Ac Merged

Analog Circuits
Op-Amp Basics
SY B.Tech, ECT
Prof S.A.Annadate
Differential Amplifier
Amplifier:
 Amplifiers are the circuits which increases the strength of a signal
without changing its shape.
Differential Amplifier:
 Differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two
signals.
 The need for differential amplifier in many physical
measurements arises where response from d.c to many
megahertz is required.
 It is also the basic input stage of an integrated amplifier.
2 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020
Block Diagram of Differerential Amplifier
 Differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two
signals.
 So it has two inputs and one output as shown given in block
diagram.

Differential Amplifier Signals
Differential Signal (Vd):
 The difference between the input signals, V1 and V2 is called
as the differential signal Vd.
∴Vd =V1 –V2
Common Mode Signal (VC):

 A common signal to both the inputs, V1 and V2 is called as
the common mode signal VC.
∴ VC = V1 = V2
Differential Amplifier Parameters
Differential Gain (Ad):
 It is the gain by which differential amplifier amplifies the
differential gain.
∴ Ad = VO /Vd =VO / (V1 –V2)
In decibels,
Ad (dB)= 20 log (Ad)
= 20 log (VO /Vd)

Common Mode Gain (AC):
 It is the gain by which differential amplifier amplifies the
common mode gain.
∴ AC = VO /VC
In decibels,
AC (dB)= 20 log (AC)
= 20 log (VO /VC)

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):
 The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common
mode signal is called as CMRR.
 It is a ratio of differential gain to common mode gain.
∴ CMRR = Ad / AC
In decibels,
CMRR (dB) = 20 log (Ad /AC)

Features of Differential Amplifier
 High differential gain

 Low common mode gain
 High CMRR
 High input impedance.
 Low output impedance.
 Large bandwidth.
 Low offset voltage and current.

Basic Differential Amplifier using Transistor

Basic Differential Amplifier using Transistor
 It is designed using two identical emitter biased amplifiers
using BJT.
 The two BJT should be perfectly matched transistor
(Identical values of parameters).
 The two inputs of differential amplifier are applied at the
base of each transistor.
 The output is taken in between the collectors of both
transistors.
 The value of RE is RE1 || RE2.
 Apply the dual power supply as shown.

Configurations of Differential Amplifier
 There are four configurations of differential amplifier
depending on no. of inputs and the way of taking output.
(i) Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier

(ii) Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier
(iii) Single input, balanced output differential amplifier
(iv) Single input, unbalanced output differential amplifier

Dual Input Balanced Output

Dual Input Unbalanced Output

Single Input Balanced Output

Single Input Unbalanced Output

D.C. Analysis of DIBO Differential Amplifier
 The d.c. analysis means to obtain the operating point values
i.e. I Cq and V CEQ for the transistors used.
 The supply voltages are d.c. while the input signals are a.c.,
so d.c equivalent circuit can be obtained simply by reducing
the input a.c. signals to zero.
 The d.c. equivalent circuit thus obtained is shown in the Fig.
 Assuming Rs1 = R S2, the source resistance is simply denoted
by Rs ,


 The transistors Q1 and Q 2 are matched transistors and
hence for such a matched pair we can assume:
i) Both the transistors have the same characteristics.
ii) R E1 = R E2 hence R E= R E1ll R E2.
iii) R C1 = R c 2 hence denoted as R C.
iv)lVCCI = lVEE I and both are measured with respect to
ground.
 As the two transistors are matched and circuit is
symmetrical, it is enough to find out operating point I CQ and
V CEQ, for any one of the two transistors.
 The same is applicable for the other transistor.

 Applying KVL to base-emitter loop of the transistor Q1




 Example 1:
 Calculate the value of operating point of a transistor for
following circuit. (Assume, VBE = 0.7 V)
12 V
4.7 kΩ 4.7 kΩ
2.7 kΩ
- 12 V
 Example 1:
 Calculate the value of operating point of a transistor, VC and IB
for following circuit. (Assume, VBE = 0.7 V and ß = 100)
12 V
65 kΩ 65 kΩ
65 kΩ
- 12 V
Introduction to Op-Amp
 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp):
 Op-Amp is one of the most versatile electronic device used in

old analog computers.
 It is a five terminal device (Two input terminals, one output
terminal and two supply terminals).
 The name Op-Amp is given as it is used to perform various
mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, integration, differentiation, log, antilog,
etc.

 Op-Amp Symbol:

Introduction to op-amp
 Block Diagram:

Various blocks of Op-Amp:
 Input stage:
 Dual input balanced output type differential amplifier
 Intermediate stage:
 Dual input unbalanced output type differential amplifier
 Level shifting stage:
 Emitter follower
 Output stage
 Class B push-pull power amplifier

Input stage
 Requirements of input stage:
1) Two input terminals

2) Very high voltage gain
3) High input impedance
4) Low output impedance
 As dual input balanced output type differential amplifier

satisfies all these requirements, it is used in input stage of op-
amp.

Input stage

Intermediate stage
 Voltage gain of op-amp is very high.
 Input stage alone cannot provide sufficient voltage gain.
 Hence, intermediate stage is used to provide the additional
gain.
 A dual input unbalanced output type of differential amplifiers
is used for intermediate stage.
 A cascade connection of input stage and intermediate stage
provide very high open loop gain of op-amp.

Intermediate stage

Level Shifter stage
 Need of level shifting:
 op-amp is directly coupled, so when AC input is connected, the

DC level is also amplified along with AC signal.
 This increased DC level in AC signal leads to distortion in
output waveform.
 Hence, it is necessary to bring DC level back to ground
potential.
 For above purpose, DC level shifter stage is used in op-amp.

Level Shifter stage
 Typical level shifter
 It is basically an emitter follower with voltage divider.

 So a dc voltage at the base of transistor, Q, gives a 0V dc output.
 This is dependent on resistors R1 and R2.
 A current mirror bias or a diode current bias can be used in
place of the voltage divider emitter follower.

Level Shifter stage
 Typical level shifter (Emitter Follower)

Level Shifter stage
 Analysis of emitter follower level shifter.
 Apply KVL to Base-Emtter loop of above circuit.

VIN –VBE – IER1 – IER2 +VEE = 0
 Output voltage with respect to ground is given by,

VO =VEE – IER2
 Hence, we can adjust the values of R1, R2 and IE to get zero DC

output voltage.

Level Shifter stage
 Current Mirror Circuit
 It is possible to replace R2 of voltage divider in emitter follower

level shifter by current mirror circuit.
 Current mirror is a circuit in which output current is forced to
be equal to an input current.
 As current is constant, it acts as a constant current source.
 Value of IE can be adjusted using current mirror circuit in such
a way that, zero DC voltage is obtained at output of level shifter
circuit.
 Current mirror circuit reduces the DC voltage and does not
affect an AC signal amplitude.

Level Shifter stage
 Current Mirror Circuit

Output stage
 Requirements of output stage
 Low output impedance

 Maximum current sourcing capacity
 Maximum output voltage swing.
 A complementary symmetry push pull amplifier satisfies all

above conditions, hence it is used in output stage of op-amp.

Output stage
 Complementary Symmetry Push Pull Amplifier

Operational Amplifier
 Op-Amp Symbol:

Operational Amplifier
 Ideal vs. Practical op-amp:

Performance Parameters
(Characteristics) of op-amp
1. Open Loop Gain
2. Input Resistance (Impedance)
3. Output Resistance (Impedance)
4. Input Offset Voltage
5. Output Offset Voltage
6. Input Bias Current
7. Input Offset Current
8. CMRR
9. PSRR
10. Slew Rate
11. Bandwidth
 Open Loop Gain (AOL):
 It is differential gain with which op-amp amplifies the input

signal without any feedback.
 It is denoted by AOL and given by,
AOL =VO /Vd

=VO / (V(NI) –V(I))
 Its ideal value is infinity and practically should be very high.

 Input Resistance(RI):
 It is equivalent resistance measured between inverting or non-

inverting terminals of op-amp.
 It is denoted by RI.
 Its ideal value is infinity and practically should be very high (few
MΩ).

 Output Resistance(RO):
 It is equivalent resistance measured looking into the output

terminal of op-amp, with input terminals connected to ground.
 It is denoted by RO.
 Its ideal value is zero and practically should be very small (few
Ω).

 Input Offset Voltage (VIOS):
 It is the small differential voltage that must be applied between

two input terminals to nullify the output.
 It is denoted by VIOS.
mV).

 Output Offset Voltage (VOOS):
 It is the voltage at output terminal, due to input offset voltage

even though both input terminals are grounded.
 It is denoted by VOOS.
mV).

 Input Bias Current (IB):
 It is the average of two input bias currents flowing through

inverting and non inverting terminals of op-amp.
 It is denoted by IB and given by,
IB = (IB1 + IB2) / 2
Here, IB1 be the current through non-inverting terminal and
IB2 be the current through inverting terminal
 Its ideal value is zero and practically should be very low (few
nA).
 Input Offset Current (IIOS):
 It is the algebraic difference between two input bias currents

flowing through inverting and non inverting terminals of op-
amp.
 It is denoted by IB and given by,
IB = |IB1 – IB2|
Here, IB1 be the current through non-inverting terminal and
IB2 be the current through inverting terminal
 Its ideal value is zero and practically should be very low (few
nA).

 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):
 The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode

signal is called as CMRR.
 It is a ratio of differential gain to common mode gain.
 It is denoted by ρ and given by,
∴ CMRR = ρ = Ad / AC
In decibels,
CMRR (dB) = 20 log (Ad /AC)

 Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR):
 PSRR is the ratio of change in op-amp’s input offset voltage to

the change in supply voltage.
 It is also called as Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio(SVRR).
 This can be expressed in microvolts/volts or decibels (dB) and
is given by,
PSRR = ∆Vio/∆V
In decibels,
PSRR(dB) = 20 log (∆Vio/∆V)
 Its ideal value is zero and practically should be very small.

 Slew Rate (S):
 It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect

to time.
 It is denoted by S and given by,
S = dVO/ dt
 It is measured in terms of Volts/microseconds.


 Bandwidth(BW):
 It is a range of frequencies over which all the input signal

frequencies are amplified almost equally.
 It is denoted by BW and given by,
BW = fH – fL
Here, fH and fL are higher and lower value of frequencies on the
either side of range of input frequencies.

Ideal and Practical values of Op Amp
parameters
Op Amp Practical Ideal Practical
Open Loop Gain ∞ As large as possible
Input Resistance ∞ As large as possible
Output Resistance 0 As small as possible
Input Offset Voltage 0 As small as possible
Output Offset Voltage 0 As small as possible
Input Bias Current 0 As small as possible
Input Offset Current 0 As small as possible
CMRR ∞ As large as possible
PSRR 0 As small as possible
Slew Rate ∞ As large as possible
55 Analog Circuits
Bandwidth ∞ As large as possible
23-10-2020
Op-Amp IC 741
 It is a high performance monolithic op-amp IC.
 It is invented by Fairchild Semiconductors in 1968.
 Features:
 Available in 8-pin DIP (Dual in Line) package.
 Short circuit protection.
 Provision of offset voltage null capability.
 Large range of common mode and differential voltages.

Op Amp IC 741
 Pin Diagram:

Op Amp IC 741
 Internal circuit diagram:

Op Amp IC 741
 Op Amp IC 741 parameters:
Parameters IC 741 Ideal Op Amp
Open Loop Gain 200K ∞
Input Resistance 200 MΩ ∞
Output Resistance 75 Ω 0
Input Offset Voltage 2 mV 0
Input Bias Current 50 nA 0
CMRR 90 dB ∞
PSRR 150 µV/V 0
Slew Rate 0.5V/µS ∞
59 Bandwidth
Analog Circuits 1 MHz ∞23-10-2020
Feedback Amplifiers
Necessity of feedback:
 An amplifier circuit is simply used for increasing the strength of

the signal.
 Along with input it also amplifies the noise signal.
 This also may lead to sustained oscillation.
 To avoid this a feedback is used in amplifiers.

Feedback Amplifiers
Definition of feedback:
 Feedback is defined as feeding some portion of output signal
back to the input.
 The block diagram of feedback amplifier is as shown below.

Feedback Amplifiers
Types of feedbacks:
 Positive feedback:
Overall effect is such that
feedback signal is added
with input signal.
 Negative feedback:
Overall effect is such that
feedback signal is
subtracted from input
signal.

Feedback Amplifiers
Block diagram of negative feedback:

Feedback Amplifiers
Sampling circuit:
 Sampling circuit is used to sample the output signal and feed it
to feedback network.
 Types of sampling circuits:
1. Voltage Sampling
2. Current Sampling
Mixer:
 Mixer is used to add feedback signal back to the input signal.
 Types of mixers:
1. Series Mixer
2. Shunt Mixer

Feedback Amplifiers
Feedback topologies:
 In feedback amplifiers there are two types of sampling networks
and two types of mixers.
 So, four different combinations are possible.
 These four types of feedback amplifiers are called as feedback
topologies.
 Four feedback topologies are as follows:
1. Voltage Series Feedback
2. Voltage Shunt Feedback
3. Current Series Feedback
4. Current Shunt Feedback

Feedback Amplifiers
Feedback topologies:

Voltage Series Feedback
(Non-Inverting Amplifier)

Voltage Shunt Feedback
(Inverting Amplifier)

Effect of Negative Feedback on
Parameter Voltage Series Voltage Shunt
Feedback Feedback
Type of Amplifier Non Inverting Inverting Amplifier
Amplifier
Input Resistance (RI) Increased Decreased
Output Resistance (RO) Decreased Decreased
Bandwidth (B) Increased Increased
Voltage Gain (AV) Decreased Decreased

(Stabilized) (Stabilized)

Analog Circuits
Unit No.2: Linear Applications of OP-AMP
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication,

Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College
MGM University, Aurangabad
CONTENTS 2
Linear Applications of OP-AMP

• Concept of Virtual Ground
• Inverting and Non-inverting amplifier configurations.
• Voltage follower.
• Summing, Averaging.
• Scaling Amplifier.
• Difference Amplifier.
• Integrator.
• Differentiator.
• Instrumentation amplifiers.
23-10-2020 AC by Prof.T.A.Mohije
CONTENTS 3
Concept of Virtual Ground

• An Op-Amp has a very high gain typically order of
10^5.
• If power supply voltage Vcc =15V. Then maximum input
voltage which can be applied
Vd = Vcc /Ad = 15/ 10^5 = 150μV
i.e. Op-Amp can work as a linear amplifier (from
+Vi to –Vi) if input voltage is less than 150μV. Above
that Op-Amp saturates.
• If V1 is grounded then V2 can not be more than 150 μV
which is very very small and close to ground.
• Therefore V2 can also be considered at ground if V1 is
at ground. Physically V2 is not connected to the ground
yet we considered V2 at ground that is called virtual
ground.
LINEAR APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMP 4
Inverting Configurations
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
Rf
A=−
Rin
Analysis of Inverting Amplifier
V Vin − VB VB − Vout
2) − : i = = =
1) −:
R Rin Rf
+ : VA = 0
+: Vin − Vout
3) VA = VB = 0 =
Rin Rf
Vout Rf
=−
Vin Rin
The Non-Inverting Amplifier
 Rf 
Vout = 1 + Vin
 R 
 g 
Rf
A = 1+
Rg
The Non-Inverting Amplifier Note that step 2 uses a voltage

divider to find the voltage at VB
relative to the output voltage.
2) + : VA = Vin
Rg
− : VB = Vout
R f + Rg
Rg
3) VA = VB Vin = Vout
R f + Rg
Vout R f + Rg
=
1) +: Vin Rg
−: Rf
Vout
= 1+
Vin Rg
The Inverting Amplifier Question : In the circuit shown in figure, Rf

= 10KΩ, Rin = 1KΩ, Vin = 1V and Supply
voltage = ∓15V. Determine the output
voltage Vo. Assume that the Op-Amp is
initially nulled.
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
Rf
A=−
Rin
Vo = -10V, A = -10
The Non-Inverting Amplifier Question : In the circuit shown in figure,

Vo = 10V, Rg = 2KΩ, Vin = 0.1V and Supply
voltage = ∓15V. Determine the Feedback
Resistance. Assume that the Op-Amp is
initially nulled.
 Rf 
 R 
 g 
Rf
A = 1+
Rg
Rf = 198KΩ
The Non-Inverting Amplifier Question : In the circuit shown in figure,

Rf = 200KΩ, Rg = 1KΩ, Vin = 0.1mV and
Supply voltage = ∓15V. Determine the
Gain and Output voltage. Assume that the
Op-Amp is initially nulled.
 Rf 
 R 
 g 
Rf
A = 1+
Rg
Vo = 20.1mV, A = 201
Comparison of the ideal inverting and non-inverting op-amp

Ideal Inverting amplifier Ideal non-inverting amplifier
1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1 1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1
2. The output is inverted with respect to input 2. No phase shift between input and output
3. The voltage gain can be adjusted as greater 3. The voltage gain is always greater than one
than, equal to or less than one
4. The input impedance is R1 4. The input impedance is very large
Voltage Follower
• The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-
inverting amplifier with feedback is 1.
• When the non-inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is
called voltage follower because the output voltage is
equal to the input voltage and in phase with the input
voltage. In other words the output voltage follows the
input voltage.
Vo =Vin
• Voltage follower has very high input impedance and
very low output impedance hence used as a buffer
amplifier for interfacing high impedance source and low
impedance load.
Inverting Configuration
By Using Kirchhoff's Current Law
Summing Amplifier
Scaling or Weighted Amplifier

Average Amplifier By Using Kirchhoff's Current Law
Numerical
Noninverting Configuration
By Using Superposition Theorem
The Output voltage of Noninverting Amplifier
Averaging Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Numerical
Question : In the circuit shown in figure, Supply voltage = ∓15

V, Va = +2V, Vb = -3V, Vc = +4V ,R = R1 = 1KΩ , and RF = 2KΩ.
Determine the voltage V1 at Noninverting terminal and output
voltage Vo .Assume that the Op-Amp is initially nulled.
Solution:
Differential Configuration (Subtractor) By Using Superposition Theorem

Consider Va so Vb = 0V(short circuited)
Voa output because of Va
So,
Consider Vb so Va = 0V(short circuited)

Vob output because of Vb
So,
Vo is combined output of Va and Vb.

So,
Summing Amplifier By Using Superposition Theorem

Consider Va so Vb,Vc,Vd = 0V(short circuited)
Voa output because of Va
So,
Consider Vc so Va,Vb,Vd = 0V(short circuited)

Voc output because of Vc
So,
Vo is combined output of Va, Vb, Vc and Vd.

So, Vo = Voa + Vob + Voc + Vod
Numerical
Question : In the circuit shown in figure, R = 1KΩ , Va = +2V,

Vb = +3V, Vc = +4V, Vd = +5V and Supply voltage = ∓15V.
Determine the output voltage Vo. Assume that the Op-Amp is
initially nulled.
Solution:
Vo = - 2V -3V + 4V +5V
= + 4V
Integrator
The act of combining or adding parts to make a unified whole is
Integration
INPUT Integrator OUTPUT
When the feedback resistor of an inverter circuit is replaced by a
Integrator capacitor the circuit is worked as an integrator circuit -cause the
output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time.
By using Kirchhoff's Law
Is = IF + Iin
Relation between current and voltage across capacitor

q = CV
Differentiate w.r.t time.
Therefore,
Integrating both side
Integrator Waveform
Numerical
Solution: Output voltage is given by
Practical Integrator
Frequency Response Integrator

1. The gain crossover frequency fb is a frequency at which
gain is 0dB or unity gain.
2. The 3dB cutoff frequency fa is a frequency at which

constant gain drops by 3dB.
Differentiator
When the inverting input terminal resistor of an op-amp inverter
circuit is replaced by a capacitor the circuit is worked as a
differentiator circuit.
By using Kirchhoff's Law
Ic = IF + Iin
Ic = IF
As V1 = V2 = 0V
Differentiator Waveform
Differentiator
Solution: Output voltage is given by
Practical Differentiator
Frequency Response Differentiator
Need of Instrumentation Amplifier

• In order to generate quality products, accurate measurement of a physical
quantity. Such as temperature, pressure and humidity is the requirement of
industrial and control system.
• The transducer generates low-level signals. As these signals do not have the
capability to control the other stage of the system. Thus, it is necessary to
perform the amplification of such signals.
• when we talk about long distance signal transmission, then these signals get
highly distorted due to noise and atmospheric disturbances.
• In order to remove noise effects, amplification unit must have a high value
of common mode rejection ratio.
Block Diagram of Instrumentation Amplifier
Stages of Instrumentation Amplifier
Gain of Instrumentation Amplifier
THANK YOU…..
23-10-2020 AC by Prof.T.A.Mohije 40
Analog Circuits
Unit No.3: Non-linear Applications of OP-AMP
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication,

Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College
MGM University, Aurangabad
CONTENTS
Non-linear Applications of OP-AMP

• Introduction to Comparator.
• Characteristics and Applications of comparator.
• Schmitt Trigger.
• Clippers and Clampers.
• Voltage Limiters.
• Square Wave Generator.
• Triangular Wave Generator.
• Precision Rectifiers (Half wave and Full wave precision rectifiers).
NON-LINEAR APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMP
Introduction to Comparator
Non-Inverting Comparator
Introduction to Inverting Comparator

The characteristics of Comparator

A comparator as name says, it compares a signal
on one input of an op-amp with a known voltage
called the reference voltage on the other input.
Comparator is nothing but an open loop op-amp
with two analog inputs (differential input ) and one
digital output(signal ended output).The op-amp has
very large gain used in open loop. Hence the output
may be in positive or negative saturation voltage
depending upon which input is larger .Op-amp is
perfectly suited for comparator application because
of its high input impedance and large open loop
gain.

The important characteristic of comparator are
• Speed of operation
• Accuracy
• Compatibility of output
1. Speed of operation
The output of comparator must switch rapidly

between the saturation level (+vsat or -Vsat)
and also respond instantly to any change of
condition at its input.It says that bandwidth of
op-amp should be very high because wider
bandwidth ,higher is the speed of operation.

2. Accuracy
It is smallest amount of difference voltage

required at the inputs of comparator to make
the output change its state .It is measured in
mv. The accuracy depends on voltage gain,
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR),
input offset voltage and thermal drifts.
3. Compatibility of output
The comparator is a form of analog to digital

converter ,its output must swing between two
logic levels suitable for a certain logic family
such as transistors -transistor logic (TTL).
Applications of Comparator
1. Schmitt Trigger
2. Zero Crossing Detector
3. Signal Generator
4. A/D Converter
5. Level Detector
6. Window Detector
7. V/F Converter
8. Switching Regulator
Schmitt trigger
The value of VO is either VSAT or – VSAT.

So, there two values of V1 for each VO.
When VO = +VSAT, V1 = VUT and given by,
When VO = - VSAT, V1 = VLT and given by,

Schmitt trigger
Schmitt trigger
Clippers
• A circuit which is used for clipping certain portion of input wave form
is called as clipper.
• Types of clippers
• Positive clipper
• Negative Clipper
Clippers
• Positive Clipper
Clippers
• Positive Clipper
• Here, potentiometer,
P is used to adjust
the VREF.
• When, VIN < VREF

VO = VIN
• When, VIN ≥ VREF

VO = VIN
,
Clippers
• Negative Clipper
Clippers
Clampers
• A circuit which is used to shift the DC level of input wave form is called
as clamper.
• It is used to add desired DC level to the AC input voltage.
• Types of clampers
• Positive clamper
• Negative clamper
Clampers
• Positive Clamper
Clampers
• Positive Clamper
• Here, potentiometer, P is used to adjust the
VREF.
• VIN is applied to inverting terminal.
• VREF is applied to non inverting terminal.
• When VIN is zero, the output is positive, and
diode will be forward biased .
• So, circuit will be voltage follower and
VO = VREF
• So capacitor is charged to VREF.
• When VIN is applied,
VO = VIN + VREF
Clampers
• Negative Clamper
Clamper
• Negative Clamper
• Here, potentiometer, P is used to adjust the VREF.
• VIN is applied to inverting terminal.
• VREF is applied to non inverting terminal.
• When VIN is zero, the output is positive, and diode
will be forward biased .
• So, circuit will be voltage follower and
VO = - VREF
• So capacitor is charged to VREF.
• When VIN is applied,
VO = VIN - VREF
Voltage Limiter
• Circuit shows Voltage
Limiter circuit with
positive and negative
voltage limiting
• Voltage limiter is a circuit
in which the positive and
negative values of an
output voltage is limited
to a desired level.
Voltage Limiter
a) During Positive Half Cycle a) During Negative Half Cycle c) Waveforms

Square Wave Generator

• Circuit shows square
wave generator in which
square wave is generated
without any input.
• It is also called as free
running or astable
multivibrator.

• When switch-ON, due to some offset
voltage, output will be +Vsat and capacitor
start charging.
• Also the voltage at V1 is,
• When V1 becomes VUT, it triggers output to

– VSAT and capacitor starts discharging.
• When V1 becomes VLT, it triggers output to

+ VSAT and capacitor starts charging again.
Triangular Wave Generator

• When the output of a square wave generator is applied to as input to
integrator circuit, it converts it into a triangular wave as shown
below.

• A circuit diagram of triangular wave generator is shown below.

• Square wave output from
square wave generator is
applied as input to the
integrator circuit.
• We know that, integrator
produces triangular wave
output when square wave
input is applied to it.
• Hence, the circuit produces
triangular wave at the output
as shown in waveforms.
Precision Rectifiers
• Need of a Precision Rectifier
• When input AC signal is less than knee
voltage of a diode (0.7V for Si and 0.3V
for Ge diode), then it is not possible to
use conventional rectifier for
rectification.
• Here, comes the need of precision
rectifiers.
• Precision rectifiers will make it possible
to rectify very small input voltage, less
than the knee voltage of a diode also.
Precision Rectifiers
• Types of Precision rectifiers
• Precision Half Wave Rectifier

• Rectifies only half cycle (either positive or
negative) of input AC signal.
• Precision Full Wave Rectifier

• Rectifies both half cycles of input AC
signal.
Precision Half Wave Rectifiers

• Non-Inverting Precision HWR
• Figure shows precision half wave rectifier.

• It consists of noninverting amplifier with diode
D1 in the feedback loop of an op-amp.
• The analysis of this circuit can be done
considering two distinct cases
Vin > 0 V and Vin < 0 V

• CASE 1 : Vin > 0V :
• When Vin > 0, op-amp tries to keep Vo = Vn =

Vp = Vin and it does this
because forward biasing diode provides
closed loop feedback path.
• The voltage drop across forward bias diode
VD (ON) = 0.7 V.
• To accommodate the voltage drop across
diode the op-amp swings about 0.7V
higher than Vo, as shown in the Figure.

• CASE 2 : Vin < 0V :
• When Vin < 0V, diode D1 is reverse biased and

the op-amp is working in the open loop, as
shown in the Figure.
• Therefore, op-amp is no longer capable of
keeping Vn = Vp.
• With no current through resistance R we have
VO = 0.


• Inverting Precision HWR
• Figure shows precision half wave rectifier.

• It consists of two diodes and two resistors and
op-amp is connected in the inverting
configuration.
• The analysis of this circuit can be done
considering two distinct cases
Vin > 0 V and Vin < 0 V

• CASE 1 : Vin > 0V :

• Recalling virtual ground concept we can say
that Vp = Vn = 0V.
• For Vin > 0, Vi is positive with respect to Vn
and hence current through R1 flows from
left to right.
• Only one path for this current to flow is
through diode D1.
• Hence diode D1 is forward biased and diode
D2 is reverse biased. As current flow through
R2 is zero, VO = Vn = 0V.

• CASE 2 : Vin < 0V :

• For Vin < 0, Vin is negative with respect to Vn and
hence current through R1 flows from right to
left. Only one path for this current to flow is
through diode D2 and resistor R2, indicating that
V0A > Vn .
• Hence diode D1 is OFF, and diode D2 is ON. With
these diode states, circuit acts like an inverting
amplifier and output voltage is given as
• If R1 and R2 are made equal, then we can write

Vo = -Vi

Precision Full Wave Rectifiers

• Precision FWR
• Figure shows the Waveforms of precision full

wave rectifier.
• There are two types as shown in figure, which
provides
1. Positive output
2. Negative output
Precision Full Wave Rectifiers

• Precision FWR
• Figure shows the

circuit of precision full
wave rectifier.
• It consists of two
diodes and two op-
amps connected in the
inverting configuration.

• Precision FWR
• CASE 1 : Vin > 0V :

• For Vin > 0, VO1 will be negative.
• So, D1 will be Forward Biased
and D2 will be Reverse Biased.
• The equivalent circuit is as
shown in figure.
• The output equation is given by,

• Precision FWR
• CASE 1 : Vin < 0V :

• For Vin > 0, VO1 will be negative.
• So, D1 will be Forward Biased
and D2 will be Reverse Biased.
• The equivalent circuit is as
shown in figure.
• The output equation is given by,

THANK YOU…..
Analog Circuits
Converters using OP-AMP
SY B.Tech, ECT
Prof S.A.Annadate
Introduction to Signal Converters
 In many applications it is necessary to convert a signal from
one form to another form.
 In such applications, we are using signal converters.
 Examples of signal converters are
➢ V to F converter
➢ V to I converter
➢ I to V converter
➢ D to A converter
➢ A to D converter
V to F Converter (VCO)
 It is a circuit whose output frequency is dependent on input
voltage.
 Figure shows the circuit diagram of V to F Converter.
 The waveforms of V to F converter are as below.
Expression for output frequency:
 An output frequency (fO) of a VCO is given by an expression,
1 𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑅2
𝑓𝑂 = = ∗
𝑇𝐶 𝑅 2𝑅1𝐶𝑉𝑆𝑎𝑡
V to F Converter
Applications of V to F Converter
 Cellphone jammer.
 Function generator.
 Production of electronic music, for the production of
different types of noise.
 Phase-locked loop.
 Frequency synthesizers, used in communication circuits.
V to I Converter
 A circuit in which output current is directly proportional to
input voltage is called as Voltage to Current (i.e. V to I)
converter.
 There are two types of V to I converter.
 V to I converter with Floating Load

 V to I converter with Grounded Load
V to I Converter
V to I converter with Floating Load
 In V to I converter with floating load, the load in not connected to
the ground.
 As the name indicates, the load resistor is floating in this converter
circuit i.e. the resistor RL is not linked to ground.
 The voltage, VIN which is the input voltage is given to the non-
inverting input terminal.
 The inverting input terminal is driven by the feedback voltage
which is across the RL resistor.
 This feedback voltage is determined by the load current and it is in
series with the VD, which is the input difference voltage. So this
circuit is also known as current series negative feedback amplifier.
V to I Converter
V to I Converter
 For the input loop, the voltage equation is
 Since A is very large. So,
 Also, the input to the Op-amp, IB’ = 0

V to I Converter
 From the above equation, it is clear that the load current
depends on the input voltage and the input resistance.
 That is, the load current, IL is proportional to the VIN, which
is the input voltage.
 The load current is controlled by the resistor, R.
 Here, the proportionality constant is 1/R.
 So, this converter circuit is also known as Trans-Conductance
Amplifier.
 Other name of this circuit is Voltage Controlled Current
Source.
V to I Converter
V to I converter with Grounded Load
 In this type of V to I converter, one terminal of the load is
always grounded.
 For the circuit analysis, we have to first determine the
voltage, VIN and then the relationship or the connection
between the input voltage and load current can be achieved.
V to I Converter
V to I Converter
 Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at the node V1.
 For a non-inverting amplifier, gain is

V to I Converter
 Here, the resistor, RF = R1 = R
 So,
 Hence the voltage in the output will be

V to I Converter
Applications of V to I Converter
 Zener diode tester

 Low AC and DC Voltmeters
 Testing LED
 Testing Diodes
I to V Converter
 A circuit in which output voltage is directly proportional to
input current is called as Current to Voltage (i.e. I to V)
converter.
 It accepts input current II and yields output voltage VO such
that,
VO = A.II
 It is a type of Trans-resistance amplifier (as gain A is V/I
i.e.trans-resistance)
I to V Converter
I to V Converter Circuit Diagram
I to V Converter
I to V Converter Analysis
 Due to concept of virtual ground,
VA =VB = 0
 The equation of input current is,
𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝑂 −𝑉𝑂
𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑅 𝑅
∴ VO = -IIR
∴ VO α II
 As shown in equation, the output is directly proportional to input
current, hence is called as I to V Converter.
I to V Converter
Applications of I to V Converter
 In light intensity meter

 D to A converter
D to A Converter
 A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts a digital input
signal into an analog output signal.
 The digital signal is represented with a binary code, which is
a combination of bits 0 and 1.
 The block diagram of DAC is shown in the following figure.
Types of D to A Converter
 There are two types of DACs
 Binary Weighted Resistor DAC

 R-2R Ladder DAC
Binary Weighted Resistor DAC
 A weighted resistor DAC produces an analog output, which
is almost equal to the digital (binary) input by using binary
weighted resistors in the inverting adder circuit.
 In short, a binary weighted resistor DAC is called as weighted
resistor DAC.
 The circuit diagram of a 3-bit binary weighted resistor DAC
is shown in the next figure.
 The digital switches shown in the above figure will be
connected to ground, when the corresponding input bits are
equal to ‘0’.
 Similarly, the digital switches shown in the above figure will
be connected to the negative reference voltage, −VR when
the corresponding input bits are equal to ‘1’.
 Zero volts is applied at the non-inverting input terminal of
op-amp.
 According to the virtual ground concept, the voltage at the
inverting input terminal of opamp is also zero.
 The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal’s node is:
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
 The output voltage is given by,
𝑉𝑂 = −𝐼𝑇 ∗ 𝑅𝐹
= − 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 ∗ 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
= − 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ∗ 𝑅𝐹
2𝑅 4𝑅 8𝑅
Let RF = R, then VO is given as,
𝑏0 𝑏1 𝑏2
𝑉𝑂 = −𝑉𝑅 + +
2 4 8
 This equation shows that the analog output voltage is
proportional to input digital word.
Disadvantages:
 The difference between the resistance values corresponding

to LSB & MSB will increase as the number of bits present in
the digital input increases.
 It is difficult to design more accurate resistors as the number
of bits present in the digital input increases.
R-2R Ladder DAC
 The R-2R Ladder DAC overcomes the disadvantages of a
binary weighted resistor DAC.
 As the name suggests, R-2R Ladder DAC produces an analog
output, which is almost equal to the digital (binary) input by
using a R-2R ladder network in the inverting adder circuit.
 The circuit diagram of a 3-bit R-2R Ladder DAC is shown in
the next figure.
R-2R Ladder DAC
R-2R Ladder DAC
R-2R Ladder DAC
 The digital switches shown in the above figure will be
connected to ground, when the corresponding input bits are
equal to ‘0’.
 Similarly, the digital switches shown in the above figure will
be connected to the negative reference voltage, −VR when
the corresponding input bits are equal to ‘1’.
 It is difficult to get the generalized output voltage equation of
a R-2R Ladder DAC.
 But, we can find the analog output voltage values of R-2R
Ladder DAC for individual binary input combinations easily.
R-2R Ladder DAC
Advantages:
 R-2R Ladder DAC contains only two values of resistor: R and

2R. So, it is easy to select and design more accurate resistors.
 If more number of bits are present in the digital input, then
we have to include required number of R-2R sections
additionally.
A to D Converter
 An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) converts an analog
input signal into a digital output signal.
 The block diagram of DAC is shown in the following figure.
Types of A to D Converter
 There are five types of ADCs
 Flash type ADC

 Single Slope ADC
 Dual Slope ADC
 Counter Type ADC
 Successive Approximation ADC
Flash type ADC
 Flash Type ADC is based on the principle of comparing
analog input voltage with a set of reference voltages.
 To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-
bit output, (2n – 1) comparators are required.
 The next figure shows 2- bit flash type ADC.
Flash type ADC
Two bit Flash type ADC
Flash type ADC
 The three op-amps are used as comparators.
 The non-inverting inputs of all the three comparators are
connected to the analog input voltage.
 The inverting terminals are connected to a set of reference
voltages (V/4), (2V/4) and (3V/4) respectively which are
obtained using a resistive divider network and power supply
+V.
 The output of the comparator is in positive saturation(i.e.
logic 1), when voltage at non-inverting terminal is greater
than voltage at inverting terminal and is in negative
saturation otherwise.
Flash type ADC
 The following table shows the comparator outputs for
different ranges of analog input voltages and their
corresponding digital outputs.
Flash type ADC
Three bit Flash type ADC
Flash type ADC
Advantages:
 High speed operation of convergence from A to D.
 Typical conversion of this type of ADC is 100 nano sec.
Disadvantages:
 As the number of bits are increased, a large number of
comparators are required.
 With increase of number of bits, the complexity of priosity
encoder is also increased.
Counter type ADC
 The counter type ADC is constructed using a binary counter,
DAC and a comparator.
 The output voltage of a DAC is VD which is equivalent to
corresponding digital input to DAC.
 The next figure shows the n-bit counter type ADC.
Counter type ADC
Counter type ADC
Counter type ADC
 The n-bit binary counter is initially set to 0 by using reset
command.
 Therefore the digital output is zero and the equivalent
voltage VD is also 0V.
 When the reset command is removed, the clock pulses are
allowed to go through AND gate and are counted by the
binary counter.
 The D to A converter (DAC) converts the digital output to
an analog voltage and applied as the inverting input to the
comparator.
 The output of the comparator enables the AND gate to pass
the clock.
Counter type ADC
 The number of clock pulses increases with time and the
analog input voltage VD is a rising staircase waveform as
shown in figure next.
 The counting will continue until the DAC output VD, equals
and just rises more than unknown analog input voltage VA.
 Then the comparator output becomes low and this disables
the AND gate from passing the clock.
 The counting stops at the instance VA< VD, and at that instant
the counter stops its progress and the conversion is said to be
complete.
 This process repeats for complete conversion.
Counter type ADC
 Waveforms:
Counter type ADC
Advantages:
 Simple construction.
 Easy to design and less expensive.
 Speed can be adjusted by adjusting the clock frequency.
Single Slope ADC
 Single slope ADC is also called as integrating ADC, because
reference voltage or the signal is integrated during the
process of A to D conversion.
 The ADC digital output code is proportional to the value of
analog input averaged over the integration period.
Single Slope ADC
Single slope ADC
Single Slope ADC
 The main circuit is a multistage decade counter with display.
 The control circuit resets the ramp generator as well as to
counter.
 The output of the ramp generator is applied to the inverting
input of comparator.
 Output of the comparator acts as gate input to the clock
generator AND gate and also informs control circuit when
the A to D conversion gets completed.
Single Slope ADC
 Waveforms:
Single Slope ADC
 To, start a conversion cycle, press Manual Reset switch to
reset a ramp generator and counter.
 Analog input voltage VA, has to be a positive ramp.
 As counter, receives the clock pulse, it will count in UP
direction and the ramp voltage, VAX continues to rise.
 Ramp voltage rises till VA and then it will disable the clock
and the counter stopped.
 The negative transition of VC, simultaneously generates a a
strobe signal by the control unit, which will shift the contents
of the decade counter into the Flip-Flop circuit and
conversion from analog to digital takes place.
 Thereafter a reset pulse is generated and counter counts in
UP direction and cycle repeats.
Single Slope ADC
Advantages:
 Linear conversion.
 Output is unaffected by sudden change in input.
Disadvantages:
 Stable ramp signal which would be remaining unchanged is
not possible.
 Comparators are not perfect.
 A to D converts cannot take bipolar signal.
Dual Slope ADC
 In dual slope type ADC, the integrator generates two
different ramps, one with the known analog input voltage VA
and another with a known reference voltage –Vref.
 Hence it is called a s dual slope A to D converter.
 It requires more conversion time, but it is extremely
accurate.
 The logic diagram for the same is shown next.
Dual Slope ADC
Dual slope ADC
Dual Slope ADC
Operation:
 The binary counter is initially reset to 0000; the output of
integrator reset to 0V and the input to the ramp generator or
integrator is switched to the unknown analog input voltage VA.
 The analog input voltage VA is integrated by the inverting
integrator and generates a negative ramp output.
 The output of comparator is positive and the clock is passed
through the AND gate.
 This results in counting up of the binary counter.
 The negative ramp continues for a fixed time period t1, which
is determined by a count detector.
Dual Slope ADC
Operation:
 When the counter reaches the fixed count at time period t1,
the binary counter resets to 0000 and switches the integrator
input to a negative reference voltage –Vref.
 Now the ramp generator starts with the initial value –VS and
increases in positive direction until it reaches 0V and the
counter gets advanced.
 When VS reaches 0V, comparator output becomes negative
(i.e. logic 0) and the AND gate is deactivated.
 Hence no further clock is applied through AND gate.
 The dual ramp output waveform is shown in next figure.
Dual Slope ADC
 Waveforms:
Dual Slope ADC
Advantages:
 The is independent of R, C and T. Thus drift in the component
values will not affect the output.
 Hum and Noise in the input will not affect the conversion.
 Offset correction can be introduced by auto-zero adjustment.
 Accuracy is more i.e. approximately with 0.05% error.
Disadvantage:
 Only disadvantage is that a long conversion time is required.
Successive Approximation ADC
 Successive Approximation type ADC is the most widely used
and popular ADC method.
 The conversion time is maintained constant in successive
approximation type ADC, and is proportional to the number
of bits in the digital output.
 The basic principle of this type of A/D converter is that the
unknown analog input voltage is approximated against an n-
bit digital value by trying one bit at a time, beginning with
the MSB.
Successive approximation ADC
Construction:
 It consists of a successive approximation register (SAR), DAC
and comparator.
 The output of SAR is given to n-bit DAC.
 The equivalent analog output voltage of DAC, VD is applied
to the inverting input of the comparator.
 The second input to the comparator is the unknown analog
input voltage VA.
 The output of the comparator is used to activate the
successive approximation logic of SAR.
Operation:
This type of ADC operates by successively dividing the voltage
range by half, as explained in the following steps.
 The MSB is initially set to 1 with the all other bits set to 0.
 The digital equivalent voltage VD is compared with the
unknown analog input voltage VA.
 If the analog input voltage is higher than the digital equivalent
voltage, the MSB is retained as 1 and the second MSB is set to
1,otherwise, the MSB is set to 0 and the second MSB is set to 1.
 Comparison is made as given in step above to decide whether to
retain or reset the second MSB.
Operation:
The above steps are more accurately illustrated with the help of an
example.
 Let us assume that the 4-bit ADC is used and the analog input
voltage is VA = 11 V.
 When the conversion starts, the MSB bit is set to 1.
 Now VA = 11V > VD = 8V = [1000]2
 Since the unknown analog input voltage VA is higher than the
equivalent digital voltage VD, the MSB is retained as 1 and the
next MSB bit is set to 1 as follows
 VD = 12V = [1100]2
Operation:
 Now VA = 11V < VD = 12V = [1100]2
 Here now, the unknown analog input voltage VA is lower than
the equivalent digital voltage VD. So, the second MSB is set to 0
and next MSB set to 1 as
 VD = 10V = [1010]2
 Now again VA = 11V > VD = 10V = [1010]2
 As VA>VD, hence the third MSB is retained to 1 and the last bit
is set to 1.
 The new code word is, VD = 11V = [1011]2
 Now finally VA = VD , and the conversion stops.
Advantages:
 Conversion time is very small.
 Conversion time is constant and independent of the amplitude
of the analog input signal VA.
Disadvantage:
 Circuit is complex.
 The conversion time is more compared to flash type ADC.
Analog Circuits
Unit 5: Oscillators
SY B.Tech, ECT
Prof S.A.Annadate
Oscillators
 Oscillators are the circuits which produces periodic (AC)
signal without any AC input signal.
 If the output is sine wave, oscillators are called as sinusoidal
oscillators.
 Whereas, oscillators producing non-sinusoidal waveform
such as square wave, rectangular wave, triangular wave are
called as non sinusoidal oscillators.
Principle of Oscillators
 Oscillator is an amplifier, which does not have any AC input,
but it operates on principle of positive feedback to generate
an AC signal on its own at the output.
 Oscillators consists of RC or LC (Tank circuit) network in
the feedback path.
 It produces damped oscillations with a very small magnitude
and whose frequency depends on RC or LC values.
 These damped oscillations are given to the amplifier circuit
with positive feedback to increase the magnitude.
 This repetitive action produces sustained oscillations at the
output.
Barkhausen Criterion
 Barkhausen criterion gives the conditions for maintaining the

oscillations in oscillator circuit.
 There are two conditions described as follows:
1. Product |Aβ| ≥ 1 i.e. the magnitude of loop gain must be

greater than or equal to unity.
2. The total phase shift around the closed loop should be zero or
360 degrees i.e. the feedback must be a positive feedback
(regenerative feedback).
Classification of Oscillators
 Oscillators can be classified as:
Oscillators
Sinusoidal Non-Sinusoidal
Oscillators Oscillators
RC LC Crystal Multi Relaxation

Oscillators Oscillators Oscillators vibrators Oscillators
RC Phase Shift Hartley Astable

UJT Relaxation
Wien Bridge Colpitts Monostable
Oscillator
Clapp Bistable
RC Oscillators
 In RC oscillators, RC combination is used in a feedback path

to produce oscillations.
 RC oscillators are generally low frequency oscillators and are
used in generation of signals in AF range.
 The two common types of RC oscillators are
1. RC Phase Shift Oscillator

2. Wien-Bridge Oscillator
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
 Figure below shows RC Phase shift oscillator.
 In RC phase shift oscillator, three RC networks are connected in
a feedback path.
 Op amp used in inverting configuration provides a phase of 180º.
 As per Barkhausen criteria, phase shift should be 0 or 360º. This
additional 180º phase shift is provided by RC feedback network.
 So, each RC network is selected that it will provide a phase shift
of 60º each as follows.
 Network analysis shows that when the necessary phase shift of
180° is obtained, this network attenuates the output voltage by
a factor of 1/29.
 This means that the amplifier must have a voltage gain of 29 or
more to satisfy the Barkhausen criteria (i.e RF ≥ 29R1).
 If the amplifier gain is much greater than 29, the oscillator
output waveform is likely to be distorted.
 When the gain is slightly greater than 29, the output is usually a
reasonably pure sinusoidal.
Frequency of Oscillations:
 If the three resistors, R are equal in value, that is R1 = R2 = R3,
and the capacitors, C in the phase shift network are also equal in
value, C1 = C2 = C3, then the frequency of oscillations
produced by the RC phase shift oscillator is simply given as:
1 1
𝑓𝑂 = =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝑁 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6
Where, fO is the oscillators output frequency in Hertz

R is the feedback resistance in Ohms
C is the feedback capacitance in Farads
N is the number of RC feedback stages.
Advantages:
 Simplicity of the circuit.
 Useful for the generation of audio frequency range.
 A sinewave output can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
 Poor frequency stability
 Difficult to get the variable frequency output.
 Design an RC phase network to produce a sine wave output of
1 KHz.
 Solution:
Assume C = 0.01 µF
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 6
1
∴ R =
2𝜋𝑓𝑂𝐶 6
1
=
2𝜋 ∗1 𝑘 ∗ 0.01 µ ∗ 6
= 6.5 𝑘Ω
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 Figure below shows Wien-bridge oscillator.
 Wien-bridge oscillator is the only oscillator in which Op amp is
used in Non-Inverting configuration.
 In feedback path it consists of a Wien-bridge with a phase lead-
lag network (series and parallel combination of RC) in two
arms of a bridge.
 The phase’-shift across the network lags with increasing
frequency and leads with decreasing frequency.
 By adding Wien-bridge feedback network, the oscillator
becomes sensitive to a signal of only one particular frequency.
 This particular frequency is that at which Wien-bridge is
balanced and for which the phase shift is 0°.
 The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks.
 The positive feedback is through R1-C1, R2-C2 to non-inverting
input of op amp and negative feedback is through the voltage
divider to the inverting input of op amp .
 Resistors R3 and R4 are used to stabilize the amplitude of the
output.
 In Wien-bridge oscillator, the feedback network produces an
attenuation (i.e. Feedback factor) of 1/3.
 This means that the amplifier must have a voltage gain of 3 or
more to satisfy the Barkhausen criteria (i.e. RF ≥ 2R1)
 The frequency of oscillations produced by the Wien-bridge
oscillator is given as:
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋 𝑅1𝑅2𝐶1𝐶2
If we select R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, then
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Advantages:
 Variations in the output frequency is very easy to achieve.
 Good quality of sine wave can be obtained i.e. without
distortion.
Disadvantages:
 Poor frequency stability.
 Design a Wien bridge oscillator for a sinewave of 10 kHz using
op amp with R = 100 kΩ and R1 = 1 kΩ.
 Solution:
1. Calculation of C:
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
1
∴ C =
2𝜋𝑅𝑓𝑂
1
= = 159 𝑝𝐹
2𝜋 ∗100𝑘 ∗ 10 𝑘
2. Calculation of RF:
𝑅𝐹 ≥ 2𝑅1
∴ 𝑅𝐹 ≥ 2𝑘Ω
LC Oscillators
 In LC oscillators, LC tank circuit is used in a feedback path to

produce oscillations which decides the frequency of
oscillations.
 LC oscillators are generally high frequency oscillators and are
used in generation of signals in RF range.
 The three common types of LC oscillators are
1. Hartley Oscillator
2. Colpitts Oscillator
3. Clapp Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
 Figure below shows Hartley oscillator.
Hartley Oscillator
 As shown in figure, in Hartley oscillator the feedback network
consists of a tank circuit with two inductors L1 and L2 and
capacitor C.
 When the supply voltages are switched on, a transient current is
produced in the tank circuit and damped harmonic oscillations
are set up in the circuit.
 These oscillations are amplified and stabilized by amplifier
circuit using Op amp.
 The tank circuit produces a phase shift of 180º and op amp in
inverting amplifier configuration produces 180º phase shift,
resulting in 360º phase shift to satisfy the Barkhausen criteria.
Hartley Oscillator
 In Hartley oscillator, the tank circuit consists of two inductors
L1 and L2 (in series connection) and a capacitor C.
 The frequency of oscillations produced by the Hartley oscillator
is given as:
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝐶
Where, 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
= 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 (If we neglect mutual inductance M)
Hartley Oscillator
Advantages:
 Easy to tune.
 Can provide a wide frequency range.
 Easy to change the frequency of oscillations.
Disadvantages:
Colpitts Oscillator
 Figure below shows Colpitts oscillator.
Colpitts Oscillator
 As shown in figure, in Colpitts oscillator the feedback network
consists of a tank circuit with two capacitors C1 and C2 and
inductor L.
 When the supply voltages are switched on, a transient current is
produced in the tank circuit and damped harmonic oscillations
are set up in the circuit.
 These oscillations are amplified and stabilized by amplifier
circuit using Op amp.
 The tank circuit produces a phase shift of 180º and op amp in
inverting amplifier configuration produces 180º phase shift,
resulting in 360º phase shift to satisfy the Barkhausen criteria.
Colpitts Oscillator
 In Colpitts oscillator, the tank circuit consists of two capacitors
C1 and C2 (in series connection) and an inductor L.
 The frequency of oscillations produced by the Colpitts
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋 𝐶𝑒𝑞𝐿
𝐶1.𝐶2
Where, 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1+ 𝐶2
Colpitts Oscillator
Advantages:
 Simple Construction.
 It is possible to obtain the oscillations of very high frequency.
Disadvantages:
Clapp Oscillator
 Figure below shows Clapp oscillator.
Clapp Oscillator
 As shown in figure, in Clapp oscillator is same as that of
Colpitts oscillator, but one additional capacitor C3.
 The addition of C3 improves the frequency stability.
 The feedback network consists of a tank circuit with capacitors
C1, C2 and C3 and inductor L.
 The tank circuit produces a phase shift of 180º and CS FET
amplifier produces 180º phase shift, resulting in 360º phase shift
to satisfy the Barkhausen criteria.
 A Clapp oscillator is sometimes preferred over a Colpitts
oscillator for constructing a variable frequency oscillator (by
using C3 as a variable capacitor).
 The Clapp oscillators are used in receiver tuning circuits as a
frequency oscillator.
Clapp Oscillator
 In Clapp oscillator, the tank circuit consists of three capacitors
C1,C2 and C3 (in series connection) and an inductor L.
 The frequency of oscillations produced by the Colpitts
1
𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋 𝐶𝑒𝑞𝐿
1 1 1 1
Where, = + +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
But generally, C3 << C1 and C2,
∴ Ceq ≈ C3
1
and 𝑓𝑂 =
2𝜋 𝐶3𝐿
Colpitts Oscillator
Advantages:
 Simple Construction.
 It is possible to obtain the oscillations of very high frequency.
 In addition, the frequency stability of Clapp oscillator is
improved as compared to Hartley and Colpitts oscillator.
Disadvantages:
 Although frequency stability is improved but it is not adequate.
Non-Sinusoidal Oscillators
 As discussed earlier, the non-sinusoidal oscillators are used to
generate the non-sinusoidal signals such as square wave,
rectangular wave, triangular wave, saw-tooth wave, pulse train,
etc.
 They are also known as multivibrators.
 The two most common non-sinusoidal oscillators are
1. Square wave generator
2. Triangular wave generator
 Figure below shows square wave generator.
 It is also called as free running or astable multivibrator.
 The waveforms are as shown in the figure.
 When switch-ON, due to some offset voltage, output will be
+Vsat and capacitor start charging.
 Also the voltage at V1 is,
 When V1 becomes VUT, it triggers output to – VSAT and

capacitor starts discharging.
 When V1 becomes VLT, it triggers output to + VSAT and
capacitor starts charging again and cycle continuous.
 When the output of a square wave generator is applied to as
input to integrator circuit, it converts it into a triangular wave
as shown below.
 Figure below shows triangular wave generator.
 Square wave output from
square wave generator is
applied as input to the
integrator circuit.
 We know that, integrator
produces triangular wave
output when square wave
input is applied to it.
 Hence, the circuit produces
triangular wave at the output
as shown in waveforms.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
 It is a circuit whose output frequency is dependent on input
voltage.
 Figure shows the circuit diagram of V to F Converter.
 The waveforms of V to F converter are as below.
Expression for output frequency:
 An output frequency (fO) of a VCO is given by an expression,
1 𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑅2
𝑓𝑂 = = ∗
𝑇𝐶 𝑅 2𝑅1𝐶𝑉𝑆𝑎𝑡
Applications of V to F Converter
 Cellphone jammer.
 Function generator.
 Production of electronic music, for the production of
different types of noise.
 Phase-locked loop.
 Frequency synthesizers, used in communication circuits.
Analog Circuits
Unit 6: Active Filters and PLL
SY B.Tech, ECT
Prof S.A.Annadate
Active Filters
Filters:
 Filters are widely used in communication applications.
 Filters are the circuits which passes the certain range of
frequencies and attenuate all other frequencies.
 The analog filters are generally classified as:
 Passive Filters
 Active Filters
Passive Filters
 Passive filters are designed using resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.
 Therefore, RC filter, RL filter, and RLC filters all are
examples of passive filters.
 They do not require any outside power or biasing for their
operation, and consumes a power of the applied input signal
to be filtered.
 As there are passive components within a passive filter design
the output signal has a smaller amplitude than its
corresponding input signal, therefore passive RC filters
attenuate the signal and have a gain of less than one, (unity).
Active Filters
 On the other hand Active filters contain amplifying devices to
increase signal strength.
 Active filters consists of active amplifying circuit along with
the passive filters.
 As there are amplifiers in active filters, the active filters
amplify the signal and have a gain of greater than one,
(unity).
Comparison between Passive and
Active Filters
Sr. Parameter Passive Filter Active Filter
No.
1 Components used R, L and C only R, L, C and
Transistor/Op amp
2 Active component Not used Transistor/ Op amp
3 Gain Less than 1 Greater than 1
4 Isolation between Absent Present
input and Output
5 Source loading Can take place Absent
6 Frequency response Not sharp Sharp
Terminologies of Filters
Passband
 It is a range of frequencies which is passed by filter without
any attenuation.
Stopband
 It is a range of frequencies which is attenuated by filter.
Bandwidth
 It is a range of frequencies over which filter works
satisfactorily.
Classification of Filters
 Depending on passband and stopband, the filters are
classified as:
1. Low Pass Filter (LPF)

2. High Pass Filter (HPF)
3. Band Pass Filter (BPF)
4. Band Stop Filter (BSF)
Low Pass Filter
 A Low Pass Filter is a filter
intended to produce high
attenuation above a specified
frequency and little or no
attenuation below that frequency.
 The frequency at which the
transition occurs is called the “cut-
off ” or “corner” frequency.
 The frequency response of high
pass filter is as shown in figure.
 Here, fH is a highest frequency
that can be passed by the filter
without any attenuation.
High Pass Filter
 A High Pass Filter is a filter
intended to produce high
attenuation below a specified
frequency and little or no
attenuation above that frequency.
 The frequency at which the
transition occurs is called the “cut-
off ” or “corner” frequency.
 The frequency response of band
 Here, fL is a lowest frequency that
can be passed by the filter without
any attenuation.
Band Pass Filter
 A Band Pass Filter is a filter which
passes certain range (band) of
frequencies and attenuates all
other frequencies.
 The frequencies at which the
transition occur are called the
“cut-off ” or “corner” frequencies.
 The frequency response of band
reject filter is as shown in figure.
 Here, fL is a lowest frequency and
fH is a highest frequency that can
be passed by the filter without any
attenuation.
Band Stop Filter
 A Band Pass Filter is a filter which
attenuate certain range (band) of
frequencies and passes all other
frequencies.
 This filter is also called as Band
Reject Filter or Band Elimination
Filter.
 The frequency response of low
 Here, fL is a lowest frequency and
fH is a highest frequency that can
be passed by the filter without any
attenuation.
Frequency Response of Practical Filters
Active Filters using Op Amp
Active Low Pass Filter:
 The most common and easily understood active filter is the
Active Low Pass Filter.
 Its principle of operation and frequency response is exactly
the same as those for the previously seen passive filter, the
only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp for
amplification and gain control.
 The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to connect a
non-inverting amplifier to the basic RC low pass filter circuit
as shown in figure.
 This first-order low pass active filter, consists simply of a
passive RC filter stage providing a low frequency path to the
input of a non-inverting operational amplifier.
 The amplifier is configured as a non inverting amplifier with
a DC gain given by,
Gain of a first-order low pass filter:
Where:
AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
 Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the
frequency gain equation above as:
1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc
2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc
3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc
 Thus, the Active Low Pass Filter has a constant gain AF from
0Hz to the high frequency cut-off point, ƒC.
 At ƒC the gain is 0.707AF, and after ƒC it decreases at a
constant rate as the frequency increases.
 That is, when the frequency is increased tenfold (one
decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10.
 In other words, the gain decreases 20dB (= 20*log(10)) each
time the frequency is increased by 10.
 When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass
band gain of the circuit is generally expressed in decibels or
dB as a function of the voltage gain, and this is defined as:
Frequency Response of Active Low Pass Filter:
Frequency Response of Active Low Pass Filter:
 Figure shows the frequency response of a low pass filter.
 Low pass filter corner frequency is given by,
Active Low Pass Filter (Design Guidelines):
 Following are the steps to design active low pass filter using
Op amp:
1. Choose the cut-off frequency, fC.
2. Select a capacitance C usually between 0.001 to 1 µF.
(Generally use 0.01 µF).
3. Calculate the value of R using equation,
4. The resistances R1 and R2 can be selected depending on

required pass band gain using equation,
Active Low Pass Filter (Design Problem):
1. Design a low pass filter at a cut-off frequency of 15.9 kHz
with a passband gain of 10.
 Step1: The cut-off frequency is fC = 15.9 kHz
 Step2: Choose C = 0.01 µF
 Step 3: Calculate R using equation,
∴ R = 10 kΩ
Continued:
 Step 4: Calculate R1 and R2
 R1 and R2 can be calculated using equation,
 Here, AF = 10.
∴ R2 = 9 R 1
 Assume R1 = 1 kΩ
∴ R2 = 9 kΩ
Circuit Diagram:
Second Order Low Pass Filter:
 As with the passive filter, a first-order low-pass active filter
can be converted into a second-order low pass filter simply
by using an additional RC network in the input path.
 The frequency response of the second-order low pass filter is
identical to that of the first-order type except that the stop
band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at
40dB/decade.
 Therefore, the design steps required of the second-order
active low pass filter are the same.
 The cut-off frequency of second order low pass filter is given

by,
Frequency Response of Second Order Low Pass Filter:
Second Order Low Pass Filter (Design Guidelines):
Op amp:
2. Design can be made simplified by making R3 = R4 = R and C1
= C2 = C.

Second Order Low Pass Filter (Design Problem):
1. Design a second order low pass filter at a cut-off frequency
of 1 kHz with a passband gain of 10.
 Step1: The cut-off frequency is fC = 1 kHz
∴ R = 15.915 kΩ
Continued:
 Here, AF = 10.
∴ R2 = 9 R 1
∴ R2 = 9 kΩ
Circuit Diagram:
Active High Pass Filter:
 The second commonly used active filter is the Active High
Pass Filter.
 Its principle of operation and frequency response is exactly
the same as those for the previously seen passive filter, the
only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp for
amplification and gain control.
 The simplest form of a high pass active filter is to connect a
non-inverting amplifier to the basic RC high pass filter circuit
as shown in figure.
 Its construction is same as that active low pass filter, only
difference in that position of R and C in filter circuit is
exchanged..
 As amplifier is configured as a non inverting amplifier, a DC
gain is given by,
Gain of a first-order high pass filter:
Where:
AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
 Thus, the operation of a high pass active filter can be verified from
the frequency gain equation above as:
1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc
2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc
3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc
 The gain of active high pass filter is zero for DC signal (0 Hz
frequency).
 After this, gain is increased with increase the frequency.
 It increased at the rate of +20dB/decade (i.e. when the
frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain
is multiplied by 10 i.e. 20 dB).
 At ƒC the gain is 0.707AF.
 Once the gain reaches to AF, then it remains constant at AF.
Frequency Response of Active High Pass Filter:
Frequency Response of Active High Pass Filter:
 Figure shows the frequency response of a high pass filter.
 High pass filter corner frequency is given by,
Active High Pass Filter (Design Guidelines):
 Following are the steps to design active high pass filter using
Op amp:

Active High Pass Filter (Design Problem):
1. Design a low pass filter at a cut-off frequency of 1060 Hz
with a passband gain of 10.
 Step1: The cut-off frequency is fC = 1060 Hz
∴ R = 15 kΩ
Continued:
 Here, AF = 10.
∴ R2 = 9R1
∴ R2 = 9 kΩ
Circuit Diagram:
Second Order High Pass Filter:
 Same that of low pass filter, a first-order high pass active
filter can be converted into a second-order high pass filter
simply by using an additional RC network in the input path.
 The frequency response of the second-order high pass filter is
identical to that of the first-order type except that the stop
band roll-on will be twice the first-order filters at
40dB/decade.
 Therefore, the design steps required of the second-order
active high pass filter are the same.
 The cut-off frequency of second order low pass filter is given

by,
Frequency Response of Second Order High Pass Filter:
Second Order High Pass Filter (Design Guidelines):
 Following are the steps to design active high pass filter using Op
amp:
2. Design can be made simplified by making R3 = R4 = R and C1 = C2
= C.
3. Select a capacitance C usually between 0.001 to 1 µF. (Generally use
0.01 µF).
4. The resistances R1 and R2 can be selected depending on required

pass band gain using equation,
Second Order High Pass Filter (Design Problem):
1. Design a second order low pass filter at a cut-off frequency
of 1.5 kHz with a passband gain of 10.
 Step1: The cut-off frequency is fC = 1.5 kHz
∴ R = 10.61 kΩ
Continued:
 Here, AF = 10.
∴ R2 = 9 R 1
∴ R2 = 9 kΩ
Circuit Diagram:
Cascading of filters:
Cascading of filters:
 Cascading means connecting one after one such that output
of previous stage acts as input to the next stage.
 It is generally used to increase the order of filter resulting in
improvement of frequency response of the filter.
 Disadvantages:
 Although there is no limit to the order of a filter that can be
formed, but the accuracy may decline.
 Size of the filter (bulkiness) is also increased.
Active Band Pass Filter:
 Band pass filter is a filter which passes certain range (band) of
frequencies and attenuates all other frequencies.
 The band of frequencies which is passed by filter is called as
pass band (given by fH – fL)
 Depending on the bandwidth of a pass band, band pass filter
is of two types.
1. Wide Band Pass Filter – High Bandwidth and Low Q factor
(less than 10)
2. Narrow Band Pass Filter – Low Bandwidth and High Q factor
(greater than 10)
Active Wide Band Pass Filter:
 A wide bandpass filter can be formed by simply cascading
high-pass and low-pass sections.
 To form a ± 20 db/ decade bandpass filter, a first-order high-
pass and a first-order low-pass sections are cascaded; for a ±
40 db/decade bandpass filter, second-order high- pass filter
and a second-order low-pass filter are connected in series,
and so on.
 It means that, the order of the bandpass filter is governed by
the order of the high-pass and low-pass filters it consists of.
 The voltage gain of wide band pass filter is a product of the
individual voltage gains of high pass and low pass filters.
 The first order active wide band pass filter is shown in figure.
Circuit Diagram:
Frequency Response:
Frequency Response:
 A frequency response of a first order wide bandpass filter is
as shown in figure.
 At lower frequencies, it has a frequency response of first
order high pass filter with +20 dB/decade roll –on.
 At higher frequencies, it has a frequency response of first
order low pass filter with -20 dB/decade roll –off.
 The cut-off frequencies of high pass and low pass filters are fL
and fH respectively.
Frequency Response:
 The Cut-off frequencies can be calculated as,
1 1
𝑓𝐿 = and 𝑓𝐻 =
2Π𝑅𝐶 2Π𝑅′𝐶′
 The centre frequency is,

𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓𝐿. 𝑓𝐻
 Q-factor is,
𝑓𝐶
𝑄=
𝐵𝑊
Active Wide Band Pass Filter (Design Guidelines):
 Following are the steps to design active high pass filter using
Op amp:
1. From the cut-off frequencies, calculate R, C, R’ and C’ using
equations
1 1
2Π𝑅𝐶 2Π𝑅′𝐶′
2. Voltage gain of band pass filter is a product of gain of high pass

and low pass filters i.e. AVF = AVH x AVL.
Assuming AVH = AVL = AVF/2, calculate RF and R1 for each
filter circuit.
Active Wide Band Pass Filter (Design Problem):
 Design a wide band pass filter for lower and higher cut-off
frequencies equal to 100 Hz and 1 kHz respectively, with pass
band gain ho 4. Also calculate the quality factor.
 Answer:
1. For HPF section, Assume C = 0.05 µF
R = 31.83 kΩ
2. For LPF section, Assume C’ = 0.01 µF
R’ = 15.9 kΩ
3. Gain of HPF and LPF = 4/2 = 2
So, RF = R1 = 10 kΩ
4. Q – factor = 0.351
Active Narrow Band Pass Filter:
 This filter is having very small bandwidth , hence called as
narrow band pass filter.
 A narrow bandpass filter employing multiple feedback is as
shown in figure.
 This filter employs only one op-amp.
 In comparison to all the filters discussed so far, this filter has
some unique features that are given below.
1. It has two feedback paths, and this is the reason that it is called
a multiple-feedback filter.
2. The op-amp is used in the inverting mode.
Circuit Diagram:
Frequency Response:
Active Narrow Band Pass Filter (Design Guidelines):
 Following are the steps to design active high pass filter using Op
amp:
1. For simplicity, select C1 = C2 = C.
2. Calculate, R1, R2 and R3 using equations,
𝑄
𝑅1 =
2Π𝑓𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐹
𝑄
𝑅2 =
2Π𝑓𝐶𝐶(2𝑄2−𝐴𝐹)
𝑄
𝑅3 =
Π𝑓𝐶𝐶
3. The magnitude of gain is R3/2R1.

Active Narrow Band Pass Filter (Design Problem):
 Design a narrow band pass filter with two feedback paths
having fC = 1.5 kHz, Q = 7.
 Answer:
1. For simplicity, select C1 = C2 = C = 0.02
2. Calculate, R1, R2 and R3 using equations,
𝑄
𝑅1 = = 2.47 kΩ
2Π𝑓𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐹
𝑄
𝑅2 = = 447.4 kΩ
2Π𝑓𝐶𝐶(2𝑄2−𝐴𝐹)
𝑄
𝑅3 = = 74.27 kΩ
Π𝑓𝐶𝐶
Active Band Stop Filter:
 Band stop filter is a filter which attenuates certain range
(band) of frequencies and passes all other frequencies.
 The band of frequencies which is stopped by filter is called as
stop band (given by fH – fL).
 It is also called as Band Reject or Band Elimination filter.
 Depending on the bandwidth of a stop band, band stop filter
is of two types.
1. Wide Band Reject Filter
2. Narrow Band Reject Filter (Notch Filter)
Active Wide Band Reject Filter:
 The summing of the high pass and low pass filters means that
their frequency responses do not overlap, unlike the band-
pass filter.
 This is due to the fact that their start and ending frequencies
are at different frequency points.
 For example, suppose we have a first-order low-pass filter
with a cut-off frequency, ƒL of 200Hz connected in parallel
with a first-order high-pass filter with a cut-off frequency, ƒH
of 800Hz.
 As the two filters are effectively connected in parallel, the
input signal is applied to both filters simultaneously as shown
above.
 All of the input frequencies below 200Hz would be passed to
the output by the low-pass filter.
 Likewise, all input frequencies above 800Hz would be passed
to the output by the high-pass filter.
 However, and input signal frequencies in-between these two
frequency cut-off points of 200Hz and 800Hz, that is ƒL to
ƒH would be rejected by either filter forming a notch in the
filters output response.
Circuit Diagram:
Frequency Response:
Frequency Response:
 A frequency response of a first order wide band reject filter
is as shown in figure.
 At lower frequencies, it has a frequency response of first
order low pass filter with -20 dB/decade roll –off.
 At higher frequencies, it has a frequency response of first
order high pass filter with 20 dB/decade roll –on.
 The cut-off frequencies of low pass and low high filters are fL
and fH respectively.
Frequency Response:
 The Cut-off frequencies can be calculated as,
1 1
2Π𝑅′𝐶′ 2Π𝑅𝐶
 The centre frequency is,

𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓𝐿. 𝑓𝐻
 Q-factor is,
𝑓𝐶
𝑄=
𝐵𝑊
Active Wide Band Reject Filter (Design
Guidelines):
Op amp:
1. From the cut-off frequencies, calculate R, C, R’ and C’ using
equations
1 1
2Π𝑅′𝐶′ 2Π𝑅𝐶
2. Voltage gain of band pass filter is a product of gain of high pass

and low pass filters i.e. AVF = AVH x AVL.
Assuming AVH = AVL = AVF/2, calculate RF and R1 for each
filter circuit.
Active Wide Band Reject Filter (Design Problem):
 Design a wide band pass filter for lower and higher cut-off
frequencies equal to 400 Hz and 2 kHz respectively, with pass
band gain ho 2.
 Answer:
1. For LPF section, Assume C’ = 0.05 µF
R’ = 7.957 kΩ
2. For HPF section, Assume C = 0.01 µF
R = 7.957 kΩ
3. Gain of a filter = 2
So, RF = R1 = 10 kΩ
Active Narrow Band Reject Filter (Notch Filter):
 Notch filters are a highly selective, high-Q, form of the band
stop filter which can be used to reject a single or very small
band of frequencies rather than a whole bandwidth of
different frequencies
 For example, it may be necessary to reject or attenuate a
specific frequency generating electrical noise (such as mains
hum) which has been induced into a circuit from inductive
loads such as motors or ballast lighting, or the removal of
harmonics, etc.
 But as well as filtering, variable notch filters are also used by
musicians in sound equipment such as graphic equalizers,
synthesizers and electronic crossovers to deal with narrow
peaks in the acoustic response of the music.
 Notch filters by design have a very narrow stop band around
their center frequency with the width of the notch being
described by its selectivity Q in exactly the same way as
resonance frequency peaks in RLC circuits.
 The most common notch filter design is the twin-T notch
filter network.
 In its basic form, the twin-T, also called a parallel-tee,
configuration consists of two RC branches in the form of two
tee sections, that use three resistors and three capacitors with
opposite and opposing R and C elements in the tee part of its
design as shown, creating a deeper notch.
Basic Twin-T Notch Filter Design:
Basic Twin-T Notch Filter Design:
 The upper T-pad configuration of resistors 2R and
capacitor 2C form the low-pass filter section of the
design, while the lower T-pad configuration of capacitors
C and resistor R form the high-pass filter section.
 The frequency at which this basic twin-T notch filter
design offers maximum attenuation is called the “notch
frequency”, ƒN and is given as:
1
𝑓𝑁 =
2Π𝑅𝐶
Circuit Diagram:
Frequency Response:
Notch Filter (Design Guidelines):
 Following are the steps to design active notch filter using Op
amp:
1. Select C less than 1 µF.
2. Calculate, R using equations,
1
𝑅=
2Π𝑓𝑁𝐶
If FN is not given, calculate using equation
𝑓𝑁 = 𝑓𝐿. 𝑓𝐻
Notch Filter (Design Problem):
 Design a notch filter with for rejecting the mains frequency
of 50 Hz..
 Answer:
1. Select C = 0.47 µF
2. Calculate, R using equations,
1
𝑅=
2Π𝑓𝑁𝐶
1
=
2𝛱 ∗ 50 ∗ 0.47 µ
= 6.772 𝑘Ω
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
 The Phase Locked Loop concept was first developed in 1930.
 Since then it is used in communication systems of different
types, particularly in satellite communication system.
 Before the invention of IC PLL, systems were very complex
and costly for use in most consumer & industrial systems.
 Now PLL ICs are fabricated at a very low cost.
 Therefore their use has become attractive for many
applications such as FM demodulator, Stereo demodulators,
Tone detectors, frequency synthesizers etc.
 Figure next shows the block diagram of PLL which consists
of phase detector, LPF, error amplifier and Voltage controlled
oscillator.
Block Diagram of PLL:
 The phase detector block has two inputs, external input
signal and feedback signal from VCO.
 Phase detector detects the phase between two signals and
develops an output voltage proportional to phase difference
called as error signal.
 Output of phase detector is passed through a LPF, which
removes high frequency signal and passes only low
frequencies.
 Output of filter is amplified by amplifier and applied as input
for VCO.
 This input voltage adjusts the frequency of VCO such that the
VCO frequency is equal to signal frequency i.e. VCO
converts input voltage into frequency i.e. acts as voltage to
frequency converter.
 When the signal frequency and VCO frequency is same the
loop gets locked.
 The loop gets locked by detecting the phase difference
between two inputs so called Phase Locked Loop (PLL).
 The process of locking the loop is called Capture effect.
 The time required for VCO to adjust its frequency with
signal frequency is called capture time.
 It depends on the internal parameters of system.
 There is some limit for input signal for which system can
acquire a locked condition.
 This range of frequency between which the system can goes
into locked condition is called capture range.
 This range is symmetrical about centre frequency.
 This capture range depends upon filter and amplifier
characteristics.
 If system acquires a locked condition then even if the signal
frequency changes the loop remains in locked condition.
 The range of input frequency over which the locked
condition maintained is called locked range.
 This also depends on amplifier and filter characteristics.
 Capture range is always less than lock range or almost equal;
but capture range is never greater than locked range.
 Without application of any external signal, VCO has some
frequency called as free running frequency or centre
frequency.
Frequency Spectrum of PLL:
Transfer Characteristics of PLL:
 The typical voltage to frequency transfer characteristics of
PLL are as shown.
 Initially the signal frequency is gradually increased.
 The PLL is not locked because signal frequency and VCO
frequency is not same.
 At frequency f1, the PLL is locked.
 Thus f1 is referred as lower edge of the capture range.
 After f1 PLL remains in locking condition.
 At frequency f1a sudden negative jump of error voltage is
observed to shift the output frequency fO of VCO.
 If signal frequency is still increased, the loop remains in
locked condition.
 At frequency f2 the locked condition is lost.
 So frequency f2 is called as upper edge of the lock range.
 After f2, lock is removed and error voltage drops to zero and
VCO frequency returns to its free running frequency.
 If the signal frequency is gradually decreased, the loop is
captured at frequency f3 and removed at frequency f4 (i.e.
between f3 and f4 the locking condition is maintained).
 Thus f3 is called as upper edge of the capture range and f4 is
called as lower edge of lock range.
 Thus frequency range between f3 and f1 is called capture
range and frequency range between f4 and f2 is called lock.
 The capture range and lock range are given by,
Capture Range, fC = f3 – f1
Lock Range, fL = f2 – f4
Applications of PLL:
 Due to its properties, PLL is used in various communication
applications as enlisted below.
 Frequency Multiplier
 Frequency Divider
 Amplitude Demodulator
 Frequency Demodulator
 FSK Demodulator
 Phase Shifter
 Signal Synchronizer
Subject Code_SubjectName: Analog Circuits

Q. No. Question Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4 Correct Option Number

1 Which is not the internal circuit of operational amplifier? Differential amplifier Level translator Output driver Clamper 4
2 The purpose of level shifter in Op-amp internal circuit is to Adjust DC voltage Increase impedance Provide high gain Decrease input resistance 1
What is the purpose of differential amplifier stage in internal circuit Low gain to differential Cancel difference mode Low gain to common mode
3 of Op-amp? mode signal signal signal Cancel common mode signal 4
Dual Input Balanced Differential Input Single
4 Which of the following is not preferred for input stage of Op-amp? Output ended Output Cascaded DC amplifier Single Input Differential Output 3
Total current
What is the purpose of diode in differential amplifier with constant independent on Diode is dependent of Transistor is depend on
5 current circuit? temperature temperature temperature None of the mentioned 1
Increase common mode Decrease common Decrease differential mode
6 How to improve CMRR value gain mode gain Increase Differential mode gain gain 2
7 Constant current source in differential amplifier is also called as Current Mirror Current Source Current Repeaters All of the mentioned 1
8 Which current source exhibits a very high output resistance? Simple current mirror Wilson current mirror Widlar current mirror All of the mentioned 2
To increase the input resistance in differential amplifier, replace the
9 transistor by Current mirror Darlington pair Current repeater All of the mentioned 2
10 Determine the amount of shift happens in Simple level shifter? Vcc + 0.7v Vcc – 0.7v -0.7v Widlar current mirror 3
To increase the input resistance, the differential amplifier replaces
11 transistor by Current mirror Current repeater Darlington pair All of the mentioned 3
Why active load is used in amplifier to obtain large gain in To obtain a very large To get High input
12 intermediate stage of amplifier? voltage gain resistance To reduce the noises To increase current gain 1
Level the quiescent Remove distortion at
13 What is the need for level shifter in operational amplifier? voltage output Limits the output voltage Increase the quiescent voltage 3
Limitation of an output stage amplifier, if it emitter follower with
14 complementary transistor Cross-over distortion Low impedance output Shift in level Active load current 1
Find the input voltage of an ideal op-amp. It’s one of the inputs and
15 output voltages are 2v and 12v. (Gain=3) 8v 4v -4v -2v 4
Both positive and negative
16 Which factor determine the output voltage of an op-amp? Positive saturation Negative saturation saturation voltage Supply voltage 3
In which configuration does the op-amp function as a high gain
17 amplifier? Differential amplifier Inverting amplifier Non-inverting amplifier All of the mentioned 4
18 Find the output of inverting amplifier? Vo = AVin Vo = -AVin Vo = -A(Vin1– Vin2) None of the mentioned 2
The circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of
the input voltage waveform is
19 called Integrator Differentiator Phase shift oscillator Square wave generator 1
Vo = (1/R×CF)×t ∫0
20 Find the output voltage of the integrator Vindt+C Vo = (R/CF)×t ∫0 Vindt+C Vo = (CF/R)×t ∫0 Vindt+C Vo = (R×CF)×t ∫0 Vindt+C 1
It require large value of R It require large value of C
21 Why an integrator cannot be made using low pass RC circuit? and small value of C and small value of R It require large value of R and C It require small value of R and C 3
22 How a perfect integration is achieved in op-amp? Infinite gain Low input impedance Low output impedance High CMRR 1
Why a resistor is shunted across the feedback capacitor in the To reduce operating To enhance low
23 practical integrator? frequency frequency gain To enhance error voltage To reduce error voltage 4
24 which factor makes the differentiator circuit unstable? Output impedance Input voltage Noise Gain 4
The increase in the input frequency of the differentiation amplifier to
25 input impedance creates Component noise External noise Low frequency noise High frequency noise 4
The stability and high frequency noise problem of differentiator are Adding feedback Feedback capacitor and Feedback capacitor and Internal capacitor and internal
26 corrected by capacitor internal resistor feedback resistor capacitor 2
Which circuit is used for obtaining desired output waveform in
27 operational amplifier? Clipper Clamper Peak amplifier Sample and hold 1
28 The clipping level in op-amp is determined by AC supply voltage Control voltage Reference voltage Input voltage 3
29 In a positive clipper, the diode conducts when Vin < Vref Vin = Vref Vin > Vref None of the mentioned 2
Rectify signals with peak Rectify signals with valueRectify signals with both peak
30 A positive small signal halfwave rectifier can value only of few millivolts only value and down to few millivolts None of the mentioned 3
31 Diode in small signal positive halfwave rectifier circuit acts as Ideal diode Clipper diode Clamper diode Rectifier diode 1
A circuit with a predetermined dc level is added to the output
32 voltage of the op-amp is called Clamper Positive clipper Halfwave rectifier None of the mentioned 1
33 An op-amp clamper circuit is also referred as DC cutter DC inserter DC lifter DC leveller 2
To reduce output offset To increase gain of op- To protect op-amp from
34 Why clamp diodes are used in comparator? voltage amp To reduce input offset current damage 4
Square to sine wave Sine to square wave Sine to triangular wave
35 Zero crossing detectors is also called as generator generator generator All of the mentioned 2
State a method to overcome the drawback of zero crossing Connect a compensating
36 detectors? Increasing input voltage Use of positive feedback network None of the mentioned 2
Which circuit converts irregularly shaped waveform to regular
37 shaped waveforms? Schmitt trigger Voltage limiter Comparator None of the mentioned 1
Op-amp is forced to Op-amp is forced to Op-amp is forced to operate
operate in the positive operate in the negative between positive and negative
38 . How are the square wave output generated in op-amp? saturation region saturation region saturation region None of the mentioned 3
To reduce both output
Why zener diode is used at the output terminal of square wave and capacitor voltage To reduce output voltage To reduce capacitor voltage
39 generator? swing swing To reduce input voltage swing swing 2
How a triangular wave generator is derived from square wave Connect oscillator at the Connect Voltage followerConnect differential at the Connect integrator at the
40 generator? output at the output output output 4
Output of an integrator producing waveforms of unequal rise and fal
41 time are called Triangular waveform Sawtooth waveform Pulsating waveform Spiked waveform 2
42 Find out the integrating type analog to digital converter? Flash type converter Tracking converter Counter type converter Dual slope ADC 4
Which type of ADC follow the conversion technique of changing the Both integrating and direct type
43 analog input signal to a linear function of frequency? Direct type ADC Integrating type ADC ADC None of the mentioned 2
44 What is the advantage of using flash type A/D converter? High speed conversion Low speed conversion Nominal speed conversion None of the mentioned 1
45 Drawback of counter type A/D converter Counter clears automaticMore complex High conversion time Low speed 4
How many clock pulses do a successive approximation converter
46 requires for obtaining a digital output. Twelve Six Eight None of the mentioned 4
To connect the To connect the resistance to
Why the switches used in weighted resistor DAC are of single pole resistance to reference To connect the either reference voltage or To connect the resistance to
47 double throw (SPDT) type? voltage resistance to ground ground output 3
In a D-A converter with binary weighted resistor, a desired step size Selecting proper value of Selecting proper value of
48 can be obtained by VFS R Selecting proper value of RF All of the mentioned 3
Require wide range of
49 What is the disadvantage of binary weighted type DAC? resistors High operating frequencyHigh power consumption Slow switching 1
Using R-2R ladder type
50 How to overcome the limitation of binary weighted resistor type DACDAC Multiplying DACs Using monolithic DAC Using hybrid DAC 1
51 A circuit that can change the frequency of oscillation with an applicaa crystal oscillator a voltage-controlled oscillan astable multivibrator a Hartley oscillator 2
52 In order to start up, a feedback oscillator requires______ unity feedback equal to 1negative feedback less thpositive feedback greater than 1no feedback 3
mechanical power into a.c.
53 An oscillator converts …………….. power into d.c. power power into a.c. power power none of the above 2
54 In an LC transistor oscillator, the active device is …………… LC tank circuit Biasing circuit Transistor None of the above 3
Inversely proportional to square
55 In an LC oscillator, the frequency of oscillator is ……………. L or C. Proportional to square ofDirectly proportional to Independent of the values of root of 4
56 An oscillator produces……………. oscillations Damped Undamped Modulated None of the above 2
57 An oscillator employs ……………… feedback Positive Negative Neither positive nor negative Data insufficient 1
58 Hartley oscillator is commonly used in ……………… Radio receivers Radio transmitters TV receivers None of the above 1
59 In a phase shift oscillator, we use …………. RC sections Two Three Four None of the above 2
60 A Wien bridge oscillator uses ……………. Feedback Only positive Only negative Both positive and negative None of the above 3
61 An oscillator differs from an amplifier because it ……… Has more gain Requires no input signal Requires no d.c. supply Always has the same input 2
A gain around the
A phase shift around the feedback loop of one- A phase shift around the A gain around the feedback
62 One condition for oscillation is …………. feedback loop of 180o third feedback loop of 0o loop of less than 1 3
A gain of 1 around the No gain around the The attention of the feedback The feedback circuit must be
63 A second condition for oscillations is ………………. feedback loop feedback loop circuit must be one-third capacitive 1
From the centre of split
64 In Colpitt’s oscillator, feedback is obtained ……………. By magnetic induction By a tickler coil capacitors None of the above 3
65 Free running multivibrator is also called as Stable multivibrator Voltage control oscillator Square wave oscillator Pulse stretcher 2
66 The output voltage of phase detector is Phase voltage Free running voltage Error voltage None of the mentioned 3
At which state the phase-locked loop tracks any change in input
67 frequency? Free running state Capture state Phase locked state All of the mentioned 3
Improves low frequency Removes high frequency
68 What is the function of low pass filter in phase-locked loop? noise noise Tracks the voltage changes Changes the input frequency 2
To track the frequency
69 What is the need to generate corrective control voltage? To maintain the lock change To shift the VCO frequency All of the mentioned 4
70 At what range the PLL can maintain the lock in the circuit? Lock in range Input range Feedback loop range None of the mentioned 1
How can a first order low pass filter can be converted into second
71 order low pass filter By adding LC network By adding RC network By adding RC || LC network None of the mentioned 2
In a first order high pass filter, frequencies higher than low cut-off
72 frequencies are called Stop band frequency Pass band frequency Centre band frequency None of the mentioned 2
The internal resistor of the second order high pass filter is equal to
73 10kΩ. Find the value of feedback resistor? 6.9kΩ 5.86kΩ 10kΩ 12.56kΩ 2
74 Find the roll-off rate for 8th order filter -160dB/decade -320dB/decade -480dB/decade -200dB/decade 1
75 Which filter attenuates any frequency outside the pass band? Band-pass filter Band-reject filter Band-stop filter All of the mentioned 1
Instructions -
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2) Write the question number or option number as image name in the column (for eg. Q1.jpg or Q1b.jpg) and keep the same image with this name in supportedimages folder.
3) Name your question bank excel file as Subjectcode_Subject name.
4) Send this question bank excel file and supportedimages folder to acoe@dbatu.ac.in, svchaudhari@dbatu.ac.in, arbabhulgaonkar@dbatu.ac.in.
Analog Circuits Questions and Answers – Operational
Amplifiers
1. Which of these is incorrect for an operational amplifier?
a) It has a high voltage gain
b) It is a direct coupled amplifier
c) It is only useful for amplifying AC signals
d) It was originally designed to perform mathematical operations
2. In the given block diagram of an op-amp. What are A, B, C and D?
a) A = Dual input and balanced output differential amplifier, B = Dual input and unbalanced
output differential amplifier, C = Level shifter, D = Power amplifier
b) A = Dual input and balanced output differential amplifier, B = Dual input and balanced
output differential amplifier, C = Dual input and unbalanced output differential amplifier, D =
Normal amplifier
c) A = Dual input and unbalanced output differential amplifier, B = Dual input and balanced
output differential amplifier, C = Voltage regulator, D = Power amplifier
d) A = Normal amplifier, B = Dual input and unbalanced output differential amplifier, C = Level
shifter, D = Dual input and balanced output differential amplifier
3. In an ideal op-amp, which is not true?

a) Open loop voltage gain is infinite
b) Input resistance is infinite
c) Slew rate is infinite
d) CMRR is zero
4. A practical op-amp has a bandwidth of only 10 Hz. Gain is 106, and the required bandwidth
is 100 kHz. How much feedback is required?
a) 0.99% negative feedback
b) 0.99% positive feedback
c) 1% negative feedback
d) 1% positive feedback
5. Given that for an op-amp the gain is 103, the slew rate is 1.5V/μsec. Input is 5×10-3sinωt,
calculate maximum frequency to prevent distortion.
a) 47.7 kHz
b) 0.3 MHz
c) 477 Hz
d) 3 kHz
6. Given that CMRR is 100dB. Input common-mode voltage is 12 V. Differential voltage gain is
4000. Calculate output common-mode voltage.
a) 48V
b) 0.48V
c) 20V
d) 11V
7. The unity gain bandwidth for an op-amp having open loop gain 2×106 is 10 Mhz. Calculate
the AC gain of op-amp at an input of 2000 Hz.
a) 2000
b) 5000
c) 10000
d) 12.5
8. Which of the following option is correct according to the below statements?
A: Voltage gain of op-amp decreases at high frequencies

B: Its internal structure uses a capacitor
a) Both A and B are correct, and B is the correct reason for A
b) Both A and B are correct, but B is not the correct reason for A
c) A is correct and B is incorrect
d) A is incorrect and B is correct
9. Till what frequency do we get amplification from IC 741?
a) Unity gain bandwidth
b) 3-dB frequency
c) Infinity
d) UGB + fOL
10. What is the use of the compensation capacitor in op-amp?
a) Improves the amplification of op-amp
b) Decreases the slew rate of op-amp
c) Increases the bandwidth of op-amp
d) Op-amp acts as all pass filter

Op-Amp Characteristics
This set of Analog Circuits Multiple Choice Questions & Answers (MCQs) focuses on “Op-Amp
Characteristics”.
1. Consider the ideal op-amp shown and find the correct output.
a)
b)
c)
d)
2. Consider a practical op-amp where the power supply is VCC = +12V and VEE = -12V. The
open loop gain is 106 and open loop bandwidth is 5Hz. What is the maximum positive input
before which the output is saturated?
a) 12 mV
b) 0.012 mV
c) 24 mV
d) 12V
3. Given an op-amp who’s gain is unknown but the output is saturated, which of the following
is not possible?
a) No feedback is being applied
b) Negative feedback is applied while input is more than –VSat/AOL
c) Positive feedback is applied
d) Negative feedback is applied while the input is more than VSat/AOL
4. The current flowing into one input of the op-amp is 12nA and it is 10 nA in the other. Find
the input offset current.
a) 1nA
b) 2nA
c) -2nA
d) 11nA
5. What is incorrect regarding the output offset voltage of op-amp?

a) It is the output when the input voltage at both input pins of op-amp is zero
b) It occurs due to dissimilarities in the internal structure of the op-amp
c) The output offset voltage does not depend on the supply voltage
d) The output offset voltage can be in the units of Volts
6. Given that the PSRR of an op-amp is 120dB. The supply lies between 12V to 15V.
Calculate the change in the input offset voltage.
a) 3μV
b) ±3μV
c) ±3×10-12V
d) -3V
7. Consider the circuit shown. The input VI = 10sin2π106t. Calculate the duty cycle of the
output.
a) 0.43
b) 0.065
c) 0.36
d) 0.5
8.An op-amp uses a level shifter internally to prevent the loading effect.
a) True
b) False
Frequency Filters – 1
1. Which is not a difference between active and passive filter?

a) A passive filter does not use op-amp while an active filter uses an op-amp
b) A passive filter can’t use an inductor while an active filter can
c) A passive filter performs only filtering while an active filter amplifies too
d) A passive filter is used at audio frequency and an active at radio frequency
2. In a low pass filter as below, find the cut-off frequency for the following circuit.
Given that R1=20kΩ, R2=25kΩ, C1=10nF.

a) 640 kHz
b) 636 Hz
c) 5.5 kHz
d) 200 Hz
3. Given that the maximum gain of a low pass filter using op-amp is 5.5 and the resistor R1 =
10kΩ, find the value of R2.
a) 220kΩ
b) 55kΩ
c) 50Ω
d) -55kΩ
4. When the input frequency is equal to the cutoff frequency, how much is the phase shift in
the output?
a) 180°
b) -135°
c) -45°
d) 135°
5. For the circuit, calculate the phase shift.

It is given that R1=20kΩ, C1=2nF, R2=22kΩ, and the input signal is 2sin6π103t.
a) 233.04°
b) 230.32°
c) 333.04°
d) 129.67°
6. What is the frequency response of the filter shown below?
Given R1C1=R2C2.
a)
b)
c)
d)
7. Given the following circuit, find the maximum gain.
a) 1+R2/R1
b) –R3/R2
c) 1+R3/R2
d) 1+ R1.R3/2
8. For a low pass filter of non-inverting type, the cutoff frequency is 2kHz and the input
frequency is 4kHz. Find the phase shift in output.
a) 117°
b) -117°
c) 243°
d) -63°
9. A filter is provided of order 3, find the roll-off rate.

a) 6 dB/decade
b) 60 dB/octave
c) 60 dB/decade
d) 3 dB/decade
10. Consider the circuit below and find its cut-off frequency.
R1=10kΩ, R2=20kΩ, R3=30kΩ, C1=2nF, C2=4nF, R4=15kΩ.

a) 4.6 kHz
b) 6.2 kHz
c) 5.5 kHz
d) 4.2 kHz
Frequency Filters – 2
1. Find which one is a sallen-key topology.
a)
b)
c)
d)
2. A first-order Butterworth low pass filter is an interconnection of ____________ and

___________
a) Single low pass RC circuit, Voltage follower
b) Low pass RC circuit, Band-pass RC circuit
c) Low pass RC circuit, LC feedback
d) Single low pass RC circuit, Power amplifier
3. Considering a second-order Butterworth LPF using an op-amp, where damping factor =
1.414 find the value of R3, given the following circuit. (R2=5kΩ)
a) 6.71 kΩ
b) 4.22 kΩ
c) 2.93 kΩ
d) 5 kΩ
4. For the following circuit, R2=220kΩ, R1=10kΩ, find the maximum gain and the phase shift at
the cutoff frequency.
a) Maximum gain = 22, Phase shift = 45°

b) Maximum gain = 23, Phase shift = 135°
c) Maximum gain = 22, Phase shift = 225°
d) Maximum gain = 23, Phase shift = 45°
5. Find the cutoff frequency for the following circuit. (R1=R2=20kΩ)
a) 25 kHz
b) 3987 rad/sec
c) 2500 Hz
d) 25000 rad/sec
6. Given a second-order Butterworth HPF, find the maximum gain magnitude.

a) 1.586 dB
b) 4 dB
c) 2.66 dB
d) 1 dB
7. Consider the following circuits.
If a band-pass filter is created by using the above two circuits in cascade, find the correct
relation from the choices below.
a) R4C2 >> R1C1
b) R4C2 << R1C1
c) R6R5 = R2C3
d) R4C2 = R1C1
8. Which of these is incorrect for a band-stop filter?

a) An adder is required when designing it using LPF and HPF
b) LPF and HPF are connected in parallel
c) The HPF cut-off frequency should be much higher than LPF cut-off frequency
d) The LPF and HPF are connected in series
9. Which of these is wrong for an all-pass filter?

a) It is used for phase equalization in a communication system
b) It is used in landline communication
c) Its phase shift is -2tan-1RC, between 0 to -180°
d) It can be made using a single op-amp
Unit II
Linear Application of OP-AMP
This set of Electric Circuits Multiple Choice Questions & Answers (MCQs) focuses on “The
Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier Circuit”.
1. The opamp in the Inverting circuit is in __________
a) Linear region
b) Saturation
c) Cut-off region
d) Non-linear region
2. In an Inverting Amplifier circuit, the output voltage vo is expressed as a function of

____________
a) Input current
b) Output current
c) Source voltage
d) Source current
3. The other name for Gain is ____________
a) Scaling factor
b) Output
c) Amplifying factor
d) Scaling level
4. If VCC = 12V and vs=1mV, then Rf/Rs is _____________
a) >12000
b) <12000
c) 12000
d) 1
5. In the expression vo= -Avn, A is called ______________
a) Closed loop gain
b) Closed loop fault
c) Open loop fault
d) Open loop gain
6. The circuits of an inverting and Non-Inverting amplifying comprises of __________ and

_______ number of resistors.
a) 3, 2
b) 2, 3
c) 2, 2
d) 3, 3
7. The condition for a Non-inverting amplifying circuit to operate in linear region operation
_____________
a) (Rs+Rf)/Rs < │VCC/vg│
b) (Rs+Rf)/Rs ≠ │VCC/vg│
c) (Rs+Rf)/Rs > │VCC/vg│
d) (Rs+Rf)/Rs = │VCC/vg│
8. If Rs= 3Ω, Rf= 6Ω then the relation between vo and vg in case of a Non-Inverting amplifying
circuit.
a) vo= 9vg
b) vo= 6vg
c) vo= 3vg
d) vo= vg
9. If Rs= 5Ω, Rf= 25Ω and -2.5V ≤ vg ≤ 2.5V. What are the smallest power supply voltages that
could be applied and still have opamp in linear region?
a) ±9V
b) ±2.5V
c) ±6V
d) ±15V
9. If Rs= 5Ω, Rf= 25Ω and -2.5V ≤ vg ≤ 2.5V. What are the smallest power supply voltages that
could be applied and still have opamp in linear region?
a) ±9V
b) ±2.5V
c) ±6V
d) ±15V
11. If the gain of an inverting amplifying circuit is 13 and ±22V power supplies are used. What
range of input values allows the opamp to be in linear region?
a) ±1.69
b) ±1.35V
c) ±2.28
d) ±0.5
12. The input applied to an Inverting amplifier is ______________
a) Equal to output
b) Equal to Inverted output
c) Not equal to output
d) Output is equal to input

13. In R1=10kΩ, Rf=100kΩ, v1=1V. A load of 25kΩ is connected to the output terminal.
Calculate i1 and vo.
a) 0.5mA, 10V
b) 0.1mA, 10V
c) 0.1mA, -10V
d) 0.5mA, -10V
Integrators and Differentiators
This set of Electronic Devices and Circuits Multiple Choice Questions & Answers (MCQs)
focuses on “Integrators and Differentiators”.
1. The other name for Miller Circuit is
a) Non-Inverting Integrator
b) Inverting Integrator
c) Non-Inverting Differentiator
d) Inverting Differentiator
2. The slope of the frequency response of an integrator is
a) Linear with negative slope
b) Linear with positive slope
c) Exponential increase
d) Exponential decrease
3. The integrating transfer function has the value of
a) jωCR
b) –jωCR
c) 1 / jωCR
d) -1 / jωCR
4. The expression for the integration frequency is
a) CR
b) 1/CR
c) R/C
d) C/R
5. Determine the expression for the transfer function for the circuit shown below.
a) (Rf/R)/(1+jωCRfC)
b) (Rf/R)/(1-jωCRfC)
c) – (Rf/R)/(1+jωCRfC)
d) – (Rf/R)/(1-jωCRfC)
6. The frequency transfer function of a differentiator is given by
a) jωCR
b) 1/jωCR
c) – jωCR
d) – 1/jωCR
7. The slope of the frequency response of a differentiator is
a) Linear with negative slope
b) Linear with positive slope
c) Exponential increase
d) Exponential decrease
8. The phase in the integrator and differentiator circuit respectively are
a) +90 degrees and +90 degrees
b) -90 degrees and -90 degrees

c) -90 degrees and +90 degrees
d) +90 degrees and -90 degrees
9. Consider a symmetrical square wave of 20-V peak-to-peak, 0 average, and 2-ms period
applied to a Miller integrator. Find the value of the time constant CR such that the triangular
waveform at the output has a 20-V peak-to-peak amplitude.
a) 0.25ms
b) 0.50ms
c) 2.5ms
d) 5.0ms
10. The expression for the differentiator time constant is
a) CR
b) 1/CR
c) R/C
d) C/R
UNIT III
Non linear applications of OP-AMP
1. Depending on the value of input and reference voltage a comparator can be named as
a) Voltage follower
b) Digital to analog converter
c) Schmitt trigger
d) Voltage level detector
2. Why clamp diodes are used in comparator?
a) To reduce output offset voltage
b) To increase gain of op-amp
c) To reduce input offset current
d) To protect op-amp from damage
3. Find the non-inverting comparator Ans = a)

4. How the op-amp comparator should be choosen to get higher speed of operation?
a) Large gain
b) High slew rate
c) Wider bandwidth
d) None of the mentioned
5. How to obtain high rate of accuracy in comparator?
a) Input offset
b) High voltage gain
c) High CMRR
d) All of the mentioned
6. How to keep the output voltage swing of the op-amp comparator within specific limits?
a) External resistors or diodes are used
b) External zeners or diodes are used
c) External capacitors or diodes are used
d) External inductors or diodes are used
7. Zero crossing detectors is also called as
a) Square to sine wave generator
b) Sine to square wave generator
c) Sine to triangular wave generator

8. What is the drawback in zero crossing detectors?
a) Low frequency signal and noise at output terminal
b) High frequency signal and noise at input terminal
c) Low frequency signal and noise at input terminal
d) High frequency signal and noise at output terminal
9. State a method to overcome the drawback of zero crossing detectors?
a) Increasing input voltage
b) Use of positive feedback
c) Connect a compensating network
10. Name the comparator that helps to find unknown input.
a) Time marker generator
b) Zero crossing detectors
c) Phase meter
d) Window detector
11. Find the instance at which the input can be fed to the op-amp in a three level comparator
with LED indicator.
a) When Green LED glow
b) When Yellow LED glow
c) When Red LED glow
12. Find the output voltage at the point V2 from the given circuit.
Ans=b
13. Mention the application areas of time marker generator can be used
a) Monoshots
b) SCR
c) Sweep voltage of CRT
14. Which among the following is used to increase phase angle between different voltages?
a) Phase detector
b) Window detector
c) Zero crossing detector
15. For the comparator shown below, determine the transfer curves if an ideal op-amp with
VZ1= VZ2=9v.
Ans =a
1. Which circuit converts irregularly shaped waveform to regular shaped waveforms?
a) Schmitt trigger
b) Voltage limiter
c) Comparator
View Answer
2. Determine the upper and lower threshold voltage
a) VUT = +14.63v, VLT= +14.63v
b) VUT = -14.63v, VLT= -14.63v
c) VUT = VLT= ±14.63v
3. What happens if the threshold voltages are made longer than the noise voltages in schmitt
trigger?
a) All the mentioned
b) Enhance the output signal
c) Reduce the transition effect
d) Eliminate false output transition

View Answer
4. To a schmitt trigger in non-inverting configuration an input triangular wave of 1Vp is applied.

What will be the output waveform, if the upper and lower threshold voltages are 0.25v?
a) Square waveform
b) Pulse waveform
c) Sawtooth waveform
d) Cannot be determined
View Answer
5. In which configuration a dead band condition occurs in schmitt trigger
a) Differential amplifier with positive feedback
b) Voltage follower with positive feedback
c) Comparator with positive feedback
6. Calculate the hysteresis voltage for the schmitt trigger from the given specification:
R2 =56kΩ , R1 = 100Ω ,Vref = 0v & Vsat = ±14v.
a) 0 mv
b) 25 mv
c) 50 mv
d) -25 mv
View Answer
7. How to limit the output voltage swing only to positive direction?
a) Combination of two zener diodes
b) Combination of zener and rectifier diode
c) All of the mentioned
d) Combination of two rectifier diodes
8. For the circuit shown below, obtain output waveform. Assume zener voltage to be 4.78v and
voltage drop across the forward biased zener to be 0.7v.
ANS = a)
View Answer
9. A basic op-amp circuit has a zener and rectifier diode connected in the feedback path.
Calculate the maximum positive voltage. Where, zener voltage = 5.1 v and voltage drop
across the forward biased zener = 0.7v?
a) VO = 5.8v
b) VO = 9.9v
c) VO = 4.7v
d) VO = 7.1v
10. Use the specification and obtain the output voltage swing for op-amp comparator.
Specification: R= 1kΩ; RL=10kΩ; VZ=6v; VSat=±15v (Assume forward bias of zener = 0.7v).
ANS = b)
Clippers and Clampers
1. Which circuit is used for obtaining desired output waveform in operational amplifier?
a) Clipper
b) Clamper
c) Peak amplifier
d) Sample and hold
View Answer
2. The clipping level in op-amp is determined by
a) AC supply voltage
b) Control voltage
c) Reference voltage
d) Input voltage
View Answer
3. In a positive clipper, the diode conducts when
a) Vin < Vref
b) Vin = Vref
c) Vin > Vref
4. What happens if the potentiometer Rp is connected to negative supply?
a) Output waveform below -Vref will be clipped off

b) Output waveform above +Vref will be clipped off
c) Output waveform above -Vref will be clipped off
d) Output waveform below +Vref will be clipped off
5. Find the output waveform for when Vin < Vref

ANS= c
6. What happens if the input voltage is higher than reference voltage in a positive clipper?
a) Output voltage = Reference voltage
b) Output voltage = DC Positive voltage
c) Output voltage = Input voltage
View Answer
7. A positive small signal halfwave rectifier can
a) Rectify signals with peak value only
b) Rectify signals with value of few millivolts only
c) Rectify signals with both peak value and down to few millivolts
8. Determine the output waveform of negative small signal half wave rectifier.
ANS= d
9. Diode in small signal positive halfwave rectifier circuit acts as
a) Ideal diode
b) Clipper diode
c) Clamper diode
d) Rectifier diode
View Answer
10. How to minimize the response time and increase the operating frequency range of the
op-amp?
a) Positive halfwave rectifier with two diodes

b) Positive halfwave rectifier with one diode
c) Negative halfwave rectifier with two diodes
d) Negative halfwave rectifier with one diode
View Answer
11. Why a voltage follower stage is connected at the output of the negative small signal half
wave rectifier?
a) Due to Non-uniform input resistance
b) Due to Non-uniform output resistance
c) Due to Uniform output voltage
View Answer
12. A circuit with a predetermined dc level is added to the output voltage of the op-amp is
called
a) Clamper
b) Positive clipper
c) Halfwave rectifier
13. Determine the output waveform for a peak amplifier with input =4Vpsinewave and Vref=1V.
ANS = a
View Answer
14. An op-amp clamper circuit is also referred as
a) DC cutter
b) DC inserter
c) DC lifter
d) DC leveller
View Answer
15. At what values of Ci and Rd a precision clamping can obtained in peak clamper when the
time period of the input waveform is 0.4s?
a) Ci=0.1µF and Rd=10kΩ
b) Ci=0.47µF and Rd=10kΩ
c) Ci=33µF and Rd=10kΩ
d) Ci=2.5µF and Rd=10kΩ

SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR
1. How are the square wave output generated in op-amp?
a) Op-amp is forced to operate in the positive saturation region
b) Op-amp is forced to operate in the negative saturation region
c) Op-amp is forced to operate between positive and negative saturation region
View Answer
2. The following circuit represents a square wave generator. Determine its output voltage
a) -13 v
b) +13 v
c) ± 13 v
View Answer
3. Determine the expression for time period of a square wave generator
a) T= 2RC ln×[( R1+ R2) / ( R2)].
b) T= 2RC ln×[( 2R1+ R2) / ( R2)].
c) T= 2RC ln×[( R1+ 2R2) / ( R2)].
d) T= 2RC ln×[( R1+ R2) / (2 R2)].

View Answer
4. Determine capacitor voltage waveform for the circuit ANS=a
View Answer
5. What will be the frequency of output waveform of a square wave generator if R2 = 1.16 R1?
a) fo = (1/2RC)
b) fo = (ln/2RC)
c) fo = (ln /2 ×√RC)

d) fo = (ln/√(2 RC))
View Answer
6. What could be the possible output waveform for a free running multivibrator whose op-amp
has a supply voltage of ±5v operating at 5khz? ANS=c
View Answer
7. Determine the output frequency for the circuit given below
a) 28.77 Hz
b) 31.97 Hz
c) 35.52 Hz
d) 39.47 Hz
View Answer
8. The value of series resistance in the square wave generator should be 100kΩ or higher in
order to
a) Prevent excessive differential current flow
b) Increase resistivity of the circuit
c) Reduce output offset voltage
View Answer
9. Why zener diode is used at the output terminal of square wave generator?
a) To reduce both output and capacitor voltage swing
b) To reduce output voltage swing
c) To reduce input voltage swing
d) To reduce capacitor voltage swing
View Answer
10. A square wave oscillator has fo =1khz. Assume the resistor value to be 10kΩ and find the
capacitor value?
a) 3.9 µF
b) 0.3 µF
c) 2 µF
d) 0.05µF
Triangular wave Generator
1. How a triangular wave generator is derived from square wave generator?
a) Connect oscillator at the output
b) Connect Voltage follower at the output
c) Connect differential at the output
d) Connect integrator at the output
View Answer
2. The increase in the frequency of triangular wave generator.
a) Ramp the amplitude of triangular wave
b) Increase the amplitude of triangular wave
c) Decrease the amplitude of triangular wave
View Answer
3. Which among the following op-amp is chosen for generating triangular wave of relatively
higher frequency?
a) LM741 op-amp
b) LM301 op-amp
c) LM1458 op-amp
d) LM3530 op-amp
View Answer
4. What is the peak to peak (PP) output amplitude of the triangular wave?
a) VO(pp) = + VRamp + (- VRamp)
b) VO(pp) = – VRamp + (+ VRamp)
c) VO(pp) = + VRamp – (- VRamp)
d) VO(pp) = – VRamp – (+ VRamp)

View Answer
5. Determine the output triangular waveform for the circuit. ANS=b
View Answer
6. Find the capacitor value for a the output frequency, fo = 2kHz & VO(pp) = 7v , in a triangular
wave generator. The op-amp is 1458/741 and supply voltage = ±15v. (Take internal
resistor=10kΩ)
a) 0.03nF
b) 30nF
c) 0.3nF
d) 3nF
View Answer
7. Triangular wave form has
a) Rise time < fall time
b) Rise time = fall time
c) Rise time ≥ fall time
View Answer
8. Output of an integrator producing waveforms of unequal rise and fall time are called
a) Triangular waveform
b) Sawtooth waveform
c) Pulsating waveform
d) Spiked waveform
RECTIFIERS
1. Which of the following isn’t a type of rectifier?
a) Precision Half-wave Rectifier
b) Bridge Rectifier
c) Peak Rectifier
View Answer
2. For a half wave or full wave rectifier the Peak Inverse Voltage of the rectifier is always
a) Greater than the input voltage
b) Smaller than the input voltage
c) Equal to the input voltage
d) Greater than the input voltage for full wave rectifier and smaller for the half wave rectifier
View Answer
3. For a half-wave rectifier having diode voltage VD and supply input of VI, the diode conducts
for π – 2Θ, where Θ is given by
a) tan -1 VD/VI
b) tan-1 VD/VI – VI
c) sin-1 VD/VI
d) sin-1 VD/VI – VI
View Answer
4. Bridge rectifier is an alternative for
a) Full wave rectifier
b) Peak rectifier
c) Half wave rectifier

View Answer
5. Which of the following is true for a bridge rectifier?
a) The peak inverse voltage or PIV for the bridge rectifier is lower when compared to an
identical center tapped rectifier
b) The output voltage for the center tapped rectifier is lower than the identical bridge rectifier
c) A transistor of higher number of coil is required for center tapped rectifier than the identical
bridge rectifier
View Answer
6. The diode rectifier works well enough if the supply voltage is much than greater than 0.7V.
For smaller voltage (of few hundreds of millivolt) input which of the following can be used?
a) Superdiode
b) Peak rectifier
c) Precision rectifier
View Answer
7. A simple diode rectifier has ‘ripples’ in the output wave which makes it unsuitable as a DC
source. To overcome this one can use
a) A capacitor in series with a the load resistance
b) A capacitor in parallel to the load resistance
c) Both of the mentioned situations will work
d) None of the mentioned situations will work
View Answer
8. Consider a peak rectifier fed by a 60-Hz sinusoid having a peak value Vp = 100 V. Let the
load resistance R = 10 kΩ. Calculate the fraction of the cycle during which the diode is
conducting
a) 1.06 %
b) 2.12 %
c) 3.18%
d) 4.24%
View Answer
(Q.9-Q.10) The op amp in the precision rectifier circuit is ideal with output saturation levels of
±12 V. Assume that when conducting the diode exhibits a constant voltage drop of 0.7 V.
9. Find V– when VI is -1V.
a) 0V
b) 0.7V
c) 1V
d) 1.7V
View Answer
10. Find V0 when VI is 2V.
a) 0V
b) 0.7V
c) 1V
d) 1.7V

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Analog Circuits

3 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

∴Vd =V1 –V2

Common Mode Signal (VC):

∴ Ad = VO /Vd =VO / (V1 –V2)

5 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

6 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

7 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 High differential gain

8 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

9 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

10 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

(i) Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier

11 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

12 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

13 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

14 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

15 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

16 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

17 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

18 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

19 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

20 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

21 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

22 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 Op-Amp is one of the most versatile electronic device used in

25 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

26 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

27 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

28 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

1) Two input terminals

 As dual input balanced output type differential amplifier

29 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

30 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

31 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

32 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 op-amp is directly coupled, so when AC input is connected, the

33 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 It is basically an emitter follower with voltage divider.

34 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

35 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 Apply KVL to Base-Emtter loop of above circuit.

 Output voltage with respect to ground is given by,

 Hence, we can adjust the values of R1, R2 and IE to get zero DC

36 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 It is possible to replace R2 of voltage divider in emitter follower

37 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

38 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 Low output impedance

 A complementary symmetry push pull amplifier satisfies all

39 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

40 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

41 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

42 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 It is differential gain with which op-amp amplifies the input

AOL =VO /Vd

 Its ideal value is infinity and practically should be very high.

44 Analog Circuits 23-10-2020

 It is equivalent resistance measured between inverting or non-