8/9/22, 10:33 AM Chapter 4 Partial Derivatives | MATH1006 Calculus

Partial Derivatives

1 Recap of Ordinary Derivatives

Consider y = y(x) = f (x) , a univariate function. Specifically, y is the dependent variable and x

is the only independent variable. We are all familiar with studying the rate of change of y as x

changes. The formal mathematical definition was introduced in the Autumn semester.

Definition 1.1
The derivative of y with respect to x is given by

f (x + h) − f (x)
′
f (x) = lim .
h→0 h

The motivation of the definition can be seen graphically. The numerator of the fraction represents
a change in y-coordinate between the points (x, f (x)) and (x + h, f (x + h)) , while the
denominator represents a change in x-coordinate. This presents the gradient of the line between
the two points. As h → 0 , this line approaches the tangent line.

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dy
The derivative of is also often denoted by or . Note the use of
′ d
y = y(x) = f (x) y (x), (y)
dx dx

the roman numerical ‘d’ in these notations.

The derivatives of a number of standard functions are well known.

′
f (x) f (x)

n n−1
ax anx

sin(x) cos(x)

cos(x) − sin(x)

x x
e e

1
ln(x)
x

Exercise 1:
Prove formally using Definition 4.1.1 that each of these standard functions has the derivative as
stated.

2 Introduction to Partial Derivatives

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Let z = z(x, y) = f (x, y) be a function of two variables.

Definition 2.1
∂z ∂
The partial derivative of z with respect to x, denoted by ∂x
or ∂x
(z) , is found by
differentiating the expression f (x, y) treating y as an unknown constant and x as the only
variable.

∂z ∂
Similarly the partial derivative of z with respect to y denoted by ∂y
or ∂y
(z) , is found by
differentiating the expression f (x, y) treating x as an unknown constant and y as the only
variable.

Note the use of ‘∂ ’ called a partial or a del, rather than ‘d’ in the partial derivative notation. It is
important to use these notations correctly.

Example 2.2
Consider z = axy
n
. Calculate ∂z
and ∂z
.

∂x ∂y

By differentiating z = axy
n
treating x as a variable and y as a constant, obtain

∂z
n
= ay .
∂x

Similarly differentiating z = axy

n
treating y as a variable and x as a constant, obtain

∂z
n−1
= anxy .
∂y

Example 2.3
∂z ∂z
Consider z = x
4
+ 3y
2
+ y sin(x) . Calculate and .

∂x ∂y

One finds that

∂z
3
= 4x + y cos(x),
∂x

∂z
= 6y + sin(x).
∂y

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The definition of a partial derivative easily generalises to a function of n variables where n > 2 .

3 Higher Order Partial Derivatives

∂z ∂z
Note in Example 4.2.2 and Example 4.2.3 that both ∂x
and ∂y
are functions of x and y. This is
true in general for any function z(x, y) . Since ∂z
and ∂z
are functions of x and y, they
∂x ∂y

themselves can be differentiated to with respect to x and y.

Definition 3.1
The second order partial derivatives of z = z(x, y) are given by

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z
= ( ),
2
∂x ∂x ∂x

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z
= ( ),
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z
= ( ),
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z
= ( ).
2
∂y ∂y ∂y

A common alternative notation is to use a subscript on z to indicate a partial derivative.

Specifically

∂z ∂z
zx = , zy = ,
∂x ∂x

2 2
∂ z ∂ z
zxx = , zxy = .
2
∂x ∂y∂x

Example 3.2

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Consider z = x
4
+ 3y
2
+ y sin(x) from Example 4.2.3. We calculated that

∂z
3
= 4x + y cos(x),
∂x

∂z
= 6y + sin(x).
∂y

It follows that

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z ∂
3 2
= ( ) = (4x + y cos(x)) = 12x − y sin(x),
2
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z ∂
3
= ( ) = (4x + y cos(x)) = cos(x),
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z ∂
= ( ) = (6y + sin(x)) = cos(x),
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

2
∂ z ∂ ∂z ∂
= ( ) = (6y + sin(x)) = 6.
2
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y

2 2
∂ z ∂ z
In Example 4.3.2, the two second derivatives ∂y∂x
and ∂x∂y
are equal. This is a property that
holds for all sufficiently nice functions. The exact statement is given by Clairaut’s Theorem.

Theorem 3.3
Clairaut’s Theorem. Consider z = f (x, y) a two variable real-valued function. If
2 2
∂ z ∂ z
and are both continuous on the domain, then
∂x∂y ∂y∂x

2 2
∂ z ∂ z
= .
∂x∂y ∂y∂x

Typically in this module we will consider nice functions that satisfy the conditions of Clairaut’s
theorem. Hence normally z(x, y) has three independent second order partial derivatives.

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Exercise 1: Consider the function

2 2
xy(x −y )

2 2
, if (x, y) ≠ (0, 0),
z = { x +y

0, if (x, y) = (0, 0).

2 2
∂ z ∂ z
Calculate ∂x∂y
and ∂y∂x
. Why does this not contradict Clairaut’s Theorem?

4 Geometrical Interpretation of Partial Derivatives

In the univariate case, the geometrical interpretation of the derivative is well understand.
dy
Specifically if the function y = f (x) defines a curve, then the derivative dx
describes the
gradient of the tangent line to curve. Partial derivatives have a similar geometric interpretation in
the multivariate case.

Let z = f (x, y) . We saw in Section 1.3 that the function will describe a surface S . Let
(a, b, f (a, b)) be a point on this surface.

∂z
Calculating ∂x
involves treating y as a constant. Suppose that this constant value for y is b. Well
in that case, f (x, b) is a function of one variable and so one can calculate the derivative of this
one variable function. It is routine to verify using the formal definition of a derivative that

∂z d
(x, b) = (f (x, b))
∂x dx

Geometrically the univariate function f (x, b) will describe a curve C . This curve will be a cross-
section of the surface S , since we are allowing the variable x to vary while keeping the y fixed.
From the theory of derivatives of univariate functions, we know that ∂z

∂x
(x, b) =
d

dx
(f (x, b)) is
the tangent vector to the curve C . This vector will also lie tangent to the surface S and will point
in the direction of varying x.

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This proves the following result.

Theorem 4.1
Consider a surface described by a multivariate function z = z(x, y) . The partial
∂z
derivative ∂x
is a tangent vector describing the slope of the surface in the x-
direction.

A similar result holds for the partial derivative with respect to y.

Theorem 4.2
Consider a surface described by a multivariate function z = z(x, y) . The partial
derivative ∂z

∂y
is a tangent vector describing the slope of the surface in the y-

direction.

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5 Implicit Differentiation

All of the multivariate functions we have seen so far have been explicit:

Definition 5.1
A function of two variables z(x, y) is explict if it can be written algebraically in the form

z = f (x, y),

that is, the dependent variable is equal to some expression in terms of the independent
variables only.

Definition 5.2

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A function of two variables z(x, y) that is not explicit is called implicit. Implicit functions
z(x, y) will be described as satisfying some condition f (x, y, z) = 0 , where an expression
of the dependent and independent variables is equal to 0.

An implicit function f (x, y, z) = 0 still represents a surface: the set of points in R

3
that satisfy
the equation.

Example 5.3
A function that is described implicitly is x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
− 1 = 0 , the equation of a sphere. The
z
2
is stopping us from writing the equation in the form z = f (x, y) for some function f .

One might be tempted to argue that the sphere in Example 4.5.3 could be written in the form
z = ± √1 − x
2
− y
2
. However ‘±’ is not a mathematical expression. It is simply a notation to
indicate that there are two distinct (explicit) cases to be considered: z = √1 − x
2
− y
2
and
z = − √1 − x
2
− y
2
. Imagine trying to concoct a similar notation to express the explicit cases
that arise from x
9
+ y
9
+ z
9
− 1 = 0 in this fashion.

A key geometric feature of a surface described by an implicit function is that for a fixed point
(x, y) there may be multiple values of z for which (x, y, z) belongs to the surface: consider the
sphere in Example 4.5.3. It is clear that this not possible in the explicit case.

Nonetheless for an implicit function z(x, y) , just as for an explicit function, as the independent
variables x and y change, the value of the dependent variable z will change. It is natural to query
the rate of this change, that is, one still wants to calculate the partial derivatives ∂z

∂x
and ∂z

∂y
.

Definition 5.4
The technique of implicit differentiation allows us to differentiate the equation of an implicit
function. Simply differentiate both sides of the equality as expressions in x and y.
Whenever a z appears, apply the chain rule remembering that z is a function of x and y.

Remember that when partial differentiating with respect to x one treats x as a variable, y as a
constant and vice versa when partial differentiating with respect to y.

Example 5.5
Consider the function z(x, y) given implicitly by xy + z
2
+ xz = 0 . Calculate

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a. ∂z

∂x

∂z
b. ∂y

“(a.)” Partial differentiating both sides of xy + z

2
+ xz = 0 with respect to x obtain

∂ ∂
2
(xy + z + xz) = (0),
∂x ∂x

∂ ∂ ∂
2
(xy) + (z ) + (xz) = 0.
∂x ∂x ∂x

Note that

∂x
(xy) = y ;

∂ ∂z
By the chain rule ∂x
2
(z ) = 2
∂x
z ;

By the product rule ∂

∂x
(xz) = z + x
∂z

∂x
.

Therefore by substitution

∂z ∂z
y + 2 z + z + x = 0.
∂x ∂x

∂z
(2z + x) = −y − z
∂x

∂z −y − z
= .
∂x 2z + x

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“(b.)” Partial differentiating both sides of xy + z

2
+ xz = 0 with respect to x obtain

∂ ∂
2
(xy + z + xz) = (0),
∂y ∂y

∂ ∂ ∂
2
(xy) + (z ) + (xz) = 0,
∂y ∂y ∂y

∂z ∂z

x + 2 z + x = 0,
∂y ∂y

∂z
(2z + x) = −x,
∂y

∂z x
= − .
∂y 2z + x

∂z ∂z
It may appear unusual in Example 4.5.5 that the expression for ∂x
and ∂y
both involve z.
However remembering that z is a function of x and y makes this more natural.

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