MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MANIPAL

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

(MME 2271)

IV SEMESTER
B. TECH. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

STUDENT NAME :

REG. NO. :

ROLL NO. :

SECTION :

GROUP :

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

 Vision of the Institute

Excellence in technical education through innovation and team work

Mission of the Institute

Educate students professionally to face societal challenges by providing a healthy

learning environment grounded well in the principles of engineering, promoting
creativity and nurturing teamwork

Vision of the Department

Excellence in Mechanical and Manufacturing engineering education through

innovative practices and teamwork

Mission of the Department

Educate students professionally to face societal challenges by providing a healthy

learning environment grounded well in the principles of Mechanical and
Manufacturing engineering, promoting creativity and nurturing teamwork
 PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO)

PEO1: Apply the knowledge of Mechanical engineering to design and implement new systems,
products, tools to address needs of the society.
PEO2: Develop innovative technologies to solve engineering problems of social relevance and
contribute to sustainable development.
PEO3: Work effectively in a team to carry out multi-disciplinary projects and exhibit leadership
qualities and communication skills.
PEO4: Engage in lifelong learning for career advancement and adapt to change in professional and
social needs.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO)

The graduates of Mechanical Engineering will be able to:

PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as
a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
 change.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO)
The graduates of Mechanical Engineering will be able to:

PSO 1: Apply principles and tools of design for developing efficient mechanical systems.
PSO 2: Select suitable materials and manufacturing methods for mechanical engineering systems.
PSO 3: Design and develop energy efficient sustainable thermal and transport systems.

COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

CO1: To determine the hardness, toughness and grain size of different ferrous materials torsion

CO2: To study the behavior of standard steel specimen subjected to tension, shear and torsion

CO3: To determine the compressive strength, modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of
wooden specimen.
CO4: To study the behavior of springs like helical spring and leaf spring.

CO5: To understand the heat treatment operation on a steel specimen and fatigue testing of
materials

REFERENCES
1. Suryanarayana A.V.K., Testing of metallic materials, PHI, 1990.
2. Khanna and Justo, Highway Material Testing, NemChand, 1989.
3. Technical Teacher’s Training Institute, Laboratory manual of strength of materials, Oxford
University Press, 1983.
4. Davis H.E., Troxell G.E., Wiscosil C.T., The testing and inspection of Engineering materials,
McGraw Hill Book Company.
 MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, MANIPAL

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms./Mr…………………………………………………………………..........

Reg.No…………………………Section…………….Roll.No…………..………………..……has
satisfactorily completed the course of exercises in STRENGTH OF MATERIALS (MME 2271)
prescribed by the MAHE for VI semester B.Tech. Mechanical Engineering at MIT, Manipal.

Date:

Signature of Faculty: Signature of HoD:

 CONTENT

Sl. Page CO
Experiment Title Date Marks
No. No Addressed
1 Compression Test on Wood CO1

2 Hardness Tests

2(a) Rockwell Hardness Test CO2

2(b) Brinell Hardness Test CO2

2(c) Vickers Hardness Test CO2

3 Impact Tests

3(a) Charpy Impact Test CO1

3(b) Izod Impact Test CO1

4 Tension Test on Mild Steel CO3

5 Torsion Test on Circular

Shaft CO3

6 Test on Helical Spring CO4

Test on Leaf Spring

7 CO4
Shear Test
8 CO3
Bending Test on Mild Steel
9 CO3
Fatigue Test
10 CO5
(Demonstration)

Micro structure analysis of

11 Metals (Demonstration) CO5

Heat Treatment of steel

12 (Demonstration) CO5
 EXPERIMENT No. 1 Date: ……………………

COMPRESSION TEST ON WOOD

Aim:
To conduct compression test on specimens of wood.
a) Along the grains (parallel to grains)
b) Across the grains (perpendicular to grains) and to determine the respective
compressive strengths.

Apparatus:
Compression testing machine, scale etc.

Theory:
Wood is an important building material which is often used as a load bearing structural
element. This test enables to give an idea about the load bearing capacity of wood in
pure compression. Compressive strength of timber depends on the orientation of grains
with respect to the loading axis. Generally, strength is more when load is applied along
the grains because of the hollow tubular structure of wood grains, which is strong along
its axial direction and weak in perpendicular direction. The entire procedure of the test
is standardized by Bureau of Indian Standards in IS-1708-1969. Grain orientation of
wood specimen as per IS code is shown in Fig 1.1.

a) Test Parallel to Grain:

Specimen: (IS 1708-1969)

Compression test parallel to grain shall be made on a specimen 25x25x25 mm in

size. The specimen shall be absolutely free from any defects and shall not have a
slope of grain more than 1 in 20 parallel to its longitudinal edges. The end planes of
the specimen shall be perfectly at right angles to the length of the specimen

1
b) Test perpendicular to grain:

Specimen: Test for compression perpendicular to the grain shall be made on the
central portion of the specimen 25 25 25 mm in size. The specimen shall
be free from defects.
1. Note down the dimensions of the specimen.
2. Place the specimen so that the load will be applied through a bearing plate to a
radial surface as shown in Fig.1.3

Observations & Tabular Column:

Areas of Ultimate
Safe stress
Type of Dimensions Failure c/s over Comp.
=Comp.strength/
loading of load which load Strength
Factor of safety
specimen Pu (N) is applied Pu/Ao
(N/mm2)
Ao (mm2) (N/mm2)

Use a factor of safety 3 for calculating safe stress.

25mm

25mm

25mm

Figure 1.1: Grain Orientation and Specimen of wood

2
 Figure 1.2: Failure pattern under compression test

Procedure:

1. Measure dimensions of the specimen accurately.

2. Open the material testing software in the computer. Ensure that the RS-232
cable is connected to the computer from the control panel.
3. Go to FILE and open a new file.
4. Give a specified name to the file. And enter the specimen details and enter
SAVE.
5. Go to START TEST icon in the main menu and enter the details and click
ENTER.
6. Mount the specimen in compression testing machine between the compression
pads. The specimen shall be so placed that centre of the upper pad of the
machine is vertically above the centre of the c/s of the specimen and a small
load of not more than 0.1% of the load capacity of the machine is initially
applied to set the specimen.
7. Enter the details for load & displacement to obtain the graph
8. Bring the upper pad close to the specimen and click TARE followed by START
icon on the monitor.
9. Note down the load on the control panel for equal interval of displacement.
10. Note down the failure load.
11. Remove the failed specimen and study the failure pattern (Ref. Fig. 1.2)

3
Results:

a) Test perpendicular to grain

Safe stress for ……………… =….......................... N/mm2

b) Test parallel to grain

Safe stress for ……………… =… .......................... N/mm2

Figure 1.3: Loading pattern for compression test

Universal
testing machine Control Panel

Computer
Fig 1.4 Universal testing machine

4
Questions:

1. Differentiate between stress and strength.

2. Why compression test on timber is done in two ways viz., parallel to grain and
perpendicular to grain
3. What are the possible failure patterns of timber in compression?
4. Compression tests are generally done on brittle materials. Why?
5. How do ductile and brittle materials behave during compression test?

5
6
 EXPERIMENT No. 2 Date: ……………………

HARDNESS TESTS
Introduction:
Hardness is defined in different ways, depending upon the various hardness tests
used. Some of these definitions are
i) Resistance to permanent indentation - under static or dynamic loads -
indentation hardness.
ii) Energy absorption under impact load - rebound hardness.
iii) Resistance to scratching -scratch hardness.
iv) Resistance to abrasion - wear hardness.
v) Resistance to cutting or drilling - machinability.
These definitions are developed due to the necessity for 'some way of expressing
quantitatively, performance requirements under differing conditions of service’.
A given type of test is of practical use only for comparing the relative hardness of
similar materials on a standard basis.

Scope and applicability:

Hardness test has a wide field of use. As commercial tests they are more
commonly applied to metals. A hardness number cannot be directly utilized in
design or analysis. The results of a hardness test may be utilized as follows.
i) Similar materials can be graded according to a hardness number obtained from
a particular test.
ii) Quality control of materials or products may be done by hardness test.
iii) Correlation may be established between hardness and some other desired
design property.
The most commonly used type of hardness tests for metals in India are indentation
type hardness tests, namely Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers. In these tests different
types of indenters are used with standard loading for a standard time duration.
Either the load that would produce a given depth of indentation or the indentation
produced under a given load is used as a measure of hardness.

7
 EXPERIMENT No. 2 (a) Date: ……………………

TYPE: 1- ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Aim:
To find the Rockwell Hardness (HR) Number for different materials.
Apparatus:
Rockwell Hardness testing machine, ball indenter, diamond cone indenter etc.
Machine description:
The test is conducted in a specially designed machine that applies load through a
system of weights and levers. The indenter may be either a steel ball
(1/16"diameter) or a conical diamond (1200 apex angle) with a slightly rounded point
called a 'brale’.
The hardness number can be read directly from a graduated dial. The main parts of
the machine are shown in Fig. 2-1.
The dial has two sets of markings, one red and the other black. The outer set
marked in black is the 'C' scale and the inner red one is the 'B' scale. Both have
100 divisions but differ from each other by 30 hardness numbers. 'B' scale is used
for ball indenter and 'C' scale for diamond cone. A total load of 100 kg and 150 kg
are used for 'B’ and 'C' scales respectively. Details of the scales and the loads are
given in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1
Minor Major Total
Scale Indenter Materials for which scale
load load Load
used is used
(kgf) (kgf) (kgf)
B Steel ball 10 90 100 All mild and medium carbon
(for softer (1/16"dia) steel, sheet steel and soft
materials) steel bars, brass, Al etc.
C Diamond 10 140 150 Hardened steels, hardened
(for harder cone and tempered steels, alloy
materials) steels, materials harder than
B-100

8
Theory:
Rockwell Hardness Number is a function of the degree of indentation on the test
piece by action of an indenter under a given static load. Various loads and
indenters are used depending on the condition of the test.
Initially a minor load (F0) of 10 kgf.is applied which causes an initial depth of
indentation, that sets the indenter on the material and holds it in position as shown
in fig.2.2. The purpose of the minor load is to account for the surface unevenness.
With the minor load still acting a major load is applied depending on the scale
selected

Observations and Tabular column:

Minor Major Rockwell

Sl. Indenter
Material Scale Load Load Hardness
No. used
(Kgf) (Kgf) Number

9
 Graduation Dial

Platform Loading
Lever

Hand Wheel

Figure 2.1: Rockwell Hardness Test Apparatus

.

Fig.2.2 Rockwell Principle

The application of the major load (F1) results in the increase of depth of penetration.
Let the increase in depth of penetration be ‘e’ measured in units of 0.002 mm .‘E’ is
a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units

10
for steel ball indenter. The Rockwell Hardness number for 'B' and 'C' scales are as
given below.

Rockwell 'B' Number

Rockwell 'C' Number

Procedure:

1. Clean the surface of the specimen from oil, dust and rub with sand paper:
Thickness of specimen shall be sufficient to avoid any bulge or other marking
on the surface opposite the impression.
2. Adjust the weight on plunger or dash pot according to the Rockwell scale
required
3. Keep the lever at position A
4. Place the specimen securely on testing table
5. Turn the hand wheel clockwise, so that specimen will push the indenter and
show a reading on dial gauge as smaller pointer at set and long pointer close to
0 of outer scale.
6. Turn the lever from position A to B slowly so that the total load is brought into
action without any jerks.
7. The long pointer of dial gauge reaches a steady position when indentation
complete. Then take back the lever to A position slowly. The weights are
thereby lifted off, only the initial load remaining active.
8. Read the figure against the long pointer. This is the correct reading of the
Rockwell Hardness of specimen. Use black or red scale as per selection of
Rockwell scale. Hardness number is to be expressed with the symbol of the
scale used, for example HRC-40 or HRB-20.
9. Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen piece. Carry on the same
procedure for further tests.

11
Results:
Rockwell Hardness Number of ……………… = ..............................
…………………. =……………………
…………………. =……………………
……………….. = ……………………
Questions:
1. Describe how the Rockwell hardness test is different from Brinell and Vickers
hardness tests.
2. What is the need for performing the hardness test?
3. Describe how the phenomenon of indentation defines the hardness.
4. Can the Rockwell hardness number be represented in the form of Brinell
hardness number or Vickers hardness number? If so, write the conversion
factor.

12
13
 EXPERIMENT No. 2 (b) Date: ……………………

TYPE 2: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Aim:
To determine the Brinell's hardness number of ferrous materials like mild steel, cast
iron and non-ferrous materials like brass, aluminium, etc. (IS: 1700-1961)
Apparatus:
Brinell's hardness tester, ball indenters and hardness test specimens.
Theory:
In Brinell's hardness test, which measures the resistance to indentation, a ball
having a diameter 'D' is pressed on the specimen of the material to be tested under
a load 'P'. The load is maintained for 10 to 15 seconds and the diameter, ‘d’ of the
impression produced is measured.
The Brinell hardness number BHN is measured as the ratio of the test load to the
surface area of indentation. The area of indentation is assumed to be spherical.

where P is in kgf and diameter in millimeters. The load .to be applied depends on
the hardness of the material under test and the diameter of the indenter.
Magnitude of the load:
The relation between the diameter of the ball and the size of the impression must
be within reasonable limits, so standard ratios of P/D2 are used, where P=load in
kgf, D=diameter of the ball indenter in mm.
Usually 10 mm or 5 mm dia. ball indenters are used.
The following table gives the standard loads and ball diameters used.
Diameter Load (P) in kg
of ball
P/D2=5 P/D2=10 P/D2=30
(D) mm
5 - 250 750
10 500 1000 3000

14
Choice of the most suitable ratio of P/D2 depends on the average hardness of the
material. The following table gives a broad indication of desirable values.

Approximate BHN P/D2 ratio Representative material

Above 160 30 Steel, Cast iron
Copper Alloys, Aluminium
160 to 60 10
Alloys
60 to 20 5 Copper, Aluminium

Observations:

1) Diameter of the indenter ‘D’ =...................................... mm

2) Least count of the microscope =...................................... mm

Calculations:
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) =

=………………………………..

Tabular column:
Diameter of
Material Load ‘P’ (kgf) indentation ‘d’ in BHN
mm

15
 Figure 2.3: Brinell Hardness Tester

Machine description:
A sketch of the machine used is given in Fig 2.3. The load is applied by means of a
single lever mounted on knife edges and carrying a hanger for loose weights. The
specimen is supported on a hardened steel plate. A robust steel screw, which is
adjusted by means of a hand wheel, supports the platen. By removing the pIate
other types of work support may be used.
Ball holders for 5 mm and 10 mm diameter balls are available. An adjusting wheel
on the penetrator column enables the ball holder to be brought into contact with the
specimen.
Hydraulic power is used to elevate and lower the main lever, control being by
means of a hand lever and speed control knob. An indicator in front of the machine
shows the position of the loading lever and indicates the speed of application of the
load.

16
Advantages:
1. One scale covers the entire hardness range, although comparable results
can only be obtained if the ball size and test force relationship is the same.
2. A wide range of test forces and ball sizes to suit every application.
3. Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused.

Disadvantages:
1. The main drawback of the Brinell test is the need to optically measure the
indent size. This requires that the test point be finished well enough to make an
accurate measurement.
2. Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time.

Procedure:
1. For the Brinell hardness test the surface of the specimen which the impression
is to be made should be flat
2. The surface on which the impression is made as well as the surface in contact
with the support should be smooth, clean, dry and free from oxide scales and
pits
3. Ball holder with steel of 10mm or 5mm and one of load ranges 3000,1000,750
and 500kgf are to be selected in the test
4. For ferrous metals the load range P=30D2 should be used and for non-ferrous
metals like Brass, Aluminium and soft bearing metal the load P=5D2 and 2.5D2
should be used respectively
5. Clamp prism on optical tube and adjust in such a way that after illumination
screen gets illuminated completely
6. Select proper diameter ball and attach proper weights on the bottom weights
based on the type of material being tested
7. Start the motor by pushing green button of starter and allow the oil to circulate
for few minutes. Operate the hand lever from unload to load several times to
raise and lower the weights.

17
 8. Place the specimen securely on the testing table. Turn the hand wheel in CW
direction so as to clamp the specimen.
9. Turn the hand lever from unload position so that total load is brought in action.
10. After positioning the lever to read position, indenter will get swiveled and
diameter of the indenter will be projected on the screen.
11. Read the graduations on the scale find the diameter of indentation.

Results:
Brinell Hardness Number for ……………………………. = ……………………………
……………………………= ……………………………
……………………………= ……………………………

Questions:
1. What is the purpose of microscope used in Brinell hardness test?
2. The surface area of indentation ‘A’ is dependent upon what factors?
3. What is the material used for ball indenter in case of Brinell hardness test?
4. What precautionary measures should be taken for the Brinell hardness test?

18
19
 Experiment 2 (c) Date: …………………

TYPE 3: VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To determine the Vickers hardness number of different materials
Theory:
It is the standard method for measuring the hardness of metals, particularly those
with extremely hard surfaces: the surface is subjected to a standard pressure for a
standard length of time by means of a pyramid-shaped diamond. The diagonal of
the resulting indention is measured under a microscope and the Vickers Hardness
value read from a conversion table.
Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material, calculated from the
size of an impression produced under load by a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter.
Devised in the 1920s by engineers at Vickers, Ltd., in the United Kingdom, the
diamond pyramid hardness test, as it also became known, permitted the
establishment of a continuous scale of comparable numbers that accurately
reflected the wide range of hardness found in steels.

Fig. 2.4. Details of diamond indenter

The Vickers hardness test uses a square base diamond pyramid as the indenter.
The included angle between the opposite faces of the pyramid is 136°as shown in
fig 2.4. The Vickers hardness tester operates on the same basic principle as the
Brinell tester, the numbers being expressed in the terms of load and area of the
impression. As a result of the indenter’s shape, the impression on the surface of the
specimen will be a square. The length of the diagonal of the square is measured
20
through a microscope fitted with an ocular micrometer that contains movable knife-
edges. The Vickers hardness values are calculated by the equation

2P sin 
HV 2  1.8544
P


d2 d2
where P is the applied load in kgf, and d is the diagonal length in mm.

Calculations:

2P sin 
2 P


HV   1.8544
d2 d2

= =

Observations and tabular column:

Vickers
Major Load
Sl. No. Material Hardness
(kgf)
Number

21
 Fig. 2.5 Vickers Hardness testing Machine

Procedure:
1. Test area of the specimen should be cleaned from dirt, oil, seals
2. The test area should be even and polished
3. The lower side should also be clean, so that the specimen is well set on the support
4. Select the weights according to the expected hardness of specimen to be tested by
turning the Weight selection knob. (The respective figure of weight is visible on one
side of knob itself)
5. Place the specimen securely on the testing table
6. Turn the hand wheel clockwise slowly so that specimen will get focused on front
screen sharply. At this stage a gap of about 0.2 to 0.25mm expected between tip of
diamond indenter and top face of the specimen
7. Adjust the Dwell timer for required duration of load on specimen
8. Press START push button. Keep it pressed till light inside START button will be ON
even after release of push button. The loading cycle starts gradually through a

22
 geared motor provided with a drive cam. The loading/dwell/unloading cycle is fully
automatic
9. Index indenter head to next position so that objective of optical system will be
exactly over the indentation
10. The indentation now projected on front focusing screen. Measure diagonal of
impression in both axes
11. To have next test change the position of specimen where hardness to be checked.
Verify from front focusing screen that there is no earlier indentations near about
expected new indentation. Index the head to original position and bring back
indenter on specimen and repeat the procedure.

Strengths
One scale covers the entire hardness range.
A wide range of test forces to suit every application.
The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings can
be taken.
It is very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads.
Weaknesses
The main drawback of the Vickers test is the need to optically measure the indent size.
This requires that the test point be highly finished to be able to see the indent well
enough to make an accurate measurement.
Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time.
Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is rather more expensive than the Brinell or
Rockwell machines.

Results:
Vickers hardness number for ……………………………. = ……………………………
……………………………= ……………………………
……………………………= ……………………………

23
Questions:
1. What are the materials generally used for indenter in Vickers Hardness Test?
2. What is the principle involved in Vickers hardness test?
3. What are the precautions that should be taken in Vickers Hardness Test?

24
25
 EXPERIMENT No. 3

IMPACT TESTS
Introduction
As the temperature decreases an increase is generally noted in the yield stress,
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and fatigue strength of structural steel. In
contrast, the ductility of these steels as measured by reduction in area or by
elongation decreases with decreasing temperatures. Furthermore, there is a
temperature below which a structural steel subjected to" tensile stress may fracture
by cleavage with little or no plastic deformation, rather than by shear which is
usually preceded by a considerable amount of plastic deformation or yielding. A
shear fracture is indicated by a fibrous appearance and a shiny or crystalline
appearance is associated with a cleavage fracture. Fracture that occurs by
cleavage at a nominal tensile stress below the yield stress is referred to as brittle
fracture. A brittle fracture can occur in a structural steel when there is a sufficiently
adverse combination of tensile stress, temperature and geometrical discontinuity
(notch) present. Other fabrication factors such as cold work and welding may also
have important influence.
It has been established that plastic deformation can occur only in the presence of
shear stresses. Shear stresses are always present in a uniaxial or in bi-axial state
of stress, the maximum shear stress approaches zero as the principal stresses
approach a common value and thus, under equal tri axial tensile stresses failure
occurs by cleavage rather than by shear. This tri axial state of stress can occur in
case of a notched bar or at geometrical discontinuity even though the structure is
subjected to longitudinal tensile stresses only.
The property of a material relating to the work required to cause rupture is
designated as toughness. Toughness depends fundamentally upon strength and
ductility and would appear to be independent ofthe type of loading. A measure of
toughness and brittleness is obtained, from impact tests. The test consists of
breaking standard specimen by one blow from a swinging hammer under specified

26
conditions. The energy absorbed by the specimen for rupture is then determined. In
order to induce fracture to take 'place under a single blow, test specimens of ductile
material are notched. The use of a notch causes high localized stress
concentration, restricts the drawing out action, causes most of the energy of rupture
to be absorbed in' a localized region of the piece and tends to induce a brittle type
of fracture. The tendency of a ductile material when a break in the form of a
notched specimen is referred to as "notch sensitivity". The most commonly used
impact tests in India are the CHARPY and the IZOD tests.

Hanger

Dial

Striker

Figure 3.1: Impact Testing machine

Scope and application of impact tests:

Many machines and machine parts are commonly subjected to impact loads. The
energy absorption capacity of materials under impact load (impact value) helps a
designer in the selection of materiel. The effect of stress, temperature, geometric
discontinuity and notch can be evaluated by this test and the design of the structure
can be made by avoiding the condition that tend to cause brittle fracture and also
by selecting a steel appropriate for the application.

27
The ideal impact test would be one in which all the energy of a blow is transmitted
to the test specimen. This ideal is never realized. Some energy is always lost
through friction, deformation of the supports and striking mass and through
vibrations of various parts of the testing machine. Due to these facts the energy
values obtained from a standard test on standard specimens are used only for
qualitative comparison on the selected specimen and cannot be converted into
energy figures that would serve engineering design calculations.
Impact testing machine:
Impact test is done in a single blow pendulum impact machine as shown in fig 3.1.
It consists of (a) moving mass mounted on the striker, whose kinetic energy is great
enough to cause rupture on the test specimen. (b) An anvil with support on which
the specimen is placed to receive the blow. (c) A dial with pointer for measuring the
absorbed energy of moving mass after the specimen has been broken.
The dial has two scales marked on it. One for Charpy and other for Izod. The
Charpy scale has reading from 0 to 300 N-m. The striking energy (initial energy) of
Charpy striker is 300 N-m. The pointer shows the energy absorbed by the
specimen. Izod dial has readings marked in N-m. It has the range from 0 to 168N-
m. Striking energy in this case is 168 N-m.

28
 EXPERIMENT No. 3 (a) Date: ……………………

CHARPY IMPACT TEST FOR STEEL (SIMPLE BEAM TYPE TEST)

(Ref. IS: 1499-1959)
Aim:
To conduct Charpy impact test on standard steel specimen and to find out
(a) Energy absorbed for fracture
(b) Impact strength with U-notch (KCU)

Apparatus: Impact testing machine, scale, etc.

Principle:
Charpy test consists of breaking a 'U' notched standard test piece, gripped supported
at the ends, by one blow from a swinging hammer of striking energy of 300N-m. Impact
value is the energy absorbed by the specimen for fracture expressed in N-m. IS: 1499-
1959 specified a constant "impact strength"

Impact strength KCU =

Where So = Cross sectional area of test piece below the notch, measured in cm2
before the test.
The symbol KCU signifies that the test was performed under standard test conditions,
namely the striking energy of testing machine was 300 N-m and the test piece having a
5 mm deep U-notch was used. The test is conducted by keeping the specimen as a
beam. A notch of U shape is provided on back side of the striking face. This
arrangement will aid the fracture to occur at the cross section where notch is provided.
If during the test, the piece is not completely broken the impact value obtained is
indefinite. The test report should state that the piece was unbroken by
……………………N-m/cm2.

29
Specimen:
According to IS: 1499-1959, the test piece shall be machined all over and shall be
55mm long and of square section with 10mm sides. In the centre of the length there
shall be a U-notch 5mm deep rounded off at the base with a radius of 1.0mm.

Figure 3.2: Impact Test specimen details

Procedure:
1. Take measurements of the specimen and keep the specimen on anvil in such a
way that U-notch is facing away from striker.
2. Hold the hammer of the machine at the specified position for Charpy test.
3. Release the hammer and hold it when it returns after a single blow.
4. Note down the energy absorbed by the specimen for fracture directly from the
dial.

Observations:
Length of specimen L = ................................... mm
Breadth of specimen ‘b’ = .................................. mm
Depth of the specimen below the notch ‘d’ =….............................. mm

30
Tabular column:
Energy
Initial energy of the Residual
Sl. Absorbed
hammer, E1 Energy, E2
No E=E1-E2
(Joule) (Joule)
(Joule)

Calculations:
Area of cross section below the notch =…………………………..

Impact strength KCU=

= = J/cm2

Results:
Energy absorbed during fracture =.......................................... N-m

Impact strength with U-notch (KCU) =........................................ J/cm2

Questions:
1. What is the principle involved in Charpy impact test?
2. What precautions should be taken in Charpy impact test?

31
32
 EXPERIMENT No. 3 (b) Date: ……………
IZOD TEST (CANTILEVER TYPE TEST)
(Ref. IS: 1598-1960)

Aim:
To find the Izod impact value for steel specimens.
Apparatus: Impact testing machine, scale, etc.
Principle:
The test consists of breaking by one blow from a swinging hammer, under specified
conditions a ‘V' notched test piece, gripped vertically with the bottom of the notch in
the same plane as the upper face of the grips. The blow is struck at a fixed position
on the face having the notch. The energy absorbed is determined.
The specimen is tested as a cantilever beam. It has a notch V shaped on the
tension side facing the striker. The striking energy of the hammer is 168 N-m.
Impact value is the energy absorbed by the specimen for fracture expressed in
kilogram-meters or pound-foot.
If, during the test, the test piece is not completely broken, the impact value obtained
is indefinite. The test report should state that the test piece was unbroken by
……………………N-m/mm2

Specimen:
The test piece shall be of either square or round section. Details of a square
specimen and that of a round specimen is given in Fig. 3.3. In each case the plane
of symmetry of the 'V' notch shall be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
test piece. The surface of the specimen shall be smooth and free from grooves
running parallel to the plane of symmetry of the notch.
The 'V' notch should have an included angle of 450

33
 Figure 3.3: Details of Square and Rectangular Specimen
Procedure:
1. Take measurements of the specimen.
2. Clamp the hammer at the specified positions for Izod test.
3. Fix the specimen in the anvil keeping the 'V' notch facing the hammer.
4. Use feeler gauge to ensure that the notch of the specimen is at the required
height above the base.
5. Release the hammer and hold it when it returns after a single blow. Note down
the energy absorbed by the specimen for fracture in N-m directly from the dial.
6. Study the fracture and express the impact value.

Observations:
Length of specimen L = .................................. mm
Breadth of specimen b = ................................. mm
Depth below the notch d =… ............................. mm

34
 Tabular column:
Energy
Residual
Sl. Initial energy of the Absorbed
Energy, E2
No hammer, E1 (Joule) E=E1-E2
(Joule)
(Joule)

Calculations:
Area of cross section below the notch =…………………………..

Impact strength KCU =

= = J/cm2

Results
Energy absorbed for fracture........................................= ........................................ J

.......................................... = ........................................ J

Impact strength with V-notch (KCU) =......................................... J/cm2

Questions:
1. Compare the Charpy and Izod tests.
2. What is an impact load?
3. Why notch is provided in the impact specimens?
4. Why the notch is always provided in the tension face of the specimen?
5. Give the maximum energy used in Izod and Charpy Impact tests.

35
36
37
38
 EXPERIMENT No. 4 Date: ……………………

TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL

Aim:
a) To study the behavior of standard mild steel specimen, under the action of a
gradually increasing axial tensile load, tested up to failure, as per IS: 1608 - 1972.
b) To determine yield stress, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, percentage
elongation, percentage reduction in area, true and nominal breaking stress.

Apparatus:
Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Gripping device, Scale, Micrometer,
Punch and Hammer.
Scope and applicability:
The tension test is done on a standard test piece by applying a gradually increasing
uniaxial load (static load). This is also called static tension test. It is one among the
most commonly made simple mechanical tests to evaluate the fundamental
mechanical properties viz., elasticity, ductility and tensile strength. These properties
are important parameters in the design of structural components and machine
elements, which are expected to undergo static tensile force during the loading
period. Tension test is also made use of to study the stress-strain characteristics of
mild steel in tension which is of greater interest in industrial applications. It helps to
understand the yielding and necking phenomenon and the cup and cone type of
fracture.

Important terms and definitions:

a) Gauge Length: It is the distance between two references points on the prescribed
part of the test piece on which deformations are measured during the test. As per
BIS specification, the original gauge length before the test piece is strained is given
by the following formula.

= 5do for circular section

39
 Where = Original diameter
do
= Original c/s area

= Original gauge length

b) Yield Stress: Stress at which considerable elongation occurs in the test piece without
increase in load. Yield stress is yield load per unit area of c/s. Yield load is the load at
which the load pointer of Universal Testing Machine doesn’t show any change in load
for a while. At this stage increase in extension takes place at constant load. Yield
strength is the practical and most commonly used measure of elastic strength.
i) Upper yield stress: - The value of stress measured at the commencement of plastic
deformation at yield or the value of stress measured at the first peak obtained during
yield even when that peak is equal to or less than any subsequent peaks observed
during plastic deformation at yield.
ii) Lower yield stress: -The lowest value of stress measured during plastic
deformation at yield, ignoring any initial transient effects which might occur.
The upper yield stress corresponds to the upper yield point and the lower yield
stress to lower yield point in the stress-strain graph. The lower yield stress is taken
for calculation of safe stress (working stress) of the material.
c) Tensile Strength: The maximum load reached in the test divided by the original c/s
area. This is also termed as maximum tensile stress or ultimate tensile stress for
the material of the specimen.
d) Breaking Stress: Load at the time of breaking divided by the original c/s area is
called nominal breaking stress.
Load at the time of breaking divided by the final c/s area is called true breaking
stress. True breaking stress is always more than the nominal breaking stress.
e) Elastic limit: Elasticity is the property by which a material regains its shape fully
when the load is removed. Elastic limit is the stress limit below which a material
behaves as perfectly elastic. Practically this is close to proportional limit (limit upto
which stress is proportional to strain) so both are approximately considered as
same. (Actually elastic limit comes after proportional limit in stress-strain graph.)
f) Modulus of Elasticity: It is the ratio of axial stress to axial strain within the elastic
limit. It is the slope of the initial straight line portion of the stress-strain graph, where
stress is taken along Y-axis. It is a measure of elasticity. It is also known as
40
 Young's Modulus, ‘E’. Standard value of 'E' for mild steel is approximately 2.1x10 5
N/mm2
g) Percentage Elongation: The permanent elongation of the gauge length after
breaking, expressed as the percentage of the original gauge length. It measures
the ductility of the material.
Percentage elongation = x 100

Where Lu =Gauge length after fracture.

Lo =Original gauge length.
.
h) Percentage Reduction in Area: The change of c/s area which has occurred during
the test at the neck, expressed as a percentage of the original c/sarea.

Percentage reduction in area= x 100

Where Ao = Original c/s area.

Au = Minimum c/s area after fracture.
Specimen:
Test should be conducted on a standard specimen as specified by IS: 1608-1972.
As per BIS, c/s of the test piece may be circular, square or rectangular. Test on
circular specimen is done in the laboratory. Diameter of the specimen may be in
between 3.99 mm to 22 .56mm. Form of a typical circular test piece is shown in
Fig 4.1

Observations:
Initial length of the specimen L0: Final Diameter of the specimen at the
neck du:
Final length of the specimen Lu:
Final Cross sectional area Au:
Initial Diameter of the specimen d0:
Yield load Py:
Initial Cross sectional area A0:
Maximum Load Pu:

41
Tabular column:

Sl. No Elongation (mm) Load (kN)

42
 Fig 4.1: Tensile Test Specimen
The result of the test depends to a considerable degree on the hardness and
sharpness of the edges of the support bearing the specimen.

Description of Universal Testing Machine (Ref. Fig. 4.2)

The machine consists of
 Loading unit
 Driving unit and
 Electronic control panel

Universal
testing machine Control Panel

Computer

Fig. 4.2. Universal Testing Machine

43
Loading Unit: The loading unit consists of bottom plate, middle cross-head and top
plate. (Fig. 4.2). All the three plates are tied up between 4 columns. Middle cross-head
is guided to moves up and down between the columns by ball screws and they are
driven by servo motor through gear box. The limit switches are used to restrict the
motion of the middle cross-head. One encoder is fitted below the bottom plate which is
used to measure the displacement of the middle cross-head. The load cell on the
bottom plate senses the load acting on the specimen.
Driving unit: A D.C servomotor fitted at the bottom of the plate drives the gear box,
which in turn drives the ball screw. Being a variable speed motor the middle cross head
can be moved up and down at required sped. The rotary encoder, in-built with the
servo motor, measures the displacement of middle cross-head.
Electronic control panel: electronic control panel reads the load acting on the specimen
and the corresponding elongation or compression. The movement of the middle cross-
head can be controlled through the electronic control panel. The panel is connected to
the computer through RS-232 cable. The software can be used to obtain the maximum
tensile/compressive stress, yield stress, and the plot of load v/s deflection.

Procedure:
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen accurately.
2. Mark the gauge length using a marker.
3. Secure the specimen between the jaws such that distance between the jaws is
the gauge length.
4. Switch on the mains and the control unit.
5. Open the material testing software in the computer. Ensure that the RS-232
cable is connected to the computer from the control panel.
6. Go to FILE and open a new file.
7. Give a specified name to the file. And enter the specimen details and enter
SAVE.
8. Go to test type and select tensile test.

44
 9. Go to START TEST icon in the main menu and enter the details and click
ENTER.
10. Mention the appropriate scale for X and Y axis for the graph. Then enter TARE
LOAD and START.
11. Note down the load on the control panel after equal interval of displacement.
12. Note down the failure load.
13. To save the result, measure the final diameter at the neck and the final gauge
length.
14. Remove the failed specimen and study the failure pattern.

Graph:
Draw stress-strain graph taking stress in N/mm2 along y-axis and strain along
X-axis. This graph should be a straight line up to the proportional limit as shown
in Fig 4.3.
Calculations:

Initial c/s area =

Final c/s area = =

Yield stress =

Ultimate stress =

45
Nominal breaking stress =

True breaking stress =

Modulus elasticity, E = / = Slope of graph x /

Percentage elongation = ( ) x 100/

Percentage reduction in area = ( ) x 100/

Figure 4.3: Stress Strain plot

46
 Note: If load-extension graph is drawn taking load in kg along Y-axis and
extension in mm along X-axis (Fig 4.4.), the calculation is to be done as
follows.
The nature of the graph is a straight line as in the case of stress-strain graph. Fig 4.3

Modulus of elasticity E

Figure 4.4: Load vs Extension

Figure 4.5: Cup and cone type fracture

Notes:
1. Necking is the sudden reduction in cross sectional area at some part of the
specimen. An ideal elastic material should become a wire while in tension. But due
to impurities like blow holes etc, the weakest part of the specimen shows necking
and specimen fails at this point.

47
2. The specimen is expected to have a cup and cone fracture which is a typical ductile
failure. It has a silky, shining appearance and the plane of failure is at 45° to the
axis of the specimen.
3. The line in the graph need not pass through all points. If the points are slightly
staggered, a best fitting straight line is to be drawn through the points.

Results:

Yield stress = ........................................... N/mm2

= ........................................... N/mm2
Ultimate stress

= ........................................... N/mm2
Nominal breaking stress

= ........................................... N/mm2
True breaking stress
= ........................................... N/mm2
Modulus elasticity E

Percentage elongation = ……………………………….%

Percentage reduction in area = ……………………………….%

Questions:
1. Define a) Stress b) Strain c) Young's modulus.
2. State Hooke's law
3. Explain the terms a) Elastic limit b) Proportionality limit c) Yield point d) Ultimate
load e) Breaking load.
4. What is gauge length? Why it is standardized.
5. State the reason: In the tension test on mild steel breaking load is less than
ultimate load.
6. Sketch the typical fracture in a tension test on
a) Ductile material b) Brittle material

48
49
50
 EXPERIMENT No. 5 Date: ……………………

TORSION TEST ON CIRCULAR SHAFT

Aim:
To study the behaviour of a shaft when subjected to a gradually increasing twist and to
determine (i) Modulus of rigidity of the material (ii) Modulus of rupture in torsion
(iii) Maximum shear stress at yield point for solid circular shaft.
Apparatus:
Torsion testing machine, scale, screw gauge etc.
Theory:
In addition to the bars/rods under axial loads there are other loading cases in
engineering practice. In this chapter we will discuss the effects of applying a torsional
loading to a long straight circular member such as a shaft or tube, as extracted from
the machine showing in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Engineering example of torsional shaft

A circular bar when subjected to torque will get twisted. Shearing stresses will be
developed in any cross-section of the bar whose value increases linearly from zero
at the centre to the maximum at the outer periphery. The relation between the
applied torque, developed shear stress and angle of twist is given by the equation.

51
 =

Where T =applied torque (N-mm)


J = polar moment of inertia = d  in mm for solid shaft
4
4
32
θ= angle of twist in radians.
R = outermost radius of the specimen= d/2 in mm
G = Modulus of rigidity in N/mm2
L= gauge length of specimen between two punch marks in mm
fs= shear stress in N/mm2

Observations:
1. Diameter of the specimen, d = ............................. mm
2. Length of the specimen, L= ........................... mm

3. Torque at yield point, Typ = ................................ N-m

4. Torque at failure, = .................................. N-m

52
Tabular column:
Sl. (rad)
Material Torque (N-m)
No.

53
Modulus of Rigidity:
The modulus rigidity can be computed from the equation:

Where is the slope of the torque v/s angle of twist graph

Nature of graph for angle of twist on x-axis and torque on y-axis up to yield point is
as shown in Fig 5.2

Figure 5.2: Nature of graph

The Yield Point Shear Stress:

Where Typ = Torque at yield point from graph

R = Outermost radius of the specimen
Modulus of Rupture:
Modulus of rupture is the stress at failure calculated from the equation
where = Torque at failure of the specimen. Since the equation

is valid only upto proportional limit (elastic limit). fs calculated at the failure

will not give the actual stress value.

So it is called as a modulus and is used for comparison purpose only.

54
 Calculations:

1. Modulus of rigidity (From

Graph)

=… ................................ N/mm2
2. Yield point shear stress

=… ............................. N/mm2
3. Modulus of rupture in torsion or
shear stress at failure

=… .................................. N/mm2

Load Cell
Drive unit

Centre Encoder

Figure 5.3 Torsion testing machine

55
Scope and applicability:
For more precise determination of shearing properties, the torsion test is
conducted, using either solid or hollow specimens of circular section. In such a test,
the specimen can be of a length that a strain meter can be attached to assist in
determinations of proportional limit and yield strength in shear, shearing resistance
and stiffness (modulus of rigidity), the latter being obtained from the angle of twist
and the applied torque. For accurate determination of the elastic strength, a tubular
test specimen should be used. The torsion method is inapplicable to determine the
shearing strength of brittle materials like cast iron since the specimen would fail in
diagonal tension before the shearing strength is reached, although the torsion test
has been applied to cast iron for determination of overall torsional resistance.

Test specimen:
The test piece should be straight and of sufficient length to provide the desired
length between the grips. The standard test specimen is shown in Fig. 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Specimen details

Machine description:
The machine consists essentially of a drive unit, an encoder, load cell, two centers
to insert the jaw of required size to hold the specimen and a display unit. (Ref. Fig.
5.3) One end of the specimen is twisted using an electric motor. The display unit
consists of two LED displays; one for angle of twist in degrees and other for torque
in N-m. The capacity of the machine is 100 N-m. The display unit can be connected
to a dot-matrix printer to obtain the graphical output.

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter and gauge length of the specimen.
2. Fix the specimen in the specimen holder of the machine.
3. Keep the speed knob in forward direction.

56
 4. Switch on the mains and put the control unit knob ON.
5. Switch the display unit on.
6. Set the display and torque reading to zero.
7. Press the START/STOP button
8. Note the reading at some fixed interval of angular displacement.
9. Stop the machine once the specimen is broken.
10. Press the DATA button to read the maximum torque, angle of twist at the
maximum torque and the total angle turned.
11. Carefully remove the specimen from the Jaw.

Results:

Modulus of rigidity G =................................. N/mm2

Yield point shear stress s = ....................... N/mm2

Modulus of rupture in torsion = ....................... N/mm2

Questions:
1) Define (a) Modulus of rigidity.
(b) Polar moment of inertia.
(c) Polar modulus of section.
(d) Modulus of rupture in torsion.
(e) Yield point shear stress.
(f) Torsional rigidity.
2) What is a shaft? Give practical examples.
3) How is angle of twist measured in a torsion test?
4) What mechanical property is determined from torsion test and how?

57
58
 EXPERIMENT No. 6 Date: ……………………

TEST ON HELICAL SPRING

(IS CODE; 7906-1976)
Aim:
1) To study the behavior of close coiled helical spring under the action of gradually
increasing load.
2) To determine modulus of rigidity of the material of the spring.
3) To obtain the proof load, stress at proof load and the spring stiffness.

Apparatus: Universal Testing Machine, Scale & Micrometer, etc.

Scope and applicability:

Helical springs are used as shock absorbers in automobiles, spring loading of
levers, for restoring mechanisms to original configurations etc. They can store large
amount of energy and release this energy at a slow rate.

Theory:
A close coiled helical spring under the action of an axial load is structurally
equivalent to a bar subjected to a constant torque over its entire length If ' ' the

shortening or contraction under the load W, θ the twist in radians of one end cross-
section with the other end cross-section,

Then

Equivalent length of the wire L =

Where D = mean coil diameter
d =Diameter of wire
n = Number of coils

Figure 6.1: Spring Details

59
Observations:
No of coils n =

Mean coil diameter, D = mm

Least count of micrometer = mm

Diameter of wire, d = mm

Tabular column:

Deflection δ in Load in kN Average

mm Loading Unloading Average load in ‘N’

60
Proof Stress
Proof stress is the stress corresponding to the proof load. The proof load Wp is the
maximum load beyond which there occurs a permanent deformation in the spring in
tension or the compressive load which reduces the gap between successive coiIs
to zero.
Maximum shear stress in compression i.e. proof stress is given by the torsion
equation.

Where T = Torque produced on the coil =

J = Polar moment of inertia =

Ꞇ = Maximum shear stress

r = Radius of the wire
G = Modulus of rigidity of the spring material
L = Equivalent length of coil
θ = Twist in radians of one end cross- section with respect to other
If ‘ is the contraction or shortening under the load ‘W’

61
Modulus of rigidity of the spring (G)

Considering torsion equation =

Calculations:

1. Spring stiffness, K = slope of load vs contraction graph.

=……………………………….

= ................................................ N/mm

2. Modulus of rigidity, G =

=…………………………………..

= .................................................. N/mm2

3. Maximum shear stress at proof load =

= ………………………………..

= ................................................ N/mm2

62
Stiffness of the spring (W/)
It is defined as the load required to produce unit deflection and is equal to the slope
of load- contraction graph.
Graph:
A graph is drawn with load along Y-axis and contraction along x-axis. The slope of
the graph gives the stiffness of the spring. The readings are taken during loading
and unloading and the graph is plotted by taking average load values.

Figure 6.2: Load vs Contraction graph

Procedure:
1. Measure the mean coil diameter 'D' and the wire diameter ’d’.
2. Count the number of coils 'n'.
3. Place the spring in the machine and apply the load gradually.
4. Note the load values at regular intervals of displacement.
5. Apply the load till the proof load is reached (load at which the gap between
successive coils is zero).
6. During unloading operation note down the load values at the same contraction
intervals.
7. Plot the load-contraction graph taking the average load value (loading and
unloading) and corresponding contraction values.

63
Results:
1. Spring stiffness K= ........................................NImm
2. Modulus of rigidity of the spring material G=… ................................... N/mm2
3. Maximum shear stress at proof load =… .................................... N/mm2

Questions:
1. Define: (a) Stiffness of spring
(b) Spring constant
(c) Modulus of rigidity of spring material.
2. What is meant by proof load and stress at proof load in a spring test subjected
to compression? How are these determined?
3. Distinguish between open coiled spring and close coiled springs.
4. How are the modulus of rigidity, maximum shear stress at proof load and spring
stiffness determined in a test on helical spring?
5. Which significant properties are determined by the tests conducted on close
coiled springs subjected to axial tension and compression?

64
65
66
 EXPERIMENT No.7 Date: ……………………

TEST ON LEAF SPRING OR CARRIAGE SPRING

Aim:
i) To study the behavior of the leaf spring under the action of gradually increasing
load.
ii) To determine the 'proof load', skin stress at the proof load and stiffness of the
spring
iii) To determine modulus of elasticity of the material of the spring.
Apparatus:
Leaf spring testing machine, leaf spring, calipers, scale.etc.
Scope and applicability:
Leaf springs are widely used in automobiles, railway wagons and coaches. They
are used to absorb shocks which give an unpleasant feeling to the passengers. The
energy absorbed by a laminated spring during a shock is released immediately
without doing any useful work.
Theory:
A leaf spring or carriage spring behaves like a beam of uniform strength under the
action of a central concentrated load W. Structurally it is equivalent to a beam of
span 'L', with constant thickness and width which varies from zero at two ends to 'n
x b' at the centre.
Where n= number of leaves
b= width of each leaf
Bending moment at the centre of the span = WL/4

M= moment resisted by each leaf = 

Where I = and y=t/2

t = thickness of the leaf

67
 M=

Moment resisted by ‘n’ plates at the centre

M=

Equating maximum bending moment to resisting moment

=

Proof stress:
The maximum skin stress i.e. proof-stress occurs at the proof load (W p). Proof load
is the load required to make the spring flat.
Proof stress

The deflection ' ' from its original position, at the centre of the spring under any

load W is

Modulus of elasticity

68
Observations:

1. Number of leaves, n =………………………

2. Dimensions of cross-section of any one leaf b =… ................ mm
t =… ................. mm
3. Span, L =… .................. mm
4. Initial Bank at the center =....................... mm

Tabular column:

Central Load in kN Average load

Deflection in
in N
mm Loading Unloading Average

69
Stiffness of the spring:
It is the load required to produce unit deflection and is equal to the slope of the load
vs deflection curve.

Procedure:
1. Measure the width 'b', the thickness 't' of each of the leaves and count the
number of leaves 'n'.
2. Mount spring assembly trolley bracket.
3. Adjust the height between spring and upper clamp plate.
4. Close Left control valve (LCV) and right control valve (RCV).
5. Switch on the hydraulic switch ON.
6. Release RCV till you find that reading on the display is either remain constant
or zero.
7. Close RCV.
8. TARE load on the display.
9. Open RCV gradually and apply load till the spring becomes flat.
10. Note down the load on the display for some equal interval of displacement.
11. Switch the hydraulic off.
12. Open LCV slowly to take the reading during same interval of displacement
during release of the load.

Calculations:

1. Spring stiffness ‘K’ =

= …………………………..

=… ................................ N/mm

2. Modulus of elasticity ‘E’ =

70
 =… ..................................... N/mm2

3. Skin stress at the proof load ‘b’ =

= ............................. N/mm2

Figure 7.1: Leaf spring

Graph:
Load vs deflection curve is plotted and the slope of this curve gives the stiffness of
the spring. For plotting the graph, the average of the load values at regular
deflection intervals during loading and unloading may be taken.

Figure 7.2: Load vs deflection

71
Results:
1. Spring stiffness K =......................................... N/mm
2. Modulus of elasticity E =… .................................... N/mm2

3. Skin stress at the proof load  =… .................................... N/mm2

Questions
1. Give practical examples where different types of springs are used.
2. Why the length of leaves is not same in leaf spring?
3. Leaf spring is an example of beam of uniform strength, justify.
4. Distinguish between leaf spring and a helical spring.
5. Explain the terms (i) Proof load (ii) Proof stress (iii) Spring constant or stiffness
as applied to leaf spring.

72
73
 EXPERIMENT No. 8 Date: ……………………

SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL

Aim:
To determine the ultimate shear strength in single shear and double shear of mild steel
rod.
Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine, Shear Shackle, Micrometer screw gauge.
Theory:
Shear stress is caused by forces which act parallel to an area of cross section and tend
to produce sliding of one portion past another portion. Shear stresses are created by a
direct action of the force while trying to cut through the material, such as bolts, pins,
rivets, keys, etc. If there is only one cross section which resists the failure, the material
is said to be in single shear and the average ultimate shear strength will be equal to the
failure load divided by the area of cross section. If two areas resist the failure then the
material is said to be in double shear and the average ultimate shear strength will be
equal to the failure load divided by twice the area of cross section. (Ref. Fig.1 & 2).

Fig 1: Single Shear

Fig 2: Double Shear

The procedure for shear test is standardized by IS:5242-1969. A special shear

attachment called Shear Shackle is used to hold the specimen. The specimen can be
placed either one end supported or two ends supported in the shackle. One end
supported specimens fail under single shear where as both ends supported will fail
under double shear. The properties of shear stress are:

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 i. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.
ii. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of and element is equal in magnitude
and have directions such that both stresses point toward or away from the
corner
An element subjected to shear stress only is said to be pure shear, and the material will
deform, resulting in shear strains

Observations and Tabular column:

Ultimate Shear Safe Shear

Type Area of Failure Strength σs (Pu/A for Strength
Diameter
of c/s load Pu single shear,
(mm)
Test (mm2) (N) Pu/2A for double
shear) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Single
shear

Double
shear

Scope and applicability of direct shear test:

The result obtained from the direct shear test, that is the ultimate shear strength is
used to arrive at a safe shear stress of the material after adopting a suitable factor of
safety. This value of safe shear stress is used in design of rivets, crankpins, etc.

The result of the test depends to a considerable degree on the hardness and
sharpness of the edges of the support bearing the specimen. Care should be taken to
minimize the bending stress across the plane along which the shearing load is applied.
This test has further limitation of being useless for the determination of modulus of
elasticity or modulus of rigidity owing to the impossibility of measuring strains.

75
 Procedure:
1. Note down the dimensions of the specimen.
2. Place the specimen in the shear shackle with one end supported for single
shear test and two ends supported for double shear 'test.
3. Place the shackle in the universal testing machine and load without any jerk till
failure
4. Note down the failure load Pu in Newton.
5. Calculate the ultimate strength in shear.
6. Also calculate the safe shear strength using a factor of safety 3.

Results:
Safe shear strength in single shear =........................................ N/mm2
Safe shear strength in double shear = ....................................... N/mm2

Questions:
1. Distinguish between single shear and double shear.
2. Why modulus of rigidity is not determined from shear test?
3. Distinguish between average shear stress and maximum shear stress.

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77
 EXPERIMENT No. 9 Date: ……………………

BENDING TEST ON MILD STEEL

Aim:
To conduct static bending test on Mild Steel specimen and to determine
(a) Modulus of rupture
(b) Bending stress at proportional limit
(c) Modulus of elasticity.
Apparatus:
Universal testing machine, scale, and standard wooden specimen.
Theory:
Bending test on beams is usually made to determine strength and stiffness in
bending. While bending, beam cross sections develop bending stress in the form
of compressive and tensile stresses. Resultant tensile and compressive forces on
the cross section produce moment of resistance to oppose the bending moment
applied. Bending stress will be maximum at the extreme fibers. A specimen fails in
bending only when the applied bending moment exceeds the maximum moment of
resistance of the specimen cross section. In this test a simply supported wooden
beam specimen is tested under a central concentrated load to study the load-
deflection characteristics and to obtain other design parameters as mentioned
above. Rectangular c/s for the specimen is recommended by the IS code. The test
is to be conducted in accordance to IS 1708-1969. Bending stress at any fiber at a
distance 'y' from the neutral axis is given by the equation.

where = bending stress at a fiber distant 'y' from the neutral axis.

I = Moment of inertia = for rectangular c/s.

b= width of the specimen

d= depth of the specimen

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 The maximum bending stress is at the extreme fibre. For rectangular section,
ymax=d/2.

Maximum bending stress

(1)

Equation (1) is derived from the theory of simple bending and it is valid only up to
elastic limit.

P P

d
b

Figure 1: Bending Test specimen

Fig 2: Load vs displacement nature of graph

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Modulus of rupture:
This is the maximum stress value calculated on the assumption that the bending
equation is valid even at the failure of the specimen. Using equation (1) with the
ultimate bending moment (M.u) causing the failure;

Modulus of rupture=

This is not the actual fibre stress because of the invalidity of the equation (1) at the
time of failure. Thus this value is called “modulus” and is used to compare the
flexural strength of different specimens.
Modulus of elasticity:
This can be calculated from the load-deflection relationship of timber specimen. For
a simply supported beam with concentrated load at centre, central deflection

Where,
P = Load
L = Span
E = Modulus of elasticity
I = Moment of inertia
= Central deflection under the load P

P/ = slope of the straight line portion of the load-deflection curve

Proportional limit
This is the limit up to which load is proportional to the deflection or this is the point
on the graph where the transition from linear to nonlinear nature takes place. This
point is an approximation to elastic limit.
Scope and applicability:
Most structures and machines have members whose primary function is to resist
loads that cause bending. The bending test serves as a direct means of evaluating
the behavior under bending loads. The proportional limit and modulus of rupture

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are determined to establish, with appropriate reduction factors, allowable bending
stress for use in design. Modulus of rupture may also be used as a criterion of
quality control. The value of modulus of elasticity can be used to compute the
elastic deflection of beams of the same material but of different size, shape or
loading. Some error may be involved in those calculations because of (1) ignoring
shearing deflections (2) deviation from the straight line relationship of stress and
strain (3) lack of uniformity of the material.
The bending test is used as a control test for brittle materials and is not used for
determining ultimate strength of ductile materials.
Specimen:

As per IS:1708:1969 bending test is to be done on a specimen 50x50x750mm in

size. Specimen shall be absolutely free from any defects. (If standard specimen is
not available span shall be kept 14 times the depth of specimen)
Observations:
Depth d = ............................. mm
Breadth b =… ........................... mm
Span L =… ........................... mm
Load at failure = ............................... N

81
Tabular column:

Central deflection (mm)

Sl. No Load (P) in KN
Initial Final Difference

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Procedure:
1) Measure breadth and depth of the specimen. Mark the supporting points
keeping the span as 600mm.
2) Place the specimen in the Universal Testing Machine.
3) Switch on the machine and start applying the load.
4) Note down the loads corresponding to 1mm deflection (central deflection).
Deflection is read from the Vernier scale attached to the machine.
5) Continue the loading till failure occurs.
6) Note down the failure load.
7) Study the failure pattern.
,
Graph:
Draw a graph between 'P' (N) along Y axis & (mm) along X-axis. The graph will

have an initial straight line portion. Extend this straight line and mark the point of
deviation of the plot from the straight line. Load corresponding to this point is the
load at proportional limit. (PL)

Calculations:

Moment of inertia I =

= ……………………………..
= …………………………………..

Bending moment corresponding to the failure load

= ……………………………..
= .......................................... N-m

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Modulus of rupture =

= ……………………………
= ........................................ N/mm2

Stress at proportional limit =

= .............................. N/mm2

Modulus elasticity,

Where is the slope of the straight line portion of the graph.

= ........................................ N/mm2

Results
Modulus of rupture =… ................................ N/mm2
Stress at proportional limit =… .............................. N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity =… ................................ N/mm2

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Note: failure pattern:

The failure of the specimen shall be classified according to its appearance and
development as shown in fig 6-3

Figure 3: Failure phenomenon

Questions:
1) What is modulus of rupture?
2) State the equation governing simple bending.
3) What is proportional limit?
4) What is the significance of proportional limit obtained from bending?

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86
 EXPERIMENT No. 10 Date: ……………………

FATIGUE TEST ON MILD STEEL

Aim:
To determine the fatigue strength and endurance limit of given specimen.
Apparatus:
Fatigue testing machine, micrometer screw gauge etc.
Theory:
Most structural assemblies are subjected to variation in applied loads causing
fluctuations of stresses in the parts. If the fluctuating stresses are of sufficient
magnitude, even though the maximum applied stress may considerably be less
than the static strength of the material, failure may occur when the stress is
repeated a sufficient number of times. A failure induced in such a manner is called
a 'fatigue failure'. The phenomenon of decreased resistance of a material to
repeated stress is called fatigue.

Endurance Limit:
It is defined as the maximum value of stress or limiting stress below which the
specimen will not fail even after any number of reversals of stresses. It is now the
usual practice in endurance test to plot maximum stress at failures (Smax) against
log N where N is the number of stress reversals. The curve approaches asymptotic
after a certain stage (Fig.8.1). The magnitude of endurance limit is disclosed by a
definite discontinuity in the curve as shown in Fig.8.1

Figure 8.1: Nature of graph of endurance limit

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Endurance Ratio:
The ratio of endurance limit to static strength is known as endurance ratio. For most
structural materials this ratio varies from 0.2 to 0.6.

Observations and Tabular column:

Sl. Range of No. of Stress

Time (Sec) Mean Load (N)
No Load Reversals

Endure limit =............................................ N/mm2

Range of stress at endurance limit = (2 x )

= ................................... N/mm2

Endurance ratio

= ………………………………

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The test consists of mounting a test piece as a beam fixed at both the ends. The
test piece is subjected to the repeated loads. The test is continued until failure
occurs or until a predetermined number of stress cycles has been exceeding 10
million stress reversals for routine tests and 100 million cycles in special cases.
If Smax and Smin are the maximum and minimum values of the varying stress, then
the algebraic difference 'R' is called the range of stress.
Range of stress R=

Mean Stress

Mean stress =

The cycle is completely defined if the range of stress and the maximum stress are
given. For reversal of stress;

The cycle is completely defined if the range of stress and the maximum stress are
given. For reversal of stress;

Specimen for Fatigue Test:

As per IS 5075-1969 the standard dimension of the specimen is illustrated in
Fig 8.2

Figure 8.2 Specimen details of fatigue test

Scope and applicability:

Machine parts are frequently subjected to varying stresses and it is important to
know the strength of materials under such conditions. For this, fatigue test is made
use of. Fatigue tests of various types are conducted to develop data on endurance
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 limit of many materials. These tests are also used to study the stress concentration
factors.
It is difficult to apply the results of fatigue test on small specimens to the design of
complicated parts and built up units. To obtain direct information on the behaviour
of such units fatigue test can be conducted on full sized specimens. This gives the
required data for such components which are unsuitable for inspection test or
quality control test.

Machine description:
Fatigue testing machine has a provision to conduct either tension-tension or
tension-compression type fatigue test. The machine can produce a maximum load
of 50 KN and a displacement of 160mm. The main component of the machine is a
hydraulic actuator which is driven by hydraulic power pack under a pressure of
220 bar. The one end of specimen clamped to movable actuator and other end
clamped to fixed cross head. Servo hydraulic valves are used to provide upward
and downward movement to the actuator. The inputs provided by the operator
converted in electrical pulse and communicated to machine through
microcontroller. The fatigue testing machine connected to cooling tower to dissipate
the heat developed in the power pack.

Components of a fatigue testing machine

Fatigue testing machine is composed of the following structural components:
i. Load-producing mechanism: This generates the alternating load (displacement) to
which in some cases a steady load is added.
ii. Load-transmitting member: This includes grips, guide fixtures, flexure joints etc.
by which the load produced is transmitted in such a way as to produce the
desired stress distribution within the specimen.
iii. Measuring devices: This permit the setting of the nominal upper and lower load
limits.
iv. Control devices: This component controls the load throughout the test and
sometimes automatically corrects changes in force or displacement arising during
the test using feedback techniques.
v. Counter and shut-off apparatus This counts the number of stress reversals
imposed on the specimen and stop the testing machine after a given number of
cycles, at complete fracture of the specimen or at some pre-assigned change in
deformation or frequency.

90
vi. Framework It supports the various parts of the machine and if necessary is
arranged to reduce the vibratory energy transmitted to the foundation

Procedure:
1. Switch on the computer, hydraulic power pack and cooling tower.
2. Open MTL software and interconnect system and fatigue testing machine.
3. Adjust the height between upper cross head and lower cross head of the testing
column using HMI unit.
4. Clamp the specimen in the fixture.
5. Open test builder software and create a file.
6. Select testing mode as load mode.
7. Select fatigue test option from the test builder window.
8. Enter the maximum and minimum load should be applied on the specimen.
9. Enter the mean load of the specimen.
10. Set number of cycles required to perform the experiment.
11. Set the frequency of loading.
12. Set the high and low load limit of the machine according to maximum and
minimum load to be applied on the specimen.
13. To save the result create file in data acquisition option.
14. Bring the specimen to mean load condition by pressing Go to Mean Position
option.
15. Select start record option to capture the data and start the test.
16. Open View point software to view the loading pattern and displacement of the
specimen.
17. Once test finished export the data from the test builder and plot the load vs time
curve.

Plot a graph with various values of maximum stress (Smax ) on y-axis and N on log
scale along x-axis. The curve becomes almost flat for smaller stress levels. The
stress level at which the curve is asymptotic gives the endurance limit for the
material as shown in Fig.8.3.

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 Figure 8.3: Nature of endurance limit

Results:
Endurance limit Sp =…......................................... N/mm2
Range of stress at endurance =…......................................... N/mm2
Endurance ratio =………………………………..

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 EXPERIMENT No. 11 Date: ……………………

MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF METALS

Aim:
To analyze the microstructure of a EN8 steel rod using trinocular inverted metallurgical
microscope and to determine grain size.

Apparatus:
The polished specimen and inverted metallurgical microscope.

Theory:
The microstructure of a given metallic specimen gives an idea of the properties of the
same when magnified and viewed under a microscope at different magnifications. By
observing the grain structure, the grain size number as per ASTM standard can be
evaluated. When steel is hardened or normalized the grains come closer and are finer
in appearance and texture. This corresponds to a higher grain size number when
compared to the annealed sample wherein the grains are wider apart and courser
which corresponds to a lower grain size number.

Recording the results:

The print out should be retrieved from the computer with microstructure photographs
along with grain size number at different magnifications for different conditions of the
specimen namely as bought, hardened, annealed etc.

93
 EXPERIMENT NO-12 Date: ……………………

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

Aim:
To conduct heat treatment operation on a steel specimen
Apparatus:
Muffle furnace of heating range – 0 to 1000 degrees centigrade
Theory:
The purpose of heat treatment of steel is to alter its physical properties in order for
it to be suitable for a particular operation. The 3 main heat treatment processes
are- hardening, tempering and annealing. Hardening or quenching is heating the
steel above its critical temperature and suddenly cooling by dipping in water or oil.
Tempering is the operation to remove the brittleness of the hardened steel and
improve the toughness so that the tool doesn’t break during use. It consists of
heating steel to below its lower critical temperature (205 – 505 degree Celsius) and
cooling slowly , Annealing is softening the steel (opposite of hardening) by heating
the steel to a temperature below its critical temperature and cooling gradually,
sometimes inside the furnace covered with wood dust for a period of days. Critical
temperature is the temperature to which steel is to be heated for hardening. Higher
its carbon content, lower is its critical temperature to which it has to be heated.
Procedure:
Insert the specimen inside the furnace. Set the required temperature of the furnace
on its display panel and perform the hardening and tempering heat treatment
operations. Keep a can of water or oil ready to immerse the heated steel. Use
gloves and goggles always while handling hot metal.

94