ENERGY AUDIT

Unit – 3

ECE-2
IV-II
 Syllabus
Energy Efficient Instruments
Digital Energy Meter – Data loggers – Thermo couples –
Pyranometer – Lux meters – Tong testers – Power analyzers –
Power factor – effects with non-linear loads – effect of harmonics
on power factor – Power Factor Improvement – Capacitor rating -
Effects of power factor improvements - Electric lighting – Types of
lighting – Luminaries – Energy efficient lighting.

Text Books:
1. Energy management by W.R. Murphy & G. Mckay Butter worth, Elsevier publications. 2012
2. Hand Book of Energy Audit by Sonal Desai- Tata McGraw hill.
Course Objectives:
To understand energy efficiency, scope, conservation and
technologies.
To understand energy conservation in HVAC systems.

To design energy efficient lighting systems.

To estimate/calculate power factor of systems and propose
suitable compensation techniques.
To calculate life cycle costing analysis and return on investment
on energy efficient technologies.
Course Outcomes:
After the completion of the course the student should be able to:
 Explain energy efficiency, conservation and various technologies.
 Explain energy conservation in HVAC systems.
 Design energy efficient lighting systems.
 Calculate power factor of systems and propose suitable
compensation techniques.
 Calculate life cycle costing analysis and return on investment on
energy efficient technologies
 Digital Energy Meter
 A Digital energy meter is an essential device that goes with
consumption of commercially distributed energy.

 It enables systematic pricing of energy consumed by

individual consumer as it measures the amount of electrical
energy consumed by a residence, business, or an
electrically powered device.
 Generally, electricity meters operate by continuously
measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts) and current
(amperes) and finding the product of these two gives
instantaneous electrical power (watts) which is then
integrated against time to give energy used (Joules,
Kilowatt-hours etc).
The block diagram of a digital energy meter
 Here, two basic sensors are employed. (i) Voltage and (ii) Current
sensors.

 The voltage sensor that is built around a step down element and
potential divider network, senses both the phase voltage and load
voltage.

 The second sensor is a current sensor which senses the current

drawn by the load at any point of time.

 Current sensor is built around a current transformer and other active

devices (such as voltage comparator) which converts the sensed
current to voltage for processing.
 The output from both sensors is then fed into a signal (or voltage)
conditioner which ensures matched voltage or signal level to the
control circuit.

 It also contains a signal multiplexer which enable sequential

switching of both signals to the analogue input of the peripheral
interface controller (PIC).

 The control circuit centred on a PIC integrated circuit.

 The PIC is contains ten bit analog to digital converter (ADC) and it
is very flexible to program and good for peripheral interfacing.
 The ADC converts the analog signals to its digital equivalent where both
signals from the voltage and current sensors are then multiplied by the
means of embedded software in the PIC.

 The PIC is programmed in C language such that apart from the multiplier
circuit, it also simulates.

 It is able to use the received data to calculate power consumption per

hour, as well as the expected charges.

 These are displayed on the liquid crystal display (LCD) attached to the
circuit.

 Advantage:
Digital energy meter is more accurate and energy efficient meter.
Data Loggers
 A data logger (also called data recorder) is an electronic device that
records data over time or in relation to location either with a built in
instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors.

 They generally are small, battery powered, portable and equipped

with a microprocessor, internal memory for data storage and
sensors.
Some data loggers interface with a personal computer and utilize
software to activate the data logger and view and also analyze the
collected data, while others have a local interface device (like keypad,
LCD) and can be used as a stand-alone device.
 The sensors may communicate with the logger through a cable or
wireless link and may sense temperature, humidity pressure flow,
wind speed, current, voltage, resistance and most of other physical
parameters that are important in monitoring and controlling
processes.

 APPLICATIONS
Soil moisture level recording
Road traffic counting
Vehicle testing
Monitoring of relays status in railway signalling etc.
THERMOCOUPLES
 A thermocouple is a device used to measure temperatures
accurately.
 It consists of two dissimilar metals having different thermal and
electrical properties joined together at one end so that potential
difference generated between the contact points measures the
temperature.

Principle of operation:
The principle is that when one junction is heated, an EMF is produced
causing a current to flow round the loop.
The EMF generated is given by logE = Alogt+B
where,
t = temperature and
A& B are constants depending upon the wires forming the junction.
Types of Thermocouples :
A Thermocouple is available in different combinations of metals or
calibrations.

The four most common calibrations are J, K, T & E.

The high temperature calibrations are R, S, & C.

Other types of Thermocouples include beaded wire

Thermocouple & Thermocouple probe.
Thermocouple Types
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry
standards for thermocouples.

Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the positive electrode
first, followed by the negative electrode.

Type K (chromel/alumel)
The most common general purpose thermocouple with a sensitivity of
approximately 41 µV/°C, chromel positive relative to alumel.

Type E (chromel/constantan)
This type has a high output (68 µV/°C), which makes it well suited to cryogenic
use. In addition, it is non-magnetic.
Type J (iron/constantan)
This combination has a more restricted range than Type K (0° to +750°C), but
has a higher sensitivity (55 µV/°C).

Type T (copper/constantan)
Often used as a differential measurement. There is no Curie point(Curie
Temperature) and thus no abrupt change in characteristics because both
conductors are non-magnetic. Its range is −200° to +350°C and sensitivity is
43 µV/°C.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
1. These are cheaper than the resistance thermometers.
2. These are very convenient for measuring the temperature at one
particular point in a piece of apparatus
Disadvantages
1. They have lower accuracy.
2. Complex Circuitry.

Applications:
 Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a large
temperature range up to 18000 C.
 They are used as relays and also as protective devices in starters
etc.
PYRANOMETER
 Pyranometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and
measures thermal radiation. (Ex: Solar Radiation Measurement)
 Pyranometer is used for measurement of high temperature.

Pyranometer Working Principle

The working principle of the Pyranometer mainly depends
on the difference in temperature measurement between two
surfaces like dark and clear. The solar radiation can be absorbed by
the black surface on the thermopile whereas the clear surface
reproduces it, so less heat can be absorbed.
Why is Pyranometer used?
In the solar energy industry Pyranometers are used to monitor the
performance of photovoltaic (PV) power plants. By comparing the actual power
output from the PV power plant to the expected output based on a Pyranometer
reading the efficiency of the PV power plant can be determined.

APPLICATIONS:

 Pyranometer is suited especially to the measurement of moving objects

(or) any surfaces that can’t be reached (or) can’t be touched.
 Solar Power plants.
 Pyranometers are used to measure wide temperature ranges above
17000C.
Lux Meter
Lux meters are used for measuring brightness in lux, foot candle
or cd/m². Some lux meters are equipped with an internal memory
or data logger to record and save measurements.

The measurement of light intensity with a lux meter is becoming

increasingly important in the workplace due to safety concerns.

Lux meters with data loggers are highly regarded in the industry
due to the devices' cosine correction of the angle of incident light.

Many lux meters include software for detailed analysis and offer
different interfaces for transferring measured data to a computer.
 Hioki, Korea developed
the Lux HiTester 3421, a
Lux Meter in 1979 and
subsequently developed and
launched the
Digital Lux HiTester 3422
alongside Lux HiTester
3423.

 These instruments remain in

use in luminance
measurement applications in
such fields as lighting
installation and facility
management.
Block Diagram of Lux Meter
Tong testers
 A Tong tester or clamp meter is an electrical device having two
jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor.

 This allows properties of the electric current in the conductor to be

measured, without having to make physical contact with it, or to
disconnect it for insertion through the probe.

 Current clamps are usually used to read the magnitude of a

sinusoidal current (as invariably used in alternating current (AC)
power distribution systems), but in conjunction with more advanced
instrumentation the phase and waveform are available.
 In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed
through the prob.

 If more than one conductor is passed through, then the measurement

would be the vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors and
would depend on the phase relationship of the currents.

 Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp

incorporated into a general purpose multimeter.

Note: It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of

amperes) with the appropriate current transformer clamp. Accurate
measurement of low currents (a few milli-amperes) with a current
transformer clamp is more difficult.
Parts of Clamp Meter (Tong Tester)
Generally, a Clamp Meter or Tong Tester has the following parts:

1. Transformer Clamps (Jaws)

It senses the magnetic field of the current flowing through the conductor.
2. Clamp Opening Trigger
It is used to open/ close the clamps.
3. Power Switch
As the name suggests, it is used to power on/ off the meter.
4. Back Light Button
It is used to light up the LCD display for easy reading of displayed value in
dark places or at night.
5. Hold Button
It is used to hold the last value on the display.
6. Negative/ Ground Input Terminal
It is used to connect the negative/ground jack of the meter
cable.
7. Positive Input Terminal
It is used to connect the positive jack of the meter cable.
8. LCD Display
It displays the measured value.
9. Functional Rotary Switch
It is used to select the type and range of current being
measured.
Power Analyzer
 The power we utilize in our homes is usually produced by
electric generators and supplied to homes, industries through the
electric power grid. This task is done by the electric power industry.

 A power analyzer is used to measure the flow of power (watts) in an

electrical system.

 This refers to the rate of electrical transferral between a power source

and a sink, hence the alternative expression of power is energy per
second (Joules/second).
The Working Principle
 Power analyzers are used to measure power quality in Alternating
Current circuits(AC) or Direct current systems(DC).

 For measuring power quality in AC circuits it uses distinct circuit

considerations.

 Modern power analyzers are portable/standard size and can

transmit information using a wireless medium.

 This is followed by a high impedance buffer, a series of gain

stages, and an A/D converter.
 The Digital Signal Processor controls the gain and A/D conversions
of the processed input.

 An autozero switch is provided at the front for DC accuracy.

 A power analyzer can measure various parameters such as Watts,

VA, VAr, power factor, phase, true r.m.s, fundamental harmonics,
impedance, voltage surge, etc…
POWER FACTOR
The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the
ratio of the active (true or real) power to the apparent power.
Also the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current - or
the "cosφ".
Power factor is an important measurement in electrical AC systems because
an overall power factor less than 1 indicates that the electricity supplier
need to provide more generating capacity than actually required.
The current waveform distortion that contributes to reduced power factor is
caused by voltage waveform distortion and overheating in the neutral cables
of three-phase systems.
 Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign
of the phase angle.
 Power factor with Non-linear loads( effects)
 A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in
a power supply), or some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent
lamp, electric welding machine, or arc furnace.

 Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the

current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power
system frequency.

 Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine
wave to some other form.
 Generally, nonlinear load is reason of poor power factor and that affects
on conductor losses, voltage regulation, cost and rating of machine.

 Nonlinear loads are the main source of harmonics which increases Total
Harmonic Distortion(THD) in distribution system and results in poor
power factor.

Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measurement of the harmonic

distortion present in a signal and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the
powers of all harmonic components to the power of the fundamental
frequency.
Power factor correction in non-linear loads

Passive Power factor correction (PFC)

The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter.

Fixed Capacitors

This arrangement employs one or more capacitors to form a

constant level of compensation.

Control may be manual that is by circuit breaker or load-break

switch. This may be Semi-automatic for example by a contactor.
Circuit Breaker – Contactor – Load Break Switch
Automatic Capacitor Banks
 This kind of equipment provides automatic control of
compensation, maintain within close limits, a selected level of power
factor.

 Such equipment is applied at points in an installation where the

active power and/ or reactive -power variations are relatively large.

Example: At the bus bars of a general power distribution board.

Active PFC

 An "active power factor corrector" (active PFC) is a power electronic

system that changes the wave shape of current drawn by a load to
improve the power factor.

 The purpose is to make the load circuitry that is power factor corrected
appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power).

 In this case, the voltage and current are in phase and the reactive
power consumption is zero.

 This enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power from the
power company to the consumer.
Some types of active Power Factor Correction schemes are:
 Boost converter
 Buck converter
 Buck-boost converters

Note: Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage

Any converter works in two distinct modes with respect to the inductor
current: the continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous
conduction mode (DCM).

When the inductor current is always greater than zero, it is in CCM.

When the average inductor current is too low due to the high-load
resistance or low-switching frequency, then the converter is in DCM.

The CCM is preferable for high efficiency and efficient use of semiconductor
switches and passive components.

The DCM requires a special control since the dynamic order of the
converter is reduced.
Effect of Harmonics
Capacitor Rating
ELECTRIC LIGHTING SYSTEM DESIGN AND PRACTICE
 Lighting is an essential service in all the industries and residential
areas.

 The power consumption by the industrial lighting varies between

2 to 10% of the total power depending on the type of industry.

 In hotels, lighting consumes up to 30% of total electrical energy.

 Innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting has

given rise to tremendous energy saving opportunities in this area.
Lamps: Lamp is an equipment, which produces light.

The most commonly used lamps are described briefly as follows:

Incandescent lamps: Incandescent lamps produce light by means of
filament heated to incandescence by the flow of electric current
through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known
as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb,
the fill gas and the cap.

Reflector Lamp: Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided

with a high quality internal mirror, which follows exactly the
parabolic shape of lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus
making the lamp maintenance free and efficient output.
Gas discharge lamps:
The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation
of gas contained in either a tabular or elliptical outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
1. Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
2. Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
3. Mercury Vapor Lamps (MVL)
4. Sodium Vapor Lamps (SVL)

All the above except CFL are no longer used and have
been replaced today with energy efficient LED’s.
Energy-efficient Lighting
There are two main types of energy-efficient bulbs:
1. LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) use 90% less energy than traditional bulbs.
2. CFLs (Compact Fluorescent Lamps) use 60-80% less energy than traditional
bulbs.

Benefits of LED bulbs:

 Offer improved light quality from the moment they're switched on,
 Come in a wide variety of sizes and fittings,
 Each bulb lasts up to 10 years.

LED Bulbs CFL

Energy-saving tips for lights and lamps:
Once you've installed your energy-saving light bulbs, you can save
even more money by following these simple steps:

 Switch the light OFF when you leave a room.

 Only switch ON the lights that you need.
 Install movement sensors and timers in appropriate rooms.
 Invest in smart bulbs to be able to control them from your smartphone
or tablet .
 Hire a qualified electrician to reposition your light switches to
convenient areas.
Luminaire
 A luminaire is defined as “a complete lighting unit consisting of a
lamp or lamps together with the parts designed to distribute the
light, to position and protect the lamps and ballast (where
applicable), and to connect the lamps to the power supply.”

 Luminaires can be of the traditional type, such as a recessed or

surface-mounted incandescent, fluorescent or other electric-
discharge luminaires.
 Luminaires can also be of the non-traditional type, such as fiber
optics with the light source at one location and the fiber core or
“light pipe” at another.

 In this case, the fiber cable is providing the light distribution for
the lighting system.

 There are also a number of products coming into the marketplace

that employ light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as the light source.
Luminaire examples