 122
KM 3/(9x7x7) 104 110
Fig. 2. Plot of Make span to analyze performance of proposed algorithm
Table 4. Correlation of Total conveyance charge of the proposed evolutionary algorithms

Prob Inst SFM DE
TCC (Rs) TCC (Rs)
KMK 1-(9x9x9) 125 140
KMK 2-(9x8x8) 120 130
KMK 3-(9x7x7) 110 122
6.1 Inferances
From Tables 3, 4 and Figs. 2, 3 it is discovered that execution of SFM and DE for
computing Overall Conveyance charge and Makespan is diminishing as issue measure
is littler according to the issue scope. By relative investigation, it is seen that OCC are
upgraded for SFM.
Fig. 3. Plot for Overall Conveyance charge of projected algorithm
7 Conclusion
Metaheuristics applied during research work are effectively actualized on dual-target

work identified with Pecking order design plan with durable booking. The Researchers
attempt an endeavor to force the sheep flock method (SFM) and differential evolution
(DE) on multi-target work by creating program in C++ accomplished by employing
IDE programming tool. Here an instrument figured utilizing SFM and DE to limit the
double interlinked target work associated with booking and Layout plan mutually. The
result acquired by SFM for TCC (125Rs,120Rs,110Rs) for KMK 9X9X9, KMK
9X8X8, KMK 9X7X7 respectively is judge contrary to the result of DE for TCC
(140Rs, 130Rs, 122Rs) for KMK 9X9X9, KMK 9X8X8, KMK 9X7X7. As of result
examination, it is seen that execution of SFM is powerful over DE.
References
1. Graves SC (1981) A review of production scheduling. Oper Res 29(4):646–675
2. Abbas M, Abbas A, Khan WA (2016) IOP conference series: materials science and
engineering. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/146/1/012052
3. Chaudhry SS, Luo W (2005) Int. J Prod Res. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207540500143199
4. Ku M-Y, Hu MH, Wang M-J (2011) Int J Prod Res. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00207541003645789
5. Ripon KSN, Torresen J (2014) Evolving Syst (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12530-013-
9092-7
6. Liu H, Abraham, A, Grosan C, Li N. ICDIM 2007. LNCS, vol 1, pp 138–145. http://www.
springer.com/lncs. Accessed 21 Nov 2016
Experimental and Simulation Study
in Deep Drawing of Circular Cups
for Determination of LDR
A. C. Sekhara Reddy1,2(&), S. Rajesham3, and T. Mahender4

1
Research Scholar, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
acsreddy64@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sreyas Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RGUKT, Basar, Telangana, India
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CMR Institute of Technology,
Hyderabd, India
Abstract. Still today, the analysis and design of deep drawing is an art rather
than science. In this paper, an attempt was made to study the deep drawing
process for experimental determination of Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) and
justify the results with simulations. The use of FE simulation software can
predict sheet metal forming process such as deep drawing and also enhances the
efficiency by reducing development time and cost. The deep drawing experi-
mental tests were carried out, using the tool setup ingeniously developed in the
lab and mounted on universal testing machine. The AA6111 aluminum alloy
sheet blanks of different sizes were drawn using optimum forming conditions
established through Taguchi design of experiments. The drawn cups were tested
for wrinkling and cracks, if any and determined the LDR by considering the
maximum size of the blank successfully drawn without these defects. The LDR
found in this study for AA6111 was 1.8325. The simulation tests were con-
ducted using the FE code Pam-Stamp and are in good agreement with the
experimentally drawn cups when inspected for wrinkles and cracks. The
forming limit diagram in each test shows that the strains were within safe limit
for the successfully drawn cups and exceeded the limit in case of fractured
and/or wrinkled cups.
Keywords: Deep drawing LDR FE simulation PAM-STAMP
1 Introduction
Variety of problems in sheet metal forming can be solved better with the use of
advanced numerical simulation methods [1, 2]. This methods readily provides a
practical knowledge and gives feedback to the researchers and/or manufacturers about
the forming characteristics of manufacturing process in advance of the actual pro-
duction. The use of Finite Element Methods (FEM) in sheet metal forming has
become an efficient concept of virtual design of tooling, testing and eliminates the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_64
534 A. C. Sekhara Reddy et al.
physical try-out method that consume a lot of time and cost. By the use of Finite
Element software such as PAM-STAMP, ANSYS, LS-DYNA, it is possible to better
understand the deformation phenomenon in sheet metal forming process. The different
parameters and their influence in sheet metal part deformation can be studied thor-
oughly using numerical simulations for taking intelligent decisions based on optimal
forming conditions [3]. The deep drawing process is used extensively in various
industrial applications such as beverages, automobile and household. Any advanced
research in this area can directly improve the productivity of sheet metal forming
industries.
The stress state in deep drawing process is a complex phenomenon and varies from
compression in the circumferential direction at flange to a biaxial tensile stress state at
the bottom of cup. The movement of the punch ends with the ejection of cup formed
from the blank and it experiences a complex series of stresses and strains continuously,
during transformation of flat blank into complete cup. The downward movement of the
punch pushes the bent metal over the die into the gap between the punch and die and
straightens the side wall of the final cup. The bottom of the initial cup and the metal
that was bent over the punch nose moves downwards. In order to avoid stretching of
the metal in the die corner region, an additional material can be received from the
flange region. Hence, the flange portion of the sheet blank is drawn continuously
towards the die cavity and compensates for the metal used in cup sidewall forming and
it results in reduction in circumference (perimeter) of the blank [4].
Pourboghrat et al. [5] were conducted a research study on the deep drawing of
AA5754 aluminum sheets. The various parameters such as displacement, punch force,
hydro-forming pressure, temperature and the maximum draw depth prior to
wrinkling/tearing were recorded for comparing with simulation readings. The param-
eter optimization methods were applied for different applications by various researchers
[6–13] using Taguchi techniques. It was concluded that Sheet Hydro-Forming
(SHF) and Thermo Hydro-Forming (THF) processes can achieve more than 100% deep
drawing with the AA5754 aluminum sheet. Lazarescu et al. [14] were conducted
experiments and finite element simulations for investigating the influence of constant
and time variable blank holder force on punch force. The thickness distribution of
cylindrical and square cups produced in the deep drawing was investigated. The
experimental and numerical results shows that the use of variable BHF, instead of a
constant BHF reduces the punch force considerably. In analyzing the sheet forming
operation, the local strains that are very near to the failure zone were treated as critical
points. Prasad et al. [15] measured the critical strains and compared with the standard
FLD. As the blank is deformed during stamping process, the strains occur both on the
surface of the sheet (major and minor strain) as well as in thickness (thinning strain)
direction. In deep drawing process it was essentially assumed that the thickness
variation in through-thickness direction was negligible in comparison to planar
directions [16].
Experimental and Simulation Study in Deep Drawing 535
2 Experimental and FE Simulation Works
The design and fabrication of deep drawing tool setup requires a background knowl-
edge of blank size used, size of the cup produced and process/tool parameter selected.
The tool setup shown in Fig. 1 consists of various components such as die, punch and
blank holder. The design particulars of tool used were as shown in Table 1. The blank
holding was done by means of spring loaded mechanism. The setting of correct
blankholder force was applied by proper tightening of the nut to compresses the helical
spring. The blankholder force was calculated using the Eq. 1.
Fig. 1. Deep Drawing tool setup (a) Physical model, (b) CAD model
Table 1. Tool parameters used for CAD, simulation and experimentation

Punch Diameter 80 mm
Nose radius 5.5 mm
Die Inner diameter 81.5 mm
Shoulder radius 5.5 mm
Blankholder Inner diameter 85 mm
Outer diameter 250 mm
Thickness 30 mm
Blank Diameter(s) 120–140 mm
Thickness 0.9 mm
Fb ¼ Si dl n ð1Þ
where
Fb = Blankholder force,
Si = Spring index,
dl = Change in length of the spring,
n = No. of springs used
The different sizes of blanks from AA6111 aluminum alloy were prepared by laser
cutting. The different sizes of the blanks prepared from 100 mm to 170 mm with
10 mm increment in diameter [8] were 100 mm, 110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm, 140 mm,
150 mm, 160 mm and 170 mm. The maximum size of the blank prepared was about
15–20% more than the critical size of the blank.
The deep draw tests were conducted to check the quality of each cup produced. It
was observed that the cups were drawn successfully for the blank sizes of 100 mm,
110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm and 140 mm diameter and shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
and 8. The punch load vs. punch displacement recordings were shown in Fig. 9 and it
confirms that the punch load was minimum at the beginning of the draw and gradually
increases to a maximum and then again falls to a minimum at the end of the process as
shown in Fig. 9. The simulation tests were also conducted for the same experimental
tests. A 3D modeling software CATIA was used for the design of deep drawing model
and PAM-STAMP finite element simulation software package was used for analysis.
Fig. 2. FLD diagram for the cup drawn with 100 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 3. FLD diagram for the cup drawn with 110 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 4. FLD diagram and cup drawn with 120 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 8. The FLD diagram and cup drawn with 160 mm diameter AA6111 alloy blank
Fig. 9. Punch load vs. punch displacement curves for different blanks
Fig. 10. Maximum punch loads recorded with different blanks

The blanks of 100 mm, 110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm, 140 mm, 150 mm 160 and
170 mm were tested and the simulated results are shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
In both experimental and simulation tests, the blank diameters of 100 mm, 110 mm,
120 mm, 130 mm and 140 mm were drawn successfully and from 150 mm onwards
the cups drawn were failed due to wrinkling and/or fracture.
3 Experimental Comparison
When experimental results were compared with the simulation results, in terms of
deformation and stress distribution, they are very well matching. It was observed from
the FLD diagram that the induced strains in the cups produced using 100 mm,
110 mm, 120 mm, 130 mm and 140 mm blanks are well below the critical limit. But in
the case of cups drawn using 150 mm, 160 mm and 170 mm blanks were found that
the induced strains are above the critical limit strains and the produced cups were failed
due to wrinkles and/ or cracks.
4 Results
The Fig. 2 shows the cup experimentally drawn and the simulation results for 100 mm
blank. The maximum punch load is 9.08 kN. Similarly from Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
shows that the maximum punch load for 120 mm, 130 mm, 140 mm, 150 mm, 160 mm
and 170 mm are 12.04 kN, 13.91 kN, 15.57 kN, 18.5 kN, 19.78 kN, 19.78 kN and
19,78 kN respectively. The formed cups along with the FLD diagrams were shown. The
Fig. 9 shows the relation between punch load vs. punch depth and the Fig. 10 shows the
maximum punch load for each draw with different blank diameters. It can be readily
inferred from the Fig. 10 that, the maximum punch load is linearly proportional to blank
size up to successful results and remains constant for failed cups.
Hence, the results confirm that the maximum punch load is linear up to the critical
size of the blank that can be drawn successfully. From the Fig. 11, it can be observed
that the critical size of the blank is the intersection of the fracture limit load line and the
successfully drawn load line and it was found to be 146.6 mm. The Limiting Drawing
Ratio (LDR) is the ratio of highest value of blank diameter to the punch diameter which
can be drawn without failure. The LDR was calculated as 146.6 mm/80 mm = 1.8325,
where 146.6 mm is the highest drawn blank diameter obtained from the graph and
80 mm is the punch diameter.
Fig. 11. Graphical determination of critical diameter of the blank
5 Conclusions
The experimental deep drawing process was studied with different blank diameters and
also FEM analysis for comparison. The following conclusions were drawn from the
current study.
1. FEM results were very close match to the experimental results.
2. The maximum punch load drawn was linearly proportional to blank diameter up to
critical diameters and remains constant thereafter.
3. The critical diameter was found from the current study for AA6111 alloy was
146.6 mm.
4. The Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) obtained was 1.8325.
References
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deep drawing of AZ31 alloy. Adv Prod Eng Manag 10(3):153–161
2. Reddy ACS, Rajesham S, Ravinder Reddy P (2013) Experimental study on strain variation
and thickness distribution in deep drawing of axisymmetric components. Int J Eng 2
(12):2214–2218
3. Tisza M (2013) Recent development trends in sheet metal forming. Int J Microstruct Mater
Prop 8(1/2):125–140
4. Reddy ACS, Rajesham S, Ravinder Reddy P (2014) Evaluation of limiting drawing ratio
(LDR) in deep drawing by rapid determination method. Int J Curr Eng Technol 4(2):757–
762
5. Pourboghrat F, Venkatesan S, Carsley JE (2013) LDR and hydro forming limit for deep
drawing of AA5754 aluminum sheet. J Manuf Process 15(4):600–615
6. Rao RS, Prakasham RS, Prasad KK, Rajesham S, Sarma PN, Rao LV (2004) Xylitol
production by Candida sp.: parameter optimization using Taguchi approach. Process
Biochem 39(8):951–956
7. Prakasham RS, Rao CS, Rao RS, Rajesham S, Sarma PN (2005) Optimization of alkaline
protease production by Bacillus sp. using Taguchi methodology. Appl Biochem Biotechnol
120(2):133–144
8. Shukla AK, Raghu T, Rajesham S, Balasundar I (2014) Analysis of significant parameters
influencing formability of titanium alloy by using over all evaluation criteria and new matrix
model based on Taguchi method. Trans Indian Inst Metals 67(5):721–730
9. Shukla AK, Raghu T, Rajesham S, Balasunder I (2014) Optimization of formability
parameters of alpha–beta-processed titanium alloy at elevated temperature. Proc Inst Mech
Eng Part L: J Mater Des Appl 228(3):231–240
10. Reddy CB, Reddy VD, Reddy CE (2012) Experimental investigations on MRR and surface
roughness of EN 19 & SS 420 steels in wire-EDM using Taguchi method. Int J Eng Sci
Technol 4(11):4603–4614
11. Reddy CB, Reddy CE, Reddy DR (2017) Experimental investigation of surface finish and
material removal rate of P20 die-tool steel in wire-EDM using multiple regression analysis.
GSTF J Eng Technol (JET) 1(1):113–118
12. Reddy ACS, Rajesham S, Reddy PR, Kumar TP, Goverdhan J (2015) An experimental study
on effect of process parameters in deep drawing using Taguchi technique. Int J Eng Sci
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13. Lazarescu L, Nicodim I, Banabic D (2015) Evaluation of drawing force and thickness
distribution in the deep-drawing process with variable blank-holding. Key Eng Mater
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forming limit and failure analyses of inconel 718 sheets for fabrication of aerospace
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15. Liu Y, Li M, Ju F (2017) Research on the process of flexible blank holder in multi-point
forming for spherical surface parts. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 89(5–8):2315–2322
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in sheet hydrodynamic deep drawing using fem-based Taguchi method. Int J Adv Des
Manuf Technol 87–99
Free Vibration Analysis of Pre-stressed
Membrane Using Element Free Galerkin
Method
K. R. Unnikrishnan1 , I. R. Praveen Krishna2(B) , and C. O. Arun2

1
Tata Consultancy Services, Pune, India
2
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
praveenkrishna@iist.ac.in
Abstract. Vibration analysis of pre-stressed membrane is studied using

element free Galerkin method (EFGM). The discrete system of equa-
tions is derived from the governing equations of thin plates with in-
plane loads, by incorporating the moving least square interpolations into
the variational weak form. Essential boundary conditions are applied
using scaled transformation method. A bi-axially pre-stressed homoge-
neous membrane is analyzed using EFGM and results obtained are com-
pared with that obtained from a commercial finite element package and
also with the analytical solutions. A convergence study of the frequency
obtained using EFGM is compared with that obtained using different
element types in finite element method (FEM), for different modes. It is
observed that, both FEM and EFGM show satisfactory results in lower
modes of vibration, and in higher modes EFGM gives better results com-
pared to FEM.
Keywords: Element free Galerkin method (EFGM) ·

Finite element method (FEM) · Moving least square (MLS) ·
Scaled transformation method
1 Introduction
Thin membranes are widely used in various applications in aerospace, mechani-
cal and civil engineering industry. Major application of membranes include sun-
shields, solar sails, antennae, parachutes, balloons etc. Its light weight and low
space requirement, so that it can be folded and deployed whenever needed, makes
it suitable for various aerospace applications. In most of these applications, mem-
brane elements are used with pre-tensioning to take transverse loads, shear loads
or vibratory loads and to have sufficient smoothness and flatness. Moreover,
there are a number of musical instruments, especially percussion instruments,
whose performance depends on the vibration of stretched membranes. A study
on vibration of initially stretched or pre-stressed membrane is thus very impor-
tant as these structural elements are open to vibratory loads.
c Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_65
Free Vibration Analysis Using EFGM 543
The membrane problems can be solved by incorporating the bending stiffness,

though it is negligible, using thin plate theory with in-plane forces [1,2]. Detailed
discussions on vibration of pre-stressed thin plates are available on literature [3–
5]. Kukathasan and Pellegrino [6] analyzed vibration of pre-stressed collapsible
rib-tensioned surface (CRTS) reflector using finite element method(FEM) for dif-
ferent hub diameters, different pre-stress and structure dimensions. Two different
approaches to solve the problem, using a truss element [7,8] and a membrane
element in ABAQUS [9] have been used. A study on the vibration behavior
of various simple pre-stressed membrane structures using ABAQUS also have
been carried out and compared the first mode frequency with analytical solu-
tion. However comparison of higher modes are missing in the literature. Most of
the elements which are commonly used by commercial software for plate/shell
modelling are nonconforming elements [10] and hence incompatible to capture
the higher modes and frequencies accurately [2].
The selection of suitable numerical tool for these kinds of structural analy-
ses is also very important. Most of the practical problems are currently solved
using FEM with commercially available software packages. However at high fre-
quency modes in vibration analysis, mesh dependency of FEM can lead to inaccu-
rate results, especially in thin membranes. A method to avoid these difficulties
is to develop a new method without discretizing the problem domain to ele-
ments or meshes. Meshless methods are developed with this objective, wherein
a set of nodes (field nodes) scattered on the problem domain and its bound-
aries, are used to represent the problem domain and its boundary. As there are
no meshes involved in this method, the mesh dependency of vibration analysis
can be avoided and thus one should be able to capture the higher modes more
accurately.
There are a number of meshless methods proposed in the literature. Among
these meshless methods, the element free Galerkin method (EFGM) proposed
by Belytschko is particularly simple and has faster rate of convergence [11,12].
Krysl et al. [13] introduced EFGM to the bending analysis of thin plates using
Kirchhoff thin plate theory and have extended the same to the analysis of thin
shells [14]. Tiago et al. [15] analyzed free vibration of beams and plates using
EFGM. However, vibration analysis of pre-stressed membranes using EFGM or
any other meshless methods is missing in the available literature.
In the present study, EFGM is proposed for vibration analysis of pre-stressed
membranes. A bi-axially pre-stressed homogeneous membrane [1] is considered.
The result obtained is compared with analytical results as well as the results
from a FEM package using different element type and size.
2 Vibration of Stretched Thin Membranes
In the present work, for modeling, membrane theory with small bending stiffness
is considered [2]. An isotropic, non-homogeneous, elastic, thin membranes with
in-plane load is considered for analysis. Kirchoff’s thin plate theory assumptions
are used to get the mathematical model for the same.
544 K. R. Unnikrishnan et al.
For the thin plate described above, energy balance equation [16] can be
written as,
∂w 2 ∂ 2 w
1 1 ∂ 2 w 2 ∂ 2 w 2
ρh dxdy = D ++2(1 − ν)
2 A ∂t 2 A ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
2 2 2 ∂w 2
∂ w∂ w 1 ∂w
− 2 2
dxdy + Fx + Fy dxdy,
∂x ∂y 2 A ∂x ∂y
(1)
where ∂w∂t is the time derivative of displacement vector. Fx and Fy are in plane
loads in x and y direction. h is thickness of plate, ρ is mass density per unit area
of the plate material in N/m2 .
D is the flexural rigidity given by,
Eh3
D= , (2)
12(1 − ν 2 )
where E is modulus of elasticity, and ν is Poisson’s ratio.

Equation 1 can be used for setting up discretized system of equations as
explained in the forthcoming sections.
3 EFGM Formulation
In EFGM, the function approximation is done using MLS [11]. Unknown field
variable wh (x) can be given as,

m
h
w (x) = pi (x)ai (x) = pT (x)a(x). (3)
i=1
Using Kirchhoff’s plate assumption

to model thin membrane, a quadratic basis
function, pT (x) 1 x y x2 xy y 2 is used and a(x) = [a1 (x), a2 (x) . . . .am (x)] are
the unknown coefficients which depends on the position x.
The unknown coefficients at any point x, are determined by performing a
weighted least square fit of the local approximation, which in turn is determined
by minimizing the difference between local approximation at that point and
nodal parameters [17]. A support domain or domain of influence is considered
such that the weight function chosen has finite value inside this domain and has
a value zero outside. Weight function of cubic type [18] is used here.
In the case of thin plate vibration, considering three degree of freedom per
node, L2 norm can be defined as,

n
J= W (x − xi ) [pT (xi )a(x) − wi ]2 + [pT,y (xi )a(x) − θxi ]2 + [pT,x (xi )a(x) − θyi ]2 ,
i
(4)
where W is the weight function define over a for rectangular support domain
n is the number of nodes inside domain of influence and θx , θy are rotation
in x, y direction respectively. By minimizing the L2 norm respect to unknown
coefficients aj and representing the set of equations obtained in matrix form as,
A(x)a(x)= C(x). (5)
A(x) is called the weighted moment matrix [18] defined by,

n

A(x) = W (x − xi )[p(xi )pT (xi ) + p,y (xi )pT,y (xi ) + p,x (xi )pT,x (xi )] (6)
i=1
C(x) is given by,
C(x) = Cw w + Cθx θx + Cθy θy , (7)

From Eqs. 5 and 7, a(x) can be obtained as,
a(x) = A(x)−1 [Cw w + Cθx θx + Cθy θy ]. (8)
Finally, substituting Eq. 8 in Eq. 3, the approximation function wh (x) can

be written as,
wh (x) = ΦTw (x)w + ΦTθx θx + ΦTθy θy

⎧ ⎫
⎨w⎬
= ΦTw ΦTθx ΦTθy θx (9)
⎩ ⎭
θy
= NT d.
However, due to the lack of Kronecker delta properties in EFGM, impos-
ing essential boundary conditions involves some additional complications. Here
scaled transformation method [12] is used, in which the displacement approxi-
mations given in Eq. 9 are scaled using a scaled transformation matrix, Λ in such
a way that, nodal values and nodal parameters will coincide along the nodes on
essential boundary. In scaled transformation method, an identity matrix say Λ
having number of rows and columns equal to the total degree of freedom is con-
structed. The rows corresponding to the degrees of freedom, in which boundary
conditions have to be applied, is then populated with shape functions associated
with it, so that Kronecker delta property will be satisfied on those degrees of
freedom.
Once, Λ is formed, the final discretized system of vibration equations for a
membrane pre-stressed in both x and y direction, is given by,

(K + Fx Kgx + Fy Kgy ) − λM d = 0, (10)
where K is modified stiffness matrix, Kgx , Kgy are modified geometric stiffness
matrices, and M is modified mass matrix respectively, given by,
K = Λ−T Kf ΛT
Kgx = Λ−T Kgx ΛT
(11)
Kgy = Λ−T Kgy ΛT
M = Λ−T MΛT ,
where Kf is stiffness matrix and Kgx and Kgy are geometric stiffness matrices
and M is the mass matrix, which can be found using shape function N similar to
that in FEM [10]. The sign of geometric stiffness terms in the equation depends
upon the direction of in-plane loads. The terms will be positive for stretching
and negative for compression. Consequently, the essential boundary conditions
can also be imposed simply by following FEM methodology.
4 Model Description
For the current study, a bi-axially pre-stressed homogeneous square membrane
of size 0.2 m × 0.2 m is considered. Thickness of membrane is taken as 0.1 mm.
The material for the study is assumed to be Kevlar-reinforced Kapton foil, which
is mainly is used in antenna for satellite applications. The material properties
are as given in Table 1. Simply supported boundary conditions are applied on
all the sides. 10 N/m2 load is applied on both x and y direction.
Table 1. Properties of membrane considered for study [6]
Parameter Membrane
Density (ρ) 790 kg/m3
Young’s Modulus (E) 11.9 × 109 N/m2
Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.3
Analytical solution for natural frequencies of bi-axially pre-stressed homoge-

neous plates is given by [4],

mπ 2 nπ 2 2 mπ 2 nπ 2
1 1
f= D + + Fx + Fy , (12)
2π ρ a b a b
where, f is the frequency, m, n are number of half sine waves in x, y direction

and a, b are length and width of membrane respectively.
The analysis is carried out using EFGM and FEM. In FEM, various ele-
ment types such as quadrilateral linear elements, S4, S4R, S4R5 and quadratic
elements, S8R, S8R5 are used for analysis in order to do a comparative study
[9]. For comparison, discretization in EFGM is done with regularly distributed
nodes, similar to that of linear element types (S4, S4R and S4R5) in FEM.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 shows the variation of frequencies obtained by EFGM and
FEM with number of nodes compared with analytical solutions. Three sets of
mode shapes (one lower 1st (m = n = 1), one intermediate 20th (m = n = 4)
and one higher 34th (m = n = 5)) and corresponding frequencies, are taken into
consideration for comparison. From Figs. 1, 2 and 3, the results obtained from
EFGM are found to be encouraging. It can be observed from mode 1 results
(Fig. 1) that, for initial modes, frequencies obtained from both EFGM and FEM
are closer to the analytical solution. Even with lower number of nodes, frequency
values obtained from EFGM and that from all the element types of FEM show
lower error.
For an intermediate mode with m = n = 4 (Fig. 2), FEM results with 4
noded linear elements (S4, S4R5, S4R), show variation from the analytical values.
However element type S8R, S8R5 and EFGM provide better results for higher
number of nodes. At lower number of nodes only EFGM and element type S8R5
show accurate results.
For the higher mode where m = n = 5 (Fig. 3), frequency values obtained
from FEM are showing considerable variation from the analytical results for less
number of nodes.
From Fig. 3 it is clear that, for higher modes, EFGM and element type S8R5
gives better accuracy than other element types in FEM. For lower number of
nodes, element type S8R5 also shows larger error, while EFGM shows very small
error value.
43
Analytical
EFGM
42.5 S4
S4R
S4R5
S8R5
42 S8R
Frequency
41.5
41
40.5
40
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Number of nodes
Fig. 1. Variation of mode 1 frequency with respect to number of nodes

255
Analytical
EFGM
250
S4
S4R
245 S4R5
S8R5
S8R
240
Frequency
235
230
225
220
215
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Number of nodes
400
Analytical
EFGM
S4
S4R
S4R5
S8R5
350 S8R
Frequency
300
250
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Number of nodes
To conclude, it is clear that EFGM provides very accurate results to the

problem for all modes even with lesser number of nodes, while FEM results shows
high variation depending upon element types and number of nodes considered.
5 Conclusion
The current paper discusses the use of EFGM, a meshless method, for free vibra-
tion of pre-stressed membranes. Classical plate formulation with three degrees of
freedom per node is considered for study. The results obtained from EFGM are
compared with the analytical solution and are found to be matching. Moreover,
the results are also compared with that of FEM with different types of elements
available, to show the mesh dependency of the problem under consideration.
Quadrilateral element types are considered for comparative purposes. From the
result it is found that EFGM is providing accurate result even in higher frequency
modes, with less number of nodes. However, in FEM frequencies obtained are
highly sensitive to the mesh size regardless of element types in FEM and shows
slower rate of convergence for higher modes when compared to EFGM.
References
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in air. In: Proceedings of the 43rd structures, structural dynamics, and materials
conference, vol 2. AIAA, pp 1271–1281
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tation. AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics & Ast)
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elastic and viscoelastic plates. Publ Int Assoc Bridge Struct Eng 16:275–294
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Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge
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method. Comput Mech 17(1):26–35
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method. Int J Sol Struct 33(20–22):3057–3080
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element-free Galerkin method. In: Proceedings of the 9th international conference
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applications. CRC Press, New York
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ming. Springer, Heidelberg
Xylitol Based Phase Change Material
with Graphene Nano Platelets as Fillers
for Thermal Energy Management
Praveen Kumar Varadaraj1, Sandeep D.2, Ravi Kiran N.3,

Balaji Padya3(&), and P. K. Jain3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GITAM School of Technology,
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering,
3
International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy
and New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad 500005, India
{balaji,pkjain}@arci.res.in
Abstract. Graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) with few layers were prepared via
expanded graphite derived from exfoliation and, then solution-phase exfoliation.
GNPs consist of 7–12 distinguishable graphene layers and possess lateral sizes
in the range of 2–6 l. An attempt was made to exploit the thermal properties of
GNP as filler to ameliorate thermo physical properties of xylitol. Such ultrathin
2-D structured GNP could able to increase thermal conductivity by 38% with the
addition of low concentration associated with a reasonable enthalpy of fusion.
Phase change materials find application in a medium temperature range such as
thermal energy storage of solar energy, direct contact heat storage in heat
exchangers, thermal energy storage in spacecraft systems, cooling of engines
and compact electronic appliances.
Keywords: Phase change material Thermal energy storage Latent heat

Graphene Thermal conductivity Thermal diffusivity
1 Introduction
The rapid increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases leading to global warming

and alarming issues of the energy crisis has drawn attention to exploring advanced
materials for sustainable energy. The current methods employed to counter the ele-
ments leading to the adverse effects lack the efficiency regarding the effective uti-
lization of renewable energy resources due to unwanted parasitic (thermal) losses [1].
Energy storage devices (ESDs) have attracted attention as an alternate methodology to
conserve the undefined energy losses and use them for the various plethora of appli-
cations. The ESDs pose a potential usage to recompensate the mismatch of intermittent
energy lacking periods with respect to various renewable energy sources such as solar
energy, wind energy, and geothermal energy [2, 3]. Thermal energy storage devices
(TESDs) basically are of three kinds; TESDs using sensible heat method to store and
release energy, TESDs with latent heat method to entrap and release thermal energy [4]
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_66
552 P. K. Varadaraj et al.
and TESDs based on thermo-chemical heat storage. Generally, the phase change
materials (PCMs) can be categorized based on the materials taken into consideration
are; solid-solid, solid-liquid and liquid-liquid. The comparison of the various combi-
nations of PCM base on the above-mentioned classifications was mentioned in work
reported by Khan, Huang et al. [2, 3]. The working mechanism of the ‘solid-liquid’
PCM was reported in detail by Mohamed et al. [4]. Another classification on the basis
of the nature of the materials used to design the PCMs i.e. ‘organic PCMs (o-PCMs),
‘inorganic PCMs (Io-PCMs) and ‘eutectic PCMs (e-PCMs) was mentioned in work
compiled by Milián et al. [5]. The Io-PCMs employ materials like salts, salt hydrates,
metals, and alloys to entrap thermal energy while the o-PCMs mostly comprise of
paraffin and non-paraffin wax base materials. The Io-PCMs have an upper edge as
compared to o-PCMs due to their better thermal conductivity. However, the o-PCMs
are preferred over them due to their better chemical properties such as non-corrosive
compatibility with the encapsulating containers. The e-PCMs are studied to record the
combined properties of the o-PCMs and Io-PCMs in varying proportions depending on
the target application. Various reports have summarized the pros and cons of the three
above mentioned PCMs i.e. o-PCMs, Io-PCMs and e-PCM [5–8].
Certain aspects must be given considerations prior to the selection of PCM such as
temperature range of phase shift, change in volume during phase change, unwavering
chemical, and thermal properties. The excellent thermal conductivity and high latent
heat of absorption and also should be viable in terms of economics and ergonomics.
Owing to the low thermal conducting property of most of the PCMs, filler materials are
added to improve the desired characteristics. Various aspects of enhancing thermal
conductivity were briefed by Karaipekli et al. [9]. This process involves primarily
doping of additives with high thermal conducting ability into the PCM matrix. Even
though, various kinds of additives have been studied for PCM, certain metallic addi-
tives considered to be best owing to their inherent good thermal conducting behavior.
Silver and copper nanoparticles were studied as fillers in PCM [10]. Nurten et al. [11]
performed PCM based studies using metal oxide (Fe3O4) and carried out the analysis
using ‘DISCO’ approach. A number of other metal oxides like SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3,
ZnO etc. have also been widely exploited for their possible incorporation into PCM as
fillers.
As an alternative to metal additives, carbon materials were widely studied for their
inherent high thermal conductivity by Wang et al. [12]. Ling et al. [13] reported
improvement in PCMs using expanded graphite as filler material. Xu et al. [14] used
exfoliated graphite (EG) as filler material in D-mannitol (polyol) for improved PCM
properties to be used in solar cells heat recovery systems. Nano graphite [15], graphene
[16], and carbon fibers [20] are the other carbon nanomaterials which have been
exploited for enhancement of PCMs. [17] carried out a comparative in-depth analysis
of EG and graphene as filler in PCMs. Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) with beeswax
exhibited excellent improved thermal properties [18] and carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
[19]. Li et al. [15] performed a study involving the effect of the morphology of the
additives on the properties of PCMs using 4 types of carbon structures i.e. single-
walled nanotubes (SWNT), multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT), C60, and graphene.
Apart from numerous studies using metal particles, metallic oxides and carbon mate-
rials, materials like Boron nitride (hBN) have also been tried to enhance properties of
Xylitol Based Phase Change Material with GNPs as Fillers 553
e-PCM Su et al. [20]. Heat transfer augmentations using conductive powders using
metal particles [21] and use of gelling agents to provide a proper dispersion of the
metallic fillers and a stable PCM during the operation were described in studies by [22].
Herein, few-layer graphene nanoplatelets were prepared from a rapid microwave
exfoliated graphite to develop a phase change materials based composite to ameliorate
thermal conductivity.
2 Experimental
2.1 Preparation of GNP and Its Composites

GNPs were prepared from expanded graphite and then, fragmentation. In brief, natural
graphite flakes were chemically treated with sulphuric acid and perchloric acid in a
ratio of 3:1 to prepare graphite intercalated mixture (GIM). Simultaneous addition of
the flakes and per-chloric acid with continuous uniform stirring at a moderate speed of
500 rpm for 5 h is carried out for oxidation (observing highly exothermic reaction).
The GIM was processed and washed using deionized water in order to flush out the
acids and neutralize the pH. GIM was transformed into worm-like exfoliated graphite
through microwave exfoliation (MEG) performed at 600 W. MEG was prone to high-
speed shearing in a general mixer for three hours using N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) as
the solvent. The material was collected by vacuum-assisted filtration and dried at
250 ºC for 5 h to remove the traces of NMP. An ultra-fine textured particle of GNPs
obtained was collected for characterization.
Xylitol crystals (C5H12O5) were isothermally heated at 96 °C to facilitate uniform
melting and preventing any coagulation. Then, the requisite quantity of GNPs (0.5 wt.
%) was dispersed in xylitol with magnetic stirrer by maintaining 300 rpm for an hour.
Slow and uniform cooling of the mixture (PCM-GNP) was ensured to avoid any
segregation of filler particles due to thermal gradient formation. The solution was re-
crystallized in a rectangular shaped mold covered in aluminum foil to prevent any
reaction (sticking of PCM) with the surfaces.
2.2 Measurement of Thermal Properties

Scanning electron microscope (SEM, Carl-Zeiss, Gemini-500) and transmission elec-
tron microscope (TEM, FEI, Technai G2) were used for morphology and microstruc-
ture, respectively. The thermal properties of PCM composites were further analyzed by
laser flash analysis (LFA, Netzsch), the simultaneous thermal analyzer (TG/DSC) and
thermo-mechanical analyzer (TMA, Q400, TA instruments) to determine thermal
conductivity, enthalpy, and thermal stability, and dimensional stability, respectively.
TG/DSC measurements were carried out up to 200 °C with a uniform heating rate of
5 °C/min in the argon atmosphere. Dimensional stability using TMA equipment was
performed by maintaining 0.3 N, 2 °C/min, and 100 ml/min as applied load, heating
rate, and argon flow rate, respectively. LFA measurements were performed under inert
argon atmosphere up to 90 °C.
Figure 1 shows the morphology and microstructure of exfoliated graphite and GNP. It
clearly indicated that exfoliated graphite possesses a huge amount of open pores with
sheets attached at the wedges. Such pores were filled with a solvent and fragmented
into sheets via solution-phase exfoliation using high energy sonication-assisted
delamination. Figure 1a shows stacked sheet-like structures, each separable flake
consisting of ‘n’ number of layers. The shear-mixing with iso-propanol as fraternizing
agent further reduces the number of layers in the stacking by high speed induced
cleavage of the worm-like structures which are further subjected to high-frequency
probe sonication to achieve ultra-fine stacked GNPs. From the SEM images, it is
evidently seen that the GNPs were having a layered structure as depicted in Fig. 1b.
Fig. 1. Morphology and microstructure: SEM of MEG (a), GNPs (b), TEM of GNP (c) and
SAED pattern of GNP (d)
The distinguishable layers present in a GNP stack were observed by TEM

microstructure. Most of the GNPs were consist of 7–11 graphene layers as illustrated in
Fig. 1c. Interestingly, such structures are ultrathin stacks with multi-layers of graphene.
Furthermore, the high energy assisted fragmentation and shear mixing could able to
disintegrate flakes into platelets. A SAED pattern of GNP was depicted in Fig. 1d. The
bright spots were regularly arranged in a hexagonal fashion with concentric shells
demonstrating the formation of a layered structure with multi-layers. GNPs are very
crystalline in nature with negligible defects. The hexagonal structure can be confirmed
from the SAED pattern in Fig. 1d.
XRD analysis was performed on GNP to observe crystallinity and defects. Fig-
ure 2a shows a prominent peak around 26° was observed primarily due to (002) which
show the predominant presence of graphitic nature present in the material. A noticeable
small peak adjacent to (002) plane was observed around 28.3° corresponding to the
strain induced due to high energy fragmentation. Figure 2b presents the typical Raman
characteristics of GNP. The G peak and 2D peaks are predominant as compared to D
signature. Such 2D band was an indication for the formation of a 2-D structured layered
material with multi-layers of graphene.
Fig. 2. XRD pattern (a) and Raman spectrum (b) of GNP
Thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of composite materials were deter-

mined by laser flash-assisted unit. The effect of additive loading on thermal charac-
teristics was determined with respect to the temperature was depicted in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Thermal diffusivity (a) and Thermal conductivity (b) of PCM composites.
The decrease in thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of xylitol and PCM
composite was illustrated in Fig. 3a and b, respectively. Furthermore, a reasonably
good increase in thermal conductivity was noticed with the addition of GNP. The
crystalline GNP could able to increase the phonon movement by reducing the thermal
resistance at the interface of the filler-matrix. 2-D structured GNP allows faster phonon
transport to improve the thermal conductivity of PCM composite materials.
Figure 4 shows the thermal stability and dimensional stability of the PCM com-
posite. The addition of GNP to xylitol drastically increased the thermal stability as
depicted in Fig. 4a. The GNP increases thermal delay effect as they are very much
stable to temperature as the comparison to xylitol. The thermal delay phenomenon
exhibited by carbonaceous GNP lead to decreasing the onset temperature of oxidation
of composites. In TG plot, a noticeable small hump around 85–90 °C describes to the
melting temperature of xylitol. The dimensional changes were occurred due to an
increase in temperature for Xylitol and its composite material as shown in Fig. 4b.
Fig. 4. Thermal stability (a) and dimensional stability (b) of PCM composite
The good thermal conductivity of GNP translated into a rapid increase in tem-
perature of composites materials. Thus, the composite material was prone to melt faster
as compared to xylitol and exhibited poor dimensional stability. However, a good
increase in thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and increased thermal stability
make them an ideal candidate for usage in various thermal energy storage appliances.
4 Summary
In summary, thin GNPs were prepared from microwave-exfoliated graphite through

shear mixing and high energy intensified sonication suitable as thermally conducting
additive for phase change material. The thermal conductivity was enhanced by 38%.
The additions of GNP to xylitol lead to an increase in thermal stability as well as
thermal transport. Such PCM composites find application in solar thermal energy
storage applied for domestic solar water heating system.
References
1. International Energy Agency (2015) World energy outlook 2013
2. Khan Z, Khan Z, Ghafoor A (2016) A review of performance enhancement of PCM based
latent heat storage system within the context of materials, thermal stability and compatibility.
Energy Convers Manag 115:132–158
3. Huang X, Alva G, Jia Y, Fang G (2017) Morphological characterization and applications of
phase change materials in thermal energy storage: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 72
(April 2016):128–145
4. Mohamed SA et al (2017) A review on current status and challenges of inorganic phase
change materials for thermal energy storage systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 70
(December):1072–1089
5. Milián YE, Gutiérrez A, Grágeda M, Ushak S (2017) A review on encapsulation techniques
for inorganic phase change materials and the influence on their thermophysical properties.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 73(June 2016):983–999
6. Ma G et al (2016) Binary eutectic mixtures of stearicacid-n-butyramide/n-octanamide as phase
change materials for low temperature solar heat storage. Appl Therm Eng 111:1052–1059
7. Mohamed NH, Soliman FS, El Maghraby H, Moustfa YM (2016) Thermal conductivity
enhancement of treated petroleum waxes, as phase change material, by a nano alumina:
energy storage. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 70:1052–1058
8. Gunasekara SN, Martin V, Chiu JN (2017) Phase equilibrium in the design of phase change
materials for thermal energy storage: state-of-the-art. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 73
(February):558–581
9. Karaipekli A, Biçer A, Sarı A, Veer V (2017) Thermal characteristics of expanded
perlite/paraffin composite phase change material with enhanced thermal conductivity using
carbon nanotubes. Energy Convers Manag 134:373–381
10. Al RM, Sharif M, Khodadadi JM (2017) Experimental determination of temperature-
dependent thermal conductivity of solid eicosane-based silver nanostructure-enhanced phase
change materials for thermal energy storage. Int J Heat Mass Transf 107:697–711
11. Nurten Ş, Fois M, Paksoy H (2015) Improving thermal conductivity phase change materials
—a study of paraffin nanomagnetite composites. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 137:61–67
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materials based on polyethylene glycol/porous carbon composite: the influence of the pore
structure of the carbon materials. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 105:21–26
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65:67–123
Orbital Volume Analysis of Midfacial
Fractures Using Additive
Manufacturing Technologies
L. Siva Rama Krishna1, Shiva Dharshan Vanapalli1(&),

Sriram Venkatesh1, and Abhinand Potturi2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering
(Autonomous), Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana State, India
shivadharshan.v@gmail.com
2
Ortho and Maxillofacial Surgeon, SVS Medical College and Hospital,
Mahabubnagar, Telangana State, India
Abstract. Midfacial fractures occur in a variety of patterns. For doctors to

understand the severity of these fractures, it is important for them to identify the
types of fracture and its clinical relevance. This complexity can be solved by
having a three-dimensional physical model using Additive Manufacturing
(AM) Technology. The aim of this paper is to do Orbital volume analysis of
Midfacial fractures by 3D Printing medical models of the skull using Fused
Deposition Modelling (FDM) process. The methodology involves collection of
Pre-Operative and Post-Operative CT scan images of the patient in DICOM
format and converting it to 3D CAD model using InVesalius medical imaging
software. The generated 3D CAD model is saved in .STL format and is then
transferred to Flashforge FDM machine for printing Pre-Operative and Post-
Operative 3D medical models. Measurements are taken on both Pre-Operative
and Post-Operative 3D printed medical models at fixed landmarks to calculate
the Orbital volume. These values are compared with Unfractured orbit of skull
to find out the percentage of restoration.
Keywords: Midfacial fractures Orbital volume analysis

Additive Manufacturing FDM process Fixed landmarks
1 Introduction
A person can be distinguished with his facial features. The bones that are mainly
involved in shaping the face are the maxilla, mandible, nasal and zygomatic. “The
midface is defined as the facial skeleton below the frontozygomatic, the frontomaxillary
and the frontonasal suture lines” [1]. “Figure 1 illustrates Representation of Midface”
[2]. Some causes for Midfacial fractures are Vehicle Accidents, Domestic Violence,
Sports related accidents, Accidents happened at workplace, War, Bomb blasts etc.,
Additive Manufacturing also known as 3D printing can be defined as producing a three-
dimensional product by successive addition of layers from a CAD model. In Biomedical
field AM is used with the help of which surgeons and doctors can plan and perform
complex surgeries. “The management of midfacial fractures that includes treatment of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_67
560 L. Siva Rama Krishna et al.
facial fractures, dentoalveolar trauma and soft-tissue injuries as well as associated

injuries, mainly of the head and neck” [2]. “Zygomatic complex fractures based on three
point fixation technique using additive manufacturing process. 3D physical model was
printed and the dimensions of fixed landmarks were measured. By adapting this
methodology, they calculated the percentage of the Zygomatic Bone restoration after
Operation” [3]. “The purpose of this study was to assess its accuracy for modeling
osseous defects of the midface” [4]. “Manufactured an implant prototype replacing the
right zygomatic bone and a part of maxilla using additive manufacturing technologies
such as Stereolithography to achieve the biomodel and FDM-fused deposition mod-
elling to obtain a prototype model” [5]. “The Volume Rejuvenation of the Midface has
been explained” [6]. “Conducted analysis of Orbital Volume Measurements following
Reduction and Internal Fixation Using Absorbable Mesh Plates and Screws for Patients
with Orbital Floor Blowout Fractures” [7]. “An approach to treat migrated orbital
implants post socket surgery in which a technique has been described to create a custom
orbital implant using 3D printing to construct the patients affected orbit. This orbit was
used as a mould to create the custom orbital implant that aids in volume augmentation as
well as recenteration of the migrated orbital implant” [8].
Fig. 1. Representation of midface [1]
The objective of this paper is to present the Orbital Volume and Percentage of
Restoration by comparing the results of Unfractured orbit to the Fractured orbit before
operation and Fractured orbit after operation on Pre-operative and Post-operative 3D
Printed Medical Models.
2 Problem Definition
2.1 Medical Image Processing

In this paper, A 28 year old male patient who has sustained severe injuries on the
midface was considered. Computed Tomography (CT) scan data in Digital Imaging
and Communication in Medicine (DICOM) format was collected from SVS Medical
College and Hospital, Mahabubnagar, Telangana State, INDIA. Using InVesalius 3
Medical Imaging software the DICOM images are converted to 3D CAD Model. As
this paper focuses on Orbit of the skull, Hounsfield unit of Minimum 226 – Maximum
3071 was used for threshold and region growing. Using the Crop tool, the box in the
planes was dragged to obtain required Region of Interest (ROI) i.e., the Orbital region.
This procedure was followed to construct 3D CAD Model of both Pre-Operative and
Orbital Volume Analysis of Midfacial Fractures Using AM Technologies 561
Post-Operative conditions. Figure 2(a) and (b) shows the generated 3D CAD Model of
Pre-Operative and Post-Operative condition with the required ROI. The obtained 3D
CAD model was saved in .STL format.
Fig. 2. Generated 3D CAD model of (a) Pre-operative and (b) Post-operative condition
2.2 Additive Manufacturing

2.2.1 Transferring .STL File to 3D Printer
The .STL format of the 3D CAD Model was transferred to Flashforge Finder; FDM
based 3D Printer using Flashprint software. The maximum build volume of the
Flashforge Finder is 140 mm 140 mm 140 mm (L W H) and the material
used to 3D Print the Models was PolyLactic Acid (PLA). Figure 3(a) and (b) illustrates
importing the .STL files of Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Medical Models of the
Skull.
Fig. 3. Importing the .STL file of (a) Pre-operative medical model (b) Post-operative medical
model into Flashprint software
2.2.2 3D Printing the Medical Models

Before starting the 3D Printing process, the platform of the machine has to be cali-
brated. The three leveling screws present below the 3D Printer platform were rotated in
clockwise/anticlockwise direction; doing which the platform of the machine was
leveled. The machine was left idle until the extruder reached to a temperature of 225 °C
after which, the PLA wire was loaded into the extruder. The time taken to 3D Print the
Pre-Operative Medical Model was 24 h 23 min. The same process was followed to
build the Post-operative Medical Model. The time taken to 3D the Post-Operative
Medical Model was 11 h 37 min. After the Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Medical
Models are 3D Printed, the platform tray was pulled out and the models were removed
from the platform. The support structures were removed with the help of tweezers.
Figure 4(a) and (b) illustrates 3D Printed Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Medical
Models.
Fig. 4. 3D printed (a) Pre-operative (b) Post-operative medical models
2.3 Measuring the Dimensions of the Orbit

After both Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Medical Models are 3D Printed, Orbital
Volume was calculated by measuring the dimensions at the Fixed Land Marks using
Digital Vernier Calipers. “Figure 5 illustrates the Fixed Land Marks on the skull” [4].
Landmarks considered in this study are the distance between
1. Medial Orbit (Mo) – Zygomaticofrontal Suture (ZfS)
2. Supraorbital Foramen (SoF) – Infraorbital Foramen (IoF).
The distances were measured between Mo – ZfS, SoF – IoF for UnFractured orbit,
Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation and the results were
Fig. 5. Fixed landmarks on the skull [4]

tabulated in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Figures 6(a), (b), 7(a), (b) and 8(a),
(b) illustrates measuring the distance between Mo – ZfS, SoF – IoF on Unfractured
orbit, Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation respectively.
2.3.1 Measuring the Dimensions on the UnFractured Orbit

See Fig. 6 and Table 1.
Fig. 6. Measuring the distance between (a) Mo – ZfS and (b) SoF – IoF on the Unfractured orbit.
Table 1. Distance between Mo - ZfS and SoF - IoF for Unfractured orbit
Sl. Distance between Mo – Distance between SoF – Average Average
no. ZfS in “mm” IoF in “mm” distance distance
Observed dimensions Observed dimensions between between
01 02 03 01 02 03 Mo – ZfS SoF – IoF
in “mm” in “mm”
01. 39.36 39.38 39.38 28.33 28.31 28.33 39.38 28.33
2.3.2 Measuring the Dimensions on the Fractured Orbit Before

Operation
See Fig. 7 and Table 2.
Fig. 7. Measuring the distance between (a) Mo – ZfS and (b) SoF – IoF on the Fractured orbit
before operation.
Table 2. Distance between Mo - ZfS and SoF - IoF for Fractured orbit before operation
Sl. Distance between Mo – Distance between SoF – Average Average
no. ZfS in “mm” IoF in “mm” distance distance
01 02 03 01 02 03 Mo – ZfS SoF – IoF
01. 38.64 38.64 38.62 39.84 39.86 39.85 38.64 39.85
2.3.3 Measuring the Dimensions on the Fractured Orbit After Operation
Fig. 8. Measuring the distance between (a) Mo – ZfS and (b) SoF – IoF on the Fractured orbit
after operation.
Table 3. Distance between Mo - ZfS and SoF - IoF for Fractured orbit after operation
Sl. no. Distance between Mo – Distance between SoF – Average Average
ZfS in “mm” IoF in “mm” distance distance
01 02 03 01 02 03 Mo – ZfS SoF – IoF
01. 38.73 38.75 38.74 29.67 29.69 29.71 38.75 29.69
The average distances between Mo - ZfS, SoF - IoF for UnFractured Orbit are found to
be 39.38 mm and 28.33 mm respectively, 38.64 mm and 39.85 mm for Fractured orbit
before operation and 40.57 mm and 32.88 mm for Fractured orbit after operation.
lwh
Volume of a pyramid with rectangular base ¼ ð1Þ
3
Here,
l = length = Distance between Mo – ZfS
w = width = Distance between SoF – IoF
h = height = Depth from the top of the Orbital rib to the Orbital Apex.
Orbital volume of the Unfractured orbit, Fractured orbit before operation and the
Fractured orbit after operation was obtained by substituting the values tabulated in
Tables 1, 2 and 3 in Eq. 1.
Orbital Volume of Unfractured Orbit ¼ 39:3828:3356:57

3
¼ 21; 037:16 mm3 21:04 cc
Orbital Volume of Fractured Orbit Before Operation ¼ 38:6439:8556:57

3
¼ 29; 035:57 mm3 29:04 cc
Orbital Volume of Fractured Orbit After Operation ¼ 38:7529:6956:57

3
¼ 21; 694:36 mm3 21:69 cc
Here, cc = cubic centimeter.

The orbital volumes of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit before operation are
compared and the results are tabulated in Table 4.
Table 4. Orbital volume of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit before operation
Sl. no. UnFractured orbital Fractured orbit volume before Difference in
volume in “cc” [A] operation in “cc” [B] “cc” [B]-[A]
01. 21.04 29.04 8.00
The orbital volumes of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit after operation are
compared and the results are tabulated in Table 5.
Table 5. Orbital volume of UnFractured orbit and Fractured orbit after operation
Sl. no. UnFractured orbital Fractured orbit volume after Difference in
volume in “cc” [A] operation in “cc” [C] “cc” [C]-[A]
01. 21.04 21.69 0.65
The orbital volumes of Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after
operation are compared and the results are tabulated in Table 6.
Table 6. Orbital volume of Fractured orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation
Sl. no. Fractured orbit volume before Fractured orbit volume after Difference in
operation in “cc” [B] operation in “cc” [C] “cc” [B]-[C]
01. 29.04 21.69 7.35
The percentage restoration for UnFractured, Fractured before operation and Frac-
tured after operation are tabulated in Table 7.
To calculate the percentage of restoration, substitute the values from Table 7 in

Eq. (2)
Table 7. Calculation of percentage restoration

Sl. no. Difference value Difference value Difference % Restorated
(UnFractured orbital (UnFractured orbital in “cc”
volume & Fractured volume & Fractured [D]-[E]
orbital volume before orbital volume after
operation) in “cc” [D] operation) in “cc” [E]
01. 8.00 0.65 7.35 91.88
½D ½E
Percentage of Restoration ¼ 100 ð2Þ
½D
3 Conclusions
Additive Manufacturing in Biomedical field is one of the most rapidly advancing areas
where engineers and doctors are contributing to the future of human health. From the
above results it is concluded that the Orbital volume of the UnFractured orbit, Fractured
orbit before operation and Fractured orbit after operation is found to be 21.04 cc,
29.04 cc and 21.69 cc respectively. Also, the percentage of orbital volume restoration
before and after operation is found to be 91.88% which is a good sign of restoration.
Hence, 3D printed medical models can be used to evaluate the orbital volume during
Midfacial fractures.
Acknowledgement. The Authors would like to thank UGC, South Eastern Regional Office,
Hyderabad, as this research is carried out as a part of UGC Minor Research Project titled
“Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Facial (Zygomatic) bone fractures reduction using
Additive Manufacturing: a Randomized Control Study” Proposal No. 1204, Letter No. F. No: 4-
4/2015-16/MRP/UGC-SERO, Dt. Oct 2016 sanctioned to Dr. L. Siva Rama Krishna.
References
1. AOCMF Classification Midface (Level 1 and 2), AO Surgery reference, pp 1–13
2. Aktop S, Gonul O, Satilmis T, Garip H, Goker K (2013) Management of midfacial fractures.
INTECH, pp 415–446
3. Siva Rama Krishna L, Vemulakonda BS, Potturi A (2018) Evaluation of zygomatic complex
fractures based on three point fixation technique using additive manufacturing. Int J Sci Res
Sci Technol 4(2):1092–1100
4. Chang PS-H, Parker TH, Patrick CW, Miller MJ (2003) The accuracy of stereolithography in
planning craniofacial bone replacement. J Craniofac Surg 14(2):164–170
5. Dincă LL, Banu A, Vișan A (2017) Additive manufacturing in maxillofacial reconstruction.
In: MATEC web of conferences, vol 137, pp 1–6
6. Buckingham ED, Glasgold R, Kontis T, Smith SP Jr, Dolev Y, Fitzgerald R, Lam SM,
Williams EF, Pollei TR, Kunz C (2015) Volume management of the middle third-
lowerorbit/midface. Fac Plast Surg 31(1/2015):55–69 Issue Theme: Management of Facial
Volume
7. Hwang WJ, Lee DH, Choi W, Hwang JH, Kim KS, Lee SY (2017) Analysis of orbital volume
measurements following reduction and internal fixation using absorbable mesh plates and
screws for patients with orbital floor blowout fractures. J Craniofac Surg 28(7):1–6
8. Dave TV, Gaur G, Chowdary N, Joshi D (2018) Customized 3D printing: a novel approach to
migrated orbital implant. Saudi J Ophthalmol 32(4):330–333
Parametric Optimization During Wire EDM
Taper Cutting on AISI D2 Steel Using
Desirability Function
K. L. Uday Kiran1(&), Sanar Zuhair Abbas1, K. Saraswathamma1,

G. Chandra Mohan Reddy2, and A. M. K. Prasad1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
ukiran1703@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CBIT, Gandipet, Hyderabad, India
Abstract. Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) has become very

popular non-traditional process of machining. Taper cut WEDM involves
making surfaces of sloping, this is essential in machining tools with angles
included. AISI D2 steel with Mo and Cr has a variety of applications in engi-
neering. This paper aims to study the effect of taper angle, wire feed and wire
tension on the responses such as cutting time, angular error and surface
roughness and also find the optimum values of each variable that achieve
optimum cutting conditions. Central Composite design (CCD) of response
surface methodology was used to design the experiments and five values of each
of the three variables are taken. In order to combine the responses and the
parameters in one model regression model has been generated. For each
response separate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated and the opti-
mization was performed using desirability function. Results show that the most
significant parameter is taper angle and the optimized parameter levels of the
machining are taper angle 6°, wire feed 5.624 mm/min and wire tension 7.886 g
respectively.
Keywords: Taper angle Wire feed Wire tension Angular error

Response surface methodology
1 Introduction
Wire electrical discharge machining is a non-traditional process of machining uses heat

from electrical sparks emitted from a wire of limited diameter to generate craters in the
work piece while submerged in dielectric fluid. Taper WEDM aiming at producing
segments with surfaces of sloping by offsetting the upper from lower guides of the wire
holders where the angle is produced. Depending on the mechanical properties of the
wire and the work piece thickness the ultimate angle value can be determined. Angles
of (±30°) can be made in a work piece of 400 mm thickness but wire breakage is going
to take place due to more vibrations [1, 2] and the higher the thickness to be cut, the
lesser the angle that should be set.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_68
Parametric Optimization During Wire EDM Taper Cutting on AISI D2 Steel 569
2 Literature Review
Taper cutting in WEDM is one of the important operations which is regularly used in
mold making industry. Angle accuracy often presents a challenge to the machine
operator while attempting to wire EDM taper angles and several factors within the
EDM process affect angle accuracy. Sarkar et al. [3] “focused on investigation of wire
electrical discharge machining of c-titanium aluminide alloy aimed to select the opti-
mum cutting condition with an appropriate wire offset setting in order to get the desired
surface finish and dimensional accuracy. The optimum parametric setting for different
machining situations has been synthesized. By using Pareto optimization algorithm, 20
Pareto-optimal solutions were searched out from the set of all 243 outputs”. Sanchez
et al. [1] “used new approach to the prediction of angular error in wire-EDM taper-
cutting. A systematic analysis of the influence of process parameters on angular error is
carried out using Design of Experiments (DoE) techniques. They measured the most
affecting parameter on the angular error and the optimum value of each parameter
results in low angular error, and more precise taper cuts”. Rao and Pawar [4] “made a
study to select the optimum of process parameters of wire electrical discharge
machining on Hybrid MMC of 15 wt% Al2O3 and SiC. The objective considered is
maximization of machining speed subject to the surface roughness constraint. They
found that the pulse on time was the most significant parameter contributing to the
MRR and the optimum value of process parameters for the predicted optimum value of
MRR (15.82 mm3/min) is pulse on time (16 ms), pulse off time (2 ms) and pulse
current (6 A)”.
Shandilya et al. [5] “carried a study to optimize the process parameters during
machining of SiCp/6061 Al metal matrix composite (MMC) by wire electrical dis-
charge machining (WEDM) using response surface methodology (RSM). Results
showed that voltage and wire feed rate are highly significant parameters and pulse-off
time is less significant. Pulse-on time has insignificant effect on kerf”. Selvakumar et al.
[6] “conducted experimental analysis to aim for selecting the most optimal machining
parameter combination for wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) of 5083
aluminum alloy. The optimal machining parameters for maximum cutting speed and
minimum surface roughness were found. Results revealed that the CS was independent
on wire tension and Ra was independent on pulse-off time and wire tension”. Lodhia
and Agarwal [7] “attempted to optimize the machining conditions for surface rough-
ness of WEDM of AISI D3 Steel and it was observed that the discharge current was the
most influential factors on the surface roughness”. Gaikwad and Jatti [8] “focused on
optimization of EDM process parameters for maximization of material removal rate
while machining of NiTi alloy. Gap current, pulse on time, pulse off time, work piece
electrical conductivity, and tool conductivity were considered as process variables. The
optimized material removal rate obtained was 7.0806 mm3/min”. Padhiet al. [9] “op-
timized the cutting rate (CR), surface roughness (Ra) and dimensional deviation
(DD) in wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) of EN-31 steel taking various
input parameters such as pulse-on-time, pulse-off-time, wire tension, spark gap, set
voltage and servo feed and obtained a single parameter setting that can decrease Ra and
DD and increase CR simultaneously”. Majumder et al. [10] “predicted and compared
570 K. L. Uday Kiran et al.
few WEDM machinability aspects like surface roughness and micro-hardness of alloy
using general regression neural network model. Five machining parameter pulse-on
time (TON), discharge current (I), wire feed (WF), wire tension (WT) and flushing
pressure (FP) were taken as machining input for the experiments. The parametric
combination, TON = 12 ls, I = 10 A, WT = 12 N, WS = 150 mm/s. and FP = 8 Bar,
were found to yield the preferred results”. The present work is focused on to study the
effect of parameters such as taper angle, wire feed and wire tension on cutting time,
angular error and surface roughness to obtain optimum values of each variable that
achieve optimum cutting conditions through multi objective optimization.
3 Experimentation
Experiments were conducted on ELECTRONICA-SPRINT CUT WEDM machine and

AISI D2 steel is chosen as work piece material with chemical composition given in
Table 1. The work pieces of 20 numbers are cut and grinded to the required dimensions
of (40, 40, and 10) mm length, width and thickness respectively as shown in Fig. 1.
Cutting time, angular error and surface roughness are the three response parameters
considered.
Table 1. Chemical composition of

AISI D2 steel
D2 steel composition
Elements Weight in %
Carbon 1.55
Chromium 12.0
Molybdenum 0.80
Vanadium 0.90
Manganese 0.35
Silicon 0.25
Iron Balance
Fig. 1. Work pieces
Cutting time is displayed digitally on the machine display, angular error is mea-
sured in degrees or minutes and seconds using Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM) of model metris LKV 8.7.6 and Surface tester SJ-301 is used to measure the
surface roughness values. Full factorial design of two levels requires conducting 20
experiments including 6 central runs, 8 factorial runs, and 6 axial runs composing a
central composite design is used to design the experiments.
The different levels of process parameters are listed in Table 2 and the constant
process parameters considered for machining are Ton = 120 µs, Toff = 55 µs, WP =
10 Pa, SV = 20 V, and Work piece thickness is 40 mm. The experimental plan and
measured responses are given in Table 3.
Table 2. Process parameter levels according to RSM

Machining parameters Units Levels
−1.682 −1 0 +1 +1.682
Taper angle ° 4 6 9 12 14
Wire feed mm/min 3 4 5 6 7
Wire tension g 6 7 8 9 10
Table 3. Actual values of inputs and measured responses

Std Run Actual parameters values Responses
Taper W. feed W. tension C. time A. error SR
angle (°) mm/min (g) (min) (°) (lm)
1 19 6 4 7 10.51 0.0928 2.76
2 6 12 4 7 10.4 0.555 3.09
3 13 6 6 7 10.41 0.22 2.94
4 7 12 6 7 14.29 0.544 4.42
5 15 6 4 9 11.34 0.0946 3.33
6 20 12 4 9 10.66 0.676 4.02
7 3 6 6 9 10.12 0.275 3.27
8 1 12 6 9 14.05 0.533 4.23
9 18 4 5 8 10.06 0.21 2.15
10 16 14 5 8 13.3 0.572 4.23
11 12 9 3 8 11.21 0.128 2.78
12 5 9 7 8 11.49 0.376 3.06
13 10 9 5 6 11.12 0.589 3.41
14 2 9 5 10 11.22 0.58 4.07
15 8 9 5 8 11.08 0.129 2.12
16 17 9 5 8 11.15 0.19 2.36
17 11 9 5 8 11.34 0.115 2.45
18 14 9 5 8 10.56 0.112 2.27
19 9 9 5 8 11.37 0.11 2.74
20 4 9 5 8 11.3 0.3 2.65
4 Analysis
Response surface regression analysis is performed using Stat-Ease Design Expert soft
ware to study the effect of the input parameters individually and together on responses
such as cutting time, angular error and surface roughness. For three responses sum of
squares is calculated to select the polynomial equation of the higher order that relates
the response to the variables and analysis of variance (ANOVA) is conducted to
estimate the model significance and the most affecting parameter on the responses.
4.1 Cutting Time (CT)

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of this model for cutting time is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. ANOVA for cutting time

Source Sum of df Mean F-Value p-value Remark
squares square Prob > F
Model 24.058 6 4.010 19.512 <0.0001 Significant
A-T angle 11.384 1 11.384 55.398 <0.0001
B-W feed 3.028 1 3.028 14.736 0.0021
C-W 0.039 1 0.039 0.189 0.6709
tension
AB 9.245 1 9.245 44.987 <0.0001
AC 0.034 1 0.034 0.164 0.6917
BC 0.328 1 0.328 1.596 0.2286
Residual 2.672 13 0.206
Lack of fit 2.213 8 0.277 3.02 0.1195 Not
significant
Pure error 0.458 5 0.092
Cor total 26.730 19
The final regression equation of the cutting time in terms of actual values is given as:
Cutting time ¼ 12:294 1:314 T:Angle 1:134 W Feed þ 1:261

W Tension þ 0:358 T Angle W Feed 0:022 T Angle ð1Þ
W Tension 0:203 W Feed W Tension
4.2 Angular Error (AE)

The final regression equation of angular error in terms of actual values is given as:
Angular Error ¼ 9:094 þ 0:176 T:angle 0:138 W:feed

2:456 W:tension 0:021 T:angle W:feed ð2Þ
þ 0:036 W:feed þ 0:154 W:tension
2 2
4.3 Surface Roughness (SR)

The final regression equation of SR in terms of actual values was found as:
Surface Roughness ¼ 33:063 0:964 T:angle 0:841 W:feed 6:506 W:tension

þ 0:059 T:angle W:feed 0:170 W:fee W:tension
þ 0:045 ðT:angleÞ2 þ 0:182 ðW:feedÞ2 þ 0:472 ðW:tensionÞ2
ð3Þ
5.1 Effect of Machining Parameters on Cutting Time (CT)

Interaction effect of taper angle and wire feed on cutting time is shown in Fig. 2(a). By
increasing taper angle from 6° to 12° more wire vibrations takes place. Increasing wire
feed from 3 to 7 mm/min reduces the heat generated per unit time, both situations
together results in increase of the time required for cutting. Interaction effect of wire
tension and wire feed on cutting time is shown in Fig. 2(b). Increasing wire feed from 3
to 7 mm/min and wire tension from 6 to 10 g leads to increase in cutting time due to
reduced heat generated for each distance travelled by the wire.
Design-Expert ® Software Design-Expert ® Software
c time c time
14.29 14.29
10.06 10.06
13.9 12
X1 = A: T angle X1 = B: W feed
X2 = B: W feed X2 = C: W tension
12.875 11.625
Coded Factor Coded Factor
C: W tension = 0.000 A: T angle = 0.000
11.85 11.25
c time
c time
10.825 10.875
9.8 10.5
1.000 1.000 1 1.000

0.500 0.500 0.5 0.500
0.000 0.000 0 0.000
-0.500 -0.500 -0.5 -0.500
B: W feed A: T angle C: W tension B: W feed
-1.000 -1.000 -1 -1.000
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Interaction effect of input parameters on cutting time (a) taper angle-wire feed plane,
(b) taper angle-wire tension plane and (c) wire feed-wire tension plane
5.2 Effect of Machining Parameters on Angular Error (AE)

Interaction effect of taper angle and wire feed on angular error is shown in Fig. 3(a).
Increasing taper angle from 6° to 12° and wire feed from 3 to 7 mm/min leads to
increase in angular error. Interaction effect of taper angle and wire tension on angular
error is shown in Fig. 3(b). It shows that increase in taper angle from 6° to 12° and wire
tension from 6 to 10 g results in severe increase in angular error.
Design-Expert® Software Design-Expert® Software
A error A error
0.676 0.676
0.0928 0.0928
0.58 0.59
X1 = A: T angle X1 = A: T angle
0.4125 0.4375
Coded Factor Coded Factor
C: W tension = 0.000 B: W feed = 0.000
0.245 0.285
A error
A error
0.0775 0.1325
-0.09 -0.02
1.000 1.000 1 1.000

0.500 0.500 0.5 0.500
0.000 0.000 0 0.000
-0.500 -0.500 -0.5 -0.500
B: W feed A: T angle C: W tension A: T angle
-1.000 -1.000 -1 -1.000
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Interaction effect of process parameters on angular error (a) taper angle-wire feed plane
and (b) taper angle-wire tension plane
5.3 Effect of Machining Parameters on Surface Roughness (SR)

The interaction effect of taper angle and wire feed on SR is shown in Fig. 4(a).
Increasing taper angle from 4° to 14° and wire feed from 3 to 7 mm/min results in
increase in the surface roughness. More vibrations are obtained at higher taper angles
and high feed rate also causes wire corrosion which increases the surface roughness.
Design-Expert® Software Design-Expert® Software
SR SR
4.42 4.42
2.12 2.12
4.3 4.1
X1 = A: T angle X1 = B: W feed
3.75 3.6
Actual Factor Actual Factor
C: W tension = 8.00 A: T angle = 9.00
3.2 3.1
SR
SR
2.65 2.6
2.1 2.1
6.00 12.00 9.00 6.00

5.50 10.50 8.50 5.50
5.00 9.00 8.00 5.00
4.50 7.50 7.50 4.50
B: W feed A: T angle C: W tension B: W feed
4.00 6.00 7.00 4.00
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Interaction effect of machining parameters on SR (a) taper angle-wire feed plane and
(b) wire feed-wire tension plane
The effect of wire feed and wire tension on SR is shown in Fig. 4(b). At low wire
feed values from 4 to 5 mm/min and low wire tension from 7 to 8 g SR value is slightly
reduced. At high wire feed (5 to 6 mm/min) and tension (8 to 9 g) SR value is
increased.
6 Process Parameters Optimization
The optimization is done in the form of desirability (di) [2], which involves calculating
(Ri) the response values of (cutting time, angular error and surface roughness) using the
final regression equation for each. Each Ri is then transformed to the corresponding
desirability value (di) using Eq. (4). Then all the three di values are gathered into a
desirability of the level of parameters (D) using Eq. (5).
Ri Rmin r
di ¼ ð Þ ð4Þ
Rmax Rmin
Where di: value of the desirability of the individual responses Ri, r: represents how
important is to hit the target value and =1, Rmin is the minimum and Rmax is the
maximum values of CT, AE, and SR of the whole experiments.
D ¼ ðd1 ; d2 ; . . .: dk Þ1=k ð5Þ
Where k is the responses number.

The role of design expert software in the optimization process is to find the highest
value of D, which represents minimum cutting time, minimum angular error and
minimum surface roughness by searching all values of the parameters and suggesting
sets of inputs levels those achieve the research goals as shown in Table 5. The opti-
mization process is targeting minimum cutting time, angular error and surface
roughness.
Table 5. Six solution sets of parameters levels

No. Parameters levels Response value (Ri) Desirability
T. angle W. feed W. tension C. time A. error SR (D)
(degree) (mm/min) (g) (min) (degree) (lm)
1 6 5.624 7.886 10.06 0.061 2.282 0.976 Selected
2 6 5.624 7.895 10.06 0.061 2.282 0.976
3 6 5.624 7.878 10.06 0.061 2.282 0.976
4 6 5.624 7.857 10.06 0.062 2.283 0.976
5 6 5.624 7.843 10.06 0.063 2.283 0.976
6 6 5.625 7.835 10.06 0.063 2.284 0.976
7 Conclusions
Based on the response surface regression analysis to determine the optimum input
parameters and multi objective optimization performed using desirability function the
following conclusions are obtained
1. Taper angle was found as the most significant parameter effecting machining time,
angular error and surface roughness.
2. Wire tension in the chosen range (6 to 11 g) has no significant on cutting time and
surface roughness. At low wire tension the angular error was decreased and at
higher wire tension the angular error was increased while machining at constant
taper angle and wire feed.
3. Increasing wire feed resulted in increase in cutting time. At low wire feed values
angular error and surface roughness values were decreased, but at high feed values
angular error and surface roughness values were increased.
4. Results show that the optimal combination of process parameters are taper angle 6°,
wire feed 5.624 mm/min and wire tension 7.886 g respectively achieving desir-
ability value of 0.976 with response values as cutting time 10.06 min, angular error
0.061° and surface roughness 2.282 lm.
References
1. Sanchez J et al (2008) Experimental and numerical study of angular error in wire-EDM
taper-cutting. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 48(12–13):1420–1428
2. Derringer G, Suich R (1980) Simultaneous optimization of several response variables. J Qual
Technol 12(4):214–219
3. Sarkar S, Mitra S, Bhattacharyya B (2005) Parametric analysis and optimization of wire
electrical discharge machining of c-titanium aluminide alloy. J Mater Process Technol 159
(3):286–294
4. Rao R, Pawar P (2009) Modelling and optimization of process parameters of wire electrical
discharge machining. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B: J Eng Manuf 223(11):1431–1440
5. Shandilya P, Jain P, Jain N (2012) Parametric optimization during wire electrical discharge
machining using response surface methodology. Proc Eng 38:2371–2377
6. Selvakumar G et al (2014) Experimental investigation and multi-objective optimization of
wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) of 5083 aluminum alloy. Trans Nonferrous
Met Soc China 24(2):373–379
7. Lodhi BK, Agarwal S (2014) Optimization of machining parameters in WEDM of AISI D3
Steel using Taguchi Technique. Proc CIRP 14:194–199
8. Gaikwad V, Jatti VS (2018) Optimization of material removal rate during electrical
discharge machining of cryo-treated NiTi alloys using Taguchi’s method. J King Saud Univ-
Eng Sci 30(3):266–272
9. Padhi P et al (2016) Multi-objective optimization of wire electrical discharge machining
(WEDM) process parameters using weighted sum genetic algorithm approach. J Adv Manuf
Syst 15(02):85–100
10. Majumder H, Maity K (2018) Prediction and optimization of surface roughness and micro-
hardness using GRNN and MOORA-fuzzy-a MCDM approach for nitinol in WEDM.
Measurement 118:1–13
Extraction of Coordinate Points
for the Numerical Simulation of Single Point
Incremental Forming Using Microsoft Excel
Zeradam Yeshiwas(&) and Arkanti Krishnaiah
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering,

zeruhulu@gmail.com, arakanti@gmail.com
Abstract. The aim of the present paper is to define tool-path in CAM package
and extract the coordinate points from G-code for numerical simulation of
Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF). The Truncated Cone, Truncated
Pyramid, and Hyperbola were the parts used to define the tool-path in Master-
cam environment. The G-code created from the Truncated Cone and Truncated
Pyramid were the samples in the extraction of X, Y, and Z coordinate points.
Extraction of the coordinate points was conducted by using Microsoft Excel
commands. The paper shows that Excel commands can automatically extract
coordinate points from a huge table of alphanumeric mixed string data. Finally,
the extracted coordinate points were defined for the Numerical Simulation of
SPIF and that works successfully.
Keywords: Incremental forming Toolpath definition Extraction CAM

SPIF
1 Introduction
Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) is a dieless sheet metal forming process.
Because of its low initial investment cost, the method is suitable for small batch and
prototyping [1–3].
In the numerical simulation of SPIF, toolpath definition is the primary procedure.
A CAM package with the feature for the tool-path definition of SPIF has not been
introduced. So, CAM systems used in machining have been using as one of the
methods to define the toolpath for the investigations in SPIF.
Efforts were made to extract coordinate points from CAM package for the
Numerical Simulation of SPIF. In simple cases, the tool path point coordinates can be
manually processed by means of simple spreadsheets [4, 5]. Python was used to
generate the ordered file from the part program generated using the CAM package. This
ordered file was given as input to MATLAB to generate position vs time data [3]. The
recent trial was shown by [6], a software tool was used a CNC file in G-code format to
reveal the interpolation point coordinates of the tool motions and the positioning time
in a specific ANSYS format.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_69
578 Z. Yeshiwas and A. Krishnaiah
In this paper, a method is introduced to extract the coordinate points from a mixed
string G-code. The approach uses excel commands to extract the coordinate points.
2 Method
The flow chart (Fig. 1) depicted the process that was used to define the tool-path. It also
describes the method used to extract the coordinate points from a mixed alphanumeric
string of G-code.
Import 3D Model (CAD) Create
Toolpath Definition (CAM)
G-Code Generation
YES Extracting Coordinate NO

Points Required?
Extracting Coordinate Introduce to G-

Points Code to CNC Mill
Numerical Simulation Experimental Investigation
Fig. 1. Flow chart for the toolpath definition and extraction of G-code
3 Part Modeling
Three varieties of shapes namely the Truncated Cone, Truncated Pyramid and
Hyperbola have chosen. The dimensions used in the part modeling of the chosen parts
are described in Fig. 2. The wall angle used to define the truncated Pyramid is 60°. To
define the hyperbola the wall angle is varied from 30° to 80°.
4 Toolpath Strategy
Two types of tool-path strategies are commonly used in SPIF. The contour or profile
and the spiral or helical tool-path strategies. In this study the profile tool-path was used.
4.1 Contour Toolpath Definition

Surface Finish Contour tool-paths perform multiple cuts at constant Z step depths. It
has adopted for the multiple forming at constant step depth in SPIF. In this study,
Extraction of Coordinate Points for the Numerical Simulation 579
Fig. 2. Parameters in the part modeling of sample parts (a) Truncated Cone (b) Truncated
Pyramid (c) Hyperbola
Mastercam version 2017 was the CAM package used. To generate the tool-path a
SolidWorks Part file was imported to Mastercam 2017 version. Then, introducing the
imported file to the surface finish contour was conducted. The parameters used to create
the contour finish tool-path are given in Table 1. Spindle speed is set to be zero because
the tool will not be rotating due to a specific contact area with the sheet. Figure 3
depicted the toolpath created by using Mastercam 2017 version and simulated in
“SIMCO edit” software.
Table 1. Parameters for the toolpath definition in Mastercam

Geometry/parameters Truncated Cone Truncated Pyramid Hyperbola
Tool diameter (mm) U8 U8 U8
Step down (mm) 0.5 0.8 1
Clearance(mm) 0.025 0.025 0.025
Feed rate (mm/min) 1000 1000 1000
Fig. 3. Toolpath definition for the sample parts (a) Truncated Cone (b) Truncated Pyramid
(c) Hyperbola
4.1.1 Sample G-Code

The G-code is the main output from the Mastercam environment to drive an automated
CNC Mill and produce the sample parts. The sample G-code created from the 8 mm
diameter tool, 0.5 step depth and 30 mm deep Cone and with the same diameter tool,
depth and with 0.8 mm step depth Pyramid have given in Table 2.
5 Extraction of Coordinate Points
The part program generated using the CAM package cannot be given as input for the
tool path in numerical simulation software. For numerical simulation the tool path
should be defined in terms of position vs time, velocity vs time or acceleration vs
time [3].
In this study, Microsoft Excel approach was used to extract the coordinate points
from a mixed alphanumeric string that make up the G-code. Figure 4 illustrates pro-
cedures in the Excel approach that was used to extract the X, Y and Z coordinate
points.
Table 2. Sample G-code for the Truncated Cone and Truncated Pyramid
G-Code for Cone G-code for Pyramid
% %
O0000 (CONE) O0000 (PYRAMID)
N100 G21 N100 G21
N102 G0 G17 G40 G49 G80 G90 N102 G0 G17 G40 G49 G80 G90
N104 T1 M6 N104 T137 M6
N110 Z4.8 N112 G1 Z-.2 F1000.
N112 G1 Z-.2 F1000. N114 X48.768
N114 X-33.113 Y-35.79 N116 Y48.769
N116 X-32.573 Y-36.291 N118 X-48.766
N118 X-30.96 Y-37.682 N120 Y-48.767
N120 X-29.186 Y-39.066 N122 X-47.155 Y-47.156
Import mixed string into Excel
Find the coordinate

Use Excel Command
points of “Z”
Extract coordinate Extract coordinate Repeat Z value until

points of X. points of Y new Z value is seen
Fig. 4. Excel approach to extract coordinate points
The CNC program usually begins with a program number or similar identification,
followed by sequenced blocks of instructions in a logical order. The program ends with
a stop code or a program termination symbol, such as the percent sign [7].
From the G-code sample given in Table 2, CNC programming Preparatory Func-
tions (G codes) and Miscellaneous Functions (M-codes) have found at the beginning
and end of the NC file. Between the two functions, mixed strings of coordinate points
have existed.
The extraction of coordinate points was primarily commenced by removing the
Preparatory Functions, Miscellaneous Functions, and block numbers. To remove block
numbers, use “remove block numbers” option on the NC file itself or introduce the NC
file to “SIMCO edit” software and remove block numbers that way. Table 3 depicts the
sample mixed string after exclusion of the G-codes, M-codes and block numbers from
the NC-file for the Truncated Cone and Pyramid.
After the preparation of the mixed string based on the aforementioned procedure as
depicted in Table 3, the Excel commands given in Table 4 were used to extract the
coordinate points for the Truncated Cone from a mixed alphanumeric string.
Table 3. Sample Mixed string for Truncated Cone and Pyramid

Mixed string for Cone Mixed string for Pyramid
Z4.8 Z-.2
Z-.2 X48.768
X-33.113 Y-35.79 Y48.769
X-32.573 Y-36.291 X-48.766
X-30.96 Y-37.682 Y-48.767
X-29.186 Y-39.066 X-47.155 Y-47.156
Table 4. Commands used for the extraction of mixed alphanumeric string
Extraction Command
Left of “Y” Iferror(Left(Text,Search("Y", Text)-1),"")
X-Coordinate points Iferror(Right(Text, Len(Text)- Search("X", Text) - Len("X") + 1),"")
Y-Coordinate Points Iferror(Right(Text, Len(Text)- Search("Y", Text) - Len("Y") + 1),"")
Find Z Iferror(Right(Text, Len(Text)- Search("Z", Text) - Len("Z") + 1),"")
Repeat Z Go To Special” dialog box or VBA code
To repeat “Z” value until a new “Z” value is seen in Excel; firstly select the column
range, Go to Special box, select Blank option, and then OK. After that enter an equal
sign, up arrow, Ctrl + Enter keys simultaneously.
Another optional method can be using VBA code. The following VBA code can
also use to repeat the cell values until a new value is seen [8].
Sub FillDown()
Dim xRng As Range
Dim xRows As Long, xCols As Long
Dim xRow As Integer, xCol As Integer
Set xRng = Selection
xCols = xRng.Columns.CountLarge
xRows = xRng.Rows.CountLarge
For xCol = 1 To xCols
For xRow = 1 To xRows - 1
If xRng.Cells(xRow, xCol) <> "" Then
xRng.Cells(xRow, xCol) = xRng.Cells(xRow,
xCol).Value
If xRng.Cells(xRow + 1, xCol) = "" Then
xRng.Cells(xRow + 1, xCol) =
xRng.Cells(xRow, xCol).Value
End If
End If
Next xRow
Next xCol
End Sub
In our case we can use this code to repeat the values of “Z” until new values of “Z”
is seen. To accomplish this, Select the column range, open the Microsoft Visual Basic
for Applications window, Insert, Module. Then copy and paste the below VBA code
into the Module window.
5.1 Sample Toolpath Extraction

In Fig. 5 sample coordinate points for the Truncated Cone depicted in Table 3 were
extracted by using the Excel commands. After extraction, the coordinate points were
introduced to the numerical simulation software to define the toolpath.
Fig. 5. Sample coordinate points extracted (Truncated Cone)
The sample toolpath extracted in Fig. 5 is for a Truncated Cone. The alphanumeric
setup of the mixed string for the Truncated Cone and for the Hyperbola was the same.
However, the alphanumeric setup for Truncated Pyramid was different from the
aforementioned two sample parts. Based on this, the Truncated Cone and Pyramid were
taken to test the extraction.
When it comes to extracting part of a mixed alphanumeric string for Truncated
Pyramid, one of the three Substring functions (Left, Right and Mid) was applied to
quickly handle the first task. After the first extraction by using the Left function, the
same commands in Table 4 were used to extract the coordinate points. In Fig. 6,
sample mixed string coordinate points for Truncated Pyramid depicted in Table 3 were
extracted by using the proposed method.
Fig. 6. Extraction of sample coordinate points for Truncated Pyramid
6 Estimated Forming Time
The forming time is the estimated time required to complete the forming process. The
Numerical Simulation in Abaqus required amplitude vs time data to define the toolpath
in SPIF. Estimation of the forming time is possible by relating the feed rate and the
total forming distance or the total distance the tool completed in forming the
part. Equation 2 was used to estimate the forming time.
For face milling and slab milling, the time Tm required to mill a workpiece of
length L is given by Eq. 1.
Tm ¼ L þ A=f r ð1Þ
Where A = approaching distance, mm; L = work length and fr = Feed Rate.

In the current study, the formula can be written as in Eq. 2. The total distance has
found from the SIMCO edit software. After determining the total distance traveled by
the tool, the forming time was computed
Tf ¼ L=f r ð2Þ
Where; Tf = Forming Time; L = Length of Forming and fr = Feed Rate.

The tool-path in the numerical simulation of SPIF in Abaqus should be defined by
using amplitude vs time data. Because of this, it requires the time between each
successive coordinate points. Equation 3 was used to determine the time between each
coordinate point (Fig. 7).
Dt ¼ Tf =N ð3Þ
Where; Δt = Time between each incremental points; Tf = Forming Time and N =

Total number of the coordinate points.
Current Coordinate Total distance the

Feed Rate (fr)
points tool covered (L)
Fig. 7. The feed and total distance covered by the forming tool
7 Numerical Simulation
The coordinate points were extracted and used as an input for the numerical simulation
of SPIF and work successfully. In the simulation, the amplitude vs time data extracted
by using the Excel approach is given as input to Abaqus software to simulate the SPIF.
The blank is fixed along its four edges and defined as a deformable body and meshed
with shell elements. The tool is defined as a rigid body. Truncated cone in Fig. 3(a) was
chosen for numerical simulation. The deformed shape after the simulation is shown in
Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Numerical simulation of the Truncated Cone.
8 Conclusion
Manual extraction coordinate point from a huge table of alphanumeric mixed string
data is tricky. The proposed method can automatically generate the coordinate points
from a huge table of alphanumeric mixed string data for the numerical simulation of
SPIF with less effort and time. Besides this, a better agreement can achieve between the
numerical simulation and experimental investigations because of the same coordinate
points.
To use the Excel commands in the extraction of coordinate points there is a need for
exclusion of the G-codes, M-codes and block numbers from the NC-file. In this study,
the commands were not tested for a very complex part.
References
1. Martins PAF, Kwiatkowski L, Franzen V, Tekkaya AEE, Kleiner M (2009) Single point
incremental forming of polymers. CIRP Ann - Manuf Technol 58:229–232
2. Kim YH, Park JJ (2002) Effect of process parameters on formability in incremental forming of
sheet metal. J Mater Process Technol 131:42–46
3. Suresh K, Khan A, Regalla SP (2013) Tool path definition for numerical simulation of single
point incremental forming. Procedia Eng 64:536–545
4. Senthil R, Gnanavelbabu A (2014) Numerical analysis on formability of Az61A magnesium
alloy by incremental forming. Procedia Eng 97:1975–1982
5. Sigvant M, Pilthammar J (2018) Finite element simulation and experimental verification of
incremental sheet metal forming. In: IOP conference series (2018)
6. Oancea D (2018) Integrating a new software tool used for tool path generation in the
numerical simulation of incremental forming processes. J Mech Eng 64:643–651
7. Smid P (2007) CNC programming handbook. Industrial, New York
8. Tips and Tricks. https://www.extendoffice.com
A Review on Wire Arc Additive
Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated
Components of Ti6AL4V and Steels
P. Satish Kumar1, L. Suvarna Raju1(&), and L. Siva Rama Krishna2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vignan’s Foundation for Science
Technology & Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
satishniyogi1972@gmail.com, drlsrajuvu@gmail.com
2
Abstract. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is vibrantly emerging

Additive manufacturing (AM) process in which large scale industrial metal
components and intricate geometrical structures are manufactured, by layer by
layer deposition. Factors like significant reduction in the material wastage, very
high rate of metal deposition, capable of fabricating large complex geometries at
very low cost of production are the reasons for the tremendous growth of the
WAAM process technology in the manufacturing sector. Near net shape man-
ufacturing capability of WAAM has extremely reduced the buy-to-fly ratios of
the aviation components when compared to traditional manufacturing thus
flagging WAAM as the best alternative to subtractive manufacturing for high
cost material components. In spite of huge advantages of WAAM, the major
process concerns/issues like Heat accumulation, residual stresses, intricate
thermal history and rapid solidification which significantly influence the
microstructure evolution of the fabricated component pose challenges to the
WAAM process. This study reviews the current research on WAAM process
covering the frequently used feed stock materials and covers the widespread
overview of the metallurgical and the mechanical properties of WAAM fabri-
cated components, optimal parameters, simulated methods of reducing the heat
accumulation, grain refinement processes and the heat treatments for fabricated
components for the required microstructures.
1 Introduction
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a novel process in which 3D objects are manufactured

by depositing molten metal on to the substrate through layer by layer deposition, and
this differs from regular conventional process where in the final component is made by
machining/removing the metal from the solid billet. Depending on the material feed
stock the metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) is broadly classified in to two types
(i) Powder-bed/feed systems (ii) wire feed systems. Even though the powder-bed/feed
process manufactures components with very high surface finish and geometrical
accuracy, the process is limited to small components due to extremely low rate of metal
deposition (10 gm/min), the porosity in the fabricated components, safety and the high

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_70
588 P. Satish Kumar et al.
cost of metal powders. In the case of steels Selective Laser Melting (SLM) deposits
0.1 kg/h, Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) will be capable to deposit 1 kg/h, whereas
WAAM process deposits as high as 5–6 kg/h [1]. On the contrary Wire feed Additive
Manufacturing has much higher metal deposition rate, potentially no limitations on the
part size and near net shape component manufacturing, and these benefits tremendously
boosted the growth of the Wire feed additive manufacturing in the manufacturing
sector. Based on the energy source the Wire feed AM is categorized in to three
processes, Arc based, Laser based, and Electron beam based. Among the three above
processes Wire Arc based Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) [2–4] is highly energy
efficient, relatively very low equipment cost and high rate of metal deposition is
attained however with relatively inferior dimensional accuracy and surface roughness,
this is acceptable as always a minor post machining is due for WAAM fabricated
components before putting them in to use. WAAM process utilizes electric arc as
source of heat and filler wire is fed at a predetermined feed speed, due to intense heat
wire is melted and deposited on to the substrate or on to the earlier deposited layer.
WAAM Schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1. Currently based on utilized heat source
there are three categories of WAAM processes: Gas Tungsten Arc based welding
(GTAW) [5], Gas Metal based Arc Welding (GMAW) [3], and Plasma Arc based
welding [6], the metal deposition rate in GMAW is 2–3 times more than compared to
GTAW or PAW [7]. The main difference is that GTAW requires exclusive separate
filler wire, adding few more process parameters compared to GMAW and thus
increasing the complexity to that of GMAW. Majorly WAAM process is driven by
Industrial robots systems or CNC gantries. In WAAM the building strategy comprises
of depositing a series of multiple weld beads layer by layer to form 3D component.
When compared with regular traditional manufacturing, WAAM process fabrication,
can significantly cuts the fabrication phase by 40–60%, and even the post machining
time would get reduced drastically by 15–20% based on dimensions of fabricated
components [3–8]. Latest developments in WAAM have proved that a saving of 78%
in raw material can be possible while fabricating landing gear ribs component used in
aircraft through WAAM process [4, 9]. WAAM process is especially best suited to the
expensive materials like Titanium which is very difficult to machine as it is chemically
very reactive and has a tendency to get weld with cutting tool. Titanium is very widely
used in aerospace industry due to its high specific strength, excellent corrosion resis-
tance, and retaining of tensile and creep properties even at high temperatures. Partic-
ularly with Titanium due to its conventional machining issues, there is always a need
for more efficient and cost effective way method of component manufacturing with
reduced buy-to-fly ratio. This paper investigates WAAM fabricated components of
various metals for their microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties, also
studies the current research in the WAAM processes related to Titanium and its alloys,
steel and its alloys. The literature study covers the simulation studies related to
reducing the heat accumulation, optimal parameters selection, grain refinement pro-
cesses, overcoming the residual stresses of the components, improving the grain
structure through machine hammer peening.
A Review on Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Fabricated Components 589
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of WAAM system [18].
2 Literature Survey
Mereddy et al. [10] in their research added silicon to the Titanium components man-
ufactured by wire arc additive manufacturing to refine b grains. It is observed that as
the silicon content is increased the grain size would become smaller Fig. 3; however
the columnar growth of the grains could not be prevented. The employed method is
TIG based wire arc additive manufacturing and the process deposited the commercially
pure Titanium beads of Titanium with 200 mm length and 10 mm width on TI6AL4 V
substrate, the process parameters used are indicated in Table 1 and the experimental set
up used for this is shown in Fig. 2. Initial layer was deposited without silicon paint
whereas the subsequent layers were deposited by applying the specially prepared sil-
icon paints on the previous bead. Two paints are prepared by using a silicon powder
mixed alcohol gel with 25 wt% silicon (called as low silicon paint) and 40 wt% silicon
(called as high silicon paint). The average sample composition of wire feeds stock, low
silicon paint, high silica paint; sample without silicon paint is indicated in the Table 2.
The size of the silicon selected is in the order of less than 1 µm diameter the gel is of
type which gets evaporated quickly as soon as you apply on the weld bead layer, and
Table 1. Experimental Parameters used for WAAM sample fabrication [10].

Welder method type Tungsten inert gas (TIG)
Electrode material Tungsten rare earth, 2.4 mm
diameter
Welding current Current 150 Amp
Gap between welding electrode and base plate 5 mm
surface
Titanium feed stock wire grade ASTM Grade 1
Diameter of feed wire 1 mm
Wire feed rate 1.5 m/min
Metal deposition rate 150 mm/min
Shielding gas used Argon, 99.999% purity
the silicon particles contained in the gel will get adhered to the applied layer. Exposure
of the samples to the atmosphere is prevented by trailing shielding gas trailing par-
ticularly designed for the experiment. The specific shielding gas design prevents the
oxidation of the sample.
Fig. 2. Experimental set up used [10].
Table 2. Typical Chemical compositions of fabricated WAAM components (wt%) [10].

Silicon element content Si (%) Fe (%) N (%) O (%) Ti (%)
Composition of wire feed stock Nil 0.023 0.009 0.05 Balance
None 0.04 0.11 0.04 0.19 Balance
Low silicon paint used component 0.19 0.11 0.05 0.17 Balance
High Silicon paint used component 0.75 0.05 0.03 0.16 Balance
Fig. 3. Prior-b grain microstructure of WAAM fabricated Titanium component with (a) 0.04%
Silicon, (b) 0.19% Silicon, (c) 0.75% Silicon [10].
Liberini et al. [11] experimented on 6 samples each of which has 15 layers of

ER70S-6 steel metal deposition by wire arc additive manufacturing with a pause of
60 s between successive layers for weld bead. While preparing the samples the distance
between bead and the torch is maintained at 10 mm. This experiment revealed that the
prepared samples do not have significant variations even though the samples were
prepared with different parameters. The samples were tested for their microstructures
and observed that sample wall structure produced is divided in to 3 regions in the build
direction viz. lower region predominantly by ferritic with pearlite bands, middle zone
dominated by ferrite equiaxed grains and the bainitic upper zone. The variation in the
microstructure is due to different thermal history of deposited layers. Lower region
experiences less thermal shock as it is in touch with cold substrate, middle region is
affected by lower thermal shock and the upper region is exposes to higher thermal
shock. Due to the changes in the microstructures the Vickers micro hardness numbers
differs for these three regions Fig. 4, and also the average grain size varies in these
regions Table 3.
The higher thermal shock of upper zone reflect in bainitic structure and hence
higher hardness is noticed, The middle zone experiences a slow cooling rate when
compared to the upper zone and also experiences annealing softening effect. The
thermal gradient of middle zone is lesser than the lower zone and hence the hardness
value of middle zone is below when compared to upper and lower zones.
Fig. 4. Values of Vickers micro hardness in the three different regions of samples [11]
Table 3. Average grain size values in three different regions of WAAM fabricated sample [11]
Region of the sample Average mean grain
size (in µm)
Lower region of the sample (size of grain) 17.80
Middle region of the sample (size of grain) 22.10
Upper region of the sample (size of the length of laths) 32.50
Montevecchia et al. [12] conducted experiments and compared the machinability of

the Additive manufactured components with that of wrought material. In this Experi-
ment along with wrought sample, two sample component blocks manufactured by
using the material AISI H13 steel through additive manufacturing technique. WAAM
and LENS are the two Additive manufacturing processes used for producing two AM
sample components. Authors [12] conducted hardness test on all the three samples to
obtain initial information on wrought, LENS and WAAM fabricated samples before the
cutting force analysis is investigated and the results of hardness test are indicated in the
Table 4, which shows that, hardness of additively manufactured components (LENS &
WAAM) is very high compared to wrought sample and in accordance with this the
fabricated AM sample components (LENS & WAAM) indicated a significant increase
in the Milling cutting forces. The study concluded that machinability of AM compo-
nents is reduced and hence author recommended to use different cutting parameters for
AM manufactured components.
Table 4. Results of Rockwell C hardness test [12]

Wrought sample LENS fabricated sample WAAM fabricated sample
HRC 19 59 55
Heat accumulation is the main concern/issue on WAAM process and this signifi-
cantly elevates the work piece temperature and this in turn affects the product.
Montevecchi et al. [13], adopted a jet impingement procedure which avoids the
excessive accumulation of heat in the work piece and enhance the convective heat
transfer from work piece to the surroundings. A proposed air jet cooling system is shown
in the below Fig. 5 and the parts of proposed system are 1- Torch, 2- Work piece
Deposited material, 3- Air hose 4- Work piece substrate. Simulation studies were
conducted in this study with Finite Element analysis to evaluate the effectiveness and the
results of study indicated the proposed jet impingement significantly reduced the heat
accumulation.
Fig. 5. Proposed Air jet cooling system [13]
Heat accumulation is a core issue in the wire arc additive manufacturing and
influences the mechanical properties of the fabricated component. Binato et al. [14]
conducted experiments Fig. 6, and investigated the heat accumulation effects on the
mechanical properties of TI6AL4V Components fabricated through GT-WAAM.

In this experiment a wall structure of 150 mm length and with a height of 15 layers
deposited on the substrate. The temperature measurement system utilized in this
experiment is shown in the Fig. 6. Temperature of substrate, inter pass temperature and
heat accumulation is plotted against the deposited layer number and it is noticed that
after depositing few initial layers the temperature of substrate gets steadied, however
the same rises rapidly in the further deposited layers thus indicating heat accretion in
the wall structure Fig. 7. The fabricated component varied in the microstructure from
the bottom of the component to the top of the component, having the bottom part as
lathlike a matrix, lamellar, basket wave and a colony. Results of test samples taken in
the build direction as shown in Fig. 8, from the fabricated component indicated that
yield strength and Ultimate tensile strength not varied much for the first 8 mm from the
substrate, however the values tremendously reduced after 8 mm above the substrate
Fig. 9, at which the inter pass temperature is higher than 200 °C. The conducted
experiment revealed that for a good mechanical properties the inter pass temperature
should not exceed more than 200 °C.
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of Temperature measurement system [14]
Fig. 7. Temperature and heat accumulation variation in this experiment [14]

Fig. 8. Samples position in the WAAM built component [14]
Fig. 9. Variation of stress with respect to substrate surface (mm) [14]
Mechanical properties of the additive manufactured TI6AL4V components would

highly influenced by the heat treatment process. El-Hadad et al. [15] studied the dif-
ferent heat treatments processes on Ti6Al4V alloy, exceeding the b-transition tem-
perature and also below the b-transition temperature after this the sample is cooled by
different cooling methods (WQ-water quenching, AC-Air cooling, FC – Furnace
cooling) and finally the all these samples undergone aging process at 550 °C for 6 h,
outcomes of study indicated that (i) heat treatment above b-transition temperature
results in high hardness as shown in Fig. 10, however the aging treatment did not
brought any noticeable changes in the mechanical properties (ii) water quenched
samples indicated considerably higher tensile strength on the contrary for air quenched
samples tensile strength dropped as indicated in Fig. 11. It is also observed that
samples that were solution treated enhanced wear resistance to that of the reference
sample as presented in the Fig. 12, however there is no any considerable changes of
wear resistance of sample after aging. (iii) Fracture morphology of water quenched
samples has more dimple density demonstrating a more ductile fracture compared to
other heat treated samples.
Yin in his experiment [16] studied the effect CaF2 on resulted microstructure evo-
lution and the mechanical properties of the WAAM fabricated Ti6Al4V component,
manufactured by using 1.2 mm diameter Ti6Al4V wire on to a substrate. In this study
Fig. 10. Cross-sectional Hardness of different heat treated samples (WQ -Water Quenching,
AC- Air Cooling, FC-Furnace cooling) [15]
Fig. 11. Tensile strength of different heat-treated samples (WQ-Water Quenching, AC- Air
Cooling, FC-Furnace cooling) [15]
Fig. 12. Weight loss of different heat treated samples (WQ-Water Quenching, AC- Air Cooling,
FC-Furnace cooling) [15]
acetone mixed CaF2 paint is prepared and is applied by brush manually on substrate or
previously deposited layer till the paint thickness is clearly visible, once the acetone is
fully evaporated the subsequent layer is deposited. Two components were fabricated in
this experiment one with applying CaF2 (modified sample) and another one without
CaF2 (unmodified sample) paint. Macro/microstructure features of samples revealed that
unmodified component developed oxidation layer and bulged (due to Marangoni effect)
compared to modified component, and in the modified sample, it is noticed few pores
inside the sample due to contamination while processing CaF2 layer. Samples for
mechanical testing were taken in the build direction and the results demonstrated that
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) for modified component increased by 12%, when
compared with unmodified sample, Table 5 indicates the experimental values of Ulti-
mate tensile strength (UTS), reduction in cross sectional area of the sample and Elon-
gation of sample; however elongation and reduction in cross sectional area of the
modified component significantly reduced when compared with unmodified one.
Table 5. Tensile properties of modified and un-modified components [16]

Cases Ultimate tensile Elongation (%) Reduction in area (%)
strength (UTS) in Mpa
Unmodified component 852 ± 22 6.5 ± 0.5 13.6 ± 3.2
Modified component 955 ± 5 3.7 ± 0.2 7.1 ± 2.1
Tabernero [1] has studied the main three types welding processes that comes under
WAAM technology namely PAW (Plasma Arc Welding), Fronius CMT (Cold Metal
Transfer), TopTIG, in terms of suitability of the process for the materials and obtained
the mechanical properties. Test samples were taken in bead direction side and bead
vertical overlapping side as shown in Fig. 13 and various combinations of materials
with shielding gas compositions are indicated in Table 6. The experimental results
indicate that irrespective of welding technology the WAAM technology superior
quality components can be obtained with metal deposition rates ranging up to 5 kg/h in
case of stainless steels, and 2.5 kg/h in case of Ti6Al4V alloy, outcomes of mechanical
tests proves that even though WAAM technology accomplishes the mechanical
properties still it is required to select the specific welding technology based on the
material and specific requirement. Cold Metal Process (CMT) process, achieves
maximum deposition rate for stainless steels but components shows significant ani-
sotropy in mechanical properties, however in case of Ti6Al4V alloy the intrinsic low
heat requires essentially the use of gas mixtures for better aspect ratio for overlapping.
TopTIG process achieves best properties for stainless steels and indicates consistent
behavior; in case of Ti6Al4V alloy the lower energy needs active gas mix mixture for
better deposition. PAW process achieves moderate deposition rates for stainless steels
and also decent properties in both longitudinal as well as transverse directions, in case
of Ti6Al4V alloy with PAW proves to be perfect deposition rate and mechanical
properties.
Hönnige et al. [17], in this paper proposed and evaluated effective novel technique
Machine Hammer Peening (MHP) instead of Inter pass rolling technique normally used
cold working. Inter pass rolling is constrained only to simple and regular features with
Table 6. Shielding gas compositions and metal deposition rates used in experiment [1]
Materials Processes used Protecting gas mixture Metal deposition
used rate
AISI 316L Cold metal 25% CO2/75% Argon 1.5 kg/h
transfer
Plasma arc 5% H2/95% Argon 1.5 kg/h
welding
TopTIG 100% Argon 1.5 kg/h
Ti6Al4V Cold metal 100% Ar 50% He/50% Argon 2.5 kg/h
transfer 100% He
Plasma arc 100% Argon 1.5 kg/h
welding
TopTIG 70% He/30% Argon 1.0 kg/h
Fig. 13. Tensile test specimens taken from WAAM fabricated thick wall component [1].
regular geometries and it is cumbersome, whereas the proposed MHP is relatively easy
and can be operated by robots. MHP employs an indenter which impacts fabricated
component with a specified frequency. Main use of MHP is for surface smoothing, to
induce compressive residual stresses and for surface hardening. The experimental set
up used for vertical inter-pass peening and side inter-pass peening is indicated in the
Fig. 14, and in Fig. 15 displays the peening patterns. In this experiment Ti6Al4V
sample blocks were fabricated with 14 layers with a layer thickness of 1.1 mm and a
layer width of 5.8 mm. Leaving the first 10 layers the peening operation is done on the
top 4 layers, test results of the samples taken from the peened and un-peened surfaces
indicates that, hardness is considerably increased in the zone effected by peening, and
Fig. 14. Set up of (a) vertical inter-pass peening and (b) Inter-pass side peening [17]
peened zone also witnessed the compressive residual stress and these are shown in the
Fig. 16. Maximum peened depth in the experiment appears to be 2 mm from the
surface. Results of the experiment concluded that MHP is good technique for grain
refinement as shown in Fig. 17.
Fig. 15. Peening Line outline and Peening field outline [17]
Fig. 16. Hardness & residual stress profiles [17]
Fig. 17. Microstructure before inter-pass and after inter-pass peening steps for 4th layer [17].
(a) Vertical peening control (b) vertical inter-pass peened (c) side peening control (d) side inter-
pass peened
3 Conclusions
• Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is the best alternative for subtractive
manufacturing especially bulky components/structures with reasonable complexity,
and for higher cost materials, WAAM should be the best option due to the sig-
nificant cost reduction in buy to fly ratio.
• A comprehensive review of literature articles associated to WAAM fabricated
components presented, analyzing their microstructure evolution, metallurgical dis-
closures, and acquired mechanical properties.
• For good mechanical properties of the WAAM fabricated components inter pass
temperature should be maintained below 200 °C.
• WAAM technology can achieve the desired microstructure in the build direction of
the component by controlling the cooling rate of the deposited layer with different
series of cooling media like water, brine, oil or forced convection.
• Refinement of the grain structure for the WAAM fabricated titanium alloys can be
done effectively by adding silicon to the deposition layers, silicon added would
significantly reduce the average grain size of prior b grains, however it cannot
prevent the columnar grain formation.
• Review of simulated studies of heat accumulation reduction in WAAM, grain
refinement and heat treatments, open up the future scope of research specific
WAAM processes.
• WAAM primarily fabricating medium to large scale metallic components/structures
involve, interactions between material compositions, high thermal exposures, and
process parameters which decide the microstructural evolution of the component
thus dictate the mechanical properties of components.
• The major WAAM process issues related to heat accumulation, residual stresses,
and complex thermal history are the areas in which more research is being focused
in order to minimize the ill effects of these and to fabricate the components with
enhanced mechanical properties with controlled microstructure properties.
• Currently more research is being conducted to fabricate the functionally graded
components through controlled microstructure of the fabricating components.
References
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J Mater Process Technol. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.10.019
Towards Modeling of Polymer Injection
Molding Process – Approaches for Evaluation
of the Processing Conditions, Control Factors
and Optimization
Vishnuprasad Pattali, P. Govindan(&), and M. P. Vipindas
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Engineering,

Kannur, Kerala, India
govindanformegcek@gmail.com
Abstract. The main goal of injection molding process is to generate complex

geometries using least amount of input energy, based on an understanding of a
methodical perceptive of process mechanisms. The modeling approaches would
contain numerical methods, analytical tools and parametric investigations. In
this paper, the challenges including vital reasons for imprecision in the pre-
diction, development of routine evaluation measures in spite of process setting
variations, and research lines to facilitate the most efficient combination of
control factors aiming at optimization are explored. It is anticipated that
deformation trends at real circumstances could be predicted for its overall
minimization and a physical relationship with control variables such as working
temperature and system pressure would be developed at all process conditions.
Keywords: Injection molding Control factor Polymer molding

Thermoplastic Process mechanism Numerical modeling
1 Introduction
Injection molding is a manufacturing technique in which injection action is used to

transfer material into the mould to generate parts. In the injection molding industry,
minimization of total cost and product quality improvement are two central consider-
ations. In order to achieve mechanization as well as optimization of the process in the
industry, it is essential to observe and control the process variables [1]. During the
process, average cavity temperature and pressure are two significant factors. In addi-
tion, speed plays a role in the actual process. With regards to polymer processing
industries, 33% of the total products worldwide are generated using injection molding.
The thermal and mechanical fluctuations occurring on the polymer parts during the
process are difficult to predict, and hence may affect the repeatability and quality during
mass production [2]. Consequently, there is a possibility of occurrence of defects on the
final part because of unanticipated in-process variations. For processes such as powder
injection molding, attempts have been made to control the process variables using
advanced approaches involving sequential simplex algorithm and sensitivity analysis
[3]. Statistical, ANN and numerical methods are used to assess the permissible stress in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_71
602 V. Pattali et al.
an injection molding process as a function of governing parameters [4]. The integrated

modeling approach has simplified the procedure for obtaining the minimum stress at
different sections of the molded part. The effect of process parameters, viz. pressure and
temperature on three performance indicators considered independently, viz. velocity
profile, filling time and flow front advancement was numerically modeled and simu-
lated by Rusdi et al. [5]. They found that both experimental and simulation showed a
good agreement within 5%, for both the selected parameters. The influence of heat
treatment of injection moulded parts after processing was investigated by Kim and Min
in Ref. [6]. In the work, the modeling results using finite element analysis and computer
aided engineering predicted damage due to residual stresses as a result of heat reversal
effect. Ou et al. [7] investigated simulation of two-component injection molding of a
thermoplastic polymer and silicone rubber. A thermo-rheo-kinetic model was devel-
oped and the filling process was simulated. To validate the model, molding tests were
performed on a polyamide thermoplastic polymer/liquid silicone rubber to evaluate a
standard peel test specimen without defects. The significance of four important gov-
erning parameters, viz. melt temperature, mold temperature, holding pressure and
injection speed was analyzed in [8]. The factors contributing to the total energy needed
for injection molding process was identified and a correlation between energy and the
factors were developed [9]. The accuracy of the energy model was reported to be 60–
67%. The factors average cavity pressure and temperature during injection, average
temperature of the cavity during ejection was observed to influence the amount of total
energy. In [10], a connection between the energy consumption, type of injection
molding machine and feature generated was established. 12 different types of machines
were used in this study and in depth energy monitoring for 36 cases was carried out.
The trends in deformation of electroless nickel phosphide core during injection
molding were analyzed in [11]. Dimensional accuracy of the core was selected as the
key response variable in the analysis. Melt temperature, injection velocity, packing
pressure, packing time, cooling time and mold temperature were controlled during the
tests. It was found that the centre of the mould indicated a state of contraction at the
centre, and expansion at the edges. Injection molding experiments were conducted by
varying mold temperature, melt temperature and injection speed [12]. Polystyrene is
selected as the material for thin wall injection molding. At high injection speeds, a drop
in the cavity pressure was observed. The cavity pressure fall is inversely dependent on
the slip velocity. Two well known modeling approaches, viz. discrete element method
and smoothed particle hydrodynamics were integrated and was used to simulate
injection molding of short fiber composites [13]. The stress distribution, flow pattern
and velocity contours were developed for each section. The model was built on process
inputs such as particle spacing and processing time.
Injection molding is a novel technique for high-volume production of plastic
products for all applications including mechanical as well as other engineering
requirements [1, 5–11]. However, selection of shear rate [7–9], molding temperature [1,
4, 6–9], melt temperature [2, 10, 12], injection time [1, 3, 5–11] etc. are the current
open issues in the process. The mold configuration, fiber orientation and void distri-
bution were found to play a significant role in the process simulation. Therefore, in this
paper, the attempts of modeling of injection molding are systematically classified. The
paper is divided into three sections. In Sect. 2, the injection molding conditions and
Towards Modeling of Polymer Injection Molding Process 603
control factors are critically evaluated. The numerical modeling approaches towards
injection molding are presented in Sect. 3. In Sect. 4, approaches for characterization
of residual stresses and energy analysis is depicted. It is anticipated that the paper
would yield a new direction and recommendations could be derived for intense
research in the area of polymer injection molding.
2 Injection Molding Conditions and Control Factors
Injection molding is a manufacturing technique suitable for production of complex

features at high rates. In the technique, energy requirement and the production rate is
controlled by injection molding conditions and governing control factors.
Cavity factors
Energy
Material factors required to Equipment factors
produce a
part
Mold and part

geometry
factors
Fig. 1. Energy control factors in injection molding [9]
The factors controlling the energy required to generate a part using injection
molding is presented in Fig. 1. The cavity factors are obtained from the cavity control
signals whereas the control factors related to the material is obtained from the polymer
manufacturer’s datasheet. In ref. [9], three factors were selected to depict the injection
molding cavity, they are: average cavity temperature during injection, average cavity
pressure during injection and average cavity temperature during ejection. The factors
associated with injection molding machine are temperature of the polymer melt during
injection, efficiency of machine, shot size and power required. The geometrical
dimensions of the part as well as the mold also influence the energy requirements. The
controllable factors are volume of the part, fraction of part volume used for gating,
number of cavities, total cycle time and maximum flow rate. In [9], two positions of
injection mounding configuration are selected, and variation of the control factors
specifically at these two positions are evaluated. The results show cavity pressure
variations at the selected locations. The geometrical controllable factors associated with
injection molding are included in [4]. Considering a cross-section of the geometry, the
part height, fillet radii at sections and draft angle are controlled in order to achieve the
optimum Von mises stress. Similarly, aiming to minimize the occurrence of defects
during injection molding, control factors governing the thermal deformations on the
part are selected as cooling time, thermal expansion coefficient, poisson’s ratio,
Young’s modulus and mold temperature [2], in addition to the regular factors injection
speed, packing pressure and injection time. A two-level factorial design was estab-
lished. All possible variations of the factors are included, and the results of average
deformation of a specimen including the effect of thermal and flow effects are shown in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. The average deformation of the specimen with processing conditions [2]
The factors controlling energy requirements and successive environmental impacts

are methodically evaluated in [10]. In order to analyze the deformations during
injection molding, filling time, packing time, cooling time, cycle time, mold temper-
ature, melt temperature and packing pressure are maintained constant considering the
complexity of the injection molding process, with a possible injection speed variations
[6, 12].
3 Multiphysics Modeling of Injection Molding
Simulation methods are employed to gain a deeper understanding of the process

mechanics of the injection molding process. Computational fluid methods, particle
simulation techniques and coupled approaches have been used to obtain a clearer
picture of the mechanisms [3]. The coupled methods are appropriate for achieving
results yielding a better physical explanation [5, 13]. The coupled smoothed particle
hydrodynamics-discrete element method model involved calculations of the connected
forces, see Fig. 3 for a schematic. The Navier-Stokes equation approximation is used to
calculate the average drag forces. The realistic prediction of the movement of fibers in
the resin flow is achieved. The simulation was applied for two-dimensional estimate of
three-dimensional features. It is further aimed to minimize part cost, temperature as
well as phase variations across the mold and to optimize injection points, injection
pressure and surface quality of the features.
Fig. 3. A schematic of the interaction forces in the smoothed particle hydrodynamics-discrete

element method model [13]
In polymer injection molding, a reasonable approximation using simulation tools

could be attained by using finite volume or volume of fluid approaches. The behavior of
air-polymer interfaces, viscosity and compressibility variations and phase change
effects are critical in polymer molding [1]. For results, see Fig. 4a–b.
Fig. 4. A comparison of predicted polymer melt flow advancement with experimental results,
a. three- dimensional model, b. experimental result [1]
Numerical methods are also used to elucidate the effect of parameters on the quality
of parts which is directly influenced by the extent of mold filling [8]. Mould temper-
ature and injection speed are found to be the significant parameters. The flow front
expansion, profile of the injection velocity and filling time are selected and the three-
dimensional numerical simulation analysis was carried out. The injection molded
profile, flow front advancements and viscosity shear rate were observed using the
System pressure: 40 bar

Process temperature: 190° C
Flow front advancement times:
0.5 s, 1 s, 1.5 s and 2 s
Mold cavity temperature: 27°C
a. b.
Fig. 5. Simulation model of melt filling in injection molding, a. meshed representation of

computational field, b. key molding parameters [5]
developed numerical model [5]. The meshed three-dimensional simulated model and
simulation parameters are presented in Fig. 5a and b respectively.
In the work, the deviation between model and experimental results was within 5%
for the system pressure and within 3% for system temperature respectively at the
selected processing conditions. In a similar work, the key processes involving filling of
the mould, cooling and packing phases was numerically modeled [7] (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Numerical simulation results of injection moulding of thermoplastics, a. filling phase,

b. temperature distribution on the substrate [7]
The rheological, rheo-kinetic and thermal behavior of silicone elastomeric materials

during two-component injection moulding process was captured using the simulation
tools.
4 Energy and Residual Stresses Characterization
Energy consumption during the injection molding is measured with the help of energy
loggers. The approach is to monitor the energy consumption under normal process
input settings [9, 12]. The type of material and the configuration of the machine
indicated significant changes in the consumption of energy during the injection
molding [10, 11]. The results indicate that plasticizing phase is the most energy
demanding phase. In general, the electrical injection molding machines show a better
Fig. 7. The variation in the energy data obtained from energy logger [9]
efficiency than hybrid or hydraulic equipments. Figure 7 shows an estimate of variation

in the energy data obtained using experimental and measurement methods.
The stress levels induced in the parts is another pointer of the injection molding
performance. In [4], the maximum possible stress is calculated using available equa-
tions to characterize the stress variations during injection molding. Analytical methods,
finite element methods and experimental techniques are used to determine the defor-
mation occurring on different sections of the part.
Based on the modeling procedures presented in [6], the authors have attempted to
numerically model injection molding of thermoplastic. The simulation parameters,
units and range of values selected for simulation runs is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Numerical simulation parameters and range of values

Sl. no. Simulation parameter Unit Range of values used in the simulation
1 Temperature of mould °C 40 to 80
2 Temperature of melt °C 220 to 240
3 Packing pressure MPa 30 to 70
4 Packing time s 3 to 10
The results of the preliminary simulation are presented in Fig. 8a–c.

The numerical modeling of the injection molding process will be followed by
optimization of the process parameters. The current optimization methods currently
applied already reported in the literature has drawbacks such as lack of convergence [3,
5, 6], existence of more than one optimum points [7, 11], incongruity with the con-
firmation tests [8, 9] and insufficient background to address the occurrence of defects
during the processes [3–11]. A combined Taguchi – response surface methodology
approach would be used to optimize the injection molding parameters. A set of con-
firmation tests will be carried out to validate the model results and to verify the
optimized set of injection molding parameter sets.
Fig. 8. Numerical modeling of injection molding of thermoplastic a. Sectional view of the mold,
b. stress distribution of molding material, c. stress distribution of mold
As evident from the stress distribution of the mold, all the mold surfaces are
characterized with the effect of residual stresses. This could be attributed to challenges
in mould cooling. The aspects controlling the cooling include thermal conductivity of
mould material, surface area of cooling channels, flow rate of cooling fluid and number
of cooling channels in order to minimize thermal gradients which is the prime factor
causing residual stresses.
5 Conclusions
A new research direction towards modeling of injection molding process of polymers is

presented in this paper. The results obtained from literature are critically evaluated in
all sections in this paper and the results of preliminary attempts of modeling are
presented at the end. Based on this work, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• Injection molding is an evolving technology suitable for fabrication of intricate
features in mass production situations. The collections of research attempts are
scientifically classified and results are vitally evaluated.
• The criteria for evaluation of results in this work were: injection molding control
factors, multiphysics modeling and characterization of residual stress and energy
consumption.
• The deformation occurring during the injection molding as well as at the end of the
process mainly depends on mould cavity factors and process settings.
• The numerical modeling of injection molding gives an insight into process mech-
anisms in addition to those based on thermal and pressure fluctuations; such as into
rheological and rheo-kinetic domains.
• The energy data obtained using experimental gives high variations in the magni-
tude. Therefore, the modeling of injection molding process should be primarily
undertaken with modeling of deformations followed by energy analysis.
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the Principal, Head of the Department,
Mechanical Engineering, all faculty, staff and students of Government College of Engineering
Kannur, Kerala, India.
References
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polymer injection molding process for single-cavity and multicavity mold systems. J Manuf
Sci Eng 132:011001-1–011001-12
2. Chang E, Shin S, Chung H (2013) Identification of controlling parameters on thermal
deformation of mobile device by injection molding process. J Manuf Sci Eng 135:011008-1–
011008-9
3. Panahi AK, Mianajiy H, Miandoabchi E, Fareed MH (2013) Optimization of the powder
injection molding process parameters using the sequential simplex algorithm and sensitivity
analysis. J Manuf Sci Eng 135:011006-1–011006-7
4. Zafosnik B, Bozic U, Florjanic B (2015) Modelling of an analytic equation for predicting
maximum stress in an injections moulded undercut geometry during ejection. Int J Precis
Eng Manuf 16:2499–2507
5. Rusdi MS, Abdullah MZ, Mahmud AS, Khor CY, Aziz MSA, Ariff ZM, Abdullah MK
(2016) Numerical investigation on the effect of pressure and temperature on the melt filling
during injection molding process. Arab J Sci Eng 41:1907–1919
6. Kim B, Min J (2017) Residual stress distributions and their influence on post-manufacturing
deformation of injection-molded plastic parts. J Mater Process Technol 245:215–226
7. Ou H, Sahli M, Barriere T, Gelin JC (2017) Multiphysics modeling and experimental
investigations of the filling and curing phases of bi-injection moulding of thermoplastic
polymer/liquid silicone rubbers. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 92:3871–3882
8. Surace R, Bellantone V, Trotta G, Fassi I (2017) Replicating capability investigation of
micro features in injection moulding process. J Manuf Process 28:351–361
9. Valencia AS, Loste J (2018) Characterizing energy consumption in injection molding: model
versus logger. J Manuf Sci Eng 140:031013-1–031013-10
10. Elduque A, Elduque D, Claveria I, Javierre C (2018) Influence of material and injection
molding machine’s selection on the electricity consumption and environmental impact of the
injection molding process: an experimental approach. Int J Precis Eng Manuf – Green
Technol 5:13–28
11. Lan X, Li C, Yang L, Xue C (2018) Deformation analysis and improvement method of the
Ni-P mold core in the injection molding process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 99:2659–2668
12. Masato D, Sorgato M, Babenko M, Whiteside B, Lucchetta G (2018) Thin-wall injection
molding of polystyrene parts with coated and uncoated cavities. Mater Des 141:286–295
13. Wu K, Wan L, Zhang H, Yang D (2018) Numerical simulation of the injection molding
process of short fiber composites by an integrated particle approach. Int J Adv Manuf
Technol 97:3479–3491
Design of Sequential Electro-Pneumatic System
Nagashiva Mutyam(&), T. S. S. Siva Saikumar,

and Bhanumurthy Soppari
Mechanical Engineering Department, VNRVJIET, Hyderabad 500090, India

shivamutyam22@gmail.com
Abstract. This paper provides an automation methodology related to Pneu-

matic structures to transform the existing conventional drilling machines into
automatic drilling machines. The automation technique entails numerous
pneumatic devices, pneumatic systems and also some electric and electronic
devices. The automation strategy, whilst implanted is believed to bring about
reduced cycle time, expenses, improved product high-quality and increase in
productivity. By considering a specific undertaking of drilling holes, it is dis-
covered from the existing investigation that by using the technique of conver-
sion the output charge increases four times as compared to that of conventional
form of machines.
Keywords: Automation Pneumatic devices Solenoid control valves

Actuators Relays Pressure switch Sensors
1 Introduction
Automation can be defined as an era concerned with performing a process by way of

approach of programmed, generally combined with automatic feedback control to
ensure proper execution of instructions. The resulting system is able to operating
without human intervention. According to their control shape automation may be
classified as Open-loop system and Closed-loop system.
An open loop system is one that does not have any feedback mechanism in the
device. The output performance of the machine is predicated upon the characteristics of
individual components and their interaction inside the circuit. In the closed-loop sys-
tems a feedback mechanism is used for controlling the device dynamics any such
displacement, speed acceleration and so forth. The fee of the output being monitored is
in comparison with the preferred output and the machine controls are accordingly
adjusted until this difference is zero.
In latest years, the main traits witnessed in the area of automation consist of:
• Flexible production structures
• Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM)
• Information Technology (IT)
• Robots
• Numerically controlled (NC) device
• Computer integrated Measuring (CIM)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_72
Design of Sequential Electro-Pneumatic System 611
Pneumatic and electro-pneumatic components find several applications inside the

industrial environment, particularly to resolve problems of product automation. Most of
the packages are in the subject of the low-cost automation due to the fact the traditional
pneumatic and electro-pneumatic components are conceived to paintings in on/off
environment. In particular, a exquisite improvement of the electro-pneumatics has been
because of the development of the electronics, which has given many different solu-
tions in phrases of sensors, controllers and mechatronic gadgets. Moreover, the electro-
pneumatics is not handiest on/off, but several analogue components may be discovered,
as proportional valves in strain or drift, which can be used to design suitable servo-
systems with proper static and dynamic performances.
1.1 Applications of Pneumatics

Compressed air is used as the power source for pneumatic activation. To develop
mechanical work such as motion and to generate forces compressed air is used. The
compressed air is converted into motion by the pneumatic devices. The most com-
monly used pneumatic devices are cylinders, actuators and grippers. To control the
pneumatic devices, they can be controlled either by electrical signal or by pneumatic
signal. Pneumatic devices are used in wide range of applications, where it can be used
positing, packaging, loading or unloading, clamping or unclamping, rotating, sepa-
rating, filling, opening or closing of a door etc.
1.2 Pneumatic and Electro Pneumatic System

Both pneumatic and electro pneumatic controllers have a pneumatic strength section.
The sign manipulate segment varies consistent with type. In a pneumatic control
pneumatic components are used, this is a various type of valve, sequencer, air
barrier etc.
In an electro-pneumatic control the signal controller section is made up of electrical
components, for example with electrical input buttons, proximity switches, relays, or a
programmable good judgment controller. The directional manipulate valves form the
interface among the signal control phase and the pneumatic strength segment in both
kinds of controller.
2 Development of Pneumatic Circuit
For multi actuator applications we need to develop control circuit to understand the
sequence of actuation at various signal inputs by switches or by sensors. Multi actuator
applications with three double acting cylinders A, B, and C. In the below graph x axis
shows the activation sequence of cylinders and y axis shows the position of the
cylinder.
612 N. Mutyam et al.
The sequence for this application is A+ B+ C+ C- B- A-
0 represents the
retracted position
1 represents the
extended position
Functional Diagram
Sequence of operations:
Clamping and unclamping Drilling
Sequence of operations
2.1 Sequential Motion of Actuators

The following sequence of operations will be carried out when the start button is
pressed.
Clamping Clamping Idle
Idle Idle Drilling
Idle Idle Retracting
Unclamping Unclamping Idle
2.2 Components Required

The components are selected based on the pneumatic circuit. The components required
to produce the circuit are listed below
S. no Quantity Component
1 3 Double acting cylinder
2 6 Read sensors
3 3 5/2 solenoid valves
4 4 FRL unit
5 1 Start switch
6 4 Change over relays
7 1 24V SMPS
TA- Cylinder A Retracted Sensor TA+ Cylinder A Extended Sensor

TB- Cylinder B Retracted Sensor TB+ Cylinder B Extended Sensor
TC- Cylinder C Retracted Sensor TC+ Cylinder C Extended Sensor
2.3 Electrical Sequence Circuit
Pneumatic and electric circuit diagram
R1,R2,R3,R4 Relays
A+, A- Solenoid A signals, B+, B- Solenoid B signals, C+, C- Solenoid C signals
All the components are connected using PU pipe and all the solenoid valves have
their own FRL unit to regulate the air flow. When the start button is pressed, it checks the
initial condition of the cylinder and R1 relay will be activated. After R1 relay gets on it
gives signal to the Solenoid A+ and B+. the cylinders A and B gets extended to clamp the
workpiece. After clamping the workpiece relay R2 gets activated and the cylinder C will
gets extended the speed of the extension is controlled by the FRL unit. When the cylinder
C reached to C+ position it retracts back. While retracting the piston moves upwards and
reach to the C- position the relay R3 gets activated. When R3 is on the piston the cylinders
A and B get retracted and de clamps the workpiece. The process we will be stopped.
614 N. Mutyam et al.
Working of electric circuit
3 Calculations
The diameter of dill bit is 10 mm, cutting speed 1200RPM and feed is 1 mm/rev.
General force required to drill a hole is 2000N. Diameter of the cylinder is 23 mm.
The pressure required to be maintained in the cylinder is 4.8 Mpa (approx. 5 Mpa).
d2
F ¼ Pp
4
4F
P¼
pd 2
2000 4
P¼
p ð0:023Þ2
P ¼ 4:8Mpa:
5 bar of air pressure is maintained in the drilling cylinder to drill a hole of 10 mm

diameter.
4 Conclusion
The manual controlled machine is transformed into automatic machine through the use
of various pneumatic devices as discussed. The outcomes indicate the operation time is
saved. Thus, the output might be more and even the human intervention is minimized,
such that number of machines can be handled by a single operator. We can demonstrate
that any manually operated system can be converted into automatic machines with the
aid of the use of those devices. But to achieve this one need to have full knowledge on
the devices that are being used. By doing this old machines can be changed and made
automatic by which the initial cost to purchase a new automated machine.
References
1. Świder J, Wszołek G, Carvalho W (2005) Programmable controller designed for electrop-
neumatic systems. J Mater Process Technol 164:1459–1465
2. Gill KJS, Kumar R, Kumar S (2015) Designing and fabrication of electro-pneumatic trainer
kit. In: International conference of advance research and innovation, ICARI 2015
3. Kumar A, Baig MAA, Lathe R. Automation of a drilling machine using pneumatic devices
4. Chivu C. Simulation of double acting pneumatic cylinder control
5. Salloom MY, Hussein HS, Abbas R (2015) Performance of PLC controlled pneumatic
elevator. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 02:457–464
6. Figliolini G, Rea P (2004) Design and test of pneumatic systems for production automation.
In: Proceedings of the Canadian engineering education association (CEEA)
Factors Influencing Hydrodynamic Entry
Length in Helical Coils
R. Prattipati1(&), N. Koganti2, and Srinivas Pendyala1

1
Mechanical Engineering Department, School of Technology, GITAM,
Hyderabad 502329, Telangana, India
rprattipati@outlook.com
2
Computational Science and Engineering, University of Rostock,
18051 Rostock, Germany
Abstract. Friction factor in the entrance region is higher than in fully devel-
oped flow and is essential in accounting for pressure drop. Due to geometry of
helical coils, centrifugal force destroys the symmetry of velocity profile and the
maximum velocity is shifted towards outer side. Turbulent flow in helical coil is
numerically studied for different orientations of the coil. System parameters such
as coil diameter, pipe diameter, pitch, pressure, flow etc. are varied and the
change in entry length is observed. It is found that orientation, pressure and
density of fluid has no effect on the developing region while geometrical
changes and flow influence the hydrodynamic entry length.
Keywords: Entry length Helical coil Turbulent flow Turbulent models
1 Introduction
Helical coils are widely used in process industries, nuclear power, organic Rankine
cycle applications and concentrated solar power industry. The geometry introduces coil
diameter D, pitch p in addition to tube diameter d. Due to complexity of geometry, flow
in helical pipes differs from straight pipes. Majority of numerical work in literature has
been carried out by considering fully developed region for solutions.
1.1 Literature Review

Dean [1] translated Navier-Stokes equations into cylindrical reference frame and found
that a secondary flow is developed due to inertial and centrifugal forces. Germano [2]
introduced an orthogonal reference frame for helical pipes and showed that curvature
has a first order effect and torsion a second order effect. Berger et al. [3] showed that
curvature ratio d ¼ d=D affects the balance of inertia, viscous and centrifugal forces or
that geometry effects entrance length and hence friction factor. Jinsuo and Benzhao [4]
used perturbation method and found first, second and third order effects of curvature
and torsion on secondary. The equations were for laminar and fully developed flow.
Moll et al. [5] found that shear stress at the tube wall increased due to formation of
secondary flow. Yang and Ebadian [6] used k-e model for studying forced convection
in fully developed flow. Hüttl and Friedrich [7] performed direct numerical simulations

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_73
Factors Influencing Hydrodynamic Entry Length in Helical Coils 617
for fully developed, steady turbulent flow to study the effect of curvature and torsion.
Saffari et al. [8] numerically simulated turbulent flow with SST k-x model for pre-
dicting the entry length in helical coils for flows with void fraction values less than 0.1.
Piazza and Ciofalo [9] used k-e, SST k-x and RSM-x models for turbulent flow and
heat transfer prediction and compared the results with fully resolved direct numerical
simulations. The results have shown that SST k-x and RSM-x models predicted friction
factor and heat transfer coefficient accurately. The velocity and temperature profiles
have been well predicted by second order RSM-x model.
Based on the results of [9], RSM-x model is used for simulation in current study to
account for the entry length. In addition to the work carried out [8], the range of
parameters is extended and comparison based on curvature and pitch ratios is presented
with quantitative criteria for determining fully developed region.
2 CFD Modeling
2.1 Geometry and Meshing
The typical geometry and mesh of the helical pipes used for the purpose of study is
shown in Fig. 1(a). Each coil has 10 turns. Hexahedral cells are used for meshing. The
velocity profile is taken at the horizontal section of the pipe cross-section as shown in
Fig. 1(b). The non-dimensional velocity profile ðu=umax Þ is compared against radius
ðr=RÞ with value of ‘1’ representing the inner side and ‘1’ outer side of pipe, where
R is radius of pipe.
Coil axis
Pipe c/s Top
Outer
side
Inner
side
Bottom
Coil axis
(a) Helical coil of 10 turns (b) Pipe cross-section
Fig. 1. Helical coil and pipe
The geometry parameters are pipe diameter d, coil diameter D and pitch p repre-
sented in terms of curvature ratio d ¼ d=D and pitch ratio k ¼ p=D. The various
geometries used for study are shown in Table 1. The values chosen are to include the
618 R. Prattipati et al.
most commonly available commercial coils [10] and to show the effect of non
dimensional geometrical parameters.
Table 1. Geometry for computation.

Case no. d (mm) D (mm) p (mm) d k
1 10.16 127 76 0.08 0.6
2 10.16 254 76 0.04 0.3
3 10.16 254 152 0.04 0.6
4 10.16 381 76 0.027 0.2
5 22.9 381 76 0.06 0.2
2.2 Governing Equations

In Reynolds averaged methods, the instantaneous components ui are sum of mean ui
and fluctuating u0i components.
ui ¼ ui þ u0i : ð1Þ
The Reynolds averaged equations can be then written as

Continuity Equation
@ui
¼ 0: ð2Þ
@xi
Reynolds Stress Transport Equation
@ 0 0 @
qui uj þ quk u0i u0j ¼ Pij þ Fij þ Gij þ Dij;T þ Dij;m þ Uij 2ij : ð3Þ
@t @t
where the right hand terms represent stress production, rotation production, buoyancy
production, turbulent diffusion, molecular diffusion, pressure strain and viscous dissi-
pation respectively. Due to close coupling of equations, complex flows can be com-
puted with this model. The closures for the equations have further modeling [11].
2.3 Validation
After checking the grid independent results, a suitable grid is chosen. The friction
factor and heat transfer agreement is found with correlations in literature. The friction
factor is compared with the correlation given by Ito [12]
pffiffiffi
f ¼ 0:304 Re0:25 þ 0:029 d: ð4Þ
The heat transfer is compared with relation given by Pethukov [13]. The equation
predicted heat transfer accurately for curved pipes also when used with Eq. 4 [9].
ðf =8ÞRePr
Nu ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð5Þ
1:07 þ 12:7 ðf =8ÞðPr2=3 1Þ
The criteria for consideration of flow to be fully developed is discussed. The non
dimensional velocity profile is plotted along the horizontal of the pipe cross section at
regular intervals of 90° turn of the coil. The comparison for various angles is given in
Fig. 2. The velocity profile shows that the maximum velocity is towards the outer side
of the pipe due to centrifugal force caused by the curvature of coil. The difference in the
profiles between consecutive sections is imperceptible after section at 270° turn of coil.
For quantitative analysis the error between two successive velocity profiles is calcu-
lated as shown in Fig. 3. The velocity profile is taken to be fully developed when the
error reaches below 1%. For this condition, it can be seen that the value is reached
between 540° and 630° turn of the coil. Through this procedure, the fully developed
velocity profile can be said to be reached around 540° turn or one and half turn of the
coil. The total length of the helical coil is calculated for the fully developed length
L and the L=d ratio is presented in the current analysis. For the case shown in Fig. 2,
the L=d for fully developed flow is around 60.
(a) Velocity profile at different angles (b) Error for successive profiles
Fig. 2. Procedure for considering fully developed flow

To ensure turbulent flow Re of 20000 is chosen after verifying the transition in

helical coils through Ito’s equation [12].

Recrictical ¼ 2000 1 þ 13:2d0:6 : ð6Þ
(a) Variation in d (b) Variation in D
Fig. 3. Velocity profiles for different curvature ratio
3.1 Effect of Curvature Ratio

The curvature ratio is varied for same k and inlet Re. The results of changing curvature
ratio where tube and coil diameter are varied to capture the effect in figure, the fully
developed velocity profile is given. Figure 3(a) shows the curvature ratio by changing
the tube diameter. An increase in tube diameter increases the curvature ratio and the
entry length also has varied. The L=d for d ¼ 0:027 is found to be around 59 and for
d ¼ 0:06; 64. Likewise, with change in coil diameter, the velocity profile has changed
as in Fig. 3(b). but the entry length in both the cases is around 59. Due to the limitation
on the location of data extraction in this study, the entry length is approximated, but if
more locations are considered, the entry length could probably be the same too for
change in curvature ratio.
3.2 Effect of Pitch Ratio

The change in pitch ratio is shown in Fig. 4. The velocity profile change due to change
in pitch is very small when compared to change in curvature ratio. However for
k ¼ 0:3, the entry length was around 59 while for k ¼ 0:6, it was found to be 80. It is
found that the velocity has fully developed for most of the pipe cross-section at about
the same length for both cases except for the inner side of the pipe cross-section in the
error graph. This caused a change for considering the entry length for the variation in
pitch ratio.
Fig. 4. Velocity profile for different pitch ratio, Re = 20000, d = 0.04
3.3 Effect of Inlet Re

The inlet Reynolds number is varied from 20000 to 50000 and the velocity profiles are
shown in Fig. 5. The fully developed velocity profile is changed as the Re increased.
For Re of 20000, the L=d ¼ 60 and for an increase of Re to 50000, it is found that
L=d ¼ 70.
3.4 Effect of Other Parameters

The entrance length is checked for different pressures from 1 bar to 45 bar and it is
found that there is no change in the L=d ratio. Similarly, change in inlet fluid from air to
water did not show any appreciable change in L=d ratio. More simulations were
performed to see if the entry length changed due to helical coil orientation. The coil is
tested for vertical, horizontal and inclined positions with both upflow and downflow for
vertical orientation. There was no significant difference in the entry length for the above
variations.
Fig. 5. Effect of inlet Re, d = 0.08, k = 0.6
4 Conclusions
This paper presents a preliminary investigation into determining the entrance length in
helical coil. By utilizing RSM - x turbulent model which gives accurate profiles, the
effect of helical coil geometry are investigated through non-dimensional parameters.
While it is found that entry length could be a function of geometry, inlet velocity
definitely influences the entrance region. However, more investigations with extended
range of parameters are needed along with smaller intervals of analysis for a definitive
conclusion.
References
1. Dean WR (1927) Note on the motion of fluid in a curved pipe. Lond Edinb Dublin Philos
Mag J Sci 4:208–223
2. Germano M (1982) On the effect of torsion in a helical pipe flow. J Fluid Mech 125:1–8
3. Berger A, Talbot L, Yao LS (1983) Flow in curved pipes. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 15:461–512
4. Jinsuo Z, Benzhao Z (1999) Fluid flow in a helical pipe. Acta Mech Sin 15:299–312
5. Moll R, Veyret D, Charbit F, Moulin P (2007) Dean vortices applied to membrane process.
Part I: experimental approach. J Membr Sci 288:307–320
6. Yang G, Ebadian MA (1996) Turbulent forced convection in a helicoidal pipe with
substantial pitch. Int J Heat Mass Transf 39:2015–2022
7. Hüttl TJ, Friedrich R (2000) Influence of curvature and torsion on turbulent flow in helically
coiled pipes. Int J Heat Fluid Flow 21:345–353
8. Saffari H, Moosavi R, Nouri NM, Lin C-X (2014) Prediction of hydrodynamic entrance
length for single and two-phase flow in helical coils. Chem Eng Process 86:9–21
9. Di Piazza I, Ciofalo M (2010) Numerical prediction of turbulent flow and heat transfer in
helically coiled pipes. Int J Therm Sci 49:653–663
10. Xin RC, Ebadian MA (1997) The effects of Prandtl numbers on local and average convective
heat transfer characteristics in helical pipes. ASME J Heat Transf 119:467–473
11. ANSYS FLUENT (2013) Theory guide. ANSYS, Inc., October
12. Ito H (1959) Friction factors for turbulent flow in curved pipes. J Basic Eng 81:123–134
13. Pethukov BS (1970) Heat transfer and friction in turbulent pipe flow with variable physical
properties. Adv Heat Transf 6:1–69
Formability Analysis on the Gas Formed
Aluminum Coated Magnesium Alloys
in Conical Dies
J. Kandasamy(&) and M. Ranjith Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, MVSR Engineering College,

Nadergul, Hyderabad 501510, India
professorkandan@gmail.com,
mudavathranjithkumar329@gmail.com
Abstract. Superplasticity is a unique material property by which a polycrys-

talline material exhibits very high tensile elongation in all directions prior to
failure. The paper presents the geometrical modelling of the depth of form from
the displaced air volume from the gas blow forming die. The formability of the
material could be understood and the time required for forming could be esti-
mated for different pressures of the gas. The variation in sheet thickness with
constant strain rate during forming is calculated for different arc thickness. The
plotted graphs of the geometrical model are compared with the computational
results performed in MSC MARC MENTAT. The variation in sheet thickness of
the Magnesium alloy sheets coated with aluminum alloy into a conical die is
investigated experimentally. The thickness variation of the formed shows a close
agreement with the theoretical and computational models.
Keywords: Formability analysis Conical die Geometric modelling

FE simulation Experimental investigations
1 Introduction
Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) is a type of bulk forming process that induces very
large plastic strain on a SP material that produces nano level ultra-fine grained metal
[1]. Superplasticity is exceptional ductility that certain metals exhibit when deformed
under a set of conditions. SPF is a SPD technique used in sheet metal forming to
produce precise and complex components out of materials that possess superplastic
characteristic in a certain temperature range. The ductility of SP materials in tensile
loading usually ranges from 200 to 5000% elongation, is reported [2]. The essential
requirements of superplasticity are fine grain size material, relatively high temperature,
and a controlled strain rate. Superplastic forming is a sheet metal forming technique in
which near net shape forming is obtained by the application of inert gas pressure on
special metal alloys called superplastic metals. The sheets are held in an airtight die at
specific temperature conditions and inert gas pressure is applied at homologous tem-
peratures to obtain large deformation without fracture [3].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_74
Formability Analysis on the Gas Formed Aluminum Coated Magnesium Alloys 625
The growth of superplastic materials has provided new opportunities for producing
complex near net shape components by superplastic forming methods in a single step
that are not possible with conventional material. The usage of finite element tools in the
analysis of superplastic forming operations and have made the analysis closer to
practical situations. The ductility of a SP material varies substantially with strain rate
[4]. The strain rate sensitivity exponent (m), the key factor related to the forming nature
of the sheet metal is the rate of change of plastic flow stress with strain rate. The total
elongation of the SP material is affected by fracture and the strain-rate sensitivity. The
influence of the strain rate sensitivity on the material ductility could be comprehended
better through the diffuse neck growth and its mechanics. The elongation at neck slows
with increasing value of m, a stabilizing effect of the strain-rate sensitivity of flow
stress. The elongation of the superplastic alloy rises and falls rapidly over a relatively
short temperature range. The formability outside the limits of this temperature span is
modest in the range of conventional material behaviour. The parameter used to measure
the superplastic formability is the tensile elongation at the optimal superplastic tem-
perature and strain rate [5].
The high strain-rate-sensitive property that real components experience during
forming produces significant variations in strain rate during forming [6]. Hence the
tensile elongation or formability is measured as a function of strain rate. Strain-rate
sensitivity is the dominant parameter in superplastic forming in a great many super-
plastic alloys, a significant amount of hardening can occur as a function of strain, even
at a constant strain rate. At higher strain rates, strain hardening is associated with
dislocation cell formation in the classical manner, and grain growth is not observed [7].
The temperature at which the gas pressure in applied to start the forming process is as
important variable in SPF as the strain rate. The primary reason for localized and
uneven thinning of SPF component thinning is the variation in temperature of the die
during SPF. The characterization of the SPF materials and its behaviour includes fixing
the optimum superplastic forming temperature, flow stress sensitivity and the elonga-
tion temperature [8].
Severe strain localization is observed due to local hot spots that results due to
temperature sensitivity. When strain localization and necking are the dominant modes
of failure, it is observed that the percentage of tensile elongation is a function of the
strain rate sensitivity index that could be predicted. However, when fracture intervenes,
the strain rate sensitivity index fails to provide sufficient quantitative characterization,
although within the same alloy system it provides a qualitative comparison. Fracture is,
therefore, an important consideration in most superplastic materials of engineering
application and is preceded by internal cavitation. Superplastic materials that exhibit
cavitation at inclusions, triple points and second-phase particles generally fail by the
interlinking of growing cavities. Due to the process nature, material behaviour and
relationships between the parameters that the techniques used are not well defined
quantitatively.
626 J. Kandasamy and M. Ranjith Kumar
The die is made up of AISI H13 is a 5% Cr ultrahigh-strength steel, a secondary

hardening steel with good temper resistance, erosion and wear resistance, high hard-
ness, good thermal fatigue and strength at elevated temperatures. The chemical com-
position and mechanical properties of the die material are shown in Tables 1 and 2
respectively. Magnesium alloys are light in weight with more stiffness, high machin-
ability, good formability and strength, high resistance to corrosion, and good weld-
ability. Magnesium alloys exhibits greater elongation properties at a higher temperature
and lower strain rates. Magnesium alloys with grain sizes of about 10 l demonstrates
superplastic properties between 350 °C and 400 °C for strain rates ranging from
10−4 s−1 to 10−3 s−1. The 3D solid model of the die and the workpiece sheet metal is
shown in Fig. 1. The chemical composition of Magnesium alloy is shown in Tables 3
and 4 respectively. The Aluminum alloy AA7075 is coated on Magnesium alloy by
electrolysis method. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the
Aluminum alloy AA7075 are shown in Tables 5 and 6 respectively.
Table 1. Chemical composition of die steel

Element C Mn S Cr Mo Va
Composition by wt% 0.4 0.3 1.0 4.8 1.5 1.0
Table 2. Mechanical properties of die steel

Ultimate tensile Yield Modulus of Poisson’s Density, Melting
strength, MPa strength, elasticity, GPa ratio g/cm3 point, °C
MPa
1500 1350 215 0.3 7.80 1427
Table 3. Chemical composition of magnesium alloy

Element Al Zn Mn Si Cu Ca Fe Ni Mg
Composition by wt% 2.9 1.1 0.49 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.005 0.003 Balance
Table 4. Mechanical properties of magnesium alloy

Ultimate tensile Yield Modulus of Poisson’s Elongation Density,
strength, MPa strength, elasticity, GPa ratio % g/cm3
MPa
290 220 45 0.35 15 1.7
Table 5. Chemical composition of aluminum alloy AA7075

Element Zn Mg Cu Fe Si Ti Mn Cr Al Others
Composition by wt% 5.5 2.6 1.4 0.6 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.3 87–91 0.15
Table 6. Mechanical properties of aluminum alloy AA7075

Ultimate tensile Yield Modulus of Elongation Poisson’s Density,
strength, MPa strength, elasticity, GPa % ratio g/cm3
MPa
571 527 12 0.3 2.8
Fig. 1. Solid model of the die and lid, sheet metal workpiece (Aluminum coated on Magnesium)
3 Theoretical Modelling
The strain rate sensitivity index m is conventionally characterized from a uniaxial test.
In SPF, during the sheet forming, multi-axial stress conditions exists in practice. Hence
a theoretical model becomes necessary for the use of the uniaxial test parameters for the
actual practical condition. During the forming process in a cone die, the sheet under-
goes two phases of forming viz., a free forming phase with the initial die radius of a0
until the radius of the curvature of the deformed membrane becomes q0 (tangential to
die surface) and the incremental free forming into the conical die for a very small
duration of time and in a large number of steps. The Fig. 2 shows the two phases of the
forming during SPF process in a conical die. The height of the dome can be measured
by LVDT but in the current method when the sheet is down to height (h) it is displacing
the air below the membrane in to the inverted measuring jar which is a measure of
volume behind the formed membrane. The volume of air displaced from the die cavity
could be calculated from the Mukerjee’s [1] Eq. (1). The calculated arc length,
thickness, displaced air for stage 1 and stage 2 is shown in Tables 7 and 8 respectively.
The corresponding graphs, change of height in liquid column Vs Depth of form, Arc
length Vs Sheet thickness, Depth of form Vs Expunge volume of Gas, Depth of form
Vs Depth of Form are shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5 respectively.
Fig. 2. Die showing stage 1 and stage 2 during forming
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p p
ve ¼ l sin a a20 þ a0 ða0 l cos aÞ þ ða0 l cos aÞ2 þ q q2 b20 2q þ q2 b20 ð1Þ
3 3
Where Ve = Expunge volume, a0 = Initial radius, b0 = Varying radius, q = Radius

of curvature, l = slant height, a = Semi cone angle.
Table 7. Stage 1
Volume Height of
Height Volume of Varying ao Area of
of displaced Thickness ti deformed liquid in Strain Arc length
S.No of form form value freeform
air Burette
cm cm3 cm3 cm cm2 mm cm cm
1 0.03 0.01 117.28 0.37 0.43 1.99 9.33 -0.01 0.74
2 0.05 0.02 117.26 0.51 0.82 1.98 9.33 -0.01 1.02
3 0.08 0.05 117.24 0.62 1.21 1.97 9.33 -0.02 1.25
4 0.10 0.08 117.20 0.71 1.61 1.96 9.33 -0.02 1.44
- - - - - - - - - -
87 2.18 56.88 60.40 3.88 62.20 1.52 4.81 -0.27 9.31
88 2.20 58.45 58.83 3.91 63.26 1.52 4.68 -0.28 9.39
89 2.23 60.19 57.19 3.95 64.42 1.52 4.54 -0.27 9.47
90 2.25 61.82 55.47 3.97 65.49 1.51 4.41 -0.28 9.55
Table 8. Stage 2
S.No Heig Radiu Volum Volume Radius Hei ght of Height Area of Heigh Area Total Thick Stra
in Arc
ht of s of e of of of free deformed of frustum t of of area ness t length
form form form expunge form liquid (h) frustu free free Ai
(H) Bo d air dome m from form
cm cm cm3 cm3 cm cm cm cm² cm cm² cm² mm cm
1 2.27 3.9 63.34 54.27 4.62 0.66 0.2 2.23 2.25 63.1 65.40 1.54 -0.28 9.57
2 2.28 3.79 64.52 52.76 4.32 0.65 0.36 10.07 1.94 57.2 67.29 1.49 -0.29 9.63
3 2.30 3.70 66.10 51.85 4.27 0.63 0.53 14.72 1.80 53.0 67.76 1.48 -0.30 8.95
4 2.33 3.62 67.33 49.96 4.18 0.62 0.66 18.23 1.69 50.0 68.33 1.47 -0.31 8.51
5 2.35 3.55 68.51 48.78 4.10 0.60 0.77 21.15 1.60 47.7 68.87 1.46 -0.31 8.25
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
183 6.80 0.07 116.08 1.20 0.08 0.01 6.81 100.50 0.00 0.02 100.5 1.00 -0.69 0.2
184 6.82 0.05 116.08 1.20 0.06 0.01 6.83 100.51 0.00 0.01 100.5 1.00 -0.69 0.14
185 6.85 0.04 116.08 1.20 0.05 0.01 6.86 100.52 0.00 0.01 100.5 1.00 -0.69 0.11
Fig. 3. Change of height in liquid column vs depth of form
Fig. 4. Arc length vs sheet thickness (geometrically)

Fig. 5. Depth of form vs expunge volume of gas, depth of form
4 Computational Analysis
MSC MARC MENTAT is a nonlinear implicit finite element analysis software package
used to numerically simulate the forming nature of complex materials, its practical
interactions during large ductile deformations and strains in all dimensions. Automatic
remeshing to analyze sheets undergoing large distortions, and crack propagation during
Fig. 6. Various stages of forming in MARC

SPF. Conical die of 80 80 mm2, Sheet with diameter 80 mm and 2 mm thickness,

maximum pressure of 0.1 MPa i.e., 1 bar is applied. The power law coefficient
B = 144 MPa, Exponent m = 0.7 with load case time = 2500 s (41.67 min) and
coefficient of friction = 0.3. The various stages of deformation plots obtained from FE
simulation are shown in Fig. 6. The P-T curve and the Arc length Vs sheet thickness
plot are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 respectively.
Fig. 7. Process pressure (lb/in2) - time curve Fig. 8. Arc length (inch) - thickness of ele-
ment (computationally)
5 Experimental Investigations
The split type closed conical die made up of die steel is place in a indigenously built
split furnace shown in Fig. 9. The magnesium sheet coated with aluminum alloy for
1 l thickness by electrolysis is placed in between the dies. Air tight joint is obtained
between the top and bottom sides of the sheet by the interlocking the grooves in the
upper and lower dies. The temperature is maintained at 570 °C, the superplastic range
of Magnesium alloys. Argon gas at constant pressure is passed through the upper die
and forces the sheet to form with constant stain rate. The air will be displaced from the
lower side of the die to a burette to measure the depth of form of the sheet. The
formability of the sheet could be found with respect to time. The Pressure-Time graph
obtained from numerical results facilitates the time required for forming. The formed
component is shown in Fig. 10. One quarter of the component is cut in WEDM for
measuring the thickness variation of the component. The measured variation is plotted
in the graph shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 9. Exper- Fig. 10. Formed component and its section for thickness measurement
imental set up
for SPF
Fig. 11. Arc length vs thickness of element (experimentally)
The forming time obtained from MSC MARC MENTAT is 2500 s with the maximum
pressure being 0.1 MPa. The thickness of the sheet varies from 1.35 mm at an arc
length of 80 mm to 0.075 mm at an arc length of 0 i.e., at the bottom of the die (Vertex
of the cone). The geometrically calculated and computationally simulated sheet
thickness graphs indicate better control of strain rate distribution over the entire
deformed surface. This has led to maximum stretching of the surface at the processed
temperature. This could be substantiated by the basic theory of grain boundary sliding
that takes place in fine grained superplastic materials. The stress induced during
forming drives the material to cause the plastic deformation and subsequently the rate
of strain. The formation time depends on the pressure applied to the argon gas. The rate
of change in pressure increases gradually in a quadratic manner. This could be due to

the rate of change of the thickness which is comparatively lesser than rate of change of
the radius. This continues till the free bulge forming of the sheet. In this region, the rate
of change of thickness increases as the radius decrease. This is due to the immediate
changes in the profile that requires pressure distribution differently. Higher the die entry
radius lesser the pressure required at initial stage to make easy entry for sheet into die
resulting in good depth. Friction between the die and sheet is related to process
pressure. The thickness variation of the sheet decreases linearly and gradually with arc
length as shown in Figs. 4 and 8. This is due to free bulge forming, until the sheet
touches the wall. The variation increases after the sheet makes contact with the wall.
The friction coefficient between the wall and sheet resists the grain boundary sliding.
Unevenness in thinning observed is due to material in the upper part being not stretched
properly. This could be due to the portion of the material in contact with the side
surfaces of the die and the grain boundary sliding reduces due to friction. The uneven
thinning could be due to the aspect ratio. The unevenness in thickness distribution may
be attributed to the actual force that forms the component under plane strain conditions.
This abrupt thinning is due to the large tension exerted upon the sheet with free bulged
region. As the free bulged region begins to make contact with the wall in both the steps,
this rapid thinning become more profound when the die entry radius increases. The
non-linear behavior of the curve shown in Fig. 3 is due to sudden changes in the
geometry of the specimen formed due to sticking friction.
7 Conclusions
The thickness variation of the formed component obtained in geometrical modelling,

simulation results executed are in good agreement with the experimental results
investigated in this research work. It also facilitates the understanding of forming
behavior of the Magnesium alloys electroplated with aluminum by gas forming. The
thickness distribution in the manufactured component is due to stick friction between
the die and sheet leading to resistance in grain boundary sliding, and thus regular
stretching of the surface. The formed component has better strain rate, uniform
stretching, less thinning with uniform thickness distribution.
Acknowledgements. The authors thank UGC SERO, Hyderabad UGC/SERO/No.F/MRP/

6742/15 for the financial support provided in executing this project work.
References
1. Dutta A, Mukherjee AK (1992) Superplastic forming: an analytical approach. Mater Sci
Eng A 157:9–13
2. Vulcan M, Siegert K, Banabic D (2004) The influence of pulsating strain rates on the
superplastic deformation behaviour of Al-Alloy AA583 investigated by means of cone test.
Mater Sci Forum 447–448:139–144
3. Langdon TG (1991) The physics of superplastic deformation. Mater Sci Eng A 137:1–11
4. Madarapu A, Dutta A, Hussain MM, Kandasamy J (2017) Gas blow forming of AZ31
magnesium alloy in box shaped dies. Int J Curr Eng Sci Res 4
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superplastic forming of titanium alloys. South Asian J Eng Technol 2
6. Ceschini L, Afrikantov A (1992) Superplastic forming (SPF) of materials and SPF combined
with diffusion bonding: technological and design aspect. Metall Sci Technol 10
7. Deshmukh PV (2003) Study of superplastic forming process using finite element analysis.
Master’s thesis, Paper 367. University of Kentucky
8. Azushima A, Kopp R, Korhonen A, Yang DY, Micari F, Lahti GD, Groche P, Yanagimoto J,
Tsuji N, Rosochowski A, Yanagida A (2008) Severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes for
metals. CIRP Ann-Manuf Technol 57:716–735
9. (2006) ASM handbook, metalworking: sheet forming, vol 14B
10. (2006) ASM handbook, properties and selection: nonferrous alloys and special-purpose
materials, vol 2
11. (2006) ASM handbook, properties and selection: irons steels and high-performance alloys,
vol 1
12. (2016) MSC MARC MENTAT, vol C
Investigation of Back Rake Angle
on Machining of Al 6061 and Development
of Regression Model for Resultant Force
B. Suresh Kumar Reddy1(&), A. Krishnaiah2, and S. Gajanana1

1
Mechanical Engineering Department, MVSR Engineering College,
reddy774@gmail.com, g_saparey@rediffmail.com
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, CoE, OU, Hyderabad, India
arakanti@gmail.com
Abstract. Aluminium alloys are immensely used for many applications in

Engineering Industry and Domestic appliances because of its availability, light
in weight and relatively less in cost. Aluminium and its alloys have importance
in automobile and aerospace applications because of their high strength to
weight ratio. The current paper deals with the investigation of machining of Al
6061series with the machining parameters like spindle speed (SS), tool feed
(TF), radial depth of cut (RDOC) and back rake angle (BRA). The input
machining parameters/factors are correlated to output parameter/factor i.e.
resultant machining force (RMF) and a regression model in linear form is
developed.
Keywords: Al6061 Spindle speed (SS) Tool feed (TF)

Radial depth of cut (RDOC) Back rake angle (BRA) Taguchi-DOE
1 Introduction
The machining is the one most commonly employed operation in experimental work on
metal cutting to produce symmetric shape parts by a single point cutting tool.
Machining forces may affect the work piece deformation and dimensional accuracy and
also type of chips generated during machining operation. Many researchers have
investigated on machining phenomena and simulating with development of mathe-
matical model or CAE model. The basic machining factors like cutting speed, feed,
depth of cut are widely consider for investigation by many authors and optimized
factors are generated from various mathematical or statistical methods. The authors of
this paper have considered back rake angle as one of the input factor apart from regular
said machining factors. A Taguchi-DOE approach is used to carry out experimentation
and a regression model is developed using Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection
Operator to understand the effect of the process parameters on the output parameter i.e.,
resultant machining force (RMF). The following table shows optimum values of
alloying elements in weight percentage (Table 1).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_75
636 B. Suresh Kumar Reddy et al.
Table 1. Chemical properties of work material

Component Aluminium Magnesium Silicon Iron Copper Zinc Manganese Chromium
Amount (wt%) 98.46 0.8 0.4 0.05 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.04
General applications of Al 6061 include:

• Components of Aerospace, Aircrafts.
• Parts for Automobile in Automotive Industry.
• Marine fittings.
• Valves.
• Driveshafts.
2 Taguchi – DOE Technique for (Optimum Trials) Design

Matrix
Taguchi - DOE is a philosophy which develops least number of experiment trails that
must be executed based on number of input parameters in the form of orthogonal array.
Taguchi’s process design consists of the following steps.
• Experiment Planning.
– Identification of output-response, side effects and modes of failure.
– Identification of uncontrollable noise factors and conditions for testing.
– Identification of the quality requirement to be monitored and the objective
function to be examined.
– Identification of the control parameters and their process levels.
– Formulation of the Design matrix for experimentation.
– Compose the orthogonal array (OA).
• Execution of the Experimental Trials.
• Process the experimental data to determine the optimum levels, and predict the
product/process response under these conditions.
The following process parameters and levels are considered in the present paper.
• Identifying the process factors and their levels
Process parameter Process level 1 Process level 2 Process level 3
Spindle speed (rpm) 414 483 640
Tool feed (mm/rev) 0.061 0.121 0.243
Radial depth of cut (mm) 0.5 0.6 0.9
Back rake angle (°) 10 15 20
The relevant OA for the present study is L9 array. Hence, a total 9 experimental
trials are to be performed as shown in Table 2.
Investigation of Back Rake Angle on Machining of Al 6061 637
Table 2. L9 OA
Trial No. Spindle speed Tool feed Radial depth of cut Back rake angle
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2
3 1 3 3 3
4 2 1 2 3
5 2 2 3 1
6 2 3 1 2
7 3 1 3 2
8 3 2 1 3
9 3 3 2 1
3 Experimentation
3.1 Preparation of Specimen and Tool

Machining of Al 6061 with HSS tools (Fig. 2) on lathe machine is conducted. The
sequence of steps that are to be carried out in preparation of work material for 9 trials
are facing on both ends and grooving at regular spacing as shown in Fig. 1 then as
design matrix machining is done on the prepared machining specimen lengths. The
cutting of grooves often requires high levels of precision. HSS tools of three different
back rake angles (10°, 15° and 20°) are considered for experimentation. Which are
shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Work piece after grooving
3.2 Operating Principle of Dynamometer

Lathe tool dynamometers are widely used instruments for measurement of various
forces developed during metal cutting operation. Three component of forces i.e. F1X,
F1Y, F1Z are measured from piezo electric type dynamometer and resultant machining
force is computed (Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 2. 2D drawings of tools with varying back rake angles
Fig. 3. Dynamometer setup on lathe Fig. 4. Dynamometer readings display setup
4 Design Matrix
The experiment was carried out in accordance to the following design matrix (Table 3):
Table 3. Design matrix

Trial no. Spindle speed (rpm) Tool feed (mm) Radial depth Back rake
of cut (mm) angle (°)
1 414 0.061 0.5 10
2 414 0.121 0.6 15
3 414 0.243 0.9 20
4 414 0.061 0.6 20
5 483 0.121 0.9 10
6 483 0.243 0.5 15
7 640 0.061 0.9 15
8 640 0.121 0.5 20
9 640 0.243 0.6 10
4.1 Work Piece After Experimentation

The above figure shows, that the different trials during experimentation are been carried
out on different zones of the work piece (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Work piece after experimentation
The following observations were made during the experimentation. Three force
dynamometer is used for experimentation. Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to
the direction of tool feed for the turning operation. The machining forces are identified
using a pizo-electric dynamometer for the 9trails and the observations are recorded in
Table 4 (Fig. 6).
Table 4. Cutting forces for various trials

Trial number Component of forces: Resultant machining
F1X (N) F1Y (N) F1Z (N) force (N)
1 7 23 24 33.97
2 6 13 4 14.86
3 7 1 5 8.66
4 3 4 6 7.81
5 6 16 10 20.49
6 6 15 8 18.02
7 4 7 3 8.6
8 3 6 5 8.37
9 5 13 13 19.05
A resultant cutting force is calculated from the obtained cutting forces.

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
F¼ F1X2 þ F2 þ F2
1Y 1Z
Table 5. Resultant machining force for 9 trials

Trial number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
F (N) 33.97 14.86 8.66 7.81 20.49 18.02 8.6 8.37 19.05
Resultant Machining Force (N) variation with Trials

40
30
20
10
0
Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No Trial No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 6. Resultant force (N) variation with trails
5.1 Development of Linear Regression Model

A regression analysis was performed using the observed Resultant Machining Force by
LASSO i.e. Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator with the ‘right-fit’ was
chosen to fit the data (Table 6).
Table 6. Training data for regression analysis of force

P1 (Spindle speed P2 (Tool feed - P3 (RDoC - P4 (Back rake Resultant machining
- rpm) mm/rev) mm) angle - °) force (N)
414 0.061 0.5 10 33.97
414 0.121 0.6 15 14.86
414 0.243 0.9 20 8.66
483 0.061 0.6 20 7.81
483 0.121 0.9 10 20.49
483 0.243 0.5 15 18.02
640 0.061 0.9 15 8.6
640 0.121 0.5 20 8.37
640 0.243 0.6 10 19.05
An equation with the right fit is paramount for regression analysis. The ‘right fit’
can be understood by plotting the learning and the training curves for the training data
by changing the regularization parameter and the degree of the polynomial.
Final Equation for Resultant Machining Force
• Regularization constant = 7, Maximum iterations = 5000

• Iterative algorithm = Coordinate descent, Equation with third-order interaction
terms
Y ¼ 25:85 þ 0:079P1 0:208P1P2 0:029P1P3 0:004P1P4 þ 0:0112P1P2P4

0:0008P1P3P4
Here,
Y = Resultant Machining Force,
P1 = Spindle speed, P2 = Tool Feed, P3 = Radial Depth of Cut, P4 = Back Rake
Angle (Table 7).
Table 7. Variable values in force model

Variable Value
Intercept 25.85
P1 0.079
P2 0
P3 0
P4 0
P1P2 −0.208
P1P3 −0.029
P1P4 −0.004
P2P3 0
P2P4 0
P3P4 0
P1P2P3 0
P1P2P4 0.0112
P1P3P4 −0.0008
P2P3P4 0
Variation of Resultant Machining Force with Respect to Machining/Process

Parameters
The variation of Resultant Machining Force according to the process parameters is
plotted using the regression equation generated (Table 5). In the plots, Level-1 indi-
cates that all the parameters other than the parameter under study are in the lowest level
as per the orthogonal array. The same is the case with other two levels, with Level-3
having all parameters in the highest level.
Resultant Machining Force vs Spindle Speed
The plot between Resultant Machining Force and Spindle speed for various levels of
the process parameters is outlined in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Resultant machining force vs spindle speed at various levels
Resultant Machining Force vs Tool feed

The plot between Resultant Machining Force and Tool feed for various levels of the
process parameters is outlined in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Resultant machining force vs tool feed at various levels
Resultant Machining Force vs Radial Depth of Cut

The plot between Resultant Machining Force and Depth of Cut for various levels of the
Fig. 9. Resultant machining force vs depth of cut at various levels

Resultant Machining Force vs Rake Angle

The plot between Resultant Machining Force and Rake Angle for various levels of the
Fig. 10. Resultant machining force vs rake angle at various levels
6 Conclusions
The following are the conclusions made in the current work

1. It is observed that Resultant Machining Force is minimum (7.81 N) for the trial
number - 4 at a spindle speed of 483 rpm, tool feed of 0.061 mm/rev, depth of cut
of 0.6 mm and rake angle of 20°.
2. The rake angle has greater static influence followed by depth of cut and spindle
speed on resultant machining force.
3. The developed regression model with the Lasso reduces the complexity of the
equation when compared to standard linear regression without regularization, and
thereby offers a simple model.
4. However, an opposite effect was seen with the depth of cut. An increase in the depth
of cut showed a decrease in the total resultant force for all three levels.
References
1. Gajanana S, Suresh Kumar Reddy, B, Krishnaiah A (2017) Linear model for turning Al6061
using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso). Int J Eng Sci Invent 6(7)
2. Gajanana S, Chakradhar D, SaiAlok Reddy N (2016) Optimization of process parameters in
hot machining of 15-5 PH stainless steel using Taguchi method. Int J Eng Sci Inven Res Dev
3(3)
3. Gajanana S, Ravi Kumar B, Ravi Tej P. Udayani K (2014) Simulation of cutting forces in end
milling and optimization of machining parameters. Int J Eng Technol Res (IJETR) 2(6) (2014)
4. Rao S, Samant P, Kadampatta A, Shenoy R (2013) An overview of Taguchi method:
evolution, concept and interdisciplinary applications. Int J Sci Eng Res 4:621–626
5. Foster WT (2000) Basic Taguchi design of experiments: national association of industrial
technology conference, Pittsburgh
6. Tibshirani R (1996) Regression shrinkage and selection via the Lasso. J Roy Stat Soc Ser B
(Methodol) 58(1):267–288
7. Drozda TJ (1983) Tool and manufacturing engineers handbook machining, vol 1. Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, Southfield, pp 3–6
8. Kaufman JG, Rooy EL (2004) Aluminium alloy and casting: properties, processes and
applications. ASM International, Materials Park
Machining Characteristics of Electro
Discharge Machining on NIMONIC 80A
by Response Surface Methodology
G. Vishnu Pramod Teja(&), K. Saraswathamma,


Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India
gvishnupramodteja@gmail.com
Abstract. The paper investigates the effect of different machining parameters

such as Current (A), Pulse ON time (Ton) and Pulse OFF time (Toff) of the Die-
sink EDM process on NIMONIC 80A which influence the three major
machining characteristics: Material Removal Rate (MRR), Tool Wear Rate
(TWR) and Radial overcut (ROC). The experiment is executed and analysed as
per Box Behnken Design (BBD) of Response Surface Methodology (RSM).
After conducting the experiments, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and opti-
mization using desirability function were performed. Regression equation was
developed to show a relationship of the influences of machining parameters on
characteristics. This research results show that Current and Pulse ON time are
the main important parameters for MRR and the Current is a major parameter for
TWR and ROC. The optimize parameters where highest value of MRR and
lowest value of TWR and ROC is Current 3 A, Pulse ON time 900 µs and
Pulse OFF time 51 µs with the desirability value 0.988.
Keywords: NIMONIC 80A Electro discharge machining (EDM)

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
1 Introduction
NIMONIC 80A is a nickel based alloy. It plays a vital role in preparing gas turbine
components, aerospace engine components (viz., blades, rings and discs), automobile
exhaust valves, die-cast inserts and core, nuclear boiler tube supports and bolts. The
metal is a high temperature low creep and high performance super alloy. This super
alloy contains the properties those are high strength and low thermal diffusivity; had a
solid hardness; keep the temperature strength and can be very complicated to
machining. So, machining of the super alloy becomes more difficult using conventional
methods [1, 2]. To overcome these inferences, unconventional machining methods are
become an attractive choice.
Electro discharge machining is one of the best choice for machining high strength
alloys. It can be machined easily with irrespective to their hardness of any conductive
material. Erosion takes place between the two electrodes by cyclic sparks. Bhaumik
et al. [3] “investigated the effect of input parameters with different type of electrodes
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_76
646 G. Vishnu Pramod Teja et al.
such as Copper, Brass and Zinc on surface roughness, radial overcut, surface crack
density and recast layer during EDM of Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy. They concluded
that copper electrode gives an excellent surface finish, smallest overcut, uniform white
layer and higher surface crack density compared to the other electrodes”. Muthukumar
et al. [4] “studied ROC during electrical discharge machining (EDM) of Incoloy 800
super alloy with copper electrode. Current, pulse ON time, pulse OFF time and voltage
are considered as machining parameters. ANOVA results show that radial overcut
increases with the increasing the current and voltage”. Sinha et al. [5] “investigated
through their experiments with different input parameters such as current, voltage and
pulse ON time for the electrical discharge machining process on Incoloy 800HT and
studied with two machining characteristics such as Material removal rate (MRR) and
Tool wear rate (TWR). The result shows that current is the most significant factor for
both material removal rate and tool wear rate”.
It is understood that a few research work has been presented on EDM of NIMONIC
80A. Hence, this paper is focused on electro discharge machining of NIMONIC 80A
by varying input factors namely Current, Pulse ON time (Ton) and Pulse OFF time
(Toff) using Box Behnken Design of RSM and MRR, TWR and ROC were investi-
gated. And also optimization was carried out to enrich MRR and reduce the TWR and
ROC.
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Materials
In this work, NIMONIC 80A alloy and copper was chosen as work material and
electrode material respectively and chemical composition of NIMONIC 80A is shown
in Table 1. NIMONIC 80A pieces were cut into sizes of 15 15 6 mm3, whereas
the electrode was made into Ø10 mm 50 mm length. Machining time for each
experiment was maintained as 10 min. Experiments were conducted on ARD
ARTM30D Die-sink EDM using Commercial grade “EDM oil”. The experimental
arrangement and EDM machined samples are shown in Fig. 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of NIMONIC 80A

Element C Si Mn Cu Cr Fe Ti Al Co Ni
% 0.03 0.36 0.05 0.04 20.03 2.26 2.63 1.387 0.401 Bal
2.2 Design of Experiments

Box-Behnken design (BBD) from Response surface methodology was used for
designing the experiments. Input factors and their levels are tabulated in Table 2.
The BBD layout and the experimental results are tabulated in Table 3.
Analytical balance is used to measure the weights of the work pieces and elec-
trodes. MRR and TWR are calculated with the following Eqs. (1) and (2).
Machining Characteristics of Electro Discharge Machining on NIMONIC 80A 647
Fig. 1. Experimental arrangement and EDM machined samples
Table 2. Experimental input factors and their levels

Factors Units Levels
Low (−1) Medium (0) High (1)
Current A 3 9 15
Pulse ON time µs 300 600 900
Pulse OFF time µs 30 60 90
Table 3. BBD layout and experimental results

Exp. run Input parameters Output parameters
Current (A) Ton (µs) Toff (µs) MRR (gm/min) TWR (gm/min) ROC (mm)
1 3 300 60 0.00251 0.00066 0.008
2 15 300 60 0.29843 0.00274 0.102
3 3 900 60 0.00205 0.00062 0.003
4 15 900 60 0.34988 0.00279 0.155
5 3 600 30 0.00221 0.00074 0.006
6 15 600 30 0.30673 0.00225 0.138
7 3 600 90 0.00211 0.00147 0.003
8 15 600 90 0.2253 0.00238 0.091
9 9 300 30 0.09691 0.00082 0.066
10 9 900 30 0.04035 0.00086 0.031
11 9 300 90 0.06554 0.00215 0.045
12 9 900 90 0.04906 0.00194 0.038
13 9 600 60 0.06608 0.00157 0.04
14 9 600 60 0.07427 0.00152 0.061
15 9 600 60 0.06998 0.00172 0.045
16 9 600 60 0.06705 0.00192 0.043
17 9 600 60 0.05517 0.00068 0.033
Wb Wa
MRR ¼ gm/min ð1Þ
t
Wtb Wta
TWR ¼ gm/min ð2Þ
t
Whereas Wb, Wa are the weight of the Nimonic 80A before and after machining
correspondingly.
Wtb, Wta are the weight of the copper electrode before and after machining cor-
respondingly, t = time of machining (min).
Digital Vernier Caliper was used for the measurement of Radial overcut (ROC).
ROC is calculated as half the difference of diameter of the machined cavity made by the
electrode diameter.
3 Results and Analysis
The regression equation has been developed by Design Expert Software. It is used to
assess the influence of the input factors on MRR, TWR and ROC. To validate the
correctness and suitability of fitness of the model, ANOVA is conducted. It is extre-
mely important for the data examination. The model sufficiency examination consists
of significant test and lack of fitness test.
3.1 Material Removal Rate

The quadratic model from statistical analysis of MRR is recommended by the fitness
test summary. Non–significant terms were deleted using backward elimination process
Table 4. ANOVA for MRR

Source Sum of squares DOF Mean F-value p-value
Model 1000.19 7 142.88 4032.58 <0.0001 Significant
A-CURRENT 753.78 1 753.78 21273.80 <0.0001
B-Ton 2.38 1 2.38 67.09 <0.0001
C-Toff 0.1326 1 0.1326 3.74 0.0851
AB 1.28 1 1.28 36.23 0.0002
BC 0.3349 1 0.3349 9.45 0.0133
A2 240.08 1 240.08 6775.72 <0.0001
C2 0.3841 1 0.3841 10.84 0.0093
Residual 0.3189 9 0.0354
Lack of fitness 0.1224 5 0.0245 0.4982 0.7682 Non-significant
Pure error 0.1965 4 0.0491
Cor total 1000.51 16
R2 = 0.9997; Adeq precision = 159.119
Adjusted R2= 0.9994; Predicted R2 = 0.9989
for arrangement and adjusted ANOVA for MRR. The Table 4 shows the results of the
reduced ANOVA for MRR.
Obtained Regression equation for the MRR is shown below.
1
¼ 32:40230 5:19928 CURRENT
SQUARE ROOTðMRRÞ
þ 0:006579 Ton 0:016653 Toff 0:000315 CURRENT Ton
0:000032 Ton Toff þ 0:209462 CURRENT2 þ 0:000335 Toff 2
ð3Þ
Influence of Machining Parameters Such as Current (A), Ton and Toff on MRR
The influence of current on MRR at constant Ton (600 µs) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in
the Fig. 2. It shows that MRR increases with increasing the current. Spark discharge is
increased with increase in the input energy i.e. current. Hence, melting and vaporisation
of the metal takes place. Hence, increase in MRR is observed. The effect of Ton on
MRR at constant current (15 A) and Toff (90 µs) is shown in the Fig. 3. It shows that
MRR increases with increase in Pulse ON time. This is to be happened due to the fact
that rise in Ton, spark per input energy increases; it results in high-level erosion on the
work piece. Hence, results in the increase of MRR. The effect of Toff on MRR at
constant current (9A) and Ton (600 µs) is plotted in the Fig. 4. It shows that MRR
decreases with increase in Pulse OFF time. This can happen due to fact that increase in
Toff causes the reduced plasma channel, which reduces the positive ions on the work
surface, results in decreased MRR.
Ton (μs)=600, Toff (μs)=60 Current (A)=15, Toff (μs)=90

0.4 0.4
(gm/min)
(gm/min)
MRR
0.3
MRR
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Current (A) 100 300 500 700 900
Ton (μs)
Fig. 2. Influence of current on MRR Fig. 3. Influence of Ton on MRR
Current (A) = 9, Ton (μs) =600

0.08
(gm/min)
MRR
0.06
0.04
0.02
10 30 50 70 90
Toff (μs)
Fig. 4. Influence of Toff on MRR

3.2 Tool Wear Rate

The fitness test is recommended linear model for TWR. Based on ANOVA, it was
concluded that, current was the most significant parameter on TWR. Due to the lack of
space, ANOVA table was not presented here.
Obtained Regression equation for the TWR is shown below.
TWR ¼ 0:000450 þ 0:000136 CURRENT 3:67908E 09 Ton þ 0:000014

Toff
ð4Þ
Influence of Machining Parameters Such as Current (A), Ton and Toff on TWR
The effect of current on TWR at constant Ton (600 µs) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in the
Fig. 5 and increase in the TWR was observed with increase in the Current. With
increase in the current, sparks (discharges) will be more, which results into more
melting and vaporization of tool material. The effect of Ton on TWR at constant current
(9 A) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in Fig. 6. It shows no variation of TWR with increase
in Ton. This may be due to deposition of carbon on the tool, which results no variation
on the TWR. The effect of Toff on MRR at constant current (9 A) and Ton (600 µs) is
shown in the Fig. 7 and it was observed that, TWR slightly increases with the increase
in the pulse OFF time. Pulse OFF time directly connects to the flushing time. If the
Pulse OFF time is more means flushing time is also more. During the flushing, debris as
well as loosely connected material to the electrode cleared between the inter electrode
gap and may result in increase in the TWR.

0.0025 0.002
(gm/min)
(gm/min)
0.002
TWR
TWR
0.0015
0.0015
0.001 0.001
0.0005 0.0005
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 100 300 500 700 900
Current (A) Ton (μs)
Fig. 5. Influence of current on TWR Fig. 6. Influence of Ton on TWR
Current (A) = 9, Ton (μs) =600

(gm/min)
0.003
TWR
0.002
0.001
0
10 30 50 70 90
Toff (μs)
Fig. 7. Influence of Toff on TWR

3.3 Radial Overcut

The fitness test is recommended linear model for ROC. Based on ANOVA, it was
concluded that, current was the most significant parameter with 196.31 F-value.
Obtained Regression equation for ROC is shown below.
Sqrt ðROCÞ ¼ þ 0:044988 þ 0:023120 CURRENT 0:000024 Ton 0:00049

Toff
ð5Þ
Influence of Machining Parameters Such as Current (A), Ton and Toff on ROC
The effect of current on ROC at constant Ton (600 µs) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in the
Fig. 8 and it shows that overcut increases with increase in current. Increase in the
current (A), discharge energy increases, which will remove the high quantity of metal
on the work piece resulting higher overcut. The effect of Ton on ROC at constant
current (9 A) and Toff (60 µs) is shown in the Fig. 9 and also the effect of Toff on MRR
at constant current (9 A) and Ton (600 µs) is shown in the Fig. 10. ROC was decreased
in the both the cases.

1.1 0.48
(mm)
(mm)
ROC
ROC
0.6 0.46
0.1 0.44
1 3 5 7 9 111315 100 300 500 700 900
Current (A) Ton (μs)
Fig. 8. Influence of current on ROC Fig. 9. Influence of Ton on ROC
0.48 Current (A)=9, Ton (μs)=600

(mm)
ROC
0.45
0.42
10 30 50 70 90
Toff (μs)
Fig. 10. Influence of Toff on ROC
3.4 Optimization
Optimization was performed using desirability function in Design Expert software. The
optimized parameters are taken as highest value of MRR (0.002 gm/min) and lowest
value of TWR (0.001 gm/min) and ROC (0.004 mm) respectively at 3 A Current,
900 µs Pulse ON time and 51 µs Pulse OFF time with the desirability value 0.988. In
order to confirm this optimization levels, two confirmation experiments were conducted
and checked the confidence levels. Hence, this model can be used for predication of
MRR, TWR and ROC at 95% level of confidence.
4 Conclusions
The following conclusions were made as per the experimental study findings:
1. From ANOVA, current was found as most significant parameter for MRR, TWR
and ROC.
2. MRR increases when there is an increase in the Current and Ton and reverse process
was observed for Toff.
3. TWR increases with increase in the Current and no variation of tool wear rate was
observed with increase in the Ton.
4. ROC increases when there is an increase in the Current. Minimum Radial Overcut
was observed at minimum values of Current, maximum values of Ton and Toff.
5. The levels of optimized parameters are at 3 A Current, 900 µs Pulse ON Time and
52 µs Pulse OFF Time with the desirable value of 0.988.
References
1. Ezugwu EO, Wang ZM, Machado AR (1999) The machinability of nickel-based alloys: a
review. J Mater Process Technol 86:1–16
2. Goswami A, Kumar J (2014) Investigation of surface integrity, material removal rate and wire
wear ratio for WEDM of Nimonic 80A alloy using GRA and Taguchi method. Eng Sci
Technol Int J 17:173–184
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Mathematical modelling for radial overcut on electrical discharge machining of Incoloy
800 by response surface methodology. Proc Mater Sci 6:1674–1682
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EDM using RSM. Mater Today Proc 5:3438–3439
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials –
Experimental Investigations - Process
Challenges and Strategies
R. K. Vishnulal, P. Govindan(&), and M. P. Vipindas
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Engineering,

Kannur, Kerala, India
govindanformegcek@gmail.com
Abstract. Machining of polymeric materials using laser techniques results in

poor dimensional accuracy and machined surface quality. However, laser pro-
cessing has substantial favorable effects such as high material removal rate. This
paper presents an investigation into the existing challenges, possible solutions
and strategies for carrying out experimental research on polymer materials. It is
evident that The laser source and fundamental wavelength plays an important
role in controlling the energy for the material removal action. Speed and laser
power are the two key parameters for controlling the quality of machined sur-
faces. Two-pass method is a novel strategy to improve dimensional accuracy of
features. The application of low frequency vibrations in the range 12–24 Hz
improves laser machining speed.
Keywords: Polymers Laser cutting CO2 laser Optimization Parameters

Machining strategies
1 Introduction
Laser machining processes have been widely applied in industries for manufacturing of
electronics, automotive, biomedical, aerospace and electro-mechanical parts. The
applications of polymeric materials in these industries are numerous such as production
of tool, mold and other devices for micromachining applications wherein the materials
are removed in the form of thin layers. Polymeric processing technology is positioned
in the current production settings in the high-volume, low-cost systems. Laser
machining processes have the exceptional advantages of non-contact cutting, high
cutting speeds and machined surface quality for polymer machining. Laser cutting of
polymers is controlled by thermal processing comprising of heating, melting and
evaporation. Hence, it is essential to develop laser machining as a mass production
technology; however, there are several challenges for improvement of the process.
Similarly, the right strategies for laser cutting of polymers are to be developed for
optimization of the process.
Few research investigations were carried out in the past in the area of laser
machining of polymers. Experimental methods to calculate the energy distribution in
laser cutting was proposed in [1]. The energy losses, dispersion characteristics and

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_77
654 R. K. Vishnulal et al.
cutting efficiency were experimentally evaluated for different machining conditions. In

an experimental investigation [2], a CO2 laser beam of 10.6 m diameter was focused
onto a specimen with a composition of epoxy resin, diethylene triamine and silica
powder. In [3], the CO2 laser machining of polypropylene, polymethyl methacrylate
and polycarbonate in order to develop empirical equations is studied. The effects of
laser speed, laser power and compressed air pressure on surface roughness and heat
affected zone was depicted through analytic relations. Laser cutting of thermoplastic
polyethylene was modeled and the process outputs were analyzed [4]. The geometrical
features of the workpieces were measured and correlated with input parameters such as
laser power and cutting speed. According to the selected processing conditions, power
of laser was from 800 to 1450 W. The laser cutting speed was not found to be
significant in influencing machining efficiency. While attempting to machine acrylic
using CO2 lasers, defects in the form of bulges were formed [5]. The dimensions of the
bulges were connected with the input laser cutting factors, viz. power and velocity. The
capability of CO2 laser machining process for manufacture of phenolic resin boards in
order to achieve high cutting speed and surface finish was investigated [6]. The effect
of heat on the boards would lead to creation and discharge of vapors into the
atmosphere.
In [7], the CO2 laser cutting of polymethylmethacrylate sheet of 6 mm thickness, at
a low power of 70 W is demonstrated. External vibrations was applied at low fre-
quencies of 12, 18 and 24 Hz. The effect of vibrations was to increase the material
removal rate in laser cutting. A combined approach using Taguchi method, back
propagation neural network and Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm was used to model
and optimize the laser processing of ethylene terephthalate [8]. Thermal imaging
systems and temperature measurement techniques are used to estimate temperature
distributions and three-dimensional analysis of the heat flow [9]. The thermal effects
cause significant changes on the mechanical properties of the layer of material adjacent
to the machined zone [10]. Laser power and scanning speeds were varied to elucidate
the effects on heat affected zone. Laser machining of three thermoplastic materials
(polymethyl-methacrylate, polycarbonate and polypropylene) was experimentally
studied aiming at minimization of heat affected zone using grey relational analysis [11].
Furthermore, in [12], soft computing approach using artificial neural network was used
to predict depth of machining and surface roughness in laser milling of polymethyl-
methacrylate. In [13] the laser machining process for micromachining of polycarbonate
sheets is applied. A demonstration of fiber laser cutting for machining of organic
polymers such as polycaprolactone and polylactide acid was done in [14] for stent
manufacturing. A parametric investigation using laser power, focal plane position and
laser cutting speed with geometric accuracy and surface roughness as responses was
carried out in [15], and optimum setting was identified. The analysis of surface
roughness and heat affected zone of microchannels generated using CO2 laser
machining process [16]. Similarly, in [17], other important aspects such as dimensional
variations and energy fluctuations were investigated, aiming to minimize the cost of
processing.
Despite the process capabilities, advantages and flexibility for laser processing of
polymeric materials; there are several challenges as well including control of energy
input, dimensional changes, control of size of heat affected zone and parametric
Laser Machining of Polymer Materials – Experimental Investigations 655
selection. Therefore, in this work, challenges in the laser processing are revealed and
strategies for optimum machining are evolved. The thermal fluctuations during laser
cutting causes inadequate control of energy dissipation, temperature gradients [9] and
therefore, leading to formation of bulges [5]. However, during some machining con-
ditions, an enhancement of thermal energy is anticipated [15]. Therefore, a systematic
selection of parameters and the impact on experimental work is necessary.
In Sect. 2, laser cutting parameters are studied. The decisive features of experi-
mental works are highlighted to gain a direction for future work in Sect. 3. The results
yielding a key impact are analyzed following a comparative study in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5,
conclusions derived are summarized.
2 Laser Machining Process Parameters
In laser machining, the energy of the beam is directed towards the workpiece in a
controlled manner. The laser source and fundamental wavelength plays an important
role in controlling the energy for the material removal action. Table 1 shows a sum-
mary of key parameters used in selected experimental studies.
Table 1. Laser process parameter set-ups in experimental works

Sl. no. Process parameter Range of values Reference Authors
1 Pulse frequency 1–10 kHz [12] D’Addona et al. [12]
16–20 kHz [8] Kuo et al. [8]
2 Pulse energy 1.9–3.8 mJ [12] D’Addona et al. [12]
35–320 J/m [17] Zhang et al. [17]
3 Laser power 4–12 W [13] Chen et al. [13]
200–400 W [3] Choudhury et al. [3]
800–1450 W [4] Eltawahni et al. [4]
7.4–8.6 W [8] Kuo et al. [8]
20–40 W [15] Moradi et al. [15]
200–400 W [11] Tamrin et al. [11]
2–10 W [17] Zhang et al. [17]
4 Laser speed 5–15 mm/s [13] Chen et al. [13]
0.2–0.4 m/min [3] Choudhury et al. [3]
800–1400 mm/min [4] Eltawahni et al. [4]
0.2–2.2 m/min [7] Hashemzadeh et al. [7]
280–320 mm/s [8] Kuo et al. [8]
2–18 mm/s [15] Moradi et al. [15]
0.2–0.4 m/min [11] Tamrin et al. [11]
12.5–125 mm/s [17] Zhang et al. [17]
5 Air pressure 2.5–3.5 bar [3, 11] Choudhury et al. [3]
Tamrin et al. [11]
The laser controllable parameters such as pulse frequency, pulse energy, laser
power, laser speed and air pressure are significantly influencing the efficiency, surface
roughness and dimensions of components produced using laser cutting processes.
Fig. 1. Set-up for process parameter control in laser machining of polycarbonate [15]
A typical set-up for machining of a polycarbonate is shown in Fig. 1. Cutting speed

and laser power are the two key parameters selected for the investigations. In addition
to the parameters discussed above, laser wavelength, source type, focal length and focal
spot also contribute to the input energy in laser machining. In order to develop a model
connecting the parameters and the measurable process outputs, experimental designs
are considered. The direction for selection of process parameters for this investigation
was obtained, according to literature, see ref. [18] and ref. [19].
3 Experimental Research Approaches
The research contributions in the area of laser machining are generally feasibility
studies or analytical modeling involving development of equations describing thermal
removal of polymer material. It has always been a challenge to correlate dimensional
inaccuracy during laser cutting with the laser processing conditions [5].
In the experimental studies on laser machining, tests are carried out by controlling
the parameters, as detailed in Sect. 3. In order to develop empirical models based on
experimental data, the response variables chosen are size of the heat affected zone,
surface roughness and machined cavity dimensions; Fig. 2a–c shows photographs of
specimens machined using laser cutting. Polypropylene is one of the lightest thermo-
plastic materials. The applications of these materials include use as a structural plastic
and as a fiber. Polypropylene is characterized by high stiffness, good strength even in
comparatively high temperatures, good abrasion resistance, excellent elastic properties
and a hard glossy surface, see Fig. 2a. Polycarbonates (see Fig. 2b) are transparent
material with excellent toughness, good heat resistance, high impact resistance, high
stiffness, good dimension stability and good electrical properties. Polymethyl
methacrylate is characterized by excellent hardness, stiffness, good tensile strength,
high impact resistance and widely used for optical applications, Fig. 2c. PMMA has the
highest surface hardness of all common thermoplastics.
Fig. 2. a–c Photographs of specimens of different engineering plastic materials generated using
CO2 laser cutting, a. polypropelyne, b. polycarbonate and c. polymethyl methacrylate [3]
Two-pass fabrication method is an advanced machining strategy in laser cutting

[17], see Fig. 3. The inputs and the resultant microchannel dimensional parameters are
presented. The input parameters are line energies Ef and Es. Similarly, the input laser
powers are Pf and Ps. The offset ratio is controlled by the X–Y table. Three main output
dimensional parameters are used to characterize the machined feature: width W,
average depth D, and quality index Q.
First pass:
Line energy Ef
Laser power Pf
Machined
feature:
X-Y table: Width: W
offset ratio Depth: D
Quality index: Q
Second pass:
Line energy Es
Laser power Ps
Fig. 3. Two-pass laser fabrication strategy; laser machining inputs (first pass, X–Y table and
second pass) and process outputs (micro-channel) [17]
4 Comparative Analyses of Results
Micro-channels were generated on polycarbonate sheets using CO2 lasers [13]. It was
observed that there was considerable variation in the width of micro-channel with
process parameters. The laser power and laser cutting speed directly influences the
error on the width. A geometric model representing predicted shape is schematically
presented in Fig. 4a, whereas the actual shape of the cut micro-channel is shown in
Fig. 4b. The width of the micro-channel was optimized and a SEM micrograph of the
channel at optimum process input settings is shown in Fig. 4c. The process mecha-
nisms included melting, decomposition and vaporization of the polycarbonate material.
The micrographs indicate tapering in the cross-sectional view of the micro-channel.
Fig. 4. a–c CO2 laser fabrication of micro-channels on polycarbonates, a. schematic of predicted

shape, b. processed micro-channel, c. SEM micrograph of micro-channel at optimum processing
conditions [13]
The limitations of CO2 laser applied to machining of polymers include dimensional

inaccuracy, deviation in cross-sectional shapes, inclined surface walls and bulging of
features due to thermal action. Therefore, a mask of copper is provided over the
polymer sheets. The cutting edge quality of copper mask in dry air, 0.5 mm water film
thickness and 1 mm water film thickness is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Fabrication of a 500 lm wide micro-channel on copper masks [16]
Similarly, a design of experiments approach was used for laser cutting of injected
polycarbonate [15]. A lower laser power and a high cutting speed leads to an increase
in surface roughness, Fig. 6a–b shows the response surfaces of kerf walls.
The two-pass machining strategy in CO2 laser micromachining was found to be
highly efficient and cost-effective method for fabrication of features on polymethyl
methacrylate. Based on the laser settings, an empirical equation could be developed
between the line energies Es and Ef, see Fig. 7a–b for optimized conditions.
In order to improve the rate of machining, vibration frequencies in the range of 12–
24 Hz were applied. Though the effect of vibration was to enhance the rate of material,
it also caused an increase in formation of micro-cracks and size of heat affected zone.
Figure 8a–b shows that the workpiece vibration results in a non-uniform
penetration.
Fig. 6. a–b Response surfaces of surface roughness of kerf wall of polycarbonate samples, a.
with cutting speed and focal plane position, b. with cutting speed and laser power [15]
Fig. 7. a–b Cross-section of a groove fabricated by two-pass scanning strategy, laser powers,
Pf = 4 W, Ps = 4 W, energies, Es = 160 J/m, Ef = 106 J/m, a. measurement using optical
microscope, b. image of the groove [17]
Fig. 8. a–b Effect of low frequency vibrations in laser machining, a. micro-crack formation, b.
air entrapment (at 12 Hz frequency) [7]
This could be due to the fact that the periodicity of the depth variations is directly
related to the relative movement of the laser beam and the workpiece.
5 Conclusions
This paper presents an investigation of laser machining of polymeric materials, par-

ticularly plastics such as polymethyl methacrylate, polycarbonates and polypropylene.
Based on the results of this work, the following conclusions could be derived:
• There are several challenges for laser cutting including control of energy input,
dimensional changes, control of size of heat affected zone and parametric selection.
Laser power, laser speed and air pressure significantly control these response
variables.
• Two-pass fabrication method is an advanced machining strategy which helps
quicken the material removal action. In this method, the input parameters are line
energies Ef and Es and the input laser powers are Pf and Ps. The offset ratio is
controlled by the machine table. Therefore, it could be inferred that power is the
most significant in influencing material removal rate.
• In laser cutting, considerable variation in the width of micro-channel is observed
with a change in process parameters. The laser power and laser cutting speed
directly influences the error on the width.
• In order to improve the rate of machining, vibration frequencies in the range of 12–
24 Hz were applied. In general, the effect of vibration was to enhance the rate of
material. However, it also caused an increase in formation of micro-cracks and an
enlargement of the size of heat affected zone, which indicates a non-uniform
removal of material.
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the Principal, Head of the Department
(Mechanical Engineering), all faculty, staff and students of Government College of Engineering
Kannur, Kerala, India.
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cutting of phenolic resin boards. Phys Proc 12:578–583
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vibration on low power CO2 laser cutting of PMMA: an experimental investigation. Int J
Adv Manuf Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3881-6
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and practical verification for a touch panel conductive film. Opt Lasers Eng 52:250–260
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during simultaneous laser beam melting of polymers. Phys Proc 56:167–175
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Fabrication of a polymer-based biodegradables tent using aCO2 laser. Arch Civ Mech Eng
14:317–326
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precision laser cutting of different thermoplastics. Opt Lasers Eng 67:57–65
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methacrylate laser milling process characteristics based on neural networks and fuzzy data.
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Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy
of Reproducibility of Cadaver Skull by FDM
Additive Manufacturing
L. Siva Rama Krishna1, Uday Kumar Balasany1(&),

Sri Ram Venkatesh1, and Abhinand Potturi2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering
(Autonomous), Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India
LSRKou@gmail.com, udaykumar.balasany@gmail.com
2
Ortho and Maxillofacial Surgeon, SVS Medical College and Hospital,
Mahabubnagar, Telangana, India
Abstract. The skull is a complex structure and multidimensional in nature, so

for surgeons operating skull injuries is a difficult. In recent years, Additive
Manufacturing is popularly known as 3D printing technology where objects can
be produced in 3 dimensional formats is playing a vital role in biomedical field
and especially in complex surgeries. 3D printing technology helps the surgeon
to visualize the injuries on a 3D physical model. The aim of this research work is
assessment of dimensional accuracy of reproducibility of cadaver skull by FDM
additive manufacturing process. In this paper a cadaver skull is subjected to 3D
scanning, the scanned data is obtained in .STL format. This file is then imported
into Simplify 3D software which is 3D printing machine interface software for
printing skull. The skull is 3D printed using Fused Deposition Modelling
(FDM) 3D-Printing process. To assess the dimensional accuracy of 3D printed
skull, fixed land marks are taken on cadaver and 3D printed skull with reference
to standard journal. These land marks are divided into four regions (craniofacial,
mid face, orbital, skull base). The distance between land marks are measured by
Digital Vernier Calipers. These measurements help in assessing the dimensional
accuracy of cadaver skull with 3D printed skull.
Keywords: Cadaver skull Craniofacial Mid face Orbital Skull base

Additive manufacturing FDM process Fixed landmarks
1 Introduction
Additive Manufacturing is a technology that build 3D objects by adding layer-by-layer

of material, whether the material is metal, plastic, human tissue or concrete. Additive
Manufacturing technology uses a computer 3D modelling software to create CAD
model. Once a CAD model is completed, the Additive Manufacturing equipment reads
data from the CAD file and lays downs successive layers of liquid, powder, solid
material or other, in a layer-by-layer to produce a 3D model. In most cases, Additive
manufacturing is applied for the fabrication of hard tissue parts of human body. The
widely reported application of Additive Manufacturing is bio modeling of surgical

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_78
Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Reproducibility of Cadaver Skull 663
planning in the field of maxillo-craniofacial surgery, which involves in surgical

treatment of acquired deformations or congenital (e.g., trauma defections or tumor
resections) both for aesthetic and functional purposes.
Literature Review
Chang et al. [1] described how stereolithographic can is used to generate physical
models of the craniofacial model from three dimensions computed tomography
(CT) scan data. Siva Rama Krishna et al. [2] evaluated zygomatic complex fractures
based on three point fixation technique using additive manufacturing process. By
adapting this methodology, it is possible to evaluate i.e. calculate the percentage of the
Zygomatic Bone restored after Operation. Smith et al. [3] illustrate the accuracy of
bone surface reconstruction of two diarthrodial joints, the hip and shoulder, from CT
scan data. Image segmentation of the tomographic series was used to develop a three-
dimensional virtual model, which was fabricated using fused deposition modeling.
Giannatsis and Dedoussis et al. [4] reviewed the application of Additive manufacturing
technologies in medical and health care. In the present paper, representative case
studies from the field of AM medicine applications were presented and discussed. The
case studies included applications like scaffolds for rehabilitation and fabrication of
custom implants, models for pre-operating anatomical and surgical planning. Ols-
zewski et al. [5] evaluated the use Additive Manufacturing in association with a dif-
ferent type of applications in CMF surgery. Muller et al. [6] discussed the application
of Additive Manufacturing techniques in craniofacial reconstruction and preoperative
planning of neurosurgery.
2 Problem Statement
The aim of this work is to assess the dimensional accuracy of FDM 3D printing process
for reproducing Cadaver skull. For that a Cadaver skull is to be scanned to get an
output of. STL file. The STL file is then transferred to FDM 3D printing machine to 3D
print the skull. Then the distance between fixed landmarks are measured on Cadaver
skull and 3D printed skull using digital vernier callipers. The obtained results are
tabulated and evaluated to find out the dimensional accuracy.
3 Research Methodology
3.1 Collecting of Cadaver Skull

The Cadaver skull is collected from Dr. Suresh, CranioMaxillo Facial Surgeon, Sun-
shine Hospitals, Secunderabad. Figure 1 illustrates Cadaver skull.
Fig. 1. Cadaver skull
3.2 Scanning Cadaver Skull Using Einscan pro+

Scanning of Cadaver skull is done through Einscan pro+ scanner at Think 3D
Somajiguda, Hyderabad. The cadaver skull is placed on Einscan platform. The Einscan
scans cadaver skull on platform. The platform rotates during scanning the data is
collected in computer and save the file. STL. Scanning and capturing the data of
cadaver skull is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Scanning of Cadaver skull with Einscan pro.
3.3 3D Printing of Skull Using FDM Process

The STL is obtained from scanning is imported to flashprint software to remove excess
portion and produce tree support structures. Then file imported into simplifier 3D
software which is machine interface software for adjusting of layer thickness, infill
percentage, selection of extruder and platform temperature. The model is printing on
AHA 3D printer at IIT Hyderabad. Aha 3D printing machine which produces parts by
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process. The material Acrylonitrile Butadiene
Styrene (ABS) is used for printing. Figure 3 illustrates Aha 3D FDM machine (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Aha 3D printing machine. Fig. 4. Printing of skull on Aha 3D printing machine.

4.1 Fixed Landmarks on Skull
For analysis, dimensions of the overall measurements were organized into five groups.
This representing different regions: skull base, craniofacial, orbital, midface, and
maxilla. Figure 5 shows fixed Landmarks on the skull [1].
Fig. 5. Dimensions used to compare Cadaver and 3D printed skull for overall measurements by
group (*bilateral measure). AFM, anterior foramen magnum; AAl, anterior alveolus; ANS,
anterior nasal spine; In, inion; IoT, inferolateral orbit transition; IoF, infraorbital foramen; LFM,
left foramen magnum; LZsF, lateral zygomaticofrontal Suture; LPA, lateral piriform aperture;
Mo, Medial Orbit; Na, nasion; MP, mastoid process; PAI, posterior alveolus; Po, porion; PFM,
posterior foramen magnum; RMF, right foramen magnum; ZfS, zygomaticofrontal Suture; SoF,
supraorbital foramen; ZyP, zygomatic prominence.
4.2 Measuring of Cadaver Skull

The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for Craniofacial region
(Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at carniofacial region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for skull base region
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at skull base region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for orbital region
(Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at orbital region

The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for midface region
(Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at midface region
4.3 Measuring of 3D Printed Skull

The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for Craniofacial region
(Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at carniofacial region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for skull base region
(Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at skull base region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for orbital region
(Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at orbital region
The displacements between fixed land marks are measured for midface region
(Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. Measuring of displacement between fixed land marks at midface region
4.4 Distance Between Land Mark Points of Cadaver and 3D Printed

Skull
The distance between landmarks on cadaver and 3D printed skull are measured for four
region and illustrated in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Table 1. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed skull of craniofacial region
Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage deviation
skull skull deviation between between land marks
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks (%) (A − B)/A * 100
(mm) (A − B)
Inion – Nasion 185.10 184.76 0.34 0.18
Inion - 167.12 166.96 0.16 0.10
Zygomatic
prominence
Inion – Porion 105.45 105.8 0.35 0.33
Porion - 66.4 66.21 0.19 0.29
Zygomatic
prominence
(continued)
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks (%) (A − B)/A * 100
(mm) (A − B)
Porion – 109.22 109.19 0.03 0.03
Nasion
Porion – 112.9 112.28 0.62 0.55
Anterior nasal
spine
Porion – 116.3 116.14 0.16 0.14
Anterior
alveolus
Nasion - 51.6 51.44 0.16 0.31
Anterior nasal
spine
Anterior nasal 8.53 8.62 0.09 1.06
spine -
Anterior
alveolus
Table 2. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed of mid face region
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks (%) (A − B)/
(mm) (A − B) A * 100
Nasion – lateral 52.63 52.43 0.2 0.38
zygomatic
frontal Suture
lateral 53.84 53.81 0.03 0.06
zygomatic
frontal Suture –
Nasion
Medial Orbit - 17.32 17.33 0.01 0.06
Medial Orbit
Nasion - 67.78 67.73 0.05 0.07
Zygomatic
prominence
Nasion - 67.77 67.20 0.57 0.84
Zygomatic
prominence
Zygomatic 106.72 107.47 0.75 0.70
prominence -
Zygomatic
prominence
Nasion - 61.34 60.07 1.27 2.07
Anterior nasal
spine
Table 3. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed skull of skull base region
Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage
skull skull deviation between deviation between
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks land marks (%)
(mm) (A − B) (A − B)/A * 100
Porion – Porion 117.45 116.88 0.57 0.49
Mastoid process - 100.64 99.55 1.09 1.08
Mastoid process
Anterior Foramen 31.17 30.87 0.3 0.96
magnum –
posterior
Foramen magnum
Left Foramen 27.23 27.53 0.31 1.14
magnum – Right
Foramen magnum
Table 4. Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and 3D printed of orbital region

Land marks Cadaver Fabricated Dimensional Percentage
skull skull deviation between deviation between
(mm) (A) (mm) (B) land marks land marks (%)
(mm) (A − B) (A − B)/A * 100
Nasion – Medial 16.85 16.70 0.15 0.89
Orbit
Medial Orbit - 41.82 41.17 0.65 1.55
zygomatic frontal
Suture
Supraorbital 48.56 47.68 0.88 1.81
Foramen –
Infraorbital
Foramen
Supraorbital 41.53 40.84 0.69 1.66
Foramen –
Inferolateralorbial
Foramen
4.5 Considering Mean, Maximum and Minimum

The overall mean, maximum and minimum deviation for cadaver and 3D printed skull
in four regions are illustrated in Table 5.
Table 5. Results of measurement reflecting FDM overall dimensions

Region Dimensional deviation between Cadaver and Fabricated skull
Mean Mean Minimum Minimum Maximum Maximum
(mm) (%) (mm) (%) (mm) (%)
Craniofacial 0.233 0.2 0.03 0.0 0.62 0.5
Skull base 0.56 0.8 0.3 1.1 1.09 1.0
Midface 0.371 0.6 0.01 0.0 1.27 2.1
Orbital 0.59 1.6 0.15 0.8 0.88 1.8
5 Conclusions
The aim of this project is to compare the dimensional accuracy of FDM 3D printed
skull with Cadaver skull. The displacement between fixed marks on skulls with respect
to four regions are measured and compared. The mean overall difference between FDM
3D printed skull and Cadaver skull is ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 mm and percentage error
is less than 1.6% for all regions. The maximum error in overall regions is 1.2 mm and
maximum percentage error of 2.1% is observed in midface region. The percentage error
in orbital and midface is higher than craniofacial and skull base regions. The maximum
errors observed in midface dimensions, which is subjected to less precision in mod-
elling, thin surfaces and small projections found in midface region. This errors occurs
due to insufficient support structures on thin areas and shrinkage, during data prepa-
ration and transfer. This problems can be reduced by enhancement of 3D printing
software’s, hardware and material.
Acknowledgements. The Authors would like to thank UGC, South Eastern Regional Office,
Hyderabad, as this research is carried out as a part of UGC Minor Research Project titled
“Assessment of Dimensional Accuracy of Facial (Zygomatic) bone fractures reduction using
Additive Manufacturing: a Randomized Control Study” Proposal No. 1204, Letter No. F. No:
4-4/2015-16/MRP/UGC-SERO, Dt. Oct 2016 sanctioned to Dr. L. Siva Rama Krishna.
References
1. Chang PS-H, Parker TH (2003) The accuracy of stereolithography in planning craniofacial
bone replacement. J Craniofac Surg 14(2):164–170
2. Siva Rama Krishna L, Vemulakonda BS, Potturi A (2018) Evaluation of zygomatic complex
fractures based on three point fixation technique using additive manufacturing. Int J Sci Res
Sci Technol 4(2):1092–1100
3. Smith EJ, Anstey JA, Venne G, Ellis RE (2013) Using additive manufacturing in accuracy
evaluation of reconstructions from computed tomography. Part H: J Eng Med 227(5):551–559
4. Giannatsis J, Dedoussis V (2009) Additive fabrication technologies applied to medicine and
health care: a review. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 40(1–2):116–127
5. Olszewski R, Reychler H (2004) Clinical applications of rapid prototyping models in cranio-
maxillofacial surgery. In: Advanced applications of rapid prototyping technology in modern
engineering
6. Müller A, Krishnan KG, Uhl E, Mast G (2003) The application of rapid prototyping
techniques in cranial reconstruction and preoperative planning in neurosurgery. J Craniofac
Surg 14(6):899–914
7. Gerstle TL, Ibrahim A, Kim PS, Lee BT, Lin SJ (2014) A plastic surgery application in
evolution: three dimensional printing. Plast Reconstr Surg: J Am Soc Plast Surg 133(2):446–
451
Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical
Properties of Friction Welded AISI 4140 Grade
Steel Pipes
S. K. Abdul Khadeer1(&), P. Ramesh Babu1, K. Surender Rao2,

and A. Seshu Kumar3
1
abdul_khadeer31@yahoo.com
2
Metal Forging Industries, IDA, Cherlapally, Hyderabad 500051, India
3
CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Tarnaka,
Abstract. The present research work aims to investigate the microstructural

and mechanical properties of AISI 4140 low alloy steel grade pipes in friction
welded form both in as-received and reheating to 860 °C, oil quenching and
followed by tempering at 520 °C (RQT) conditions. All the welds were sub-
jected to post weld annealing at 600 °C. The weld zone primarily consists of
fully plastically deformed zone (FPDZ), partially deformed zone (PDZ) and
unaffected base metal (BM). Dynamically recrystallized microstructure was
observed in both the sides of weld interface of FPDZ in the present investiga-
tion. The microstructure in FPDZ of RQT showed tempered martensite and
small amounts of ferrite where as in as-received condition showed acicular
ferrite and some amount of martensitic structure. In RQT condition, the micro
hardness of the welds is higher than as-received condition. Generally FPDZ
showed higher hardness than PDZ. RQT samples show a noticeable increase in
the strength of joints as compared to that of as-received samples.
Keywords: RQT PWHT FPDZ PDZ BM AISI 4140 low alloy steel
1 Introduction
AISI 4140 is a medium carbon low alloy steel also called as chromium-molybdenum
steel, is a well known commercial steel and most commonly used in the fabrication of
machinery parts, automobile & aircraft components and oil and gas transport pipe lines
due to its superior mechanical properties [1]. This class of steel is generally categorized
as quenched and tempered steels [2] as the tempering process results in increasing the
toughness while maintaining good tensile properties. Chuaiphan et al. [3] investigated
the influence of heat treatment on metallurgical and mechanical properties of low alloy
steel AISI 4140 grade for cane harvester cutter, by heating the steel to 850 °C holding
at that temperature for 30 min for homogenization, experimental result shows that
material exhibited martensitic and upper bainitic microstructure after quenching.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_79
674 S. K. Abdul Khadeer et al.
Chaouch et al. [4] has reported the affect of heat treatment on the mechanical
performance of AISI 4140 steel. The as-received steel was first austenised to 850 °C
for period of 30 min, oil quenching followed by tempering treatment by varying the
tempering temperature between 200 °C and 600 °C. As a result, formation tempered
martensite was observed. Subhash Chander et al. [5] evaluated the toughness of dis-
similar weld joints made out of AISI 4140 steel and AISI 304 grade steels and noticed
that the depletion of carbon occurs at weld interface on the low alloy steel AISI 4140
side. Celik et al. [6] studied, friction welded joint between AISI 4140 steel and AISI
1050 steel. They observed a martensite structure formation at the weld interface,
coupled with grain coarsening as the friction pressure increased.
With respect to studies on friction welding of pipes, Emre et al. [7] studied the
friction welding between N80 and 42CrMo4 steel pipes in post weld heat treated
condition and as-received condition. kimura et al. [8] reported friction welded dis-
similar joints made out of Al alloy 6061 and AC8A-Al cast alloy pipes, they noticed
that joint efficiency can be achieved by opportune friction time and forging pressures.
Palanivel et al. [9] observed that between laser welding and friction welding of Tita-
nium tubes, friction welds shows no clear evidence of formation HAZ. Sbalchiero et al.
[10] reported that friction welded cylinders are preferred compared to gas metal arc
welding.
From the literature review, it is noted that AISI 4140 was investigated mostly for
the influence of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties [3, 4]. Few
investigators reported friction welded joints of AISI 4140 but in dissimilar combination
with other steels mostly limited to rod joints [5, 6]. Literature is scanty [7–10] on the
friction welding of ferrous pipe sections where geometry can influence the properties.
The present work focuses on the comparative evaluation of friction welds in the as-
received condition and RQT condition of AISI 4140 low alloy steel pipes and provides
some insight into correlation between microstructures and mechanical properties for
drill rod applications in oil and gas industry.
2 Experimental Details
2.1 Base Materials
In the present study, the material used was AISI 4140 low alloy steel, in the form of
pipe with an external diameter 73 mm and wall thickness of 7.1 mm. The chemical
analysis of the selected steel was carried out using Oxford make spectrometer is given
below Table 1 and the mechanical properties of the AISI 4140 base material is given
below Table 2.
Table 1. Chemical composition of low alloy steel AISI 4140 pipes

Elements (wt%) C Mn S P Si Cr Mo Ni w Pb
Values 0.438 0.765 0.016 0.015 0.236 1.040 0.187 0.009 0.019 0.015
Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Properties 675
Table 2. Mechanical properties of low alloy steel AISI 4140 pipes

Yield strength (MPa) Tensile Elongation Hardness Impact
Strength (MPa) (%) (Hv) strength (J)
602.34 824.55 13 265 28
2.2 RQT Procedure Used

One set of as-received pipe samples before welding were subjected to heat treatment
operation consists of reheating the specimens to 860 °C, and then quenched in oil with
the soaking time of 120 min. Further samples were subjected to tempering at 520 °C
with the soaking time of 150 min.
2.3 Welding Details

A continuous drive Roto-friction welding machine of the YUAN YU make of model
YU-60 with a maximum thrust of 44 Ton was used for the joining of selected steel pipe
of 200 mm length each. The welding was performed as per Metal Forge industries
Weld Procedure Specification (WPS-4140) in the as-received and Reheated, Quenched
and Tempered (RQT) condition and the weld parameters were Friction pressure of
2 MPa, Forge pressure of 6.4 MPa, Speed of 1500 RPM, Burn of length of 25 mm,
Friction time 30 s and Forge time of 8 s.
2.4 Post Weld Heat Treatment

All the friction welded samples soon after the welding was subjects to the post weld
heat treatment by heating the joints at a temperature of 600 °C using induction coil
around the weld joint for a time cycle of 10 min, then samples were cooled in still air.
2.5 Metallography Examination

The samples of the size 40 mm 10 mm were extracted from the friction welded pipe
for microstructural examination. The sectioned specimens was mounted in Bakelite and
mechanical polishing was performed by using successive grades of SiC emery papers
and fine finishing was carried out by cloth polishing using diamond paste of 3 µm to
0.5 µm, then the Samples was etched with 2% Nital solution for revealing the
microstructure. An ASTM E-407 standard was followed for the micro structural
analysis using an optical microscope, Olympus make model No. BX-41-M (LED) in-
corporated with image analyzing software and the fractured morphology of the tensile
specimens was evaluated by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), ZEISS make
model No. EVO-18.
Fig. 1. Microstructure of base material Fig. 2. Microstructure of base material AISI 4140
AISI 4140 steel in as-received condition steel in RQT condition
The microstructure of the as-received low alloy steel AISI 4140 base metal consists
of acicular ferrite grains within the matrix of pearlite as shown in Fig. 1. The base
material microstructure in the RQT condition showed mostly tempered martensite and
acicular ferrite shown in Fig. 2.
2.6 Mechanical Testing

The test procedures, geometry of the samples and dimensions were made as per the
ASTM standards. A digital Vickers micro hardness tester Matsuzawa model MMT –
X7 was used to measure the hardness as per ASTM E-384 standards with a indentation
gap of 0.25 mm on either sides of the weld interface and 100 gm of load is applied for a
dwell of 15 s. Tensile test was carried according to ASTM-E8M standards on universal
testing machine Adithya make & model UTE-40 and the tensile samples were taken
from the welded pipe by wire cut electric discharge machine (EDM). The schematic
representation and photograph of the actual specimen before test is shown in Fig. 3.
Impact tests were performed on Blue star make and model IT-30 with the sub-sized
specimens (10 mm 5 mm 55 mm) shown in Fig. 4. The measured energy was
converted into equivalent full sized specimen as per ASTM A-370 standards.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of tensile test specimen and the actual specimens
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of Impact Specimen and the actual specimens


3.1 Microstructure
Microstructure of the friction welded low alloy steel AISI 4140 pipe joints in different
zones of as-received samples shown in below Fig. 5 and RQT condition samples are
shown in below Fig. 6. Three different zones were found in the weldment namely, fully
plastically deformed zone (FPDZ), partially deformed zone (PDZ) and unaffected base
metal (BM). A small sized recrystallized grains was noticed on either sides of the weld
interface region in FPDZ. Formation of Dynamically recrystallized grains was also
observed by Subhash Chander et al. [5] and Celik et al. [6]. In the as received con-
dition, the FPDZ typically showed lath martensite/upper bainitic microstructure and
polygonal ferrite. PDZ showed formation of acicular ferrite depicting the radial flow of
the material during upset phase.
Fig. 5. Microstructure of as-received friction welded joint
The structure of RQT welds in FPDZ consists of predominately tempered

martensite and some amount of dynamically recrystallized ferrite. On the other hand
PDZ showed partially recrystallized ferrite, but did not show distinct radial flow pattern
which was observed in as-received weld condition and this may attributed to the
homogenization during RQT.
Fig. 6. Microstructure of RQT friction welded joint
3.2 Hardness
The micro hardness distribution profiles across the weld interface in friction welded
joints in the as-received and RQT conditions are shown in Fig. 7. The hardness of
friction welded joint in the as-received condition showed 265 ± 5 Hv of hardness in
the base metal, 320 ± 5 Hv of hardness in the PDZ and maximum hardness of
350 ± 5 Hv in the FPDZ. The results indicates that hardness increases notably from
BM towards weld joint due to possible formation of fine grains resulted from hot plastic
deformation accompanied by dynamic recrytallization. In case of RQT friction welded
samples showed 370 ± 5 Hv of hardness in the base metal and 340 ± 5 Hv of
hardness in the PDZ and maximum hardness of 380 ± 5 Hv in the FPDZ. The
enhancing of hardness in the RQT welds is due to the formation of tempered martensite
as reported by Vardhan Lalam et al. [11] and Damodaran et al. [12].
Fig. 7. Hardness profile of friction welded as-received and RQT samples

3.3 Tensile Test

The experimental results of the tensile tests for as-received and RQT condition friction
welded low alloy steel AISI 4140 pipe joints are shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Tensile test graph of friction welded joints in as - received and RQT conditions
The results reveal that RQT welded joints shows a considerable increase in the
yield strength and the ultimate tensile strengths as compared to as-received welded
joints confirming the micro structural observations reported in the present work above.
Damodaran et al. [12] observed the strengthening precipitates formation and grain
refinement in RQT condition and attributed the same to the observed increase in the
strength. In the present work grain refinement was observed in the weld zone.
The fracture behavior of tensile tested as-received and RQT samples was analyzed
by SEM, which shown in Fig. 9. The morphology of the fracture surfaces of both the
samples exhibited predominantly dimple rupture indicating good ductility.
Fig. 9. Tensile fractography of as-received and RQT friction welded joints
3.4 Impact Toughness

The impact toughness of the as-received and RQT condition friction welded low alloy
steel AISI 4140 pipe joints samples were measured through sub-size Charpy-V notch
impact tests which were performed at room temperature. Welds exhibited impact
toughness of 12 J in case of as-received condition and 25 J in case of RQT condition
samples. XRD plots in Fig. 10, revealed the presence carbides in the weld zone in the
as received condition confirming decrease in the impact toughness.
Fig. 10. X-Ray diffraction plots of friction welded joints in as received and RQT condition
4 Conclusions
The following inferences are drawn from the experimental results

• The dynamically recrystallized fine grains were distinctly visible at the weld
interface region in the present investigation. FPDZ consists of acicular ferrite and
some martensitic structure in as-received samples where as FPDZ in RQT welds
consists of predominately tempered martensite and some ferrite grain in small
amount.
• RQT friction welded joints shows enhancement of hardness in all three zones when
compare to the as-received welded joints.
• Yield strength and Tensile strength were improved substantially in RQT welded
joints than in as-received condition.
• Welds exhibited higher impact toughness in RQT welded joints compared to the as-
received welded joints.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to convey their sincere thanks to Shri S. K. Madar
Saheb, Managing Director, Metal Forging industries, Cherlapally, Hyderabad for extending the
help in facilities for conducting the experimental trails on friction welding machine.
References
1. Dewan MW, Liang J, Wahab MA, Okeil AM (2014) Effect of post-weld heat treatment and
electrolytic plasma processing on tungsten inert gas welded AISI 4140 alloy steel. Mater Des
54:6–13
2. Meysami AH, Ghasemzadeh R, Seyedein SH, Aboutalebi MR (2010) An investigation on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of direct-quenched and tempered AISI 4140
Steel. Mater Des 31:1570–1575
3. Chuaiphan W, Srijaroenpramong L, Pinpradub D (2013) The effects of heat treatment on
microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI 4140 for base cutter cane harvester. Adv
Mater Res 774–776:1059–1067
4. Chaouch D, Guessasma S, Sadok A (2012) Finite element simulation coupled to
optimization stochastic process to assess the effect of heat treatment on the mechanical
properties of 42CrMo4 steel. Mater Des 34:679–684
5. Subhash Chander G, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Tagore GRN (2013) Influence of process
parameters on impact toughness and hardness of dissimilar AISI 4140and AISI 304
continuous drive friction welds. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 64:1445–1457
6. Celik S, Ersozlu I (2009) Investigation of the mechanical properties and microstructure of
friction welded joints between AISI 4140 and AISI 1050 steels. Mater Des 30:970–976
7. Emre HE, Kaçar R (2015) Effect of post weld heat treatment process on microstructure and
mechanical properties of friction welded dissimilar drill pipe. Mater Res 18:503–508
8. Kimura M, Sakaguchi H, Kusaka M, Kaizu K, Takahashi T (2016) Joint properties of
friction welded joint between 6061 Al alloy pipe and Al-Si12CuNi (AC8A) Al cast alloy
pipe. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 86:2603–2614
9. Palanivel R, Dinaharan I, Laubscher RF (2019) A comparative study on microstructure and
mechanical properties between friction and laser beam welded titanium tubes. Int J Light
Electron Optics 177:102–111
10. Sbalchiero JA, Martinazzi D, Lemos GVB, Reguly A, Ramos FD (2018) Replacement of gas
metal arc welding by friction welding for joining tubes in the hydraulic cylinders industry.
Mater Res 21:1–8
11. Vardhan Lalam S, Madhusudhan Reddy G, Mohandas T, Kamaraj M, Murty BS (2009)
Continuous drive friction welding of Inconel 718 and EN24 dissimilar metal combination.
Mater Sci Technol 25:851–861
12. Damodaram R, Ganesh Sundara Raman S, Prasad Rao K (2014) Effect of post-weld heat
treatments on microstructure and mechanical properties of friction welded alloy 718 joints.
Mater Des 53:954–961
Effect of Aluminum Powder Suspended
Dielectric and Silver Coated Copper Electrode
on Electrical Discharge Machining
Characteristics of Inconel 718
N. Hima Varsha(&) and K. Saraswathamma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering (A),

nomula.hima@gmail.com
Abstract. In accordance to the analyzed performances, the Powder mixed

Electric Discharge Machining (PEDM) is learnt to be most often encountered
choice for machining hard materials. Complex geometries of hard materials are
machined with higher accuracy than with conventional processes. This paper
focuses on deducing the effects of Aluminum powder suspended dielectric and
Silver coated electrode on Material removal Rate (MRR) and Tool Wear Rate
(TWR) of Inconel 718 by varying current as well as pulse on time. And, from
these studies, it has been clearly evidenced an improvement in MRR and
reduction in TWR with the addition of Aluminum powder to dielectric and
Silver coating to the Copper electrode.
Keywords: PEDM MRR TWR
1 Introduction
Due to increased demand for energy efficiency and compact mechanical components in
energy industries, aerospace, missile and medical industries has contributed to the
progress of swift evolution of very high temperature resistant materials, like Nickel
based super alloys. The properties that make Nickel based super alloys an extra
ordinarily suitable for elevated temperature applications are also root for its hardship of
machining [1]. Hence, there is great demand for advanced machining technologies to
cut these difficult-to-machine materials with ease and precision.
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) is a competitive option for machining Nickel
based super alloys as it is one of the thermal types of non-traditional machining
processes having capability to machine any electrically conductive materials into
desired shape with required dimensional accuracy irrespective of material’s mechanical
strength. In Powder Mixed EDM, the inclusion of well suited fine powdered particles to
the dielectric fluid leads to finer surface finish combined with improved MRR [2].
Sengottuvel et al. [3] investigated “the effects of various EDM input parameters as well
as the influence of different tool geometry on MRR, TWR and Surface Roughness on
machining of Inconel 718 material using copper electrode. ANOVA showed that the
current was the most influencing factor, followed by pulse on time and pulse off time.It was
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_80
Effect of Aluminum Powder Suspended Dielectric 683
also observed that the rectangular tool geometry provided better result.” To reduce the tool
wear rate, Karunakaran and Chandrasekaran [4] focused on “machine-ability studies on
EDM of Inconel 800 with Silver Coated Electrolyte Copper Electrode”. Jothimurugan
et al. [5] focused on comparing “performance of silver coated copper electrode with
conventionally used copper tool electrode using optimum proportionate kerosene-
servotherm and commercial grade EDM oil in ED Machining of Monel400. It is observed
that Ag coated copper electrode has 26.8% increased MRR and 25% decreased TWR
decrease than copper electrode.” Patel et al. [6] has done experiments of “aluminum oxide
powder mixed rotary electric discharge machining on Inconel 718 and observed that MRR
is mainly depends on peak current and duty cycle whereas TWR depends on Peak current,
slurry concentration. Finer surface roughness is observed at low range of peak current,
pulse on time and duty cycle whereas at high range of varying parameters rough surface
finish was evidenced.” Karunakaran and Chandrasekaran [7] studied the “influence of
process parameters in Powder mixed Electrical discharge machining of Inconel 800 with
copper electrode and silver coated copper electrode. Coated electrode has significantly
increased in material removal rate and tool wear rate. Only minor increment was observed
for surface roughness.” In order to study effect of different powder suspended dielectric
i.e., aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and graphite Mahendra and Deepak [8] conducted
Electric Discharge Machining experimentation on Inconel 718 and found that MRR
mainly depends on current and graphite powder suspended dielectric having high MRR as
well as less TWR.
From the literature it is observed that very less study was focused on combined
effect of powder suspended dielectric and coated electrode on Inconel 718. Hence this
study concentrated on assessing the performance of Silver coated copper electrode and
Aluminum powder suspended dielectric with conventional copper electrode and
commercial grade EDM oil by considering current and pulse on time as varying
parameters.
2 Research Methodology
2.1 Material Selection

Inconel 718 material is chosen as work piece and dimensions of each sample made into
14 mm 14 mm 10 mm. Two different types of tool electrodes were used that are
copper and silver coated copper electrode with dimensions of 12 mm diameter and
100 mm length. Silver coating is made on copper electrode using electroplating process
of thickness 0.010 mm and length 20 mm. Commercial grade EDM oil and aluminum
powder suspended commercial EDM oil of concentration 3 g/lit were used as dielectric
fluids.
2.2 Selection of Input Parameters

Peak current: 6 A, 9 A, 12 A and pulse on time: 100 ls, 300 ls, 500 ls were con-
sidered as varying input parameters and other fixed parameters are shown in Table 1
for ED Machining.
684 N. Hima Varsha and K. Saraswathamma
Table 1. Other fixed machining parameters

Parameters Values
Gap voltage (V) 60
Pulse-off time (ls) 50
Spark gap (mm) 0.1–0.7
Polarity Positive
2.3 Experimental Conditions

Following experimental conditions mentioned in Table 2 are used in this study.
Table 2. Experimental conditions

S.no. Experimental condition
1. Using copper electrode in EDM
2. Using silver coated copper electrode in EDM
3. Powder suspended dielectric medium with copper electrode for EDM
4. Powder suspended dielectric medium with silver coated copper electrode for EDM
2.4 Experimentation
The experiments were performed on ELECTRA make VM6040 model EDM machine
by varying current (6 A, 9 A and 12 A) and pulse on time (100 ls, 300 ls and 500 ls)
according to full factorial design. MRR and TWR are calculated using the Eqs. 1 and 2
respectively. Weights of works pieces (Inconel 718) and electrodes (copper and silver
coated copper) before and after machining are measured using Digital weighing
machine of precision 0.001 gm and machining time is kept constant as 15 min.
Wbm Wam
MRR = ð1Þ
t
Ebm Eam
TWR = ð2Þ
t
Where,
Wbm, Wam are weight of material before machining and after machining
correspondingly.
Ebm, Eam are weight of electrode before machining and after machining
correspondingly.
‘t’ is the time of machining.

3.1 Material Removal Rate
Table 3 provides MRR values of EDM and PEDM using copper electrode and silver
coated copper electrode.
Table 3. MRR for different experimental conditions

Samples Run Current TON Machining Copper electrode Silver coated copper
(A) (µs) time (min) electrode
MRREDM MRRPEDM MRREDM MRRPEDM
(g/min) (g/min) (g/min) (g/min)
1 9 6 100 15 0.011 0.059 0.047 0.086
2 4 6 300 15 0.015 0.075 0.057 0.113
3 1 6 500 15 0.05 0.116 0.095 0.121
4 6 9 100 15 0.065 0.121 0.072 0.133
5 2 9 300 15 0.095 0.169 0.108 0.147
6 8 9 500 15 0.106 0.179 0.184 0.187
7 3 12 100 15 0.098 0.153 0.139 0.171
8 5 12 300 15 0.130 0.187 0.174 0.188
9 7 12 500 15 0.175 0.193 0.188 0.198
The graphs were plotted between pulse on time (100 µs, 300 µs, and 500 µs) and
MRR for different experimental conditions and are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. It is
evident from the graphs that, MRR increases with increase in pulse-on time. For low
pulse-on time, small amount of material was melted as the time of heating of the
workpiece was so small [9].
The graphs were plotted between current (6 A, 9 A and 12 A) and MRR for
different experimental conditions are shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 and it is interpreted that
MRR increases with increase in current. At low current, a little quantity of heat is
produced and major portion of it is taken by the surroundings resulting, the amount of
utilized energy for melting and vaporizing of the material is not so intense.
coated uncoated coated uncoated

pedm coated pedm uncoated pedm coated pedm uncoated
0.15 0.2
MRR (g/min)
0.16
MRR (g/min)
0.12
0.09 0.12
0.06 0.08
0.03 0.04
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TON (μs ) TON (μs )
Fig. 1. TON VS MRR at 6A Fig. 2. TON vs MRR at 9A


0.3
0.18
MRR (g/min)
0.15
MRR (g/min)
0.2
0.12
0.09
0.1 0.06
0.03
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 3 6 9 12 15
TON (μs ) CURRENT (A)
Fig. 3. TON vs MRR at 12A Fig. 4. Current vs MRR at 100 ls

0.2 0.3
MRR (g/min)
0.16
MRR (g/min)
0.12
0.08
0.04
0 0
3 6 9 12 15 3 6 9 12 15
CURRENT (A) CURRENT (A)
Fig. 5. Current vs MRR at 300 ls Fig. 6. Current vs MRR at 500 ls
From Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 it is also clearly seen that, addition of Aluminum

powder in dielectric has significantly increased MRR. For the first discharge in the
spark gap, powder particles present in Inter Electrode Gap get energized and move
quickly along with positive ions and electrons. These energized powder particles
colloid with dielectric molecules and generate more ions and electrons. Thus, more
electric charges are produced in PEDM compared to conventional EDM. It is also
observed that MRR increased for silver coated copper electrode as silver coated
electrode has better electrical and thermal properties compared to copper electrode.
3.2 Tool Wear Rate

Table 4 gives TWR values of EDM and PEDM using copper electrode and silver
coated copper electrode.
Table 4. TWR for different experimental conditions

Samples Run Current TON Machining Copper electrode Silver coated copper
(A) (µs) time (min) electrode
TWREDM TWRPEDM TWREDM TWRPEDM
(g/min) (g/min) (g/min) (g/min)
1 9 6 100 15 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.001
2 4 6 300 15 0.005 0.002 0.003 0.003
3 1 6 500 15 0.005 0.003 0.005 0.003
4 6 9 100 15 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.002
5 2 9 300 15 0.005 0.002 0.005 0.003
6 8 9 500 15 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.004
7 3 12 100 15 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.003
8 5 12 300 15 0.005 0.002 0.005 0.003
9 7 12 500 15 0.009 0.005 0.008 0.008
The graphs were plotted between pulse on time (100 µs, 300 µs, 500 µs) and TWR
for different experimental conditions and these are shown in Figs. 7, 8 and 9. From
these plots, it can be noticed that high pulse on time leads in increasing the TWR. As
TON is increased, electrode gets more time to absorb heat and erodes more material
from both electrode and work piece, this reason causes the TWR to increase.
The graphs were plotted between current (6A, 9A, 12A) vs TWR for different
experimental conditions are shown in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 and it indicates that TWR
increases with increase in current. As the spark energy is proportionate to the input
current, with increase in input current, spark energy intensifies between the inter
electrode gap. But at constant TON more spark energy is builds up which is utilized in
melting and evaporating the electrode material results in more tool wear.
coated uncoated Coated uncoated
pedm coated pedm uncoated PEDM Coated PEDM uncoated

0.006 0.1
TWR (g/min)
TWR (g/min)
0.004
0.05
0.002
0
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TON (μS )
TON (μs )
Fig. 7. TON VS TWR at 6A Fig. 8. TON VS TWR at 9A


pedm coated pedm uncoated
0.01
0.005
0.008
TWR (g/min)
0.004
TWR (g/min)
0.006 0.003
0.004 0.002
0.002 0.001
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 3 6 9 12 15
TON (μs ) CURRENT (A)
Fig. 9. TON VS TWR at 12A Fig. 10. Current vs TWR at 100 ls

0.01 0.01
TWR (g/min)
0.008
TWR (g/min)
0.005 0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0
3 6 9 12 15
3 6 9 12 15
CURRENT (A) CURRENT (A)
Fig. 11. Current vs TWR at 300 ls Fig. 12. Current vs TWR at 500 ls
It is also depicted from Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 that overall TWR is low for
PEDM using Copper electrode and high for Electrical Discharge Machining using
Copper electrode.
4 Conclusions
From this comparative experimental study following conclusions were drawn.

• MRR increases with increase in both peak current and pulse-on time.
• MRR was enhanced by 80% for combined effect of aluminium powder suspended
dielectric and silver coated copper electrode compared to without suspension of
powder in dielectric and uncoated electrode.
• Maximum MRR obtained was 0.198 g/min for aluminium PEDM using silver
coated copper electrode at 12 A of Peak Current and 500 ls of pulse on time.
• TWR increases with increase in both current and pulse on time.
• TWR was reduced by 44% for aluminium powder suspended dielectric and
uncoated copper electrode compared to without suspension of powder in dielectric
and uncoated electrode.
• Minimum TWR obtained was 0.001 g/min for aluminum PEDM using copper
electrode at 12 A of Peak Current and 100 ls of Pulse on time.
References
1. Zhe C, Johan M, Peng RL, Johansson S (2016) Surface integrity and fatigue performance of
Inconel 718 in wire electrical discharge machining. Procedia CIRP 45:307–310
2. Talla G, Gangopadhayay S, Biswas CK (2016) State of the art in powder-mixed electric
discharge machining: a review. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B: J Eng Manuf 231:2511–2526
3. Sengottuvel P, Satishkumar S, Dinakaran D (2013) Optimization of electrical discharge
machining process parameters using desirability approach and fuzzy modeling: international
conference on design and manufacturing. Procedia Eng 64:1069–1078
4. Karunakaran K, Chandrasekaran M (2017) Investigation of machine-ability of Inconel 800 in
EDM with coated electrode. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol
183, no 1, pp 012–014
5. Jothimurugan R, Amirthagadeswaran KS, Daniel J (2012) Performance of silver coated
copper tool with kerosene servotherm dielectric in EDM of Monel 400TM. J Appl Sci 12
(10):999–1005
6. Patel S, Thesiya D, Rajurkar A (2018) Aluminum powder mixed rotary electric discharge
machining (PMEDM) on Inconel 718. Aust J Mech Eng 16(1):21–30
7. Karunakaran K, Chandrasekaran M (2017) Influence of process parameters in n-PMEDM of
Inconel 800 with electrode and coated electrodes. In: MATEC web of conferences 95, Article
no. 02002
8. Mahendra GR, Deepak VM (2014) Study on effect of powder mixed dielectric in EDM of
Inconel 718. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(11):1–7 ISSN 2250-3153
9. Talla G, Gangopadhyay S, Biswas CK (2015) Effect of powder suspended dielectric on the
EDM characteristics of Inconel 625. J Mater Eng Perfomance 25:704–717
Investigation of the Process Parameters on Hot
Rolling of Al 7178-SiC Metal Matrix
M. Nagarjuna1(&), S. Gajanana2, and A. Krishnaiah3

1
Mechanical Department, Brilliant Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Hyderabad, India
meesanag@gmail.com
2
Mechanical Department, MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad, India
3
Abstract. Rolling process is more important processes in manufacturing. Hot

rolling is mainly used to produce sheet metal or cross section such as aerospace
structure and automotive parts etc.. In present study Al 7178 was taken as matrix
metal and silicon carbide powder (40 µm size) is selected as reinforcement to
produced to composites with 3%, 6% and 9% of Sic with stir casting process. The
metal matrix were fed to Hot rolling. In this investigation influence of the process
parameters such that thickness of rolling plate, speed of rollers, percentage of a
thickness reduction and temperature of rolling plate during Hot rolling process.
Taguchi method of design experiments were conducted to optimise the process
parameters which effect on properties of AL 7178 metal matrix.
Keywords: Al 7178 Hot rolling Sic Stir casting Taguchi method
1 Introduction
Growth of a science and Technology, there is required advanced Engineering materials

which are metal matrix for high-performance application such as aerospace, automotive,
military and marine. Metal matrix is a combination of Al 7178 metal (matrix) and Sic
hard particle (Reinforcement) to enhance mechanical properties. Metals are casted with
stir casting process with various wt% of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of SiC particle with
Al7178. It is revealed that Tensile strength of the composite material increased with
increasing weight % of SiC and homogeneous dispersion of SiC particles in Al matrix
[1], AA 5083 metal matrix was reinforced with nano SiC by stir casting process using
Design of experiments, The optimized value of the parameter are obtained at optimum
value of hardness components [2]. Hang et al. studied that established rolling force
equation for calculation of rolling force of mathematical model of hot rolling process
[3]. Devaranjan et al. studied that rolling force decreases with increasing roller speed
because of Roller making constant with material is not proper and roll force increases
with increasing Percentage of reduction [4]. Zheng-bingxiao et al. studied the material
flow behaviour during hot deformation for Al 2026 of true stress and strain is obtained.
It is observed that temperature range 350 °C–450 °C and strain rate 0.01 s−1 affect on
flow stress. It is revealed that effect of temperature on rolling force is decreased with

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_81
Investigation of the Process Parameters on Hot Rolling 691
increasing temperature [5, 6]. The effect of rolling diameter increases and speed is
decreasing which result rolling parameters like roll pressure, effective stress and
effective strain were decreased [7, 8]. The effect temperature gradient on deformation
character is more than the initial temperature.. The deviation between width of specimen
is obtained by rolling at 1100 °C and 1200 °C. This observation is agreed based on
simulation results [9] Hot working of a Cu-Ni-Si alloy has been studied. Experiment of
hot compression deformation of temperature range 700 °C to 900 °C and strain rate
.001/s indicated that flow stress increased peak value and increase deformation time and
recrystallisation behaviour in the temperature zone of 750 °C to 800 °C [10]. Taguchi
method was applied to study the process parameters for optimization for increasing
quality of steel strip cold rolling process. The process parameter like as entry tension,
exit tension, rolling speed and bending pressure on performance characteristics as strip
thickness variation. It is revealed that best performance characteristics was obtained by
the exit tension in the cold rolling process, [11, 12].
2 Methodology and Objectives
2.1 Methodology
Optimized composition of Al 7178 is obtained by Taguchi approach from the design of
experiments. The Al 7178 is a metal matrix and SiC as reinforcement material pro-
duced with stir casting process as size 150 mm length, 50 mm width and 11 mm
thickness. The rectangular Shape of castings are machined as different dimensions and
fed to hot rolling machine and identify the loads for plastic deformation of Al 7178
metal matrix composites in the hot rolling process. Roll separating force can be cal-
culated (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of Stir Casting technique
2.2 Objectives
1. Preparation of AL 7178 with SiC metal matrix.

2. Identification of input parameters for hot rolling process
692 M. Nagarjuna et al.
3. Taguchi design of experiments are applied

4. Determine the roll separating force
5. Development of regression equation for roll force.
3 Experimentation
3.1 Material
Present research work Al 7178 has been selected. The composition of Al 7178 alloy is
shown in the Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of Al 7178 alloy.

Elements Zn Mg Cu Cr Si Fe Mn Ti Al
Wt% 6.3 2.75 2 0.23 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 88.32
3.2 Stir Casting Proces

Present study, aluminium alloy was reinforced with Silicon Carbide materials at dif-
ferent wt% of 3%, of Sic. It was produced using with a Resistance furnace equipped to
the stirring system, Stirring process was supported at a constant speed at 100 rpm with
stirring duration of 10–15 min, and at casting temperature of 750 ± 5 °C. The mixing
equipment for this stage depended of a driving motor capable of generating rotation
speed within the range of 100 rpm. Balanced aluminium 7178 alloys were melted in a
graphite crucible and at the same time sic particle preheated in a muffle furnace set at
temperature 900 °C for approximately one hour to remove moisture surface impurities.
The ceramic particle Sic was poured and continuously into the molten ceramic metal
and melt was continuously stirred at 100 rpm and preparing metal matrix composites
by the stir casting method.
The composite slurry is poured into the desired shape of die. After some time, the
molten alloy is solidified at room temperature, the specimen is removed from the die.
This process is repeated for nine trials and sample were shaped in the form of a
rectangular shape castings as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Solidified Al 7178 metal matrix with 3% SiC

3.3 Machining
The specimens are properly machined using a Milling machine. Initially the job is fixed
to the holder Next the job is cut as per the dimensions (150 mm length and 50 widths).
Face milling operation is carried out on the upper face. On down face also face milling
is carried out to obtain different thickness as 5 mm, 7 mm and 9 mm.
3.4 Taguchi Design of Experiment

The object of present study most influencing process parameters of the Hot rolling
process. It is proposed to have minimum rolling force to carry on the rolling process
hence Taguchi method as S/N ratio minimum and rolling force is promotional to power
co consumption. Therefore the smaller is the better (Table 2).
S/N ratio for the better case could be calculated.
Xn
S=N ¼ 10 log10 n¼1
ð1=yÞ
Where y = load for each experiment.
Table 2. The control factors and their level

Control factors Notation Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Thickness of plate (mm) A 5 7 9
Speed of roller (rpm) B 10 15 20
Percentage of reduction C 10 15 20
Roll temperature °C D 400 500 600
3.5 Hot Rolling Process

Aluminium 7178 alloy casting specimen size length 150 mm, width 50 mm and
thickness 5 mm, 7 mm and 9 mm are heated to 400 °C, 500 °C and 600 °C above
recrystallization temperature for one hour soaking in the muffle furnace. The heated
specimens are fed into roll mills. Hot rolling is to reduce thickness of strip by com-
pressive stresses in contact region between roll surface and aluminium plates. Exper-
iments were conducted as Taguchi design of experiments for nine trials.
4.1 Roll Force

Roll separating force or Roll force is defined as the rollers pull each other and press
against metal which is deformed, roll load is obtained by the rolling machine (Tables 3
and 4, Fig. 3).
Table 3. Roll separating force

Trial A B C D Roll force SNRA1 MEAN1
1 1 1 1 1 69182.28 −96.7999 69182.28
2 1 2 2 2 42278.06 −92.5223 42278.06
3 1 3 3 3 76869.2 −97.715 76869.2
4 2 1 2 3 62456.22 −95.9115 62456.22
5 2 2 3 1 171034 −104.662 171034
6 2 3 1 2 58612.76 −95.3598 58612.76
7 3 1 3 2 270963.9 −108.658 270963.9
8 3 2 1 3 32669.41 90.2828 32669.41
9 3 3 2 1 315163 −109.971 315163
Table 4. Response table for means of signal to noise ration

Level A B C D
1 62777 134201 53488 185126
2 97368 81994 139966 123952
3 206265 150215 172956 57332
Delta 143489 68221 119468 127795
Rank 1 4 3 2
Main Effects Plot for Means

Data Means
A B C D
225000
200000
175000
Mean of Means
150000
125000
100000
75000
50000
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Fig. 3. Effect of process parameter with mean of S/N ratio for Roll force.
Figure shows that inlet thickness of plate is more effect on roll force, the level of
thickness increases with increasing roll force due to residual stresses increases, roller
speed and percentage of a thickness reduction are increase to level two and decrease.
Temperature is also more effective on roll force, the level of temperature increases with
increasing roll force because of density decreases (Table 5).
Table 5. Analysis of variance

Source DF Seq SS Contribution Adj SS Adj MS F-value P-value
Regression 4 77174303936 87.07% 77174303936 19293575984 6.74 0.046
A 1 30883610984 34.84% 30883610984 30883610984 10.78 0.030
B 1 384680781 0.43% 384680781 384680781 0.13 0.733
C 1 21408743255 24.15% 21408743255 21408743255 7.47 0.052
D 1 24497268916 27.64% 24497268916 24497268916 8.55 0.043
Error 4 11457502121 12.93% 11457502121 2864375530
Total 8 88631806057 100.00%
From ANOVA table of signal to noise ratio, 95% confidence level the P value of
inlet thickness and temperature were less than 0.05 hence most significant on the roll
forces
Regression Equation
Roll Force ¼ 29039 þ 71744 A þ 8007 B þ 59734 C 63897 D
Model Summary
S R-sq R-sq (adj) Press R-sq (pred)

53519.9 87.07% 74.15% 6.96158E+10 21.46%
R-square value is 87.07% which is close to the 95% confident level, the experi-
mental values are validated. Because effect of unconditional parameters at yield and
least contribution of interactive effect of parameters which result is 87-07.
5 Conclusions
1. Taguchi method was applied to optimization of process parameters are inlet
thickness, roll speed, percentage of reduction and temperature for roll force of Hot
rolling process of Al 7178. From the analysis optimized process parameters of inlet
thickness 5 mm, speed of roller 15 rpm, percentage of thickness 10% and roll
temperature 600 °C.
2. Predicated optimal value of roll force at 95% confidence level which has been
validated by the confirmation test.
3. Inlet thickness increases with increase roll force and temperature is increasing with
decrease roll force.
4. Regression equation has been developed for roll force.
Acknowledgment. The acknowledge thanks DMRL research centre, Hyderabad Telangana,

India who provided permission to conducted experimentation.
References
1. Bagheripoor M, Bisadi H (2014) An investigation on the roll force and torque fluctuations
during hot strip rolling process. Prod Manuf Res 2(1):128–141
2. Backar AH, Suker DK, Elbenawy TA, Ghulman HA (2016) Optimal hot deformation
characterization of AA5083 aluminium alloy, no 03
3. Huang C, Deng H, Chen J, Hu X, Yang S (2011) Research on rolling force model in hot-
rolling process of aluminum alloys. Procedia Eng 16:745–754
4. Tripathi A, Medhavi A (2014) Finite element simulation of hot rolling for an aluminium
2024 plate. Int J Sci Res Publ 4(1):2250–3153
5. Xiao ZB, Huang YC, Liu Y (2016) Modeling of flow stress of 2026 al alloy under hot
compression. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2016:28–32
6. He C, Jiao Z, Wu D (2014) Plastic coefficient on-line calculation method for hot rolling. 18
(9):445–449
7. Studies on influence of roller diameter and roller speed on process parameters in hot, no 5,
pp 2–6
8. Simon P, Falkinger G, Scheiblhofer S (2017) Hot rolling simulation of aluminium alloys
using LS-Dyna
9. Demin D, Zakhariev I, Labutina T, Levikina A (2018) Numerical simulation laboratory hot
rolling process of a round bars in flat rolls, pp 380–385
10. Lei Q et al. Author’s personal copy Hot working behavior of a super high strength Cu – Ni –
Si alloy
11. Vaidya VA, Waghmare AC (2017) Open access Taguchi approach for optimization of
process parameters in improving quality of steel strip in single stand cold rolling mill. Am J
Eng Res (AJER) 9:216–225
12. Vaidya VA, Deshmukh B (2016) Application of Taguchi for optimization of process
parameters in improving thickness variation in single stand cold rolling mill 5(5):15–23
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting
Pressure Recovery in a Two Stage Jet Pipe
Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve
Madhusudhan Raju1(&), I. R. Shivakumar2, L. Siva Rama Krishna1,

and D. Sandeep1
1
MED, UCE, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India
ettaboina@gmail.com, lsrkou@gmail.com,
dasarisandeep98@gmail.com
2
Defence R and D Laboratory, Hyderabad, India
irshivakumar.drdl@gmail.com
Abstract. Jet Pipe Electro Hydraulic Servo Valves are widely used in Aero-
space applications owing to their fast response and working fluid contamination
tolerance. Pressure recovery that is the pressure drop across the spool valve ends
is to be maximized to reduce the first stage losses. Recovery is affected by
various parameters such as jet pipe and receiver tube dimensions and their
relative positioning. This paper presents sensitivity study of these affecting
parameters using Taguchi method to appropriately decide the allowance man-
ufacturing tolerances for acceptable valve performance.
Keywords: Jet pipe servo valve Taguchi method Sensitivity analysis
1 Introduction
The latest advent of machinery requires high frequency response and EHSV’s that are
fast responding direction control valves are used for closed looped control of such
machines. EHSV’s serve as an interface between electrical and hydraulic systems. High
power low speed hydraulic actuators are controlled by EHSV’s by converting low
power input into movement of spool. Hence, they can be used in applications such as
aircrafts, robotics, CNC machine tools etc.
2 Structure and Operating Principle of a Jet Pipe EHSV
A jet pipe EHSV as shown in Fig. 1, has torque motor and valve assemblies. There is a
mechanical feedback spring assembly to stabilize valve operation. When there is no
current input to the motor coils, the spool is in a stationary position due to the balancing
of the forces created by presence of equal pressures on both ends of chambers. When
current flows along the coil generating emf and in turn producing torque on jet pipe.
This torque rotates the jet pipe assembly directing the fluid jet to either of the receiver
holes producing higher pressure in the spool and chamber. This pressure difference
causes the spool to move to opposite direction to that of the jet pipe deflection.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_82
698 M. Raju et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic of a jet pipe
3 Mathematical Model for Pressure Recovery
Velocity of jet at vena contracta for supply pressure of PS is given by

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðPs Pi Þ
Vin ¼ ð1Þ
qo
Where Pi is pressure at Vena Contracta and qo is the density of working fluid. Where Pi
is the in-between pressure existing at the interface of jet pipe nozzle and receiver holes
and it depends on throttling of fluid and size of drain line orifice provided to pass this
fluid to tank.
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting Pressure Recovery 699
Pressure in receiver holes is given by Bernoulli’s equations as
P1 ¼ Pi þ Pd1 and P2 ¼ Pi þ Pd2 ð2Þ
Dynamic pressures Pd1 and Pd2 are calculated using following equations
1 A1 1 A2
Pd1 ¼ q0 Vin2 n Pd2 ¼ q0 Vin2 n ð3Þ
2 Aj 2 Aj
The distributor loss coefficient (n) varies from 0.92 to 0.98. A1 and A2 are the covered
area of the receiver holes from the jet pipe nozzle area, Aj. Covered areas A1 and A2
vary based on the Jet Pipe Displacement. Analytical relations for calculation of A1 and
A2 as a function of jet pipe displacement, using geometry, are developed. Alternatively,
they can be obtained from solid model.
Pressure recovery is given by DP ¼ Pd ¼ jP1 P2 j.
4 Design of Experiments
Parameters Identification, Selection of Orthogonal Array (OA) and Assigning

of Level
Parameters considered for present analysis are nozzle diameter, receiver hole diameter,
web thickness, nozzle offset and jet pipe deflections as shown in Table 1. Further, the
parameter web thickness is the distance between the edges of the two receiver holes as
measured on the line joining the centers of two receiver holes. Web thickness will
become zero when edges of the receiver holes touch each other. It can become negative
when receiver holes cut into each other although such a scenario is undesirable for the
functioning of the valve.
Table 1. Level values assigned for parameters.

S no Parameters Level values
1 2 3 4 5
1 Nozzle diameter (DN) (mm) 0.30 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.38
2 Receiver hole diameter (DR) (mm) 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54
3 Web thickness (W) (mm) 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
5 Jet pipe axis offset (Jo) (mm) 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
6 Jet pipe displacement (Xd) (mm) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Five levels for each of the five affecting factors were chosen so that the nominal values
along with deviations on either side of nominal values could be considered in the
sensitivity analysis. Now, since there are five parameters and it is decided to analyze
them at five levels, the smallest standard orthogonal array that matches with this
requirement is L25, which will give a test matrix of 25 different configurations with
700 M. Raju et al.
various combinations of levels of parameters as shown in Table 2. Level values for

each parameter are assigned as per Table 1. Values for parameter levels are so chosen
to cover the nominal values along with the values on either side of the nominal value.
Effects of interaction between the various factors is implicit in the combinations of
different levels of affecting factors considered is the 25 combinations, However,
explicit study to quantify the interaction between various factors, as suggested, will be
taken up in the further work.
Table 2. L25 orthogonal array

Exp no DN DR W Jo Xd Exp no DN DR W Jo Xd
1 1 1 1 1 1 14 3 4 1 3 5
2 1 2 2 2 2 15 3 5 2 4 1
3 1 3 3 3 3 16 4 1 4 2 5
4 1 4 4 4 4 17 4 2 5 3 1
5 1 5 5 5 5 18 4 3 1 4 2
6 2 1 2 3 4 19 4 4 2 5 3
7 2 2 3 4 5 20 4 5 3 1 4
8 2 3 4 5 1 21 5 1 5 4 3
9 2 4 5 1 2 22 5 2 1 5 4
10 2 5 1 2 3 23 5 3 2 1 5
11 3 1 3 5 2 24 5 4 3 2 1
12 3 2 4 1 3 25 5 5 4 3 2
13 3 3 5 2 4
Larger the better characteristic is used due to the requirement to keep the pressure
difference at a maximum, for which case, S/N-Ratio is given by
X
S 1 n 1
Ratio ¼ 10 log10 i y2
ð4Þ
N n i
Taguchi’s response analysis was carried out for sensitivity study of major parameters
affecting pressure recovery. Taguchi’s Response analysis gives graphical representa-
tions of changes in performance characteristics (Pressure Differential, Pd) with the
variations in factor level. The curve gives a pictorial view of variation of each factor
and describes the effect when a parameter shifts from one level to another. This analysis
is aimed at determining the parameters that are very influential in Analysis carried out
for sensitivity of major parameters affecting pressure recovery and is presented in the
Table 3.
Sensitivity Study of the Parameters Affecting Pressure Recovery 701
Table 3. Sensitivity Analysis of parameters using Taguchi Method

Exp Nozzle Receiver Web Offset Jet Differential
no diameter diameter thickness distance deflection pressure
(DN) (DR) (mm) (W) (mm) (Jo) (mm) (Xj) (mm) (Pd) (bar)
(mm)
1 0.3 0.46 0 0 0.01 16.043
2 0.3 0.48 0.01 0.01 0.02 31.842
3 0.3 0.5 0.02 0.02 0.03 47.199
4 0.3 0.52 0.03 0.03 0.04 61.937
5 0.3 0.54 0.04 0.04 0.05 75.884
6 0.32 0.46 0.01 0.02 0.04 58.418
7 0.32 0.48 0.02 0.03 0.05 71.974
8 0.32 0.5 0.03 0.04 0.01 14.368
9 0.32 0.52 0.04 0 0.02 29.036
10 0.32 0.54 0 0.01 0.03 45.375
11 0.35 0.46 0.02 0.04 0.02 25.835
12 0.35 0.48 0.03 0 0.03 39.375
13 0.35 0.5 0.04 0.01 0.04 52.089
14 0.35 0.52 0 0.02 0.05 67.633
15 0.35 0.54 0.01 0.03 0.01 13.527
16 0.36 0.46 0.03 0.01 0.05 62.693
17 0.36 0.48 0.04 0.02 0.01 12.552
18 0.36 0.5 0 0.03 0.02 26.098
19 0.36 0.52 0.01 0.04 0.03 38.712
20 0.36 0.54 0.02 0 0.04 52.164
21 0.38 0.46 0.04 0.03 0.03 34.784
22 0.38 0.48 0 0.04 0.04 48.078
23 0.38 0.5 0.01 0 0.05 61.065
24 0.38 0.52 0.02 0.01 0.01 12.248
25 0.38 0.54 0.03 0.02 0.02 12.175
Analysis is carried out for supply (Ps) 210 bar, density of fluid 780 kg/m3(qo) and
distributor loss coefficient is 0.94(n). Differential pressure has been calculated using
mathematical model by varying combinations obtained from orthogonal array. Signal
to Noise ratio curves of various affecting parameters for different levels are shown in
Fig. 2. Signal to Noise ratio is calculated and rank is given in the decreasing order for
affecting parameters on differential pressure, that is as expected, jet deflection being a
control parameter for spool movement, has the maximum degree of influence. Jet
deflection ! Nozzle Diameter ! Web thickness ! Offset distance ! Receiver
Diameter.
702 M. Raju et al.
Fig. 2. Signal to Noise ratio: Optimization of parameters
6 Conclusions
Sensitivity analysis of parameter using the Taguchi method shows that the parameters
in the decreasing order of their influence on the pressure recovery are Jet deflection,
Nozzle Diameter, Web thickness, Offset distance and Receiver diameter. This study
can be adopted to set the manufacturing level tolerances for the affecting parameters to
ensure pressure recovery as desired for the intended application.
References
1. Selection and performance criteria for electrohydraulic servo drives. Moog technical bulletin
122. Moog Inc. East Aurora
2. Performance estimation for electrohydraulic control system. Moog technical bulletin 126
Moog Inc. Control division, East Aurora
3. Merrit HE (1967) Hydraulic control systems. Wiley, Chichester
4. Maskrey RH, Thayer WJ. A brief history of electrohydraulic servomechanisms. Moog Inc.
Computational Modeling and Analysis
of Intake Taper Manifold of an Internal
Combustion Engine
T. Sreedhar1(&), B. Nageswara Rao2, K. Mourya Balaji1,

K. Jagan Mohan Reddy1, and K. V. Surya Harshith1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vignan’s Foundation for Science,
Technology & Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur 522 213, Andhra Pradesh, India
sreeharthotti@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Director IES, Vignan’s
Foundation for Science, Technology & Research,
Vadlamudi, Guntur 522 213, Andhra Pradesh, India
director_ecell@vignanuniversity.org
Abstract. The intake manifold is a key part of an i.c engine to feed the input
air. It maybe a casting or fabricated of relatively light material. The air passes
through the passage and enters into cylinder, due to bent cross-section the
velocity of intake air is optimum. In order to improve the velocity of air entering
in to cylinder chamber, it is proposed that the helical intake manifold with
different pitches and taper at exit in the place of existing manifold, due to this the
swirl motion generated in the intake helical manifold leads to increase the
velocity of air which is entering into cylinder such that it may help to increase
the combustion efficiency of the engine.
Keywords: Intake manifold Combustion efficiency Creo2.0 Fluent
1 Introduction
The prime function of the manifold is to equally distribute the combustion mixture (or
simply air in an exceedingly direct injection engine) to every intake port within the
cylinder head(s). Even distribution is vital to optimize the potency and performance of
the engine.
The design of the intake port and valve configuration of an internal combustion
engine plays an important dual role in modern high-speed engines. One task is to
provide good breathing characteristics to maximize the amount of trapped fresh air
charge, which has direct impact on the torque and power output of the engine. In
directly injected engines, diesels or spark ignited stratified-charge engines, the intake
system has the additional task of providing a desired in-cylinder flow pattern to control
the combustion process. Usually, this flow pattern is a swirling motion around the
cylinder axis and its objective is to achieve a controlled mixing of fuel and air for a
rapid, complete combustion, maximum air utilization and low emissions. In homoge-
neous charge lean burn engines, the additional task of the inlet system is to provide a

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_83
704 T. Sreedhar et al.
high-speed air motion and turbulence, ensuring a rapid burn essential to complete
combustion of a lean charge and tosuppression of detonation [1–3].
One way to find the optimum intake configuration for a given engine is to run a
series of engine experiments over a large vary of operative conditions with variety of
different intake designs, and choose the most effective among them. This is essentially
an attempt and error approach that, besides being very time consuming and expensive,
does not provides a clear image of why one intake system produces a much better in-
engine result than another one. due to that, it’s a standard practice to incorporate within
the development method steady-state bench tests of the intake flow, and these are used,
in one kind or another, to identify an initial design for a minimum of forty years. Actual
engine experiments are used only as the final trimming and proof step [4].
The bench tests typically include measurements of the rate of flow through the
valve as a perform of lift for a given pressure drop across the port/valve system and
measurements of swirl produced. The steady-state coefficients obtained are generally
used as a vital input to thermodynamic (global) models of the engine operating cycle.
These models will, for example, serve very competently during a computer opti-
mization of the cam profiles to be used with the given port/valve combination, but their
utility goes well beyond that [3, 4].
1.1 High Swirl Ports

When the combustion process needs a strong swirling motion within the cylinder, it can
be generated throughout induction by appropriate port and valve design, and so will be
amplified during the compression stroke by using a bowl in the piston and/or head, to
constrain the charge in a volume of smaller diameter than the cylinder bore close to the
top dead center. In general, there are 2 basic methods of generating the induction swirl:
(1) by a directed tangentially oriented outflow from the valve (non-uniform around the
circumference), and (2) by a Pre-swirl generated within the port upstream of the valve-
In apply, the directed outflow is usually enforced either by a valve shroud or by a
tangentially directed port, whereas the pre-swirl is created by a helical port or by port
guide vanes.
The valve shroud is an early thought, in which an area of the valve circumference is
blocked by a raised partition to supply an asymmetric inflow into the cylinder. The
thought is extremely useful for analysis or development functions because it’s simple to
implement, however in sensible applications it suffers from excessive pressure losses
(reduced meter efficiency) at high air flow rates related to higher engine speeds, and
from the requirement to restrain the valve from rotation. Another helpful analysis tool
for generation of a desired swirl level is that the use of the port guide vanes.
A lot of sensible approach to engine swirl generation is the directed port, that
produces swirl by channeling the port flow past the valve in an exceedingly tangential
fashion, generating an asymmetric in-flow. Recently, the helical port concept has
become more and more popular. This port generates swirl in an exceedingly helical
pre-chamber located simply on top of the valve seat. One advantage of the helical port
is that the requirement for the comparatively long straight section within the directional
port is obviated. Also, the helical port is usually most popular in situations where the
directional port, that is fairly shallow, would interfere with the head cooling passages.
Computational Modeling and Analysis of Intake Taper Manifold 705
The helical port provides a better swirl at lower end medium valve lifts, but the directed
ports are capable of producing higher swirl at massive valve lifts - and these opposing
trends tend to equalize the ultimate integrated swirl levels developed by the two port
types. Current high swirl ports typically mix some of the features of both the directional
and also the helical ports [5, 6].
2 Literature Survey
Author Remarks
Yan [3] Through the CFD analysis results, the proposed temperature reconstruction
method was justified
Chauvin [7] The accurate results will give rise to addition of intake manifold
temperatures will largely affect the control of the in-cylinder parameters
Ammann [8] Diesel engine manifold gas temperature variations could cover a large
range with a bandwidth of up to ten Hertz throughout the transient
processes as high-pressure loop exhaust gas recirculation and turbo-
charging systems with variable geometry turbines are utilized
Kar [9] From the temperature detector aspect, the thermocouple measurements
were proved to be cheap, fairly accurate, and robust in several engineering
applications. However, the price for strength of the production
thermocouples is their worse performances below quick transient operative
conditions. Thus, the measured temperatures need to be reconstructed in
several applications
Wang [11] Therefore, rapid and accurate solutions for temperature
measurements/reconstructions are necessary
Zimmerschied Typically, such detector transient responses will be modeled as certain first-
[12] order dynamic systems, and also the time-constants within the systems
don’t seem to be negligible significantly once the particular temperatures
have quick dynamics. for example, the specified temperature bandwidth for
advanced engine control is often tens or maybe hundreds of times of that
for the thermocouples
3 Modelling of the Intake Manifold for the Diesel Engine
The intake manifold is created in the software creo2.0 with help of helical sweep
operation. The models are drafted and listed below with various pitches and taper for
the best velocity identified in simulation (Figs. 1 and 2).
3.1 Boundary Conditions

Cylinder – 500 cc.
Speed – 1500 rpm.
4 stroke diesel engine
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 1. (a) intake manifold with pitch 30 mm (b) intake manifold with pitch 40 mm (c) intake
manifold with pitch 50 mm (d) intake manifold with pitch 60 mm
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. (a) intake manifold with pitch 40 mm and taper is 17° (b) intake manifold with pitch
40 mm and taper is 18° (c) intake manifold with pitch 40 mm and taper is 19°
speed of the engine

Volume of air ¼ð volume of cylinderÞ=60
2
1500
¼ð 500Þ=60 ¼ 6250 m3 =s
2
Inlet port diameter is 3 cm = 3.14 * 3 * 3 = 7.065 cm2.
Velocity of air = 6250/7.065 = 884 cm/s = 8.84 m/s.
The step, File is created in the creo2.0 for the all models which are developed. Theses
models are imported to the Ansys 18.2 to identify the velocity for the helical intake
manifold (Figs. 3, 4 and Table 1).
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. (a) imported feature from the creo2.0 (b) meshed body
Fig. 4. Inlet and outlet conditions for the helical intake manifold.
Table 1. Quality of meshing taken from the fluent.

Mesh quality Orthogonal Aspect ratio Skewness Element quality
Minimum 0.17998 1.184 1.529e−3 0.19595
Maximum 0.98745 11.388 0.82002 0.9991
Average 0.75084 1.8966 0.24779 0.82346
Standard deviation 0.1262 0.48968 0.12802 9.9346e−2
From the inlet the filtered air is entered and it will pass through the helical intake
manifold and exit and outlet mentioned in the above figure. The velocity of air is
increased due to swirl motion which will happens in helical intake manifold.
Fig. 5. Number of iterations
Fig. 6. Velocity difference for velocity magnitude
From above Fig. 5 we can say that as the number of Iterations increasing energy
increases (Fig. 6).
Fig. 7. Pressure difference (PSI) for the intake manifold without taper angles.
From above figure, results we clearly observe that there is change in velocity from
inlet to the cylinder chamber. At exit of the manifold, there is a huge increment of
velocity with the taper angle (convergent nozzle). This may help to increase the thermal
efficiency (Fig. 7).
Fig. 8. Velocity difference (m/s) for the intake manifold without taper angles.
From above figure, we observe the pressure variation from inlet to outlet in different
pitches of the manifold and the maximum pressure is at the pith of 40 mm. if the pitch
of the manifold increases continuously at certain point it may goes little bending with
respect to this no change of velocity into the cylinder. If the pitch is minimum that is
solid spring this case also, we can’t say the maximum values obtain (Fig. 8).
Fig. 9. Mass flow rate inside manifold (kg/s) for the intake manifold without taper angles.
From above figure, there is change in velocity from inlet to engine cylinder in
different pitches of the manifold and maximum velocity is at the pitch of 40 mm. if the
pitch increases velocity increases to avoid that manifold is in the shape of helical
(Fig. 9).
Fig. 10. Velocity of intake manifold with pitch 40 mm and different taper angles.
From above figure, we observe that as increasing the pitch leads to reduction in
mass flow rate. To increase the mass flow rate, manifold the manifold is in the shape of
helical (Fig. 10).
From the above figure, CFD simulation is conducted for different taper angles are
included to this 40 mm pitch intake manifold and identified that velocity is increased a lot
i.e., more than 90% of velocity increment and still increment for the higher taper angle.
5 Conclusion
Following conclusions have been drawn from the above simulation analysis:
• The velocity of the intake manifold for the various pitches is observed that there is a
high velocity for the 40 mm pitch compare to others.
• Different taper angles are included to this 40 mm pitch intake manifold and iden-
tified that velocity is increased a lot i.e., more than 90% of velocity increment and
still increment for the higher taper angle.
• To get better combustion efficiency this helical intake manifold with taper angle is
proposed
References
1. Payri F, Benajes J, Margot X, Gil A (2004) CFD modeling of the in-cylinder flow in direct-
injection Diesel engines. Comput Fluids 33(8):995–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compfluid.2003.09.003
2. Uzkan T, Borgnakke C, Morel T (1983) Characterization of flow produced by a high-swirl
inlet port. SAE Paper 830266
3. Yan F, Wang J (2012) Pressure-based transient intake manifold temperature reconstruction
in Diesel engines. Control Eng Pract 20(5):531–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conengprac.
2012.01.008
4. Chen A, Veshagh A, Wallace S (1998) Intake flow predictions of a transparent DI Diesel
engine. SAE 981020
5. Dent J, Derham J (1974) Air motion in a four-stroke direct injection Diesel engine. Proc
IMechE 188(21):269–280
6. Celik I, Yavuz I, Smirnov A (2001) Large eddy simulations of in-cylinder turbulence for
internal combustion engines: a review. Int J Engine Res 2(2):119–148. https://doi.org/10.
1243/1468087011545389
7. Chauvin J, Corde G, Petit N, Rouchon P (2007) Motion planning for experimental airpath
control of a diesel homogeneous charge-compression ignition engine. Control Eng Pract 16
(9):1081–1091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conengprac.2007.12.001
8. Ammann M, Fekete NP, Guzella L, Glattfelder AH (2003) Model-based control of the VGT
and EGR in a turbocharged common-rail Diesel engine: theory and passenger car
implementation. SAE Paper 2003-01-0357
9. Kar K, Roberts S, Stone R, Oldfield M, French B (2004) Instantaneous exhaust temperature
measurements using thermocouple compensation techniques. SAE Transactions
10. Wang J, Chadwell C (2008) On the advanced air-path control for multiple and alternative
combustion mode engines. SAEPaper2008-01-1730
11. Wang J (2008) Hybrid robust air-path control for Diesel engines operating conventional and
low temperature combustion modes. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol 16(6):1138–1151
12. Zimmerschied R, Isermann R (2010) Nonlinear time constant estimation and dynamic
compensation of temperature sensors. Control Eng Pract 18(3):300–310
Evaluation of Wear Rate of Different Liner
Materials Used in Bunkers and Silos Using Dry
Abrasion Wear Test
D. Venkateshwarlu(&), Sriram Venkatesh, K. Saraswathamma,

Swetha Bhagirathi Sanganabhatla, and Shiva Dharshan Vanapalli
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering (A),

Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Telangana State, India
venkat4590@gmail.com
Abstract. One of the serious causes for materials failure is Wear. It affects the
reliability and lifetime of material leading to a number of economic losses. The
containers used for the storage of bulk solids are usually called Bins, Bunkers,
Silos or Tanks. Wearing of metal is one of major problems that occur during
material discharge from silos. To minimize damage of metal, liners are used
which are replaceable and prevents the equipment from material wear out.
Generally Stainless Steel 304 is being used as liner material for bunkers because
of its high strength, high corrosion resistance and high toughness. In this paper
we have considered UHMWPE and Cast Nylon as Liner materials because of
their high toughness, good wear resistance and low coefficient of friction. The
main objective of this paper is to evaluate the wear rate on different liner
materials like SS 304, Mild Steel, UHMWPE, and Cast Nylon using dry
abrasion tester by varying Load and Speed.
Keywords: Wear Liner materials Dry abrasion test
1 Introduction
In any operation involving particulate solids, successful storage flow and handling of
the bulk material is essential part of the overall plant design. Bins, Bunkers and Silos
are used extensively for the storage and transfer of bulk solids such as chemicals,
foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, cement, coal, polymer, and powdered metals. During
material discharge from bunkers or silos, they are subjected to wearing out of metal.
These are mainly due to friction between the bulk solids and bins while transferring
them to chutes. So by using Liner materials, the material damage can be minimized.
Polymers and their composites are being used in many applications, where abrasive
wear is considered to be the prime mode of failure. ASTM G 65 standard for abrasive
wear is widely used by industry to assist in selecting materials for abrasive wear
service. Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a tough plastic with
high wear resistance. The versatility has made it a popular plastic for a number of
industrial applications that require durability, low friction, and chemical resistance.
Cast Nylon is one of the most widely used thermoplastic resins which have high

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_84
Evaluation of Wear Rate of Different Liner Materials Used in Bunkers 713
strength, low friction and wear resistance makes it a superior engineering material.
Some Advantages of Polymer Composite Liner Materials When Compared to Con-
ventional Metal Liners are Low weight compared to metal liners, Easy to manufacture
at different sizes and shapes, Low coefficient of friction, Low wear rate, High impact
strength, Resistant to corrosion, Easy maintenance etc. “Performed experiments on
Tungsten carbide-based hard metals, chromium carbide based cermets and titanium
carbide based cermets using abrasive wear tester as per ASTM G65 and concluded that
hard metals had a higher relative wear resistance than that of cermets.” Kulu et al. [1].
“Conducted experiments as per ASTM G65 on new ceramic materials using a load of
222 N and a nominal sliding speed of 200 rpm. The total time for each test was 1200
cycles. Concluded that the ceramics that consisted of volcanic ashes exhibited a higher
abrasion resistance than materials that were combined with epoxy resin.” Vite Torres
et al. [2]. “Studied the abrasive wear performance of carbide composites, WC- hard
metals and TiC base cermets as per ASTM G65 standard and load applied was 3 N for
a testing time of 10 min using quartz sand as abrasive.” Klaasen et al. [3]. “Conducted
tests with a load of 100 N and a sand feed rate of 15 g/min for periods of 5, 10, 15 min
and wear rate was calculated using dry abrasion tester on DIN St-52 steel samples.”
Woldman et al. [4]. “Studied wear behaviour of the low alloy wear resistant steel
reinforced with (Ti, Mo) C particles under applied loads of 45 N and 130 N using
quartz sand as abrasive with sand flow rate of 300 g/min.” Huang et al. [5]. “Studied
that wear is one of the most common failures observed in many industrial applications
and the development of abrasion resistant materials is therefore advantageous both
from technical and economic points of view.” Pagounis [6]. “Alumina was used as
abrasive and the rotational speed of abrasive wheel was 235 rpm under a normal load
of 20 N to study wear of a series of cermets on the base of titanium and chromium
carbides” Pirso et al. [7]. “Studied wear performance of laser surface alloyed Alu-
minium AA1200 under load 9.8 N and duration of each wear test was 60 min and the
mass of the samples was recorded at 10 min intervals.” Mabhali [8].
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the wear rates of different coal bunker
liner materials such as SS304, Mild Steel, UHMWPE and Cast Nylon with the help of
dry abrasion tester using quartz sand as abrasive. Comparison was made in order to
suggest suitable liner material as wear rate is high on these materials.
2.1 Selection of Work Piece Material

Mild Steel, Stainless Steel 304, UHMPWE and Cast Nylon are the four different types
of material considered for this research. The dimensions of the Test specimens are
76.2 mm 25.4 mm 12.7 mm (ASTM G65 Standard). The Test specimens are
prepared as per the dimensions using milling operation. Figure 1 illustrates the Test
specimen. The Mechanical Properties of different liner materials are tabulated in
Table 1. Wear rate can be found by testing the liners using appropriate machine. The
machine used for the current research work is DUCOM Dry Abrasion Tester TR – 50.
Figure 2 shows the machine used for performing the experiment. The abrasion test rig
714 D. Venkateshwarlu et al.
is designed to determine the resistance of metallic materials to scratching abrasion by

means of dry sand rubber wheel test. The test data produced will reproducibly rank
materials in their resistance to scratching abrasion under a specified set of condition in
conformity with ASTM G65.
(a) Cast Nylon (b) UHMWPE (c) SS-304 (d) Mild Steel
Fig. 1. Test specimen
Table 1. Mechanical Properties of different liner materials

Sl. No. Materials Tensile strength (MPa) Youngs modulus (GPa) Density (g/cc)
01. MS 399 210 7.8
02. SS (304) 505 193 8.0
03. Cast Nylon 82.7 2.76 1.16
04. UHMWPE 53 0.72 0.94
Fig. 2. DUCOM dry Abrasion Tester TR – 50

2.2 Test Procedure

The steps involved in conducting the experiment are cleaning and dressing the rubber
wheel, cleaning the Test specimen with Ethanol solution, loading Quartz sand into the
hopper, weighing the Test specimen, loading the Test specimen in the machine,
Adjusting speed and revolution and Adding Dead weights. The rubber wheel was
wiped with the help of a brush to clean the outer surface and is inserted on the spindle,
fastened with locking plate and screw. Then it was dressed on the outer diameter such
that there is a clean uniform surface. Before loading the specimen in the tester, the
specimen was cleaned with solvent i.e., Ethanol solution and inspected such that the
surface of specimen is smooth, flat and free of scale and have no porosity. Abrasive
required for the test is quartz sand and it is inspected visually for any foreign particles.
The cleaned specimen was weighed to the nearest 0.001 gms and the value is recorded.
CONTECH Analytical Balance has been used to measure the Initial weight and Final
weight of the Test specimen. The specimen was clamped on the loading lever and
fastened with hexagonal head screws. SET RPM knob was turned to set the required
RPM and the duration of test was set using soft keys test on revolution counter. The
initial force applied on the specimen is due to the self-weight of lever i.e., 2.6 kg =
25.5 N; the loading ratio is 1:2.5, suspended suitable dead weight from the loading
pan and the Load applied by dead weight = 4.8 kg = 117.72 N. Tap was turned to ON
position and checked for proper uniform curtain of quartz sand flow, the rate of flow
was 360 gms/min. By lowering the loading lever carefully the specimen was allowed to
make contact with the rubber wheel. The experiment ends automatically on completion
of set revolution, the rubber wheel stops. The sand flow was turned off by rotating the
tap to OFF position. Loading lever has to be lifted manually and the dead weight is to
be removed from the pan. The surface of specimen was cleaned with the brush and
unclamped. Specimen was visually inspected to have uniform wear scar and weighed
on the same scale to note the final weight. Finally, the mass loss of liner material was
determined.
3.1 Process Parameters

The experiment was conducted at particular intervals of time i.e., 10 min, 20 min and
30 min under well-defined conditions. The wear rate on these Test specimen was
recorded at constant input parameters i.e., at speed 125 rpm and load 4.8 kg. From the
weight loss obtained wear rate was calculated. The values obtained are tabulated in
Table 2
Table 2. Weights measured at different time intervals

Material Load Speed Initial weight Final weight (gms)
(kg) (RPM) (gms) After After After
10 min 20 min 30 min
Cast Nylon 4.8 125 28.5855 27.3085 26.4377 25.8925
UHMWPE 4.8 125 23.5840 21.4685 20.9416 20.8736
Stainless 4.8 125 195.5638 192.4612 190.0727 188.1004
steel 304
Mild steel 4.8 125 191.8071 188.9014 186.8526 185.1366
Table 3 represents the wear rate calculated for each sample at different time
intervals.
Table 3. Calculated wear rate

Material Load (kg) Speed (RPM) Wear rate (gms/min)
After 10 min After 20 min After 30 min
Cast Nylon 4.8 125 0.1277 0.10739 0.0897
UHMWPE 4.8 125 0.21155 0.13212 0.0903
Stainless steel 304 4.8 125 0.31026 0.2745 0.2487
Mild steel 4.8 125 0.29057 0.2477 0.2223
From the results obtained, graph is plotted between wear rate and time intervals.
Figure 3 represents the Test specimen before and after experimentation.
(a) Cast Nylon (b) UHMWPE (c) SS-304 (d) Mild Steel
Fig. 3. Work piece (i) Before experimentation (ii) After experimentation

0.35
0.3
Wear Rate ( gms/ min )

0.25
0.2 MS
0.15 SS 304
0.1 Cast nylon
0.05 UHMWPE
0
10 min 20 min 30 min
Time ( minutes )
Fig. 4. Effect of time on wear rate for different liner materials
Figure 4 represents the graph between wear rate and time for different liner
materials. It is observed that UHMWPE and Cast nylon shows lesser wear rate when
compared with MS and SS 304. The wear rate decreased with increase in time. So,
UHMWPE and Cast Nylon are selected for carrying out further experiments i.e., by
using different speeds and different loads.
3.2 Evaluation of Wear Rate of UHMWPE and Cast Nylon

Experimentation was carried out on UHMWPE and Cast Nylon materials at different
loads and speeds respectively. The initial weight and final weight of the specimens are
measured using Contech Analytical Digital Balance at time interval of 10 min. From
the weight loss obtained wear rate is calculated. Table 4 represents the wear rate of
UHMWPE and Cast Nylon at constant load of 4.8 kg with varying speeds.
Table 4. Wear rate at constant Load

Sample Speed Initial weight Final weight Weight loss Wear rate
(RPM) (gms) (gms) (gms) (gms/min)
UHMWPE 130 23.62 18.8110 4.809 0.4809
140 23.59 18.8491 4.7409 0.47409
150 23.54 18.8594 4.6806 0.46806
160 23.43 18.7109 4.7191 0.47191
Cast 130 28.5144 26.9812 1.5332 0.15332
Nylon 140 28.4279 26.9807 1.4472 0.14472
150 28.5902 27.2616 1.3286 0.13286
160 28.5220 27.2430 1.2790 0.12790
Table 5 represents the wear rate of UHMWPE and Cast Nylon at a constant speed
of 125 rpm with varying loads.
Table 5. Wear rate at constant speed

Sample Load Initial weight Final weight Weight loss Wear rate
(kg) (gms) (gms) (gms) (gms/min)
UHMWPE 5.3 23.46 18.8893 4.5707 0.45707
5.8 23.42 17.8776 5.5424 0.55424
6.3 23.54 17.6192 5.9208 0.59208
6.8 23.46 17.4288 6.0312 0.60312
Cast 5.3 28.4922 26.7789 1.7133 0.17133
Nylon 5.8 28.0485 26.2673 1.7812 0.17812
6.3 27.8908 26.097 1.7938 0.17938
6.8 28.5955 26.7799 1.8156 0.18156
0.8
Wear Rate (gms/min)
0.6
0.4
UHMWPE
0.2 CAST NYLON
0
5.3 5.8 6.3 6.8
Load (kg)
Fig. 5. Effect of speed on wear rate
Figure 5 represents the graph between speeds and wear rate at a constant load of
4.8 kg with varying speeds. It is observed that UHMWPE shows more wear rate when
compared with Cast Nylon. It is also observed that wear rate decreased with increase in
speed on Cast Nylon and wear rate decreased for UHMWPE with increase in speed till
150 rpm after which it is found to be increased. This is because; both the materials have
low frictional properties.
0.6
Wear Rate (gms/min)

0.5
0.4
0.3
UHMWPE
0.2
CAST NYLON
0.1
0
130 140 150 160
Speed (RPM)
Fig. 6. Effect of load on wear rate
Figure 6 represents the graph between loads and wear rate at a constant speed of
125 rpm with varying loads. It is observed that UHMWPE shows more wear rate as
compared with Cast Nylon. It is also observed that there is increase in wear rate with
increase in load on Cast Nylon and UHMWPE.
From the above results it is clearly observed that Cast Nylon shows less wear rate
when compared to UHMWPE. Hence Cast Nylon material is suggested as liner
material especially for coal bunkers.
4 Conclusions
In this research, an attempt has been made to determine the liner material which has
low wear rate by varying the process parameter values i.e., speed and load that are
influencing the wear rate. Comparing the results of wear rate, the material with low
wear rate is selected for optimization. After analyzing the results of experiments of dry
abrasive wear test of liner materials, the following conclusions are made:
1. At a constant load of 4.8 kg and constant speed of 125 RPM the wear rate
decreases with increase in time for a regular interval of 10 min, 20 min and 30 min
respectively for Liner materials i.e., MS, SS 304, UHMWPE and Cast Nylon. The
liner materials UHMWPE and Cast nylon has lesser wear rate as compared to MS
and SS 304 materials.
2. At a constant load of 4.8 kg with varying speeds i.e., from 130 RPM to 160 RPM
UHMWPE has 70.51% more wear rate when compared with Cast Nylon.
3. At a constant speed of 125 RPM with varying loads i.e., from 5.3 kg to 6.8 kg
UHMWPE has 67.80% more wear rate when compared with Cast Nylon.
4. Hence, Cast Nylon is suggested as a suitable liner material for coal bunker.
References
1. Kulu P, Tarbe R, Vallikivi A (2005) Abrasive wear of powder materials and coatings. Mater
Sci 11(3):230–234
2. Vite-Torres M, Vite J, Laguna-Camacho JR, Castillo M, Marquina-Chávez A (2011)
Abrasive wear on ceramic materials obtained from solid residuals coming from mines. Sci
Direct Wear 271:1231–1236
3. Klaasen H, Kubarsepp J (2006) Abrasive wear performance of carbide composites. Sci Direct
Wear 261:520–526
4. Woldman M, van der Heide E, Schipper DJ, Tinga T, Masen MA (2012) Investigating the
influence of sand particle properties on abrasive wear behavior. Sci Direct Wear 294–
295:419–426
5. Huang L, Deng X, Jia Y, Li C, Wang Z (2018) Effects of using (Ti, Mo) C particles to reduce
the three-body abrasive wear of a low alloy steel. Sci Direct Wear 410–411:119–126
6. Pagounis E, Lindroos VK (1997) Development and performance of new hard and wear
resistant engineering materials. J Mater Eng Perform 6:749–756
7. Pirso J, Viljus M, Juhani K, Letunovitš S (2009) Two-body dry abrasive wear of cermets. Sci
Direct Wear 266:21–29
8. Mabhali LAB, Sacks N, Pityana S (2012) Three body abrasion of laser surface alloyed
Aluminium AA1200. Sci Direct Wear 290–291:1–9
Experimental Investigation on Maraging Steel
Metal Deposition Using DMLS Process
D. Apparao1(&) and M. V. Jagannadha Raju2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aditya Institute of Technology
and Management, Tekkali, India
apparao22@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Andhra University College
of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, India
Abstract. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) process is one of the Additive
manufacturing technologies utilized to deposit metal powder by scanning of
high laser power to fabricate customized and complex parts which cannot be
produced by traditional manufacturing processes. During DMLS, powder is
fused by laser beam and forms a solid part layer-by-layer. The mechanical and
physical properties of parts fabricated by DMLS mainly depend on the process
parameters, properties of powder, scanning scheme, and the direction of
building. In this investigation hardness, surface roughness, tensile strength and
impact strength of Maraging steel were studied. These properties of different
samples were analyzed before and after heat treatment.
Keywords: DMLS Additive manufacturing Hardness Surface roughness

Tensile strength and impact strength
1 Introduction
The mostly used Maraging steels are low carbon content steels and high strength
materials having good weldability and dimension stability during heat treatment and
superior fracture toughness without losing its ductility. Due to this good features and
properties, maraging steels can be extensively used in aerospace, manufacturing,
prototyping, medical and tooling sectors. Additive Manufacturing is an automated and
layer based fabrication process to fabricate the 3-dimensional complexly arranged parts
with the required properties directly from the CAD model without using the tools [1].
“Direct metal laser sintering [2]” belongs to the Additive manufacturing process to
produce the parts from the metal powders i.e., Aluminium, inconel, etc. [2]. Maraging
steels can be used as a substitute to the medium carbon steel and high carbon steels,
because of not having some problems like high carbon content which boost or
encourages the corrosion and quench cracking and it may be caused to unpredicted
fracture. Owing to the low carbon presence in the maraging steel, the damage from the
quench cracking is reduced. Good corrosion resistance is provided by the high presence
of nickel and deficiency of carbides [3]. Maraging steels usually have good properties
and that are improved by the heat treatment, useful in many applications [4]. Energy
density is an influenced parameter to fabricate the parts with the required properties by

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_85
722 D. Apparao and M. V. Jagannadha Raju
DMLS process [5]. There is a possibility to alter the density and porosity of the part
produced by DMLS technique, simply by modifying the energy density and the
depositing process parameters [6, 7]. The melting property and surface property are
influenced by the machining process parameters and also largely depends upon them
[8]. Due to the partial melting of powder particles, the pores are developed in the laser
deposited metals and it causes to failure of the parts [9]. The heat treatment temperature
should be between 460 °C and 510 °C for 3 to 8 h for maraging steel [10]. The effect
of deposition process parameters, various scanning schemes and different building
directions on mechanical properties have been investigated and the results were
observed [11, 12]. DMLS of maraging steel MS1grade is taken under investigation
regarding many aspects. The hardness, surface roughness and micro structure were
determined by selection of the best process parameters [13].
DMLS is a promising technology due to almost unlimited geometrical freedom
especially for tooling applications. It is possible to produce complex geometries with
internal cavities by DMLS. Therefore, DMLS of maraging steels can offer new
opportunities in tooling applications by fabricating the parts with almost full density.
The main aim of this study is to investigate the hardness, surface roughness, toughness
and tensile strength of maraging steel specimens produced by DMLS process.
Maraging steel is in powder form was chosen as sintering material and its elemental
weight percentage is shown in Table 1. The scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of
maraging steel powder particles used in this study was depicted in Fig. 1. It can be
observed that the powder particles are in spherical shape and the size of the particles
varying between 3–60 µm.
Table 1. Elemental weight percentage of maraging steel

Elements Ni Co Mo Ti Al C Cr, Cu Mn, Si P, S Fe
Weight % 18.2 8.8 5 0.7 0.1 <0.03 <0.5 <0.1 <0.01 Bal.
The Direct Metal Laser Sintering machine was used to manufacture all test spec-
imens in the nitrogen purging atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2. The oxygen content is
maintained at low level by the gas to prevent the maraging steel powder from oxidation
during part fabrication. The DMLS machine is constructed with a build chamber of size
250 250 250 and 400 W fiber laser. The building platform was maintained at
40 °C to protect the fabricated samples from distortion due to uneven thermal
expansion at raised temperatures. By lowering the building platform, the layer thick-
ness of the powder is maintained constant at 40 µm. The mild steel rectangular bar is
used as the substrate material to sinter the maraging steel powder on it.
Experimental Investigation on Maraging Steel Metal Deposition 723
Fig. 1. SEM of maraging steel powder Fig. 2. DMLS machine (model – EOSINT
M280/400 W)
In order to bring down the cost of experimentation and to fabricate the test spec-
imens, experiments were conducted by using the Taguchi design of experiments. In the
present investigation laser power, laser scan speed and hatch spacing have been used as
process parameters for achieving mechanical properties of maraging steel. The
depositing process parameters and their levels for each parameter are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Input process parameters and their levels

S. No. Parameter Level1 Level2 Level3 Level4 Level5
1 Laser power (W) 230 260 290 320 350
2 Scanning speed (mm/sec) 750 850 950 1050 1100
3 Hatch spacing (mm) 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14
Taguchi L25 orthogonal array has been used to fabricate the parts, which is shown
in Table 3. The cubic shaped specimens of size 10 10 10 mm were fabricated
with 0° orientation as shown in Fig. 3. Rockwell hardness tester and surface roughness
tester were used to determine the hardness and surface roughness of the specimens
respectively.
The minimum and maximum hardness of the specimens is found to be 28.63 HRC
and 37.83 HRC for the samples 5 and 7 respectively as shown in Table 3. The observed
best depositing process parameters are laser power: 260 W, laser scanning speed:
850 mm/sec and Hatch spacing: 0.12 mm. The hardness of the as-fabricated Maraging
steel parts at the best process parameters are 37.83 HRC. The hardness was improved
by applying heat treatment for 6 h at 490 °C. After heat treatment, the hardness was
increased from 37.83 HRC to 55.33 HRC due to precipitated-phase strengthening. In
this study, four tensile test specimens and four impact test specimens are prepared by
using the above best process parameters as shown in Fig. 4.
Table 3. Experimental plan based on L25 orthogonal array

Exp. No. Laser Scanning Hatch Layer Energy Hard Surface
power speed spacing thickness density ness roughness
(W) (mm/sec) (mm) (µm) (J/mm3) (HRC) (µm)
1 230 750 0.1 40 76.66 36.76 4.56
2 230 850 0.11 40 61.49 36.38 3.36
3 230 950 0.12 40 50.43 32.68 3.12
4 230 1050 0.13 40 42.12 31.65 3.77
5 230 1100 0.14 40 37.33 28.63 6.09
6 260 750 0.11 40 78.78 33.91 4.37
7 260 850 0.12 40 63.72 37.83 1.83
8 260 950 0.13 40 52.63 34.16 3.16
9 260 1050 0.14 40 44.21 33.00 4.75
10 260 1100 0.1 40 59.09 35.28 5.00
11 290 750 0.12 40 80.55 37.21 3.94
12 290 850 0.13 40 65.61 33.46 5.16
13 290 950 0.14 40 54.51 34.16 5.15
14 290 1050 0.1 40 69.04 35.83 5.51
15 290 1100 0.11 40 59.91 34.83 7.31
16 320 750 0.13 40 82.05 35.30 5.55
17 320 850 0.14 40 67.22 34.43 5.60
18 320 950 0.1 40 84.21 33.50 4.7
19 320 1050 0.11 40 69.26 32.40 5.48
20 320 1100 0.12 40 60.60 33.91 4.95
21 350 750 0.14 40 83.33 34.03 4.04
22 350 850 0.1 40 102.94 27.21 6.91
23 350 950 0.11 40 83.73 33.58 7.46
24 350 1050 0.12 40 69.44 34.50 4.94
25 350 1100 0.13 40 61.18 32.43 4.40
Fig. 3. As-fabricated specimens Fig. 4. As-fabricated tensile & impact test

specimens
The wire cut EDM machine was used to separate the tensile and impact test
specimens from the substrate as shown is Fig. 5. The produced DMLS specimens were
subjected to sandblasting operation to dispose of the loosely attached powder to the
specimen’s walls. Two tensile test specimens and two impact test specimens were then
subjected to heat treatment while the remaining specimens were kept as non-heat
treated specimens or as-fabricated specimens to distinguish.
Fig. 5. Wire cut EDM machine to separate the specimens from the substrate
The ASM Handbook recommended that the heat treatment temperature should be
between 460 °C and 510 °C for 3 to 8 h for maraging steel. In this study the heat
treatment was done in the argon inert muffle furnace at a temperature of 490 °C for the
duration of 6 h As a result, the hardness was increased due to the precipitation of
intermetallics during heat treatment.
3 Mechanical Properties
3.1 Tensile Tests
To characterize the mechanical behavior of materials, the tensile test is an essential test
to be conducted. The specimens were produced in accordance with ASTM E-8 standard
as shown in Fig. 6. An Instron 8801 machine was used to conduct the tensile tests as
shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 6. ASTM E-8 standard tensile test specimen size

Fig. 7. Tension test Instron machine showing the specimen
Four specimens, produced with the best process parameters, were tested. Two
specimens are in as-built condition and the other two specimens are heat treated. The
tensile specimens before and after tensile testing are shown in Fig. 8. The standard
impact test specimen size is 100 10 4 mm. The specimens (2 non-heat treated and
2 heat treated) are prepared by using DMLS machine by using the depositing process
parameters as obtained above those gave more hardness and good surface finish. The
tensile properties for as-fabricated and heat treated test specimens were shown in
Table 4.
Fig. 8. Tensile specimens before and after tensile testing

Table 4. Tensile properties of as-fabricated and heat treated DMLS maraging steel samples
Maximum Load at Load at UTS Tensile stress at Tensile strain at
load (KN) break 2% strain (Mpa) yield (offset yield offset 0.2%
(KN) (KN) 0.2%) (Mpa) (mm/mm)
As 29.23 19.42 16.13 1217.93 478.48 0.01088
fabricated
specimen 1
Heat 52.69 50.50 16.88 2195.42 469 0.00942
treated
specimen 1
As 30.33 20.50 17.05 1263.67 518.37 0.01079
fabricated
specimen 2
Heat 52.23 50.00 22.55 2176.12 751.20 0.01404
treated
specimen 2
From the above table, it is observed that the mean value of tensile strength of the
two as-fabricated specimens is 1240.8 Mpa and the mean value of tensile strength of
the two heat treated specimens is 2185.77 Mpa. The heat treated specimens have more
ultimate tensile strength compared to as-fabricated specimens. The ultimate tensile
strength was increased by 43.2% and the percentage elongation was decreased from
15% to 6% due to the heat treatment of the maraging steel. The Ultimate tensile
Strength for the as-fabricated and heat treated specimens is plotted in Fig. 9. It shows
an increase in Ultimate tensile strength after application of heat treatment. Heat
treatment of the DMLS produced maraging steel was done at 490 °C for 6 h.
2500
UlƟmate Tensile Strength
2000
1500
(MPa)
1000
500
0
as fabricated Heat treated
Specimen type
Fig. 9. Ultimate tensile strength of maraging steel specimens

3.2 Charpy Impact Tests

The toughness and impact strength of the material is determined by the Charpy impact
test. The value of actual energy absorbed is utilized in the calculation of impact
strength. In this study, the specimens for charpy test were fabricated as per ASTM E23
standard.
Fig. 10. Standard impact test specimen size
The standard size of the impact test specimen is 55 10 10 mm as shown in

Fig. 10. The specimens (2 non-heat treated and 2 heat treated) were prepared by using
DMLS machine by using the best depositing process parameters obtained in the above
experimentation. These process parameters gave more hardness and good surface
finish. The specimens before and after impact test are shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Specimens before and after impact testing
It is revealed from the Table 5, the average value of the actual energy absorbed for
as-fabricated specimens is 34 J and for heat treated specimens is 4 J. Impact strength of
the as fabricated specimen = 34/100 = 0.34 J/mm2 (Energy absorbed/Area). Impact
strength of the heat treated specimen = 04/100 = 0.04 J/mm2 (Energy absorbed/Area).
It is observed from the above Table 4 that the actual energy absorbed by the heat
treated specimens was reduced to 4 J from 34 J. The impact strength of the heat treated
specimen is reduced to 0.04 J/mm2 from 0.34 J/mm2.
The absorbed energies in the impact test for the specimens produced by DMLS
process are plotted in the Fig. 12. It was observed that the absorbed energy is decreased
for the heat treated specimen.
Table 5. Energy absorbed for as-fabricated and heat treated DMLS maraging steel specimens
Energy Frictional air Actual energy
absorbed resistance absorbed
As fabricated specimen 1 40 J 6J 34 J
As fabricated specimen 2 40 J 6J 34 J
Heat treated specimen 1 10 J 6J 4J
Heat treated specimen 2 10 J 6J 4J
Due to the application of heat treatment, the toughness is reduced and the hardness
is increased. When the heat treatment is applied to the DMLS produced maraging steel
specimens, Titanium and Aluminium combined oxides are formed in the martensite
matrix.
40
Absorbed Energy (J)
30
20
10
0
As fabricated Heat treated
Specimen type
Fig. 12. Absorbed energy of maraging steel specimens
4 Conclusions
In the present work High strength maraging steel is deposited by Direct Metal Laser
Sintering process. Taguchi design of experimentation was applied to determine the best
depositing process parameters for fabricating the parts.
• The best depositing process parameters which observed were, laser power: 260 W,
laser scanning speed: 850 mm/sec and Hatching space: 0.12 mm.
• The maximum hardness, minimum surface roughness can be observed at the best
process parameters.
• The hardness of the as-fabricated Maraging steel parts was improved by applying
heat treatment due to precipitated-phase strengthening.
• The surface roughness of the as- fabricated specimen was reduced by sandblasting
operation.
• From the tensile tests, it is observed that the heat treated specimens have more
ultimate tensile strength compared to as-fabricated specimens.
• From the impact tests, it is observed that the actual energy absorbed by the heat
treated specimens was reduced when compared to as-fabricated specimens. The
toughness is decreased when heat treatment is applied. Less energy is required to
break the specimen due to the formation of intermetallic precipitates.
References
1. Gao W, Zhang Y, Ramanujan D, Ramani K, Chen Y, Williams CB, Wang CCL, Shin YC,
Zhang S, Zavattieri PD (2015) The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing
in engineering. Comput-Aided Des 69:65–89
2. Cabrini M, Lorenzi S, Pastore T, Pellegrini S, Manfredi D, Fino P, Biamino S, Badini C
(2016) Evaluation of corrosion resistance of Al–10Si–Mg alloy obtained by means of Direct
Metal Laser Sintering. J Mater Process Technol 231:326–335
3. Stanford M, Kibble K, Lindop M, Mynors D, Durnall C (2008) An investigation into fully
melting a maraging steel using direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). Steel Res Int 79(2):847–
852 Special Edition Metal Forming Conference
4. EOS maraging steel MS1 data sheet (2007) MaragingSteel_MS1_Material_data_sheet_04-
07_en.doc
5. Thijs L, Verhaeghe F, Craeghs T, Humbeeck JV, Kruth JP (2010) A study of the
microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti–6Al–4 V. Acta Meter 58
(9):3303–3312
6. Sun J, Yang Y, Wang D (2013) Parametric optimization of selective laser melting for
forming Ti6Al4V samples by Taguchi method. Opt Laser Technol 49:118–124
7. Kumar MN et al (2017) Experimental investigation on influence of process parameters in
selective laser sintering on roundness using Taguchi method. Int J Mech Prod Eng Res Dev
(IJMPERD) 7(6):45–52
8. Shamsaei N, Yadollahi A, Bian L, Thompson SM (2015) An overview of Direct Laser
Deposition for additive manufacturing; part II: mechanical behavior, process parameter
optimization and control. Addit Manufact 8:12–35
9. Gu D, Shen Y (2008) Processing conditions and microstructural features of porous 316L
stainless steel components by DMLS. Appl Surf Sci 255:1880–1887
10. ASM handbook, volume 4 Heat Treating (1991). ASM International the Materials
Information Company, United States of America, pp 528–548. ISBN 0-87170-379-3
11. Manfredi D, Calignano F, Krishnan M, Canali R, Ambrosio EP, Atzeni E (2013) From
powders to dense metal parts: Characterization of a commercial AlSiMg alloy processed
through direct metal laser sintering. Mater (Basel) 6(3):856–869
12. Krishnan M, Atzeni E, Canali R, Manfredi D, Calignano F, Ambrosio EP, Iuliano L (2014)
On the effect of process parameters on properties of AlSi10 Mg parts produced by DMLS.
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13. Apparao D, Jagannadha Raju MV (2018) Experimental investigation on hardness,
microstructure and surface roughness of maraging steel parts produced by direct metal
laser sintering technique. Int J Mech Prod Eng Res Dev (IJMPERD) 8(2):629–636
Intra-ply Damage Modeling of Low-Velocity
Impact on Composite Laminates
Y. Sharath Chandra Mouli(&), C. S. Upadhyay, and P. M. Mohite
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,

Kanpur 208016, U.P, India
sharath@iitk.ac.in
Abstract. This paper deals with the intra-ply damage modeling of graphite/
epoxy composite laminates subjected to the low-velocity impact loads. In this
work, a cross ply laminate of dimensions 80 80 2.1 mm with stacking
sequence [0/90/0/90/0] is subjected to impact by a rigid impactor of mass
6.5 kgs. The finite element simulation carried out using perfectly elastic, 3-D
Hashin damage and 3-D Damage meso-level (3-D DML) models. Fiber and
matrix failure modes are considered in both the damage models. User subroutine
(VUMAT) was implemented for damage models and analysis was carried on
ABAQUSTM software. The force and displacement-time response are computed
at 5J and 10J of impact energies. The effect of damage models on force and
displacement-time response with change in impact energy are presented.
Comparing the maximum forces and displacement-time response, 3-D DML
model shows close agreement, whereas the 3-D Hashin model underpredicts the
maximum force and overpredicts the maximum displacement with the literature.
Keywords: Low-velocity impact Force response Displacement response

3-D Hashin criteria 3-D DML model
1 Introduction
The use of composite laminates in aerospace industry gained importance because of

their high stiffness and strength to weight ratio advantages. However, these materials
are prone to damages due to impact loads. The force and displacement response are the
primary sources to understand the impact behavior of the structure. It is also essential to
understand the modes and mechanisms of the damage induced during the impact event.
Models which could qualitatively and quantitatively predict the impact response and
the damage in impact event are needed. State of the art reviews and the benchmark
studies in understanding the impact behavior of composite laminates has been carried
out by Abrate [1] and Bogenfeld et al. [2].
Donadon et al. [3] have developed a progressive damage model for composite
laminates subjected to low-velocity impacts. Essentially the failure criteria used are the
Hashin’s failure criteria for fiber failure in tension and compression and matrix tension,
Puck and Shurmann the stress-based failure criterion for the transverse compression.
Introduced a third order polynomial fit to model the non-linear shear behavior. Kim
et al. [4] have performed low-velocity impact tests on graphite/epoxy composite plates

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_86
732 Y. Sharath Chandra Mouli et al.
and proposed a progressive damage law that considers the weibull distribution of the
composite strength in the damage model. Also, accounted for the nonlinear shear
behavior of the composites along with a simple model that considers the irreversible
strain due to the damage. The damage model was implemented in the user material
subroutine (VUMAT) of the ABAQUS/explicit program to compare the test results.
Qiu et al. [5] have simulated three composite laminate groups. Hashin damage model
used to study the effect of stacking sequence, impact energy, indenter shape and, plate
shape on the response of composites under low-speed drop-weight impact. Jagtap et al.
[6] have presented a finite element simulation of low-velocity impact damage of
composite laminates using MAT59 in LS-DYNA, based on maximum stress-based
criteria and investigated the force response of composite laminate at various impact
energies and boundary conditions. Lubineau and Ladeveze [7] presented a 3-D meso-
level damage model (3-D DML) to account for diffuse damage in composite laminates.
Nie, [8] have implemented VUMAT subroutine in ABAQUSTM software to model the
failure in triaxially braided composites for dynamic impact analysis.
The current paper presents the damage modeling of graphite/epoxy composite
laminate subjected to the low-velocity impact loads and compares the perfectly elastic,
3-D Hashin and 3-D DML models. Their effect on force and displacement-time
response of the composite laminates also analyzed at 5J and 10J impact loads.
2 Damage Modeling
2.1 3-D Hashin Damage Model

The 3-D Hashin damage model by Nie [8] used in the current work. The initial or
undamaged perfectly elastic non-zero constitutive stiffness constants given in Eq. 1.
0
C11 ¼ E110
ð1 m23 m32 ÞC; C22
0
¼ E22
0
ð1 m13 m31 ÞC;
0
C33¼ E33 ð1 m12 m21 ÞC; C12 ¼ C21 ¼ E11
0 0 0 0
ðm21 þ m31 m23 ÞC;
0
C23 ¼ C32 ¼ E22 ðm32 þ m12 m31 ÞC; C13 ¼ C31 ¼ E11
0 0 0 0 0
ðm31 þ m21 m32 ÞC ð1Þ
C ¼ 1=ð1 m12 m21 m23 m32 m31 m13 2m21 m32 m13 Þ;
C440
¼ G12 ; C550
¼ G23 ; C66
0
¼ G13 :
The fiber tension and compression, matrix tension and compression failure based
on 3-D Hashin’s failure criteria considered are as follows:
Fiber Tensile Failure Mode ðr11 [ 0Þ:
2 2 2
FIft ¼ Fr1T
11
þ Fr121S þ rF132s
1 ð2:1Þ
; If FIft [ 1
dft ¼ FIft
0; If FIft 1:
Fiber Compressive Failure Mode ðr11 \0Þ:

Intra-ply Damage Modeling of Low-Velocity Impact on Composite Laminates 733
2
r11 1
; If FIfc [ 1
FIfc ¼ ; dfc ¼ FIfc ð2:2Þ
F1C 0; If FIfc 1:
Matrix Tensile and Compression Modes:

2 2 2 h i
r11 r22 r12
FIm ¼ 2F1T þ jF2T F2C j þ F1S þ r22 1
F2T þ 1
F2C
dmt ¼ FI1m ; If FIm [ 1 and r22 þ r33 [ 0; else dmt ¼ 0 ð2:3Þ

dmc ¼ FI1m ; If FIm [ 1 and r22 þ r33 \0; else dmc ¼ 0
Note that the matrix tensile and compression failures combined in a single equation
Eq. 2.3. In the above Eqs. 2.1 to 2.3, rij are the stress components in ij direction, FIft ,
FIfc and FIm are the failure indices, dft, dfc, dmt and dmc are current damage variables
with the range of [0, 1] and F1T, F1C, F2T, F2C, F1S, and F2S are the ultimate failure
strength in different pure failure modes. The material considered as linearly elastic
before satisfying any of the failure criteria after which the respective damage variable
takes the form as the inverse of failure index to avoid singularities in constitutive law.
The damaged constitutive stiffness matrix constants given by:

0
C11 ¼
1 df C110; C22 ¼ 1 df ð1 dm
ÞC22 ;
0
C33 ¼ 1 df ð1
dm ÞC33 ; C 12 ¼ C21 ¼ 1 df ð1
dm ÞC12 0
0
C13 ¼ C31 ¼ 1 d f ð1 d
m ÞC13 ; C23 ¼ C32 ¼ 1 df ð1 dm ÞC23
0
ð3Þ
G12 ¼ 1 df
ð1 Smt dmt Þð1 Smc dmc ÞG012
G23 ¼ 1 df
ð1 Smt dmt Þð1 Smc dmc ÞG023
G13 ¼ 1 df ð1 Smt dmt Þð1 Smc dmc ÞG013
Where, the loss factors Smt = 0.9 and Smc = 0.5 to control the loss of shear stiffness
due to matrix tensile and compressive failure respectively [8]. Also, df and dc are the
global fiber and matrix damage variables given by Eq. 4.

df ¼ 1 1 dft 1 dfc ; dm ¼ 1 ð1 dmt Þð1 dmc Þ ð4Þ
2.2 3-D DML Damage Model

The 3-D meso-level damage model by Lubineau and Ladeveze [7] considered in
current work. This damage model accounts for the diffuse damage in composite lam-
inates. This model considers the strain energy density as the primary driver for damage
in the material as given in expression below in Eq. 5.
2 3
r11
r2 r2 r2
2wd ¼ ½ r11 r22 r33 ½S4 r22 5 þ 0 12 þ 0 13 þ 0 23
r33 G12 ð1 d6 Þ G13 ð1 d6 Þ G23 ð1 d23 Þ
ð5Þ
2 m012 m012
3
1
6 E10 ð1df Þ E10 ð1df Þ E10 ð1df Þ 7
6 m012 m023 7
Here; ½S is defined as ½S ¼ 6 0 1 7 ð6Þ
6 E1 ð1df Þ E20 ð1\r22 [ þ d2 Þ E20 7
4 m0 m023
5
12 1
E10 ð1df Þ E20 E20 ð1\r33 [ þ d2 Þ
Where, ½ x þ ¼ 1 if x 0 and ½ x þ ¼ 0 if x ¼ 0. Also, df, d2 and d6 are fiber rupture,

transverse and shear damage variables. Considering the transverse isotropy, the d23 is
given as follows:
1 d2
ð1 d23 Þ ¼ m0
ð7Þ
1 1 þ23m0 d2
23
Fiber Rupture and Diffuse Degradation: The associated thermodynamic forces for
fiber rupture, transverse and shear failure are obtained using Eq. 5 as given by Eq. 8.
@wd @wd @wd

Ydf ¼ ; Yd2 ¼ ; Yd6 ¼ ð8Þ
@df @d2 @d6
The damage evolution law for the fiber rupture retains the brittle law.

• df ¼ 0 if Ydf YFT and Ydf YFC
• If Ydf [ YFT and r11 [ 0; then df ¼ 0:9, i.e., failure in tension

• If Ydf [ YFC and r11 \0; then df ¼ 0:9, i.e., failure in compression
The coupled thermodynamic force Y h associated with diffuse damage and, the
corresponding damage evolution law are given in Eqs. 9 and 10.
Y h ¼ Yd2 þ b2 Yd6 ð9Þ

pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
Y h Y0
d2 ¼ sup pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi ; d6 ¼ b3 d2 ð10Þ
st YC Y0
Where, Y0 ; YC ; b2 ; and b3 are material dependent constants from experiments.
3 Finite Element Simulation
Graphite/Epoxy cross-ply laminate of dimensions 80 80 2.1 mm with staking

sequence [0/90/0/90/0] associated with a rigid hemispherical impactor of radius
16 mm, mass 6.5 kg taken for the Finite Element (FE) impact simulation model. The
properties of the graphite/epoxy laminate shown in Table 1. All the bottom edges of the
laminated plate considered simply supported. Considering the symmetry of the plate,
only the quarter model of the impact event is simulated as shown in Fig. 1(a). For the
analysis, mesh size equal to 0.7 0.7 0.4 mm as shown in Fig. 1(b), C3D8R
elements associated with the VUMAT, were used.
Fig. 1. Finite element simulation. (a) Quarter model for impact analysis (b). Mesh mode
Table 1. Unidirectional graphite/epoxy material properties [4, 6, 7].

Density (Kg/m3) q 1763
Poisson’s ratio m12 , m13 0.31
m23 0.52
Young’s modulus (Mpa) E1 143400
E2, E3 92700
Shear modulus (MPa) G12, G13 3800
G23 3200
Strength (MPa) Longitudinal tensile strength (Xt) 2945
Longitudinal compressive strength (Xc) 1650
Transverse tensile strength (Yt) 54
Transverse compressive strength (Yc) 240
Thermodynamics forces (Mpa)
YC Y0 YFT YFC
15 0.02 30 9.5
General contact between the impactor and the target plate created with the tan-
gential penalty coefficient of 0.3 and normal contact as a hard contact. The composite
plate subjected to 5J and 10J impact energies. The force-time and displacement-time
plots computed from the analysis.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrates the damage incurred due to 5J impact load on composite
laminate using Hashin 3-D and 3-D DML damage models respectively.
Fig. 2. Hashin damage model at 5J Impact. (a) Fiber tension failure (b) Fiber compression
failure (c) Matrix tension failure and (d) Matrix compression failure
Fig. 3. 3-D DML model at 5J Impact. (a) Fiber damage (b) Transverse damage (c) Shear
damage.
Figures 4 and 5 illustrates the displacement-time and force-time plots respectively,

computed using perfectly elastic, 3-D Hashin damage and 3-D DML Models at 5J and
10J of impact energy. Tables 2 and 3 shows the experimental and numerical values of
maximum displacement and maximum force in an impact event. Form Tables 2 and 3,
we observe that maximum displacement and force increases with an increase in the
impact energy. We have compared the simulated results in the current work with the
literature [4]. From Fig. 4 and Table 2, it can be noticed that for the maximum dis-
placement, perfectly elastic model and 3-D DML model are underpredicting, the 3-D
Hashin damage model overpredicts but shows a satisfactory agreement with the
experimental values at 5J impact. As the impact energy increasing DML model was
predicting the maximum displacement satisfactorily whereas the 3-D Hashin model
failed to be consistent. Similarly, From the Fig. 5 and Table 3, it can be observed that
for the maximum force, perfectly elastic model overpredicts, the 3-D Hashin damage
model underpredicts. The 3-D DML though overpredicted, showed a satisfactory
agreement with the experimental values.
Fig. 4. Displacement-time response Fig. 5. Force-time response
Table 2. Experimental and numerical values of maximum displacement in Impact event.

Impact energy (J) Maximum displacement (mm)
Literature [4] Current simulation
Experiments Hashin model 3-D DML model Elastic model
5 4.21 4.757 3.62 3.36
10 5.64 7.21 5.113 4.46
Table 3. Experimental and numerical values of maximum force in impact event.

Impact energy (J) Maximum force (KN)
Literature [4] Current simulation
Experiments Hashin model 3-D DML model Elastic model
5 2.467 1.753 2.954 3.677
10 3.994 2.573 4.435 6.94
5 Conclusions and Future Scope
The finite element simulation is carried out on a graphite/epoxy square cross-ply

laminate of dimensions 80 80 2.1 mm with stacking sequence [0/90/0/90/0] is
subjected to impact by a rigid impactor of mass 6.5 kgs. A perfectly elastic with no
damage, Hashin 3-D damage and 3-D DML models are implemented to simulate the
impact at 5J and 10J of energies. The force and displacement-time response are
computed and respective maximum force and displacement values compared with the
literature [4]. The following are the observations from present work.
i. The perfectly elastic model is an ideal case with no damage in the material which
shows no significant displacement and overpredicts force with the time.
ii. For maximum displacement, the 3-D Hashin model overpredicted but with less
error than that of 3-D DML at 5J but failed to be consistent at 10J Impact.
iii. For maximum force computation 3-D DML model resulting in closer values
compared to the experimental values in the literature than 3-D Hashin model.
The variation of results of the simulation results with experiments attributed due to
the following reasons: Firstly, the 3-D Hashin criteria model implemented was a
sudden failure model with no progressive degradation. Secondly, 3-D DML model was
only the diffused damage with no transverse cracking and finally, inter-ply failure not
included in the analysis. In the future, we propose to implement an energy-based
diffuse damage accompanied by the stress-based progressive damage model and suit-
able inter-ply damage model.
References
1. Abrate S (1991) Impact on laminated composite materials. Appl Mech Rev 44:155–190
2. Bogenfeld R, Kreikemeier J, Wille T (2018) Review and benchmark study on the analysis of
low-velocity impact on composite laminates. Eng Failure Anal 86:72–99
3. Donadon MV, Iannucci L, Falzon BG, Hodgkinson JM, de Almeida SFM (2008) A
progressive failure model for composite laminates subjected to low velocity impact damage.
Comput Struct 86:1232–1252
4. Kim EH, Rim MS, Lee I, Hwang TK (2013) Composite damage model based on continuum
damage mechanics and low velocity impact analysis of composite plates. Compos Struct
95:123–134
5. Qiu A, Fu K, Lin W, Zhao C, Tang Y (2014) Modelling low-speed drop-weight impact on
composite laminates. J Mater Des 60:520–531
6. Jagtap KR, Ghorpade SY, Lal A, Singh BN (2017) Finite element simulation of low velocity
impact damage in composite laminates. Mater Today: Proc 4:2464–2469
7. Lubineau G, Ladevèze P (2008) Construction of a micromechanics-based intralaminar
mesomodel, and illustrations in ABAQUS/Standard. Comput Mater Sci 43:137–145
8. Nie Z (2014) Advanced mesomechanical modeling of triaxially braided composites for
dynamic impact analysis with failure
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring
with EPDM Rubber Sandwiched Between
the Steel Leaves
R. Naresh(&), V. B. S. Rajendra Prasad, and G. Venkata Rao
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vasavi College of Engineering,

nareshrachur@gmail.com
Abstract. A leaf spring is a simple and basic type of suspension system

commonly used in heavy-duty vehicles. To provide a better suspension in
heavy-duty vehicles leaf spring design plays a crucial role. In this work, a new
idea of leaf spring proposed with EPDM rubber sandwiched between the steel
leaves. EPDM is a synthetic rubber and exhibits a hyperelastic nature. This new
leaf spring modelled, static and fatigue analysis performed using design and
analysis software packages. The objective of this paper is not only to obtain the
fatigue life of semi-elliptical leaf springs but also deflection, stress, strain, and
strain energy results. The static and fatigue analysis results of current and new
leaf springs compared.
Keywords: Leaf spring Suspension EPDM Sandwiched Synthetic

Hyperelastic Fatigue Semi-elliptical
1 Introduction
A leaf spring considered as a cantilever or simply supported beam, subjected to a load

to give the desired deflection proportional to the load. Leaf spring is called initially as a
laminated or carriage spring and sometimes as a semi-elliptical spring or cart spring is
used for providing vehicle suspensions and is made up of several flat blades of various
lengths clamped together with bolt. The lengths of the blades are varied in order to
reduce the maximum bending moment at the centre [1].
The general motive of a leaf spring is to carry a weight of the vehicle, provide a
smoother ride by absorbing shocks of any speed breaker or pit present on the road. Leaf
springs pinpoint the axle and control the height at which the vehicle travels and helps to
keep the wheels aligned on the way.
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) rubber has high tensile strength,
water resistance, heat resistance, and ozone resistance. EPDM rubber possesses
excellent compressibility and fast recovery after compression. Therefore EPDM rubber
is ideal for shock absorption related applications [2].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_87
740 R. Naresh et al.
2 Modelling and Assembly
Modelling and assembly of present and new leaf springs done in order to facilitate the
static and fatigue analysis using finite element method based software.
2.1 Specifications of Present Leaf Spring

The standard specifications of a present commercially available truck semi-elliptical
leaf spring are presented here with the help of Table 1.
Table 1. Specifications of commercial leaf spring

Parameters Specifications
Length of the leaf 1.6256 m
Width of the leaf 0.0635 m
Camber 0.1842 m
Pack thickness 0.0857 m
No. of leaves 6
Capacity 1013.8 kg
2.2 Modeled and Assembled Leaf Springs

(See Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1. Isometric view of present leaf spring Fig. 2. Isometric view of new leaf spring
Static and Fatigue Analysis of Leaf Spring 741
3 Analysis
Static and Fatigue analysis [8–10] performed using Static Structural and Static Struc-
tural Fatigue Analysis modules of Finite Element Method based software.
3.1 Material Selection

The materials used in this project are 51CrV4 spring steel and EPDM rubber. The
Density of EPDM is 1100 kg/m3.Properties of 51CrV4 Spring Steel [4] represented in
Table 2, and the uniaxial tensile test data of EPDM rubber [5] shown in Fig. 3.
Table 2. 51CrV4 spring steel properties

Property Value
Density 7800 kg/m3
Young’s modulus 210 GPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.30
Tensile yield strength 1502 MPa
Tensile ultimate strength 1591 Mpa
Fig. 3. EPDM uniaxial test data

3.2 Boundary Conditions

A Simply Supported case of Leaf Spring [6] considered and the boundary conditions
shown with the help of Table 3 and Fig. 4.
Table 3. Remote displacements

Degrees of Freedom (DOF) Front eye (A) Rear eye (B)
Translation constrained X, Y, and Z Y and Z
Rotation constrained X and Z X and Z
Free Y rotation X translation & Y rotation
Load Calculation
Gross Vehicle Weight of Truck = 3130 kg, Acceleration due to Gravity = 9.81 m/s,
Total Weight = 3130 * 9.81 = 30,705.3N, Number of Leaf Springs = 4,
Weight on each Leaf Spring = 7676.325N,
A force of 7676.325N is acted in the positive Z axis (C).
Fig. 4. Boundary conditions
3.3 Static Analysis

Static analysis is performed to determine deformation, stress, strain, and strain energy
in the leaf spring caused by loads without considering inertia and damping effects.
Present Leaf Spring Static Analysis Results (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. (a) Total Deformation, (b) Equivalent Strain, (c) Equivalent Stress, (d) Strain Energy
New Leaf Spring Static Analysis Results (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. (a) Total Deformation, (b) Equivalent Strain, (c) Equivalent Stress, (d) Strain Energy
3.4 Fatigue Analysis

Present Leaf Spring Fatigue Analysis Results (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. (a) Life, (b) Safety Factor

New Leaf Spring Fatigue Analysis Results (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. (a) Life, (b) Safety Factor

4 Results Comparison
Table 4. Static analysis results

Parameters Present leaf spring New leaf spring
Max. total deformation (m) 0.0024804 0.03756
Max. equivalent strain (m/m) 0.0014191 0.13334
Max. equivalent stress (Pa) 2.7485e8 5.078e8
Max. strain energy (J) 0.038005 0.51815
Table 5. Fatigue analysis results

Parameters Present leaf spring New leaf spring
Min. life 2.6e6 4.4668e5
Min. safety factor 2.7185 1.1493
5 Conclusions
In this paper, a comparison of both the static and fatigue analysis results of present leaf
spring made up of 51CrV4 spring steel and new leaf spring made by placing four
EPDM rubbers in between the 51CrV4 leaves. The following conclusions made from
the above-obtained results. They are
• In case of static analysis, it can be noticed from Table 4 that the maximum values of
total deformation, Equivalent strain, and strain energy corresponding to new leaf
spring are higher than the present leaf spring.
• As literature states leaf springs provide greater deflection that is they have greater
resilience and shock absorbing capacity. Hence obtained new leaf spring static
analysis results are apparent.
• In the case of fatigue analysis, however due to the inclusion of low strength rubber
as compared to steel, the minimum life and factor of safety of a new leaf spring are
less than the present leaf spring which can be noticed from Table 5.
References
1. Kabanur B, Patil PS (2017) Improve the design of leaf spring by reducing the frictional
stress. Int J Eng Technol 04(08):1363–1370
2. Kim YS, Hwang ES, Jeon ES (2019) Optimization of shape design of grommet through
analysis of physical properties of EPDM materials. Appl Sci 9:133
3. Idrees M, Rajendra Prasad VBS (2018) Response of rubber based engine mounts with SBR
as the core rubber. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol 455
4. Sustarsic B, Borkovic P, Echlseder W, Gerstmayr G, Javidi A, Sencic B (2011) Fatigue

strength and micro-structural features of spring steel. Struct Integrity Life 11:27–34
5. Song B, Chen W (2003) One-dimensional dynamic compressive behaviour of EPDM rubber.
J Eng Mater Techn 125:294–301
6. Pawar SB, Ghadge RR (2015) Design & analysis of multi steel leaf spring. Int Educ Res J
Spec Issue 2:4468–4474
7. Rajendra Prasad VBS, Venkata Rao G (2016) Dynamic hyper-elastic behaviour of
compression shock loaded vibration dampers. Dyn Behav Mater 1:237–251
8. Senthil Kumar M, Vijayarangan S (2007) Static analysis and fatigue life prediction of steel
and composite leaf spring for light passenger vehicles. J Sci Ind Res 66:128–134
9. Ijagbemia CO, Oladapob BI, Campbell HM (2016) Design and simulation of fatigue analysis
for a vehicle suspension system and its effect on global warming. Procedia Eng 159:124–132
10. Abraham F, Alshuth T, Jerrams S (2001) The dependence on mean stress and stress
amplitude of the fatigue life of elastomers. In: DIK-Publication 134
Modelling of Surface Roughness and Tool
Wear Rate During Turning of AISI 202
Stainless Steel
Nagaveni Thallapalli(&), Vinay Kumar Goud Balne,


Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, Telangana, India
tnagaveni@gmail.com
Abstract. In several industries, Stainless Steel has been used as an engineering

material, for example in the automotive, aerospace and aerospace industries,
where surface finishing is the most important factor. The aim of this work is to
predict surface roughness and tool wear rate by developing mathematical models
using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and to study the effect of cutting
speed, feed and cutting depth on surface roughness and tool wear rate using
TiAlN and TiAlN+TiN coated carbide tool bits during CNC Turning on 202
stainless steel. The results were compared in the MINITAB software for anal-
ysis. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of these response variables was
examined to determine a regression equation with the machining parameters as
independent variables.
1 Introduction
Turning is a machining operation that is to be used in the metal-cutting industry. The

selection range of machining factors in a turning process plays a vital role so as to get good
surface finish, high machinability, less tool wear, and fast production rate. Data analysis in
manufacturing using appropriate statistical means is of great importance to enable a
specific process evaluation. Now a days Taguchi method and Response Surface
Methodology (RSM) are extensively utilized rather than a time-consuming, time-
consuming and expensive experimental factor-at-time approach. In this work, the appli-
cation of the RSM with TiAlN + TiN coated and TiAlN coated tungsten carbide tool to
turn stainless steel SS 202 was performed to develop a mathematical model for surface
roughness (Ra) and tool wear. To optimize performance of the metal removal rate and
surface finish, the quadratic model of the response surface methodology was used.
2 Literature Review
Dhar [1] explains “the cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jet in the surface finish, the
cutting temperature, the tool wear, and the dimensional variation when turning the
AISI-4037 steel with a combined speed and feed through Cemented coated carbide

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_88
Modelling of Surface Roughness and Tool Wear 749
insert. The results were compared with dry machining and machining by means of
soluble oil as a coolant”.
Khare [2] investigated “the process of cryogenic turning, in which the process
parameters that influence the machining performance are optimized and modeled. In
their work, the delays in the parameters, namely the cutting speed, the feed rate, the
depth of cut and the rake angle, are optimized for minimum surface roughness of the
AISI 4340 steel surface”.
Devillez et al. [3] discussed “the processing of heat-resistant super alloys used in
the aerospace industry and classified as difficult to machine materials. The consumption
of cooling lubricant in the machining is thus very important. The basic orthogonal
cutting process was selected, the components of the cutting and feeding forces were
measured and the ratio of the cutting forces was computed. This relationship proves to
be a remarkable indicator of tool wear.
Lalwani et al. [4] examined “the result of the cutting parameters (cutting speed,
feed rate and depth of cut) with the cutting forces (feed force, cutting force and shear
force) and the surface roughness of the MDN250 solid steel surface with a coated
ceramic tool. The experiments were performed on the basis of the response surface
methodology and a sequential approach using a central composite design”.
Ashvin et al. [5] investigated “the influence of the main parameters of turning as
feed rate, the radius of the tool tip, cutting speed and depth of cut on the surface
roughness of the machining of AISI 410 Steel. Based on the above parameters, a
mathematical model was developed for the prediction of surface roughness. The
influence of these parameters on the surface roughness was investigated by means of
the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) method.
Therefore, the main intention of this study is to develop predictive models by
Response Surface Method (RSM) for tool wear and surface roughness and analysis of
effects of machining parameters i.e., cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut for tool
wear rate during turning of 202 stainless steel using TiAlN + TiN and TiAlN coated
Tungsten carbide tool.
3 Material and Method
Two stainless steel rods of grade 202 with 42 mm diameter and 350 mm length are
employed in the experimentation. The tool chosen consists of two tungsten carbide
tools coated using Physical Vapour Deposition. One tool bit is composed of
TiAlN + TiN (titanium nitride and aluminum + titanium nitride) layer and the other
with TiAlN (titanium aluminum nitride). The turning process was performed in
SMART TURN, as shown in Fig. 1, in dry machining state. The surface roughness was
evaluated by the surface roughness tester, TALYSURF model (Fig. 2). The Minitab 18
software was used to design the experiments. Subsequently, the experimentation was
carried out using both the tool bits.
750 N. Thallapalli et al.
Fig. 1. CNC turning machine and cutting tool bits used for experimentation
Table 1. Factors and level of input parameters

Symbol Input factors Units Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A Cutting speed (m/min) 125 200 250
B Feed (mm/rev) 0.1 0.15 0.2
C Depth of cut (mm) 0.4 0.6 0.8
In the present work for the experimentations, the number of an experiment to be

carried out are chosen by taking L9 Orthogonal array for experimentation purpose. As a
result, a total of nine experiment is to be carried out firmly and effectively. First using
TiAlN + TiN coated tool bit in turning of SS202 was carried out with different feed,
depth of cut and speed (Table 1). Nine experiments was carried out using TiAlN coated
cutting using the same conditions.
Fig. 2. Talysurf for measurement of surface roughness
Experimental Values Obtained with TiAlN + TiN Tool Bit

The experimental design was developed to estimate effect of feed, speed, and depth of
cut on tool wear and surface roughness with the tungsten carbide tool coated with
TiAlN + TiN. In Table 2, the ANOVA analysis on surface roughness and tool wear
rate are presented. At a significance level of 0.05, the experimental outcomes are
analyzed with ANOVA to reveal the effect of several input factors on the response
parameters. From the Table 4, at a confidence level of 95%, analysis of variance
analyzes that the level of significance is a = 0.10. If the value of “P” is less than 0.10,
this explains that the performance of the parameter is statistically significant and less
significant for the model greater than 0.10. The percentage contribution of the indi-
vidual process parameters, as well as their interaction and the square term, are pre-
sented in Table 3.
Table 2. Experimental values obtain for the surface roughness and tool wear rate using
TiAIN + TiN coated Tungsten carbide tool
Sl (m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (micrometer) Regression (gm/min) Regression
no Cutting Feed Depth Surface equation Tool wear equation
speed of cut roughness Ra values rate values
1 150 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.00022 0.00019
2 150 0.15 0.6 10 1.1 0.00080 0.00095
3 150 0.2 0.8 1.6 1.5 0.00164 0.00174
4 200 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.00085 0.00076
5 200 0.15 0.8 10 1.0 0.00184 0.00172
6 200 0.2 0.4 1.8 1.8 0.00207 0.00200
7 250 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.00103 0.00130
8 250 0.15 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.00121 0.00168
9 250 0.2 0.6 1.6 1.5 0.00270 0.00267
Table 3. ANOVA analysis for surface roughness

Source DOF S.S M.S F P-value %C
Cutting speed 2 0.7527 0.3763 2.36 0.156 9.72
Feed 2 0.6772 0.3386 2.13 0.182 8.75
Depth of cut 2 0.40S6 0.2043 1.28 0.329 5.28
Cutting speed Feed 4 2.1703 0.5426 3.41 0.066 28.03
Feed Depth of cut 4 0.6532 0.1633 1.03 0.450 8.44
Cutting speed Depth of cut 4 1.8058 0.4515 2.84 0.098 23.33
Error 8 1.2739 0.1592 16.46
Total 26 7.7417
It has been examined that the speed feed is the most effective factor, with the
highest percentage of contribution (28.03%) compared to other process parameters.
The other most effective parameters are: feed depth of cut and speed depth of cut
and the percentage of contribution are 8.44% and 23.33%, respectively. From Table 4
of the ANOVA, it indicates that cutting speed is the important factor, with highest
percentage of contribution (30.62%) compared to other process parameters. The other
most important factors are the depth of cut and cutting speed feed and the percentage
contribution are 18.32% and 10.81% respectively.
Surface Roughness ¼ 1:53 0:0087 Cutting Speed þ 13:33 Feed 4:33 Depth of Cut 0:000013 Cutting Speed
Cutting Speed 0:0000 Cutting Speed Feed + 0:02000 Cutting Speed Depth of Cut:
Tool Wear Rate ¼ 0:00028 0:000017 Cutting speed 0:0047 Feed þ 0:00507 Depth of cut
þ 0:000155 Cutting speed Feed 0:000001 Cutting speed Depth of cut
0:0200 Feed Depth of cut:
Table 4. ANOVA analysis for tool wear rate

Source. DOF S.S M.S F P-Value %C
Cutting speed 2 0.12616 0.0631 4.17 0.058 30.62
Feed 2 0.00642 0.0032 0.21 0.813 1.56
Depth of cut 2 0.0377 0.0377 2.49 0.144 18.32
Speed Feed 4 0.04456 0.011 1 0.74 0.593 10.81
Depth of cut speed 4 0.02709 0.0068 0.45 0.772 6.51
Feed Depth of cut 4 0.01122 0.0028 0.19 0.940 2.72
Error 8 0.12113 0.0151 29.40
Total 26 0.41207
Probability and Main Effect Plot of Surface Roughness

Figure 3 illustrates normal plot of the probability of predicted response vs. residual
response for surface roughness values. The residuals studied the modal adequacy. The
residuals, which are the differences between the observed residual response and the
predicted response, are checked against the predicted response using the residuals
‘normal probability plot. If a model is enough, then we assume that the points of the
residuals’ normal probability graphs form a straight line. The plot of main effects for
surface roughness gradually decreases as the increase in cutting speed. Surface
roughness increases as feed increases and the depth of cut increases.
Fig. 3. Normal probability and main effect plots for the surface roughness
Probability and Main Effect Plot of Tool Wear Rate

Figure 4 illustrates a graph showing the normal probability of predicted response to the
tool wear rate residual response. Studying the residuals investigated the adequacy of
the model. If the model is sufficient, the normal residual probability representation is
Fig. 4. Normal probability and main effect plots for the surface roughness
assumed to be a straight line. The main effect graph on the tool wear rate increases with
increase in cutting speed. Same goes for the feed and depth of cut increases the tool
wear rate. It was observed that tool wear rate increases with the increasing speed
(Table 6).
Experimental Results Obtained with TiAlN Tool Bit
The percentage contribution of each input factor, as well as its interaction and quadratic
expression, is presented in Table 7. It was examined that the cutting speed feed is
the most efficient process parameter with a percentage contribution of 28.03% repre-
senting the highest percentage of the process. Analysis results of ANOVA for tool wear
rate and surface roughness are shown below. Other mainly effective parameters are
depth of cut x feed and Cutting speed Depth of cut and the percentage of contri-
bution are 8.44% and 23.33% respectively. From the ANOVA Table 7 has been
examined that the cutting speed is effective process parameter with highest percentage
of contribution of 31.62% than the other two process parameter. The other most
effective significant parameters are depth of cut and cutting speed feed and the
percentage of contribution are 19.32% and 11.81% respectively.
Table 5. Results obtain for file surface roughness and tool wear rate using TiAIN coated tool
bit.
Sl (m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (micrometer) Regression (gm/min) Regression
no Cutting Feed Depth Surface equation Tool wear equation
speed of cut roughness Ra, value rate value
1 ISO 0.1 0.4 10 0.9 0.00028 0.00039
2 150 0.15 0.6 1.2 1.3 0.00086 0.00010
3 150 0.2 0.8 1.8 1.8 0.00170 0.00174
4 200 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.00094 0.00089
5 200 0.15 0.8 1.2 1.1 0.00196 0.00185
6 200 0.2 0.4 2 l.8 0.00222 0.00212
7 250 0.1 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.00113 0.00126
8 250 0.15 0.4 1.0 1.0 0.00129 0.00123
9 250 0.2 0.6 1.8 1.7 0.00285 0.00261
Surface roughness ¼ 1:73 - 0:0087 Cutting Speed þ 13:33 feed 4:33 depth of cut 0:000013 Cutting Speed
Cutting Speed - 0:0000 Cutting Speed feed þ 0:02000 Cutting Speed depth of cut
Tool Wear Rate ¼ 0:00018 0:000019 Cutting Speed 0:0047 Feed

þ 0:0054 Depth of Cut þ 0:000166 Cutting Speed Feed 0:000001 Cutting Speed
Depth of Cut 0:0230 Feed Depth of Cut
Table 6. ANOVA analysis of surface roughness

Source DOF S.S M.S F P-Value %C
Cutting speed 2 0.7527 0.3763 2.36 0.156 9.72
Feed 2 0.6772 0.3386 2.13 0.182 8.75
Depth of cut 2 0.4086 0.2043 1.28 0.329 28.03
Cutting speed * Cutting speed 4 2.1703 0.5426 3.41 0.066 8.44
Cutting speed * Feed 4 0.6532 0.1633 1.03 0.450 23.33
Cutting speed * Depth of cut 4 1.8058 0.4515 2.84 0.098 16.46
Error 8 1.2739 0.1592
Total 26 7.7417
Table 7. ANOVA analysis of tool wear rate

Factor DOF S.S M.S F-value P-Value %C
Cutting speed 2 0.14616 0.0631 4.27 0.058 31.62
Feed 2 0.00542 0.0032 0.31 0.823 2.11
Depth of cut 2 0.0277 0.0377 2.50 0.143 19.32
Cutting speed * Feed 4 0.04456 0.0111 0.94 0.593 11.81
Cutting speed * Depth of cut 4 0.03709 0.0068 0.50 0.772 7.09
Feed * Depth of cut 4 0.02122 0.0028 0.20 0.940 3.06
Error 8 0.12113 0.0151 29.40
Total 26 0.40328
Probability and Main Effect Plot of Surface Roughness

Figure 5 shows the normal plot of residual probability as opposed to the predicted
response to surface roughness. The adequacy of the model has been examined by
examining the residuals. The main effect plot for surface roughness is gradually
decreasing with increasing cutting speed.
Fig. 5. Normal probability and Main effect plots for the Surface roughness
Probability and Main Effect Plot of Tool Wear Rate

Figure 4 shows the residual plot probability diagram for the expected tool wear rate
response. Modal adequacy has been studied through residual examination. The main
effect plot for tool wear rate increases with a increase in cutting speed. Here, the same
happens with the feed rate as shown in Fig. 7, and the depth of cut increases the tool
wear rate (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. SEM micrographs
Fig. 7. Normal probability and Main effect plots for Tool wear rate
Confirmation Test
The optimal values obtained were included in the above model to confirm the results
obtained because it is b est model attained. The experiment was conducted by optimal
values of cutting speed, feed rate and cutting depth of Tables 2 and 5 and responses
were presente.
Table 8. Experimental values of confirmation test

S. Coated Tungsten Ra (from regression Ra (from confirmation
No carbide tool equation) µm experiment) µm
1 TiAlN 1.201 1.230
2 TiAlN + TiN 1.189 1.235
As can be seen from Table 8, the model calculated Ra value for TiAlN and
TiAlN + TiN coated tool bits is 1.207 and 1.189 lm. The ra value of 1,230 lm and
1,215 lm is obtained from the experiment. When calculating error, the acceptable
result is 2.3% and 3.7% respectively. The experiments are therefore validated.
5 Conclusions
Machining performed in this work to compare the performance in the turning of SS rod
using two coated tungsten carbide tool inserts:
1. Minimum surface roughness is achieved when turning stainless steel 202 using
TiAlN + TiN coated tool bits with low feed rate, high cutting speed, and large
cutting depth.
2. Cutting speed x Feed was observed to be the most efficient process parameter with a
contribution percentage greater than 28.03% compared to two other surface
roughness process parameters.
3. Cutting speed is efficient input factor with highest contribution percentage for the
tool wear rate of 30.62% compared to two other process parameters.
4. For tungsten carbide tool coated with TiAlN + TiN, the surface roughness
decreases at a constant rate with the speed, increases with the feed and decreases for
the cutting depth from 0.4 to 0.6 mm and then stays constant from 0.6 mm to
0.8 mm
5. Regression results have been found to predict surface roughness with 97.6%
accuracy for TiAlN + TiN coated tool and 96.2% accuracy for TiAlN coated tool
bit.
Acknowledgment. This experimentations work was completed carried in “CENTRAL

INSTITUTE OF TOOL DESIGN”, Hyderabad.
References
1. Dhar NR, Kamruzzaman M (2015) Cutting temperature, tool wear, surface roughness and
dimensional deviation in turning AISI-4037 steel under cryogenic condition. Int J Mach Tools
Manuf 47(5):754–759
2. Kharea SK, Agarwal S (2017) Optimization of machining parameters in turning of AISI 4340
steel under cryogenic condition using Taguchi technique. Proc. CIRP 63:610–614
3. Dhar NR, Kamruzzaman M, Ahmed M (2006) Effect of minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) on tool wear and surface roughness in turning AISI-4340 steel. J Mater Process
Technol 172(2):299–304
4. Devillez A, Schneider F, Dominiak S, Dudzinski D, Larrouquere D (2007) Cutting forces and
wear in dry machining of Inconel 718 with coated carbide tools. Wear 262(8):931–942
5. Lalwani DI, Mehta NK, Jain PK (2008) Experimental investigations of cutting parameters
influence on cutting forces and surface roughness in finish hard turning of MDN250 steel.
J Mater Process Technol 206:177–179
6. Makadia AJ, Nanavati JI (2013) Optimizations of machining parameters for turning
operations based on response surface methodology. Measurement 46(4):1521–1529
7. Sarıkaya M, Güllü A (2014) Taguchi design and response surface methodology based
analysis of machining parameters in CNC turning under MQL. J Cleaner Prod 65:604–616
8. Asilturk I, Akkus H (2011) Determining the effect of cutting parameters on surface roughness
in hard turning using the Taguchi method. Measurement 44(9):1697–1704
Estimation of the Grain Size Number
and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 Alloy
Flow Formed Tubes
G. Venkateshwarlu1(&), K. Ramesh Kumar2, G. Gopi2,

and T. A. Janardhan Reddy1
1
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering,
gadadasu.venkatesh@gmail.com,
Venkateshwarlu.G@gmail.com
2
Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad,
Telangana, India
Abstract. Flow forming process is a chipless metal forming process used for
the production of high accuracy axi-symmetrical cylindrical components. Dur-
ing this process there is an increase in tube length and decrease in thickness
without any change in internal diameter. Generally forming is performed with a
single roller or three rollers over a rotating mandrel and the present work is with
three roller setup. The work material is plastically deformed in the radial
direction by compression due the rollers and made to flow in an axial direction
and the thickness reduction is achieved with single pass. The AA6061 aluminum
alloy, usually used in defense components is considered for flow forming. The
mechanical properties of this alloy are dependent on the rate at which the alloy is
heated and quenched. Solution treatment has been carried out at 400 °C for 2 h
followed by quenching in water. Microstructure of the finished product has been
studied by using SEM and grain size is estimated for different reduction ratios
and stagger distance using the intercept method.
Keywords: Flow forming Grain size Microstructure Stagger
1 Introduction
Flow forming is the cold forming and chip less process in which cylindrical workpiece
is placed over a mandrel with the help of the rollers as shown in Fig. 1. It is classified
as forward and the backward flow forming operations. The forward operation is used
for forming a container or tube with one partially or fully closed end is shown in Fig. 2,
and the backward operation is for forming a tube with both ends fully open shown in
Fig. 3. In the forward operation, the metal flow and the rollers move in the same axial
direction of the mandrel, whereas, in the backward operation, the metal and the roller
move in opposite directions. In the present work the reverse forming technique is used.
Hayama [1] “analytically evaluated the power and load required in the flow forming
process and validated with his experimental work on aluminium”. Gur and Tirosh [2]
“pointed that Hayama has not considered the non-negligible portion of the power

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_89
758 G. Venkateshwarlu et al.
consumption. These attempts paved the way to analyse this complicated process the-
oretically”. With one roller Mohebi and Akbarzadeh [3] “explained the local plastic
deformation of AA 6063 alloy during a flow forming process. They found that high
shear strains on both longitudinal and traverse directions of the preformed tube”.
Tubular preform of AISI 321 steel was studied by Razani et al. [4] “for the out-of
roundness using Taguchi’s approach”. Venkateshwarlu et al. [5] “reported the effect of
process parameters on mandrel speed, feed of roller and roller nose radius and also on
surface finish of formed cups”. “Surface roughness, diametral growth and forming load
were studied numerically and experimentally by Jafarzadeh et al. [6] and found that the
influence of feed rate as a major flow-forming process parameter on the quality of
AA7075 alloy”. Molladavoudi et al. [7] “experimentally examined the effects of
spinning accuracy, surface roughness, percentage of elongation, yield strength, and the
ultimate strength as a function of thickness reduction”.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of backward flow forming [12]
Fig. 2. Forward flow forming process Fig. 3. Backward flow forming process
Abedini et al. [8] “reported the effect of roller geometry in addition to process
parameters on the roughness of flow formed tubes of commercial pure copper”. Xue
et al. [9] reported the effect of the stagger on flow formed parts and found it has a
bearing on the final quality of the products. Venkateshwarlu et al. [10] “analysed part
Estimation of the Grain Size Number and Microstructure Analysis of AA6061 759
accuracy of formed component using Design of Experiments technique to find the most
influence factors; axial stagger and percentage of reduction on thickness variation.
MINITAB software is used to find the regression equation”. The aim of the present
investigation is to study the microstructure of the finished product and to make an
estimate of the grain size.
2 Experimental Procedure
The forming operation was performed on a 3 roller CNC Flow Forming Machine
(Make: Leifeld; Model: ST 56-75 CNC) as shown in Fig. 4. The specifications of the
machine are given below.
Specifications of the Machine
Min. forming dia. 60 mm

Max. forming dia. 560 mm
Speed range 36–820 Rpm
Spindle power 75 kW
Radial forces of each roller 180 kN
Axial forces of the saddle 300 kN
Fig. 4. Arrangement of the three rollers
Reduction of the wall thickness of the tube from the initial wall thickness to the
final thickness is achieved by the travel of the rollers with a prescribed feed rate. The
mechanism of flow forming is that it elongates the tube without changing the internal
diameter. Hence thickness reduction takes place, Flow forming needs comparatively
lower forming forces due to incremental and localized deformation. In the present work
intermediate annealing is not required during the process. Mandrel speed is considered
as 120 Rpm, which is measured with tacho meter.
2.1 Chemical Composition of Materials

Chemical composition of AA6061 alloy bar stock is read directly by spectrometer. The
test chemical composition results are show in the Table 1.
Table 1. The nominal compositions of AA6061 alloy

Element Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Al
AA6061 0.60 0.16 0.24 0.17 0.88 0.16 Bal
2.2 Preform Design

By the extrusion technique the raw material i.e., rod is made and then it is milled on
CNC Lathe and thus the preform was fabricated. The preforms were annealed at 400 °
C for 2 h and cooled in air to eliminate the effects of previous cold works. Figure 5
gives the details of the finished spun tubes with 30%, 45% & 60% reduction and
stagger is 10.5, 15.8 and 21.0 mm. Before forming, Hardness is measured as 44.24 Hv.
The specifications of the preform [10] are given below.
Preform Specification
Length of the preform 175 mm

Inner diameter of the preform 74.5 mm
Outer diameter of the preform 81.5 mm
Thickness of the preform 7 mm
Fig. 5. Flow formed tube with 30%, 45%

& 60% reduction
3.1 Microstructural Characteristics of the Preform

The following Figs. 6 and 7 show the arrangement of micro structure testing
equipment.
Fig. 6. Optical microscopy Fig. 7. Optical microscopy tested samples
High mandrel speeds are not recommended due to the vibrations generated. Hence a
moderate speed of 120 rpm has been considered for all the experiments. Different feeds
of 0.3, 0.45 and 0.60 mm were adopted and different thickness reductions of 30%, 45%
and 60% were considered with different stagger, 10.5, 15.8 and 21.0 mm. All these
combinations are chosen from an L9 orthogonal table. The experiments are aimed at the
role of the stagger of the rollers. The microstructural characterization was performed on
specimens from the longitudinal direction and axial direction on the flow formed tubes.
Optical microscopy was performed on samples. The samples were prepared by using
mechanical polishing technique and etching was done later. Nine samples with different
reductions are selected from the full factorial design have been studied microscopically
on ZEISS make NEOPHOT-32 and the magnification used for the study is 100. The
metallographic samples are polished with 200 µm Mesh/Grit size emery paper and
etched with 0.5% HF solution. The general microstructural characteristics of the pre-
form, before forming in the longitudinal direction the preform microstructure showing
uniformly distributed particles of Fe, Si and MgSi in the aluminium solid solution. The
following figures (magnification factor 100) 8, 9 and 10 are of 30% thickness
reduction and different feed ratios and stagger (Figs. 8, 9 and 10).
Fig. 8. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 10.5
The photographs suggest grain alignment and homogeneous grain formation. The
dots on the transverse direction of photos at stagger 15.8 and 21 mm are clearer and
suggest that these are impurities of Fe.
Fig. 10. (a) Longitudinal, Feed 0.3 Stagger 21 (b) Transverse, Feed 0.3 Stagger 21
The grain size has reduced with the increase of stagger. The hardness has bearing with
the grain size. If the grain size decreases strength in tension increases as per Hall-Petch
rule. The microstructures of various feed ratios and stagger for 45% thickness reduction
and both in longitudinal and transverse directions are shown in Figs. 11, 12 and 13.
The transverse direction microstructures for 45% thickness reduction show clearly
the homogenisation of grains and magnesium silicate as lines suggesting formation of
needle structure. The white patches at 10.5 mm stagger are magnesium and the
reduction of these patches can be seen in the 15.8 mm stagger.
At feed ratio 0.45 and stagger 21 mm the black spots, which are impurities, are
clearly visible. Uniform grain size also can be visualised. For 60% thickness reduction
for different feed ratios and stagger are shown in the following figures.
At 60% reduction and 10.5 stagger patches of magnesium are visible in transverse
direction needles of silicate are easily noted. Silicate has influence on the hardness of
material. The micro structure for 15.8 and 21 are shown in the figures below (Fig. 16).
Stagger at 15.8 and 21 mm figures indicate the homogenisation and also the
Figs. 14 and 15, at 10.5 and 15.8 mm stagger the block spots are very clear which are
impurities. A close observation shows micro cracks which are in axial direction i.e., in
the direction of the roller movement.
3.2 Estimation of the Grain Size Number for Aluminum Alloy AA6061
Using the intercept method, the average grain size and ASTM grain size number is
estimated. With magnification factor 100, the following Figs. 17 and 18 are of 30%
thickness reduction and different feed ratios and stagger, using seven straight line
segments, each of which is 70 mm long have been constructed along longitudinal and
transverse directions; these lines are labeled “1” through “7” as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Grains intersected

No. grains intersected
Line number Longitudinal Transverse
1 17 15
2 9 18
3 2 10
4 6 8
5 9 11
6 8 11
7 18 8
The average number of grain boundary crossings for these lines was 9.9. Therefore,
the average line length intersected is (70 mm/9.9) = 7.1 mm.
Hence, the average grain diameter d = (avg. line length interested/magnification)
= 7.1/100 = 7.1 10−2mm
Similarly for stagger 15.8 and 21 mm at reduction of 30% have been calculated and
results are tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3. Avg. grain diameter

Stagger (mm) Longitudinal (mm) Transverse (mm)
10.5 7.1 10−2 6.7 10−2
−2
15.8 3.1 10 5.0 10−2
−2
21.0 4.8 10 10.1 10−2
From these results it is concluded that 15.8 mm stagger has minimum grain size.
The average grain size number n is connected to the number of grains per square
cm N at a magnification of 100 giving to equation N = 2n −1. A square of 20 mm is
constructed on the photo micrograph. In this square directly the number of grains N is
measured directly and constructed squares are shown below on the microstructure.
The grain size number 4.2 is calculated using the equation. And the same procedure
is adopted to calculate the grain size number for 15.8 and 21.0 mm stagger and all these
calculated values are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Grain size

Stagger (mm) Longitudinal (mm) Transverse (mm)
10.5 4.2 4.2
15.8 4.8 4.9
21.0 5.3 4.8
Interestingly large grain size number is larger value for 15.8 mm stagger. This
suggests that the grain size is smaller. From the reference [11], the values for yield
strength are read directly and the readings are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Avg. yield stress

Stagger (mm) Longitudinal (mm) Yield Stress MPa
10.5 7.1 10−2 150
15.8 3.1 10−2 240
21.0 4.8 10−2 200
The grain size for 45% reduction and 60% reduction can be calculated on the lines
of the procedure shown above and an optimal stagger can be arrived.
4 Conclusions
• Microstructure suggests the grain size has reduced. This indirectly show that the
yield strength increases. The line formation of silicate increases the hardness.
• ASTM grain size number is calculated. The grain size itself is calculated by
intercept method. If the grain number increases the grain size decreases. And also
the yield strength is read from the graph with the help of grain size.
• For 30% reduction the stagger 15.8 mm is ideal which can also be noted from the
grain size as well as the yield stress.
References
1. Hayama M, Kudo H (1979) Analysis of diametral growth and working forces in tube
spinning. Bull JSME 22(167):776–784
2. Gur M, Trosh J (1982) Trans ASME. J Eng. Ind 104:17–22
3. Mohebbi MS, Akbarzadeh A (2010) Experimental study and FEM analysis of redundant
strains in flow forming of tubes. J Mater Process Technol 210:389–395
4. Razani N, Mollaei Dariani B, Jalali Aghchai A (2010) Hardness prediction of flow-formed
AISI 321 steel tube using response surface method. In: 11th Iranian conference on
manufacturing engineering, pp 19–21
5. Venkateshwarlu G, Ramesh Kumar K, Janardhan Reddy TA, Gopi G (2013) Experimental
investigation on spinning of aluminum alloy 19500 cup. Int J Eng Sci Innovative Technol
(IJESIT) 2(1):357–363
6. Jafarzadeh Hossein, Saneib Sina (2014) Numerical and experimental study of feed rates as a
process parameters in the flow Forming of AA7075 solid tubes Indian. J Sci Res 2(1):
151–159
7. Molladavoudi HR, Djavanroodi F (2010) Experimental study of thickness reduction effects
on mechanical properties and spinning accuracy of aluminum 7075-O, during flow forming.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol 59:949–957
8. Abedini A, Ahmadi SR, Doniavi A (2014) Roughness optimization of flow-formed tubes
using the Taguchi method. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 72:1009–1019
9. Xue K, Lu Y, Zhao X (1997) A Study of the rotational matching relationships amongst
technical parameters in stagger spinning. J Mater Process Technol 69:167–171
10. Venkateshwarlu G, Ramesh Kumar K, Janardhan Reddy TA (2016) Experimental study of
flow forming process parameters on thickness variation of aluminum alloy AA6061 tubes.
Int J Latest Res Eng Technol (IJLRET) 2:33–40 ISSN: 2454-5031
11. Jeong G, Park J, Nam S, Shin SE, Shin J, Bae D, Choi H (2015) Effect of grain size on the
mechanical properties of aluminium. Arch Metall Mater 60(2):1287–1291
12. Podder B, Banerjee P, Ramesh Kumar K, Hui NB (2018) Flow forming of thin-walled
precision shells. Sådhanå 43:208 Indian Academy of Sciences
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil
Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst
Santosh Kumar Dash(&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aditya College of Engineering and

Technology, Surampalem 533437, Andhra Pradesh, India
90nash@gmail.com
Abstract. Depletion of fossil fuel and environmental pollution has stimulated

the search for alternative sources of energy. Among various alternative sources
of energy, biodiesel prepared from suitable plant seed oil proves promising. In
the present study, biodiesel has been prepared from non-edible Jatropha oil
using CaO as a heterogeneous catalyst for making it cost competitive and
popular in the market. Owing to the high FFA content, a sulphuric acid pre-
treatment step was used to lower the FFA content. With the optimum reaction
parameters: molar ratio of oil to alcohol 1:09, catalyst 2.5 wt%, temperature 65 °
C, time 120 min and speed 800 rpm, a maximum yield of 92% and conversion
of 98.48% obtained for the transesterification process. Excellent quality bio-
diesel is obtained and the physic-chemical properties fall within the ASTM
limits.
Keywords: Non-edible feedstock Jatropha oil Biodiesel

Heterogeneous catalyst Transesterification
Abbreviations
BD: Biodiesel
DF: Diesel fuel
AV: Acid value
MR: Molar ratio
TEFN: Transesterification
1 Introduction
Awareness about the depletion of fossil petroleum fuels and environment instability has
triggered the search for alternative renewable sources of energy. An energy resource
plays a crucial role in shaping the standard of economic system of a country. Hence, for
developing economies it’s of paramount importance to find suitable energy sources to
strengthen the energy economics as well as the energy security of the country [1–4]. In
this context, several renewable energy sources have been developed. Amongst all these
resources, energy obtained from biomass sources has proved promising. Especially, the
liquid fuel derived from vegetable seed oils has gained a lot of attention from the very

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_90
768 S. K. Dash
corners of the world. The liquid fuel has transformed over the times from direct use in
the diesel engine to present day transesterified diesel like fuel, commonly known as
‘biodiesel’ (BD). Soy in US, Rapeseed in Europe, and Palm in Malaysia and Indonesia
have established as potential feedstock for BD production [5]. However, for developing
countries these feedstocks are not suitable owing to the high cost and its use as food,
using such feedstock would result in starvation among the major population. Cost is the
main issue for which attention has been focused on non-edible tree oil based feedstock
for BD production. Out of various feedstocks available Jatropha has been promoted by
the Government of India owing to its abundance in the Indian states. Pertinent to the
production of BD from Jatropha oil, several research articles are available that studies
the acid value (AV) of the raw oil, pretreatment reaction, transesterification (TEFN)
and optimization of reaction parameters [6–9]. It is found from the literature that with
place the soil and atmosphere varies, and so as the AV of the oil, irrespective of the
plant type [10]. Hence, investigation is required and needs to be reported if the raw oil
collected from a feedstock grows in a different soil. In this study, the Jatropha seeds are
collected from Arunachal Pradesh, India. It was also observed that type of catalyst
contributes a lot in saving production cost of the BD. In this regard, calcium oxide
(CaO) is used for the production of BD for its low cost and easy availability [11, 12].
The aim of this study is to produce BD from Jatropha oil collected from Arunachal
Pradesh, using CaO as base catalyst and optimize several reaction parameters such as
molar ratio (MR), catalyst amount, reaction temperature, reaction time and reaction
speed. And, finally, to evaluate various physic-chemical properties of the prepared
biodiesel.
2.1 Materials
Jatropha seeds are collected from Arunachal Pradesh, India. Methanol, sulphuric acid,
CaO powder, anhydrous sodium sulfate and isopropyl alcohol are purchased from
Merck Pvt. Ltd., Maharashtra, India.
2.2 Methods
The seeds are decorticated in the Jatropha decorticator available in NERIST, Arunachal
Pradesh. Using mechanical screw press the seeds were expelled to get raw Jatropha oil.
At first the AV of the raw oil has been evaluated and checked if it can be directly
transesterified using base catalyst or pretreatment reaction using sulphuric acid is
required to reduce the AV and corresponding free fatty acid (FFA) level. A hot plate
and magnetic stirrer is used for biodiesel synthesis. The AV was checked at an interval
of 15 min for 1st stage acid esterification. The biodiesel yield was checked at an
interval of 20 min for 2nd stage CaO catalyzed transesterification. In the TEFN process,
at first, the MR and catalyst loading is optimized and then the optimum value was fixed
to optimize the reaction temperature, time and speed.
Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil Using a Heterogeneous Catalyst 769

3.1 Production of Biodiesel
From the titration, the AV was observed to be 13.86 mg KOH/g and corresponding
FFA value 6.96%. As the FFA was more than 3%, direct base catalyzed TEFN was not
followed for the production of BD [13]. A two step acid base TEFN method was used
to get Jatropha BD.
3.1.1 Acid Esterification

The effect of time on AV reduction is shown in Fig. 1. The esterification reaction is
carried out at optimum reaction condition: 60 °C reaction temperature, 1% (v/v)
H2SO4, MR of oil to alcohol 1:6 and reaction speed 500 rpm. Drastic reduction of AV
was observed up to 30 min from the start of the esterification reaction, where the AV
brought down to 6.27 mg KOH/g from 13.86 mg KOH/g. After which, the AV slope
with time got deflated up to 60 min. It is seen that for reaction time more than 60 min,
the effect on FFA conversion saturated, for which, the AV approached a constant value
2.67 mg KOH/g at 75 min onwards. An AV of 2.67 mg KOH/g has a FFA content of
1.34%, which can be directly transesterified by using a suitable base catalyst.
Fig. 1. Effect of time on acid value reduction
3.1.2 CaO Catalyzed Transesterification

From Fig. 2 it can be observed that the optimum MR is 1:09 and catalyst loading is
2.5 wt%. The effect of reaction temperature on yield is shown in Fig. 3. It is seen that
reaction temperature greatly enhances the yield. Optimal BD yield (88%) is observed at a
reaction temperature of 65 °C. However, beyond reaction temperature of 65 °C the yield
decreased. This could be due to the vaporization of alcohol from the reaction mixture.
770 S. K. Dash
Fig. 2. Effect of molar ratio and catalyst amount on yield
Fig. 3. Effect of temperature on biodiesel yield
As can be seen in Fig. 4 that with the increase in time the yield increases, however
attains a plateau at reaction time of 120 min. Hence, the optimal time of reaction for
TEFN is 120 min. The effect of reaction speed on yield is presented in Fig. 5. It is seen
that the reaction speed has phenomenal effect on BD yield. With the increase in speed
the yield increases up to 800 rpm. At this speed a maximum yield of 92% is recorded.
Finally, from the initial and final AV of the oil, the conversion efficiency is obtained to
be 98.48%.
Fig. 4. Effect of reaction time on yield
Fig. 5. Effect of reaction speed on yield

772 S. K. Dash
After the reaction completed, excess methanol was revered by distillation and the
catalyst CaO was recovered and stored for future use after drying in a hot air oven.
Finally, the properties of the prepared methyl ester are evaluated as per the ASTM
standard. It is observed that all the evaluated properties fall within the limits prescribed
by ASTM standards (refer Table 1).
Table 1. Fuel properties of Jatropha BD

Fuel property Test method ASTM Limits BD quality Diesel
Acid value (mg KOH/g) D664 0.5 max 0.21 -
Density@30 °C (gm/cc) D1298 0.800–0.900 0.872 0.834
Viscosity@40 °C (mm2/s) D445 1.9–6.00 5.4 2.82
Calorific value (MJ/kg) D4809 34–45 38.16 42.25
Cetane number D613 47 min 51 48
Flash point (°C) D93 130 min 156 69
Fire point (°C) D93 - 167 74
Cloud point (°C) D97 - 6.5 −4
Pour point (°C) D97 - 3.4 −10
4 Conclusions
BD has been prepared from Jatropha seed oil grows in Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Owing to high FFA value a sulphuric acid pretreatment step was developed. After
reducing the FFA value to less than 1.5% in 75 min, CaO catalyzed TEFN process was
carried out. The optimal values of parameters are: MR of oil to alcohol 1:09, catalyst
amount 2.5 wt%, reaction temperature 65 °C, reaction time 120 min, and reaction
speed 800 rpm. Excellent quality BD has been ensured from the evaluated physic-
chemical properties. It is also observed that the BD properties are comparable with
conventional DF and fall within the ASTM specified limits. Hence, it is recommended
to utilize the underutilized Jatropha feedstock available in Arunachal Pradesh, which
will boost power generation and collective growth of societies in the hilly areas of
Arunachal Pradesh, where grid based electricity supply is absent.
References
1. Dash SK, Lingfa P, Chavan SB (2018) An experimental investigation on the application
potential of heterogeneous catalyzed Nahar biodiesel and its diesel blends as diesel engine
fuels. Energy Sources Part A: Recovery Utilization Environ Effects 40:2923–2932
2. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2017) A review on production of biodiesel using catalyzed
transesterification. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol 1859, p 020100. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.4990253
3. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Performance evaluation of Nahar oil-diesel blends in a single
cylinder direct injection diesel engine. Int J Green Energy 15:400–405
4. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) An overview of biodiesel production and its utilization in diesel
engines. In: IOP conference series: material science and engineering, vol 377, p 012006.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/377/1/012006
5. Mofijur M, Atabani AE, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Masum BM (2013) A study on the effects
of promising edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks on engine performance and
emissions production: a comparative evaluation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 23:391–404
6. Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM (2005) Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of
some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass Bioenerg 29:293–302
7. Chukwuezie OC, Nwaigwe KN, Asoegwu SN, Anyanwu EE (2014) Diesel engine
performance of Jatropha biodiesel: a review. Biofuels 5:415–430
8. Moser, BR (2009) Biodiesel production, properties, and feedstocks. In: Vitro Cellular
Development Biology-Plant, vol 45, pp 229–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-009-9204-z
9. Shahid EM, Jamal Y (2011) Production of biodiesel: a technical review. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 15:4732–4745
10. Naik M, Meher LC, Naik SN, Das LM (2008) Production of biodiesel from high free fatty
acid karanja (Pongamia pinnata) oil. Biomass Bioenerg 32:354–357
11. Lee HV, Juan JC, Taufiq-yap YH, Kong PS, Rahman NA (2015) Advancement in
heterogeneous base catalyzed technology: an efficient production of biodiesel fuels. J Renew
Sustain Energ, vol 7, no 032701, pp 1–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4919082
12. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Production of biodiesel from high FFA non-edible Nahar oil and
optimization of yield. In: Advanced manufacturing and materials science, pp 431–439.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_44
13. Dash SK, Dash S, Lingfa P (2017) Comparative assessment of performance and emission
analysis of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel prepared from different sources. J Ind Pollut
Control 33(2):1114–1119
Effect of Compression Ratio and Injection
Timing on the Performance of a B20 Biodiesel
Blend Fueled Diesel Engine
Santosh Kumar Dash1(&), Pradip Lingfa1, and Dharmeswar Dash2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute
of Science and Technology, Nirjuli 791109, Arunachal Pradesh, India
90nash@gmail.com
2
GKCIET, Malda 732141, West Bengal, India
Abstract. B20 biodiesel blend has already proved an optimal blend in terms of
power output. However, for reducing carbon footprint and improving energy
efficiency, it is necessary to adjust minor engine operating parameters. Jatropha
is being widely cultivated in India as suitable non-edible feedstock for biofuel
production. The present study deals with evaluating the brake thermal efficiency
of a diesel engine of power output 5.2 kW at constant speed 1500 rpm fueled
with B20 blend of Jatropha biodiesel by modifying the CR and IT of the engine.
It is observed that with increasing CR the BTE significantly increases irre-
spective of ITs. It is also seen that the combination of higher CR and retarded IT
offers best results for thermal efficiency.
Keywords: Compression ratio Injection timing Jatropha biodiesel

Brake thermal efficiency
Abbreviations
BD: Biodiesel
DF: Diesel fuel
DE: Diesel engine
JB: Jatropha biodiesel
1 Introduction
Growing awareness regarding the twin crisis (depletion of fossil petroleum fuels and
environment pollution) has triggered the search for alternative renewable sources of
energy. An energy resource plays a vital role in shaping the socio-economic structure
of a country. Amongst several non-conventional resources, energy obtained from
biomass sources has proved promising [1–4]. Especially, the liquid fuel derived from
vegetable seed oils has gained a lot of attention from the very corners of the world [5,
6]. However, for developing countries these feedstocks are not suitable owing to the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2_91
Effect of Compression Ratio and Injection Timing 775
high cost and its use as food, using such feedstock would result in food versus fuel
crisis. Cost is the main factor which hinders the widespread use of biofuel. In this
regard, attention has been focused on various non-edible tree oil based feedstock for
BD production [7, 8]. Out of various feedstocks available Jatropha has been promoted
by the Government of India owing to its abundance in the Indian states [9]. In this
study, B20 JB blend is used in a diesel engine (DE). B20 BD diesel blend has already
established as a standard blend for DE. DE is made to run by standard hydrocarbon
based petroleum DF. As methyl ester prepared from Jatropha oil is a fuel from different
origin, slight adjustment in engine structure may improve the efficiency of the DE.
Researchers were significantly contributed in this field by adjusting various engine
operating parameters, such as compression ratio (CR), injection timing (IT), injection
pressure (IP) etc. [10–12]. This study aims at studying the brake thermal efficiency of a
diesel engine by simultaneously adjusting the CR and IT.

2.1 Materials
Jatropha seeds are collected from Arunachal Pradesh, India. Methanol, sulphuric acid,
CaO powder, anhydrous sodium sulfate and isopropyl alcohol are purchased from
Merck Pvt. Ltd., Maharashtra, India.
2.2 Methods
Owing to high FFA content in the Jatropha raw oil, a double stage (acid-base) trans-
esterification process was followed. Various physic-chemical properties were evaluated
as per ASTM D 6751 standard. B20 blend has been prepared by mixing 20% of JB in
80% conventional DF. The various important properties of the BD and B20 blend are
listed in Table 1. At first the engine was started by using DF to generate baseline
data. For generating the baseline data the engine was operated at standard CR17.5, IT
23 °CA bTDC and IP 210 bar. However, for B20/JME20 blend the engine was operated
at four different CRs (CR16, CR17, CR17.5 and CR18), three different ITs (advanced IT
25 °CA bTDC, standard IT 23 °CA bTDC and retarded IT 21 °CA bTDC). The CR was
modified by tilting the cylinder head. The engine was loaded from no load condition to
full load condition at an interval of 25%. The final data was calculated by replicating the
experiments thrice and taking the average of the three values.
3.1 Production of Biodiesel

From the titration, the acid value was observed to be 13.86 mg KOH/g and corre-
sponding FFA value 6.96%. As the FFA was more than 3%, direct base catalyzed
transesterification was not followed for the production of biodiesel. A two step acid
base transesterification method was developed to get Jatropha biodiesel. After reducing
776 S. K. Dash et al.
the FFA value to less than 1.5% in 75 min, CaO catalyzed transesterification process
was carried out. The optimal values of parameters are: molar ratio 1:09, catalyst 2.5 wt
%, temperature 65 °C, time 120 min, and speed 800 rpm. With the optimum reaction
parameters a maximum yield and conversion efficiency was obtained to be 92% and
98.48% respectively.
Table 1. Fuel properties of Jatropha methyl ester (JME) and JME20

Fuel property ASTM method Limits JME JME20 Diesel
Acid value (mg KOH/g) D664 0.5 max 0.21 0.08 -
Density@30 °C (gm/cc) D1298 0.800–0.900 0.872 0.842 0.834
Viscosity@40 °C (mm2/s) D445 1.9–6.00 5.4 2.97 2.82
Calorific value (MJ/kg) D4809 34–45 38.16 41.96 42.25
Cetane number D613 47 min 51 49 48
Flash point (°C) D93 130 min 156 87 69
Fire point (°C) D93 - 167 93 74
Cloud point (°C) D97 - 6.5 −2 −4
Pour point (°C) D97 - 3.4 −4 −10
3.2 Compression Ratio and Injection Timing Optimization for Brake

Thermal Efficiency
Figure 1(a–c) shows the effect of simultaneous adjustment of CR and IT on the brake
thermal efficiency of a DE run by 20% blend of JME. It is observed that irrespective of
CR and IT, the BTE increases with increase in load level for both DF and JME20. This
is because with the increase in load, the combustion temperature improves and initial
engine operating energy losses does not increase after reaching a limit. The BTE for the
baseline DF is obtained to be 13.26%, 23.37%, 27.14% and 32.44% for corresponding
engine loading at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively. The BTE significantly
improves for 50% loading and, thereafter, increases smoothly for successive load level.
It is also observed that for higher CR the BTE increases significantly and for lower CR,
it decreases.
This may be due to the increase in expansion work and in-cylinder temperature. At
standard IT and full load, the BTE for JME20 is observed to be 29.18%, 30.27%,
30.42%, and 31.6% for CR16, CR17, CR17.5 and CR18 respectively. It is seen that
with advancing the IT, the BTE decreases and with retarding the IT, it increases. At
IT25 and full load, the BTE for CR16, CR17, CR17.5 and CR18 is observed to be
28.63%, 29.23%, 29.41%, and 30.76% respectively, whereas, at full load and IT21, the
BTE for CR16, CR17, CR17.5 and CR18 is observed to be 29.39%, 30.34%, 30.79%
and 32.1% respectively. This could be ascribed to the weaker mixture formation at
advanced IT, where the inside air temperature is lower compared to standard and
retarded IT for which more fuel consumed and the BTE decreased. This increase trend
of BTE at retarded IT also seen in an earlier literature [13]. However, recently,
Fig. 1. (a-c) Effect of load on BTE at various CR and IT

778 S. K. Dash et al.
Arunprasad et al. [14] claimed that the BTE increased for advancing the ITs up to 27 °
CA BTDC from standard IT 23 °CA BTDC, and decreases for further increase in IT
(29 °CA BTDC).
4 Conclusions
BD has been prepared from Jatropha oil using CaO as a solid base catalyst. The
prepared BD has been blended with conventional DF in a ratio of 1:5 to form B20
blend. The effect of simultaneous adjustment of CR and IT has been studied. The BTE
was seen to be higher for higher CR operation and lower for lower CR operation. From
the engine trial, it is suggested to go for a higher CR 18 and a retarded IT of 21 °CA
bTDC, which enhances the brake thermal efficiency significantly. However, more
research on this area is recommended by using other feedstocks on different engine
types.
References
1. Dash SK, Lingfa P, Chavan SB (2018) An experimental investigation on the application
potential of heterogeneous catalyzed Nahar biodiesel and its diesel blends as diesel engine
fuels. Energy Sources Part A: Recovery Utilization Environ Effects 40:2923–2932
2. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2017) A review on production of biodiesel using catalyzed
transesterification. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol 1859, p 020100. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.4990253
3. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Performance evaluation of Nahar oil-diesel blends in a single
cylinder direct injection diesel engine. Int J Green Energy 15:400–405
4. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) An overview of biodiesel production and its utilization in diesel
engines. In: IOP conference series: material science and engineering, vol 377, p 012006.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/377/1/012006
5. Mofijur M, Atabani AE, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Masum BM (2013) A study on the effects
of promising edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks on engine performance and
emissions production: a comparative evaluation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 23:391–404
6. Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM (2005) Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of
some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass Bioenerg 29:293–302
7. Dash SK, Lingfa P (2018) Production of biodiesel from high FFA non-edible Nahar oil and
optimization of yield. In: Advanced manufacturing and materials science, pp 431–439
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_44
8. Dash SK, Dash S, Lingfa P (2017) Comparative assessment of performance and emission
analysis of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel prepared from different sources. J Ind Pollut
Control 33:1114–1119
9. Chukwuezie OC, Nwaigwe KN, Asoegwu SN, Anyanwu EE (2014) Diesel engine
performance of Jatropha biodiesel: a review. Biofuels 5:415–430
10. Barik D, Murugan S (2014) Simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke in a dual fuel DI
diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 84:217–226
11. Sharma A, Murugan S (2015) Potential for using a tyre pyrolysis oil-biodiesel blend in a
diesel engine at different compression ratios. Energy Convers Manag 93:289–297
12. Debnath BK, Saha UK, Sahoo N (2012) Effect of compression ratio and injection timing on
the performance characteristics of a diesel engine running on palm oil methyl ester. Proc I
MechE Part A: J Power Energy 227:368–382
13. Banapurmath NR, Tewari PG, Hosmath RS (2009) Effect of biodiesel derived from Honge
oil and its blends with diesel when directly injected at different injection pressures and
injection timings in single cylinder water cooled compression ignition engine. Proc I MechE
Part A: J Power Energy 223:31–40
14. Arunprasad S, Balusamy T (2018) Experimental investigation on the performance and
emission characteristics of a diesel engine by varying the injection pressure and injection
timing using mixed biodiesel. Int J Green Energy 15:376–384
Author Index
A Chikatamarla, Laxminarayana, 327

Abbas, Sanar Zuhair, 568 Choudhary, R. P., 293
Abdul Khadeer, S. K., 673
Achanta, Yashasvi, 517 D
Adithya, M., 508 D., Sandeep, 551
Alapati, Mallika, 27 Dash, Dharmeswar, 774
Amaan, Mohd, 508 Dash, Santosh Kumar, 767, 774
Anil, K., 9 Dayal, Abhinav, 47
Annapurna, D., 9 Dhanalaxmi, A., 432
Apparao, D., 721
Arun Kumar, B., 262 F
Arun, C. O., 542 Feroskhan, M., 394
Aruna, M., 337
Aruna, Mangalpady, 362 G
Asheesh, G., 222 Gajanana, S., 635, 690
Awoyera, Paul, 59, 66 Garimella, Raghu Chandra, 285
Gobinath, Ravindran, 59, 66
B Gopi, G., 757
Babu Rao, D., 53 Govinda Raj, M., 318, 345
Babu, Sakevalla Vinay, 215 Govindan, P., 601, 653
Babu, U. Raghu, 215 Gupta, Mayank, 179
BalaRaju, J., 318
Balasany, Uday Kumar, 662 H
Balne, Vinay Kumar Goud, 748 Harinder, D., 80
Bargir, Mohasinkhan N., 170 Haripriya, Sandela, 59
Bharath Kumar, S., 345 Harish Kumar, N. S., 293
Bhashyam, Aravind, 270 Harish, H., 345
Biyani, Yogesh, 206 Heeralal, M., 131, 149
Buschaiah, K., 476 Hemachandrareddy, K., 526
Hima Varsha, N., 682
C
Chandanshive, Nishant C., 258 J
Chandra Mohan Reddy, G., 568 JagadeeswaraRao, M., 476
Chandramouli, G., 432 Jagan Mohan Reddy, K., 703
Chaurasiya, Abhishek Kumar, 270 Jagannadha Raju, M. V., 721

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24314-2
782 Author Index
Jain, P. K., 551 Mourya Balaji, K., 703

Jakka, Ravi Sankar, 105 Mudavath, Heeralal, 123
Janardhan Reddy, T. A., 757 Mujawar, Ajim G., 170
Jaya Chandra Reddy, G., 449 Munaga, Teja, 89
Jeevesh, Chirla, 440 Murthi, Palanisamy, 66
Jirapure, Shriman N., 248 Murthy, Ch. S. N., 293, 303, 318, 337, 374,
383
K Mutyam, Nagashiva, 610
Kaatnam, Pradeep Kumar, 47
Kandasamy, J., 624 N
Karnati, Vineeth Reddy, 123 N., Ravi Kiran, 551
Kawade, U. R., 73 Nagarjuna, M., 690
Kaza, Marutiram, 345 Nageswara Rao, B., 703
Khan, Mohammad Muzzaffar, 89 Nageswara Rao, D., 53
Khatik, Noopur D., 248 Narasimha Rao, S., 96
Kiranmai, R., 222 Narasimha Reddy, G. V., 39
Kishore, Ravande, 9, 195 Naresh, R., 739
Kodandaram Reddy, D., 466 Neel, B. R., 270
Koganti, N., 616 Nidamarty, Laasya Priya, 458
Komakula, Shravan Anand, 483 Nwankwo, Chinyere, 66
Kondraivendhan, B., 162
Krishna Reddy, K., 413 P
Krishnaiah, A., 635, 690 Padmalatha, T. S. R. V., 645, 748
Krishnaiah, Arkanti, 577 Padya, Balaji, 551
Kudari, Shashidhar K., 492 Pal, Samir K., 352
Kukade, Rohit, 189 Patil, K. A., 248
Kulandaisami, Poongodi, 59 Patil, L. G., 206
Kulkarni, N. H., 179 Patil, Madhu Kumar, 413
Kumar, G. Kalyan, 131 Pattali, Vishnuprasad, 601
Kumar, Gonavaram Kalyan, 89 Pavithra, P., 215
Kumar, Jeripotula Sandeep, 362 Pendyala, Srinivas, 424, 616
Kunar, B. M., 303, 383 Potturi, Abhinand, 559, 662
Kurhe, C. N., 206 Prabhanjan, N., 155
Kurre, Pandu, 123, 131, 141, 149, 234 Prasad, A. M. K., 568
Prasad, Chitrada, 404
L Prasad, Devulapalli Narasimha, 327
Lakeshri, Chaitanya, 115 Prattipati, R., 424, 616
Lakshminarayana, C. R., 352 Praveen Krishna, I. R., 542
Lal, M. Heera, 141 Praveen, Gannavaram Venkat, 234
Lingfa, Pradip, 774
R
M Raghavan, Vijaya, 374
Madireddi, Sowjanya, 508 Raghu Babu, U., 162
Mahajan, Aniket, 394 Raj, Mandela Govinda, 362
Mahender, T., 533 Rajasekhar, P., 18
Mallikarjuna, K., 526 Rajashekar Reddy, P., 39
Manvitha, S., 262 Rajendra Prasad, V. B. S., 739
Marrapu, Balendra Mouli, 105 Rajesham, S., 533
Minnekanti, Meghana, 27 Rajkumar, S., 222
Mishra, Nihal, 394 Raju, Madhusudhan, 697
Mitra, Shubham, 394 Rakesh, M., 432
Mohite, P. M., 731 Ramakrishna, B., 18
Mohite, Santosh, 189 Rambha, Ravi Varma, 278
Mohite, Santosh S., 258 Ramesh Babu, P., 517, 673
Author Index 783
Ramesh Kumar, K., 757 Surya Harshith, K. V., 703

Ramji, K., 404 Surya Prakash, K., 47
Ranjith Kumar, M., 624 Suvarna Raju, L., 587
Ravinder Reddy, P., 432 Swamy Yadav, G., 155
Ravishankar, N., 96 Syamsundar, C., 501
Rohita Susheela, A., 222
Rujhan, Ahmad Muslim, 195 T
Tejeswaran, K. M., 383
S Thallapalli, Nagaveni, 748
Sah, Rameshwar, 345 Thapliyal, Abhishek, 394
Sahithi, G., 155 Tripathi, Anup K., 352
Saibaba Reddy, E., 39
Salvi, Kaustubh, 115 U
Samson Praveen Kumar, K., 449 Uday Kiran, K. L., 568
Sandeep Kumar, A., 310 Unnikrishnan, K. R., 542
Sandeep, D., 517, 697 Upadhyay, C. S., 731
Sanganabhatla, Swetha Bhagirathi, 712 Usha Sri, P., 440, 501
Sangeetha, G., 155
Saraswathamma, K., 568, 645, 682, 712 V
Sarathbabu Goriparti, N. V., 337 Vaheed, Shaik, 18
Sathyanarayana, S. V., 466 Vanamala, Uma Maheshwar, 458
Satish Kumar, P., 587 Vanapalli, Shiva Dharshan, 559, 712
Sekhara Reddy, A. C., 533 Varadaraj, Praveen Kumar, 551
Seshu Kumar, A., 673 Vardhan, Harsha, 345
Shaik, Riyaaz Uddien, 476 Vedala, Rama Sastry, 285
Shankar, S., 80 Veeranna, V., 526
Shankar, Vijay Kumar, 303 Venkata Narayana, K., 96
Sharanya, A. G., 141 Venkata Ramana, N., 215
Sharath Chandra Mouli, Y., 731 Venkata Rao, G., 739
Shivakumar, I. R., 697 Venkataramana, M., 492
Shyamala, G., 262 Venkatesh, Sri Ram, 662
Siddharth, V., 508 Venkatesh, Sriram, 559, 712
Siva Krishna, A., 155 Venkatesh, T. S. D., 149
Siva Rama Krishna, L., 559, 587, 662, 697 Venkateshwarlu, D., 712
Siva Saikumar, T. S. S., 610 Venkateshwarlu, G., 757
Sivakrishna, Annabathina, 66 Vinay Raj, T., 262
Soppari, Bhanumurthy, 610 Vipindas, M. P., 601, 653
Sounthararajan, V. M., 222 Vishnu Pramod Teja, G., 645
Sreedhar, T., 703 Vishnulal, R. K., 653
Srihari, K., 310 Vullloju, Sreedhar, 413
Srikanth, Seelam, 1
Srimannarayana, Kone, 47 W
Srinivas, A., 155 Waghmare, A. A., 73
Srinivasa Rao, K., 404 Waghray, Kavita, 466
Sudhakar, Mogili, 131
Sunagar, Prashant, 270 Y
Surender Rao, K., 673 Yasin, Pathan, 492
Suresh Kumar Reddy, B., 635 Yeshiwas, Zeradam, 577

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Learning and Analytics in Intelligent Systems 2

Suresh Chandra Satapathy · K. Srujan Raju ·

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16172

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