Water Treatment

Water Treatment
Hand Book
PREFACE
Aqua Designs was started with the mission of providing eco friendly solutions
which will be useful for individuals, industries and also to nature.
Since its inception, Aqua Designs has offered successful solutions on

environmental perspective which has created a unique place in the industrial
sector.
The vision of MD Mr. Suthakar is to spread the message of harvesting water,

reducing its usage, recycling and reuse. This vision transformed into collection
of data on water and its uses and sharing this knowledge with one and all in
order to make this world a lively place to live.
.......... and hence this book.
With best compliments from

S. Suthakar
Managing Director – Aqua Designs
ABOUT US
Aqua Designs – Offers A to Z solutions for water and waste water treatment. A
one Stop Shop for all types of consultancies in water and waste water
management.
Aqua Designs commitment to the environment, keeps it in the forefront of

product innovations, purification and recycling technologies.
Aqua Designs provides water solutions for Institutions, Industry, Municipal

Authorities, and Commercial and Public properties. The Company boasts of the
widest range of specialty water-related products and services that are ISO
9001:2000 certified by RINA of Italy.
Aqua Designs was the proud recipient of the prestigious Award for The “Best
Upcoming Water Company 2006 – 2007”given by the magazine Water Digest
in association with UNESCO, NDTV Profit & WES-Net India in order to
acknowledge those persons and Organizations, who have contributed toward
water and its industry.
Aqua Designs was also the proud winner of the Awards for “Best Water
Treatment Project – Industrial 2007-2008” & “Best Water R&D and
Technological Breakthrough 2007-2008” instituted by Water Digest.
For the year 2008-2009, Aqua Designs added one more feather in its cap. It
bagged two more Awards instituted by the Water Digest for the categories Best
Consultancy & Best Water Conservation IT Park showing its strength in IT
Sector using MBR Technology.
A proven track record of offering A – Z solutions was appreciated and the Best
Consultancy Award is the proof for that.
The Company has excellent marketing and sales team with a cumulative
experience beyond 100 years. It is one of the major reason for Aqua Designs
entering big corporate and Multi National Companies. Due to its expertise the
Company is able to offer competitive Designs and proposals, which keeps the
competitors at bay .This proven technology has made the company one of the
front runners in this field.
Aqua Designs success depends on its human resources. From Designs,
Proposals, Projects, Erection and commissioning to operation and
maintenance, it has proved its capability in the market which gives them a clear
edge over others in the market.
Aqua Designs is supported by its own State-of-the-Art Laboratory for testing

water, waste water, air & stack samples both for physiochemical and
microbiological parameters as per PCB norms and IS standards. We have the
facility to monitor stack emissions and ambient air quality...The facility is
certified under ISO 9001:2000. The Laboratory handles and supports all in
house requirements; specific client needs and also offers Pilot Plant studies.
Aqua Designs provides services starting from EIA to Designs to implementation

of Projects to Operation & Maintenance to Supply of Specialty Chemicals to run
the operations and finally to analyze the various products of the treatment
using its Laboratory facility.
Aqua Designs also has its own chemical manufacturing and fabrication facilities
to support its growing needs in business.
Aqua Designs was formed with the sole intention of suggesting eco friendly
solutions for Industries and Municipalities. The vision was to provide solutions
to varied sectors in par with the developed nations.
Aqua Designs not only offers the concepts and design to their customers, but
also stay with the customer and successfully operate the scheme for years.
The customer satisfaction has lead Aqua Designs to be successful in various

types of Industries ranging from Petrochemicals, Automobile, Food and
Beverages, Breweries and Distilleries, Chemicals, Electronics, Power Industries
etc.
Aqua Designs believes only in continual improvement. It keeps offering

innovative solutions to its customers. One such is the concept of Membrane Bio
Reactors technology for treating the Sewage. Aqua Designs has now set a trend
such that big IT Parks have started using MBR Technology.
Aqua Designs is leaping forward like a giant and nothing can stop it. In the near
future it aspires to be a Global leader. Aqua designs “believes in Better the Best”
and this has made everything possible.
CHAPTER 1
Impurities in Water................................ ................................................................ ...................... 1
CHAPTER 2
Filters ................................................................ ................................ ........................................... 8

CHAPTER 3
Iron Removal Filters ................................ ................................................................ ..................... 13
CHAPTER 4
Ion Exchange ................................ ................................................................ ................................ 17
CHAPTER 5
Softener ................................................................ ................................ ....................................... 36
CHAPTER 6
Membrane System................................ ................................................................ ....................... 40
CHAPTER 7
Steam Boiler ................................ ................................................................ ................................ 49
CHAPTER 8
Cooling Water Treatment................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 62
CHAPTER 9
Pumps ................................................................ ................................ .......................................... 79
CHAPTER 10
Raw Water Treatment ................................ ................................................................ ................. 84
CHAPTER 11
Industrial Waste Water Treatment ................................................................ .............................. 92
CHAPTER 12
Chemical Cleaning................................ ................................................................ ........................ 97

WATER SAMPLE TEST PROCEDURES ................................................................ ........................ 107
Phenolphthalein (P) Alkalinity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ........ 109
Total (M) Alkalinity Test Procedures ................................................................ ....................... 110
Conductivity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................... 112
pH-Electrometric Method Test Procedures ................................................................ ............. 113
Total hardness Test Procedures ................................................................ .............................. 114
Sulphite testing procedure ................................ ................................ ...................................... 115
Chloride Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 116
Checking Acid Solution Strength for Cleaning ................................ ................................ .......... 117
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT CONVERSION ...................................................... 118
BASICS................................................................ ................................ ..................................... 119

CHAPTER 1
01
Impurities in Water
Water impurities
Impurity in water technology is a relative term. For example Hardness is not
considered as an impurity in drinking water but in industrial water treatment
it leads to scaling of equipment and hence considered as an impurity.
Common impurities in water, their effect and method of removal are as follows:
Impurities Effect Method of removal
Can clog pipelines and Coagulation, setting

Turbidity
equipment can choke Ion and filtration
Suspended silica
exchange resin and RO
membranes
Color Indication of organic, iron Coagulation, settling

etc. and can be harmful to filtration, followed by
the unit operation ahead. activated carbon filter.
Organic matter Can foul Ion exchange Coagulation, setting,

resins membranes and filtration, followed by
may be detrimental to activated carbon
process. filtration.
Bacteria Will depend upon the type Coagulation, filtration,

of bacteria, can induce setting and super
corrosion and also harmful chlorination, UV,
to RO membrane. ozonation
Iron Red water, corrosion, Aeration, coagulation,

deposit, interferes with filtration, filtration
dyeing, bleaching etc. through Manganese
Zeolite
pH High pH or low pH can both Ion exchange, addition

induce corrosion. of acid or alkali.
Calcium, Scaling, cruds with soap Ion exchange

Magnesium interfere with dyeing and Lime Soda
(Hardness) also harmful to other
process.
02 WATER TREATMENT HAND BOOK

Sodium Unharmful when low in Ion Exchange through

concentration, increase cation H+ resin.
TDS, high concentration Reverse Osmosis
can induce corrosion.
Bicarbonates, Corrosion, foaming and Acid addition

Carbonates, carry over Ion Exchange by WAC
Alkalinity, Hydroxide Resin Split stream by
(Alkalinity) hydrogen cation resin
Degassification after step
2 and 3
Sulphate Scaling if associated Ion Exchange Reverse

with Calcium, harmful in Osmosis Evaporation
construction water. Electrolysis.
Chloride Corrosion Ion Exchange

Reverse Osmosis
Evaporation
Electrodylasis.
Nitrate Normally not found in Ion Exchange

raw water. Harmful in Reverse Osmosis
food processes
(especially baby food).
Silica Scaling and deposition Ion Exchange

on equipment.
Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Open aeration,

Degasification, and
Vacuum deaeration.
Hydrogen Sulphide Corrosion Aeration, filtration

through Manganese
Zeolite, aeration plus
chlorination.
Oxygen Corrosion Deaeration

Addition of chemicals
likes sodium sulphite or
hydrazine.
03
Ammonia Corrosion especially of Aeration

Copper and Zinc Hydrogenations exchange if
ammonia is present in Ionic
form.
Free chlorine Corrosion By adding chemicals

Activated carbon
Definition of Terms
Total Cations= TC= Ca++ + Na+ all as CaCO3
Total Anions=TA=T Alkalinity + Cl + SO4-- + NO3 all as CaCO3
Total Hardness=TH= Ca++ + Mg++ as CaCO3
Total Alkalinity=T.Alk= HCO3 - + CO3-- + OH- all as CACO3
EMA= Cl- + SO4-- + NO3- all as CaCO3
Total Acid Ions=EMA + CO2 + SiO2 all as CaCO3
Total electrolyte=TE=TC=TA
Total dissolved solids=TDS=TE + SiO2
Total electrolyte: Electrolytes are strongly ionized compounds. TE is
numerically equal to either TC or TA (not some of both). SiO2 and CO2 being
weekly ionized are not included in total electrolyte.
Leakage: Electrolyte or silica passing through the demineralizing unit due to

incomplete ion exchange.
Conductivity: The ability of a solution to carry current. Conductivity

measurement is used to indicate the purity of water. It is measured as micro
mhos or micro siemens/cm.
Resistivity: Resistivity is a measurement used for ultra pure water. Its unit is
megohm. Resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity
Water Analysis Format

The following format which has been shown is for ease of designing
calculation where total cation or anion can be easily seen, matched for
correction of analysis and also for designing the Ion Exchange units. Water
testing laboratories normally do not give analysis for many ions in CaCO3
units; example Chloride ion, given as Chloride (mg/liter) which should be
converted to CaCO3ppm units, by multiplying by 1.41. Similar other ions,
which are not mentioned in CaCO3 units, should be converted to CaCO3
units.

Substance Symbol Example Substance Symbol Example
Calcium Ca++ 125 Bicarbonates HCO3- 150
Magnesium Mg++ 105 Carbonates, CO3-- 0

Hydroxides OH- 0
Sodium Na+ 100 Chlorides Cl- 100
Potassium K+ 0 Sulphate SO4-- 80

Nitrate No3- 0
Total Cation TC 330 Total Anions TA 330
Total Ca + Mg 230 Alkalinity HCO3- + 150

Hardness CO3-- +
OH-
Equivalent Cl- 180

Mineral So4–
Acidity No3-
All the above are expressed as ppm CaCO3
Iron Fe 0.5 Silica SiO2 20

express Carbon Co2 15
ed in Dioxide
mg/liter
as Fe
Substance Unit Example
Turbidity NTU 5 NTU

Colour Hazen 5 Hazen Unit
Total Dissolved Solids Ppm 350 ppm
Suspend Solids Ppm 20 ppm
Acidity/Alkalinity pH 7.3
05
Conversion Factors for conversion to Calcium Carbonate
(CaCO3)
Ions Symbol Ionic Equivalent To convert

weight weight to CaCO3
multiply by
CATIONS
Aluminum Al+++ 27.0 9.0 5.56
Ammonium Nh4 + 18.0 18.0 2.78
Barium Ba ++ 137.4 68.7 .728
Calcium Ca+ 40.1 20.0 2.49
Copper Cu++ 63.6 31.8 1.57
Hydrogen H+ 1.0 1.0 50.0
Iron Fe++ 55.85 27.8 1.80

(Ferrous)
Iron (Ferric) Fe+++ 55.85 18.6 2.69
Magnesium Mg++ 24.3 12.2 4.10
Manganese Mn++ 54.9 27.5 1.82
Potassium K+ 39.1 39.1 1.28
Sodium Na+ 23.0 23.0 2.17

To convert
Ions Symbol Ionic Equivalent to CaCO3
weight weight multiply by
ANIONS
Bicarbonate Hc03- 61.0 61.0 0.82
Bisulphate HSO4- 97.1 97.1 0.515
Bisulphite HSO3 - 81.1 81.1 0.617
Carbonate Co3– 60.0 30.0 1.67
Chloride Cl- 35.5 35.5 1.41
Fluoride F- 19.0 19.0 2.63
Hydroxide OH- 17.0 17.0 2.94
Nitrate No3- 62.0 62.0 0.807
Phosphate H2PO4- 97.0 97.0 0.516

(monovalent)
Phosphate HOP4– 96.0 48.0 1.04

(divalent)
Phosphate Po4— 95.0 31.7 1.58

(trivalent)
Sulphate So4– 96.1 48.0 1.04
Sulphide S– 32.1 16.0 3.12
Sulphite So3– 80.1 40.0 1.25
07
CHAPTER 2

Filters
Basic Operation of Filter
The basic operation of Pressure Filter, Dual Media Filter and Activated Carbon
and iron removal filters is same.
All Units operate in down flow mode, where the water enters from the top,
percolates through the media and treated water is collected from the bottom.
Sequence of Operation
u
Service: The water to be filtered enters from the top of the shell,
percolates downward through the media and is drawn off from the
bottom.
u
Backwash: The water enters from the bottom of the vessel, passes
through the media and is drained from the top. This is called
BACKWASH and it is done to carry the dirt accumulated on the top.
Generally back washing is done once in every 24 hrs or when the
pressure drop exceeds 8 psi. (0.5 kg/cm2).
Rinse : The water enters from the top passed through the media and is drained
off from the bottom.
Dirty Water
Raw Water
Filter Media Filter Media

Collecting System
Collecting System
Treated Water Raw Water

Backwash
Note
When activated carbon is installed in a vessel, it should be soaked for 12 to 24
hours to remove trapped air and back washed to remove fines and stratify the
bed. A necessary maintenance item, periodic back washing removes solids
trapped in the carbon bed, as well as fine carbon particles. Since the
dechlorination reaction oxidizes the carbon surface, which slowly breaks down
the carbon structure, back washing is especially important in de-chlorination
applications. Frequency is determined by the solids content of the feed water.
Tests on activated carbon dechlorination systems indicate that regular back
washing of carbon beds helps preserve the dechlorination and filtering
efficiency. By back washing regularly and expanding the carbon by at least 30
percent, fouling or binding of the carbon bed does not occur.
09
CAUTION
Wet activated carbon removes oxygen from air. In closed or partially closed
containers and vessels, oxygen depletion may reach hazardous levels. If
workers must enter a vessel containing activated carbon, appropriate sampling
and work procedures for potentially low-oxygen spaces should be followed as
required by salutatory requirements.
Thumb rules for designing a filter
Calculate area of vessel by required volumetric flow rate and the velocity as
mentioned in the following table.
Area (m2) = Volumetric Flow Rate (m3/hr)/ Velocity (m/hr) (1)
Based on above calculated area calculate diameter of the vessel by the
following formulae:
Diameter (m) = [Area (m2)/ 0.785] ½ (2)
Dual Media Activated

Parameters Sand Filters Filters Carbon
Velocity (m3/m2/hr) 7.5 – 12 12-20 15-20
Effective size of 0.45 - 0.6 0.65 - 0.76 0.35 - 0.5

Media (mm) (fine sand) (Anthracite)
Uniform coefficient 1.6 max 1.85 <2(115 typical)
Density (kg/m3) 2650 1600
Other requirements
Parameters
Loss of head 0.03 M for clean bed to .2 to 3 M final

Length of run 12 to 24 hours or when the pressure
between cleaning drop across the bed reaches 0.5 Kg/cm2
Back washing at rate of 36 M/Hr or
Method of cleaning 24 m/hr with air scouring at 36 M/hr
at 0.35 to 0.5 kg/Cm2 pressure
Amount of wash water 1 to 4 %

Time for back washing 10 to 20 minutes
Time for air scouring 2 to 5 minutes

Important points on Filter:
u
Normally, pressure sand filter is used to filter suspended solids upto
30 ppm and dual filter for 50-55 ppm and water with higher
suspended solids would require coagulation. Output quality of water
from Pressure Sand Filter is 25 to 50 microns.
u
Normally, velocity for Sand velocity is taken for water treatment /
residential filter are taken from 7.5 to 18 M3/M2/hr; for institutional
filters 20 to 30
M3/M2/hr. For recirculation of water like swimming pool velocities
u
can be taken greater than 35 M3/M2/hr for low turbidity application
u
Higher velocity will induce higher head loss through the bed and
frequency of backwash will increase.Back washing of filter should
always be carried out using clean water.
u
Whenever air scouring is provided, it should be done before back
washing step.
u
Where strainers are provided at bottom, pebbles and gravels need
not be put.
Quantity of Media
Quantity of media is Calculated in Cubic Meters (M3) and then converted to
Kgs
The depth for various media is
Sand/ Anthracite 540 mm
Crushed Gravels 100 mm
Pebbles (1/2 to1/4) 100 mm Media
Pebbles (1 to1/2) 100 mm Height
Pebbles (11/2 to 1/4) 160 mm

Volume = Area* (depth/1000)
Trouble Shooting of Filters
PROBLEM CAUSE REMEDY
Turbidity Change in Analyze water

Breakthrough Raw water Backwash
Broken Laterals Change the laterals or rectify.
Loss of media
High backwash flow Control Backwash
Give Backwash If backwash does
High Pressure Drop not solve problem give extended
Media Dirty
across Bed backwash Change Filter media
if Step 1 & 2 does not work
Air Scour & Give extended
Mud Ball Formation Change in Raw backwash Check pretreatment
Water Quality if any Decrease Velocity Change
Media if nothing of above works.
11
Filter Details
uBlower velocity is at 36 M / Hr at pressure is 0.5 Kg / cm2
uminimum service Velocity is 7.5 M/ Hr
uNormal service Velocity is 9.0 M/Hr
uMaximum service Velocity is 7.5 M/ Hr
uBackwash velocity For Air scour type 24 M/Hr
uBackwash velocity For Non Air scour type 24 M/Hr
uDensity of Media is 2600gm/cc
Model
Diameter
500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
in mm
Bed Area
0.20 0.28 0.51 0.79 1.13 1.54 2.01 2.54 3.14 3.80
in M2
Height on
straight
(HOS)in 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 15 00 1500 1500
M HVT
Height on
straight
(HOS) in 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400
M for Air
scour type
Bed Depth
in Meters 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Service
Flow (mini)
1.5 2.1 3.83 5.93 8.48 11.5 15.08 19.05 23.55 28.50
M3/Hr
Service
Flow
1.8 2.52 4.59 7.11 10. 13. 18. 22. 28. 34.
Normal)
17 86 09 86 26 20
M3/Hr
Service
Flow (Maxi) 2.0 2.8 5.1 7.9 11.3 15.4 20.1 31.4 25.4 38.0
M3/Hr
BW Flow
M3/Hr 4.8 6.72 12. 18. 27. 36. 48. 60. 75. 91.
For Air 24 96 12 96 24 96 36 2
Scouring
type

CHAPTER 3
13
Iron Removal Filters
Many water supplies contain quantities of iron & manganese that may be
detrimental to number of domestic and industrial use if not removed. Iron &
manganese removal is very important pretreatment step in Ion Exchange &
R.O. treatment.
u
Iron & manganese exists in water in the following forms
u
Insoluble iron & manganese
u
Soluble iron & manganese
u
Organic iron & manganese
u
Combination of all three
Depending on the type of iron present in water different treatment methods are
adopted.
S.No Type of impurity Removal method

No oxidation required.
Insoluble iron Simple Coagulation in
1
& manganese solid contact Unit
followed by filtration
Oxidation by air, chlorine

2 Soluble iron & manganese & filtration Lime / Lime
soda softening Ion Exchange
3 Organic bound iron Coagulation by alum, settling
4 Combination of three above Manganese zeolite
Parameter
Manganese Zeolite
Colour Black
(manganese Greensand)
Density 1360Kg/M3
Manganese zeolite is a natural green
Effective size 0.30- 0.35 mm
sand coated with manganese oxide
Uniformity coefficient 1.6
that removes Iron & manganese from
Mesh size 16—60
solution. The greensand is processed Attrition loss per
by treating with manganous sulfate 2—4 %
annum %
and then with potassium Bed Depth 700 mm of
(minimum) greensand and
permanganate. This results in the
300mm of anthracite
higher Oxides of manganese in and Freeboard 50% of bed depth
on the green sand granules. The Service flow rate 5 –12 M3/hr/M2
resultant greensand is a manganese Backwash flow rate 20—25 M3/hr/M2
zeolite with following characteristics.

Removal process
Manganese zeolite process is used in conjunction with above process when the
concentration is more or as a standalone process if the concentrations of Fe &
Mn are low.
There are two methods, which is normally employed for removal of Fe & Mn by
Manganese zeolite.
u Batch process (intermediate Regeneration)
u Continuous KMnO4 feed system
Batch process (intermediate Regeneration)

The regenerative batch process uses Manganese zeolite both as oxidizing
source and also as filter media. After the zeolite is saturated with metal ions, it
is regenerated with KMnO4 (potassium per manganate).
This process has its limitation. Batch process is employed when the
concentration of iron & manganese is small (i.e. < 2 PPM) and also if the
flowrate required is not very high. (Flow rate limited to about 5-6M/Hr)
The capacity of manganese zeolite is (0.09lbs iron or manganese / Cu Ft)

And the regeneration is done by 0.5 % KMnO4. The amount of KMnO4 required is
about (0.18lbs of KMnO4 / Cu Ft of media). Backwashing at 20-25 M3/Hr /M2 is
done once in 24 hours or when the pressure drop across the bed reaches to 7-8
psi, whichever is earlier.
Continuous KMnO4 feed system:

Batch process is still used but is being replaced quite rapidly by continuous feed
system. In this process KMnO4 solution is added before the pressure filter that
contains dual media and manganese zeolite. The Anthracite on the top of
Manganese zeolite acts as a filter and removes the iron & manganese oxidized
by permanganate. MnO2 oxidizes the residual ions that are not oxidized by
permanganate. MnO2 also removes excess KMnO4. When the bed gets
saturated with metal oxides, it is backwashed to remove all particulate
matters.
Reaction times
Permanganate is fed as 1-2 % solution directly to the inlet line. Contact time for
oxidation is about 20—60 seconds; hence it is fed 20 '(50-60 mm) upstream
from the zeolite bed Alkali is added to low pH water for optimum removal but
utmost care should be taken during alkali addition due to precipitation problem
KMnO4 is used either in conjunction with chlorine or alone. KMnO4 dosage
differs depending on whether it is used alone or with chlorine.
15
Dosage of KMnO4
With chlorine
1 mg/liter ofCl2 / 1ppm of Fe
KMnO4 mg/liter = (0.2mg/literKMnO4 for 1ppm of Fe) + (2 mg/liter of
KMnO4 for 1ppm Of Mn) + (5mg/liter of KMnO4 for1ppm of H2S)
Without Chlorine
KMnO4 mg/liter = (1.mg/literKMnO4 for 1ppm of Fe) + (2 mg/liter of KMnO4 for
1ppm Of Mn) + (5mg/liter of KMnO4 for 1ppm ofH2S)
Birm
Birm is another type of manganese dioxide. It is a silicon dioxide core that has
been coated with manganese dioxide. This makes Birm much lighter than its ore
counterpart, less than 400gms/liter. The benefit of this type of product is that it
can be backwashed at a flowrate of 0.8Kg. / Liter. Birm does require dissolved
oxygen in the water for the precipitation of iron, where the manganese dioxide ore
does not. Birm relies on its ability to act as a catalyst between iron and oxygen. It
has a limited amount of MnO2 available, so it does not have the ability to supply
oxygen through a redox reaction. The oxygen content should be, at least,
equivalent to 15% of the total iron content. If the oxygen content is less than
15%, aeration is required. Birm is recommended on levels of iron less than 10
ppm. It can be utilized on higher concentrations, but the frequency of
regeneration (backwashing) becomes excessive. Birm has a capacity of
approximately 900 -1100 grams/Cu meter. It can treat up to 3 cubic meters of
water containing 10 ppm Fe as CaCO3. Birm should not be used on waters that
have oil or hydrogen sulfide, and the organic matter should not exceed 5 ppm. As
with any product, consult the manufacturer for operational guidelines. (Sybron
Chemicals).

CHAPTER 4
17
Ion Exchange
Ion Exchange Load Calculation
Let us take the following examples
Feed water analysis as ppm CaCO3
Cations Unit as ppm CaCO3 Anions

Calcium 210 Bicarbonate 200
Magnesium 40 Chloride 70
Sodium 120 Sulphate 85
Potassium 5 Nitrate 20
Iron 0
Total 375 Total 375
Free CO2 - 15, Silica – 5

Ion Exchange load w.r.t different unit operation
Concentration
Unit Operation Ion Exchange Load
(as ppm CaCO3)
Total Hardness
Softening (Ca +Mg) 250
Dealkaization HCO3 200
Strongly acid Total Cations

375
Cation(TC) (Ca+Mg+Na+K)
Weakly Basic Anion EMA (SO4+Cl+NO3) 175
Strongly acid Cation Total Cations –

175
after dealkalization Carbonate Hardness
Strongly Basic Anion

Total Anions – EMA 225
after WBA
Strongly Basic Anion Total Anions 375
Strongly Basic Anion (Cl+SO4+NO3+SiO2) - 185 (assuming 5 ppm

after Degassing (Alkalinity + CO2) leakage of CO2)
Strongly basic Anion Total Anion – (T.Alk 10 ppm (assuming 5

after degassing + EMA ) +SiO2 ppm leakage )
and WBA

Ion Exchange load w.r.t different unit operation
u
Match total cations to total cations to total Anions. They should be equal.
(Error of +_ 5% can be considered)
u
Refer to the table for calculating the Resin Quantity. The Ion Exchange
load can be taken as mentioned in the table.
Ion Exchange Resin Quantity (liters) = [Flow (m3/hr)* Ion

Exchange load(ppm)* Time] / Ex.capacity of Resin (gms/liter)
Sizing consideration for Ion Exchange System

Parameters Cation Anion Mixed bed Degassifier
Velocity* 15-20 M/hr 15-20 M/hr 30-44 M/hr 50-70 M/hr
2400-3600
Bed Depth 900-2000 mm 900-2000mm 1000-2000 mm
mm
Free Board * 60-100% 60-100% 60-100%
Type of Hub/radial Hub/radial Hub/radial Rasching rings
Internal Strain on plate Strain on plate Strain on plate Pall rings
Approximate regenerate Level and operating Capacity
Parameters WAC SAC WBA SBA Type 1 SBA Type 2 MB

Regeneration level
gm/L Cation 110 80 80
Regeneration level
55 80 80 80
gm/L ANION
EC for CATION
110 54 40
gm CaCO3/L
EC for ANION
50 35 25 20
gm CaCO3/L
Design parameters
Parameters Unit WAC SAC WBA SBA Type 1 SBA Type 2
Regenerant
flowrate M3/Hr/M3 4 4.8 2.1 4 4
Total rinse BV 5 5 5 5 5
Displacement
BV 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Rinse
Backwash
M3/Hr/M2 6 9 6 6 6
velocity
Fast Rinse M3/Hr/M3 16 16 8 8 8
19
4 % NaOH contains 41.75 gms NaOH per liter
50 % NaOH contains 763 gms NaOH per liter
99% NaOH contains 803 gms NaOH per liter
4 % HCl contains 40.72 gms HCl per liter
32 % HCl contains 479.2 gms HCl per liter
Ion exchange systems

Following different schemes of DM / Ion exchange systems are possible
depending upon the application and the outlet water quality required
Note:
u Detailed parameters on the quality of water required in various
industries is given in Chapter 9.
u SA – Strong Acid Resin (H+)
u SA*- Strong Acid Resin (Na+)
u WB – Weak Base Anion Resin
u D – Degasser
u SB – Strong Base Anion Resin
u WC – Weak Acid Cation Resin
u MB – Mixed bed (mixture of Strong Acid Cation Resin (H+) and
u strong base anion resin (OH-)
# Type Of DM/ Ion Exchange Application Outlet Water

Systems Quality
1 Removal of silica, Conductivity <

SA WB
removal of CO2 is 50 micro mhos
not required
2 Where CO2 and Conductivity <

silica removal is 30 micro mhos,
SA SB
required, low silica < 0.5
alkalinity water ppm
3 Where CO2 Conductivity <

content is high, 30 micro mhos,
SA D SB
i.e. high alkalinity silica < 0.5
water ppm
4 EMA and alkalinity Conductivity <

high in raw water 30 micro mhos,
SA D WB SB
silica < 0.5
ppm

5 High EMA and Conductivity <
high alkalinity 30 micro mhos,
in raw water silica < 0.5 ppm
WC SA D WB SB Hardness > =1
Alkalinity
6 Softening, Hardness less

where only than 5 ppm as
SA* hardness to be CaCO3
removed
7 Dealkalization 10 % of the
when only influent
WC D temporary alkalinity TDS
hardness is reduction upto
present alkalinity
removal
8 Dealkalization 10 % of the
alkalinity with influent
SA* permanent alkalinity TDS
SA D
hardness reduction
alkalinity
removal
9 Low Conductivity <
conductivity 1 micro mhos,
MB1 water required silica < 0.002
MB is installed ppm
after SBA
10 When ultrapure Conductivity <
water is 0.02 micro
required for mhos,
MB1 MB2
pharmaceutical resistivity 14-18
or electronic mega ohms
industries silica < 0.002
ppm
Service
Raw Water is passed through ion exchange unit till the required quality of water is
being produced. This is known as service cycle. When the resin stops producing
desired quality water, the Resin is said to be exhausted and will have to be
regenerated. Service flow can be down flow (top to bottom) or upflow (bottom to
top).
Regeneration
The restoration of resin back to its original form is called Regeneration.
Depending upon the resin, regeneration is usually done by using acid, alkali or
common salt. These chemicals are known as regenerant.
Sequence of Regeneration for down flow unit is :-
1. Backwash
2. Chemical injection
3. Displacement (slow rinse)
4. Fast rinse or Final rinse
In the up flow unit upward wash is only done for a minute or so.
21
Operation of Ion Exchange unit
Downflow Coflow Regeneration

2
Backwash Chemical Injection
3
1 Raw water
2 Backwash outlet
3 Chemical Injection inlet
4 Power water for ejector
4 5 Drain for chemical and
final
rinse
Regeneration Tank
1
5
Fast Rinse
Slow Rinse
5
5

Upflow Countercurrent Regeneration
Chemical Injection Slow Rinse
Regenerant Flow
3 3
5 Power Water 5
Power Water Drain Drain
2
Final 2
Rinse
6
Final Rinse
Raw water or feed water

Raw water or feed water Final Rinse 1
23
Typical Regeneration Efficiencies for different type of resins
Resin Type / Typical Regeneration

Regeneration System Efficiencies (%)
Configuration
Co-current HCl 200-250
Counter-current HCl 120-150
Strong Acid Cation Co-current H2SO4 250-300
Counter-current H2SO4 150-200
Weak Acid Cation 105-115
Weak Acid Cation
105-115
+ Strong Acid Cation
Strong Base Anion Co-current 250-300

Type 1 Counter current 140-220
Strong Base Anion Co-current 150-200
Type 2 Counter-current 125-140
Weak Base Anion 120-150
Typical Regeneration level ranges for single resin column
Regenerant Level Typical operating

Regenerant System
g/liter capacity mg/liter
Co-current Regeneration
Hcl 60 - 80 40 – 60
H2SO4 60 - 80 45 – 65
NaOH 60 - 80 30 – 40
Counter current Regeneration
Hcl 60 - 80 50 – 70
H2SO4 60 - 80 55 – 75
NaOH 60 - 80 55 – 75

Design Guide lines for Operating and Designing Resin
System
Parameter Guideline
Swelling 5-8 %
Strong Acid Cation Na → H 15-20 %
Weak Acid Cation H → Ca 15-25 %
Strong Base Anion Cl → OH 15-25 %
Weak Base Anion Free base → Cl
Bed Depth Minimum
Cocurrent single Resin 750 mm

Counter current Single Resin 1000 mm
Backwash Flow Rate

SAC Resin 10-25 M/hr
WAC Resin 10-20 m/hr
SBA Resin 5-15 M/hr
WBA Resin 3-10M/Hr
Flow Rates
Service/Fast Rinse 5-60M/hr
Co-current Regeneration 1-10 M/hr
Counter- current Regeneration 5-20M/hr
Total Rinse Requirements 2-6 Bed Volumes

SAC Resin 3-6 Bed Volume
WAC Resin 3-6 Bed Volume
SBA Resin 2-4 Bed Volume
Note:- These are only for help. Actual data

should be obtained from the resin manufacturer.
Most resins have similar data.
Degasser
The forced-draft degasifier blows an air stream
countercurrent to the water flow.
The undesirable gas escapes through the vent
on the top of the aerator. A disadvantage to this
process is that the water is saturated with
oxygen after aeration.
25
Packing Data
Ring Number Free Packing Hydraulic Equivalent Mass of

Size of rings Volume Surface radius of Diameter 1 M3 of
mm in 1 M3 of M3/M3 Area passage of rings Kg
random M2/M3 Packing
packing D=4r
25 X 25
X 3 53200 0.74 204 0.00363 0.01452 532
35 X 35
20200 0.74 140 0.00555 0.02220 505
X4
50 X 50
6000 0.785 87.5 0.00900 0.0360 530
X4
Ceramic Raschig ring – There are 145 pieces of raschig ring per liter.
The ring size is 38 mm X 38 mm and weighs about 6 kg.

Degassifier Height and Raschig rings Heights
Inlet CO2 Outlet CO2 Degassifier Raschig rings

ppm ppm Heights Meters Heights Meters
8 4.26 2.90
500 5 4.90 3.20
2 5.49 3.96
8 3.65 2.29
200 5 4.26 2.59
2 4.90 3.35
8 3.65 2.00
150 5 3.65 2.43
2 4.26 3.04
8 3.04 1.67
100 5 3.65 2.13
2 4.26 2.89
8 2.43 1.21
50 5 3.04 1.67
2 3.65 2.43
8 2.43 1.21
35 5 3.04 1.37
2 3.65 2.13
Degassifier Flow & Area (velocity taken is 60 m3/h/m2)

Degassifier Cross Sectional Internal Diameter Required air flow
Flow M3/Hour Area in M2 3
Of degasser in mm rate in M /Hour
5 0.083 325 75
7.5 0.125 400 112.5
10 0.167 460 150
12.5 0.208 512 187.5
15 0.250 560 225
17.5 0.291 600 262.5
20 0.333 650 300
22.5 0.375 691 337.5
25 0.416 728 375
27.5 0.458 764 412.5
30 0.500 800 450
35 0.583 862 525
40 0.667 925 600
45 0.750 977 675
50 0.833 1030 750
27
Failure to produce specified quality of water
The failure to produce specified quality treated water will depend upon the specific
Ion Exchange unit. The causes for deteriorating water quality from each Ion
Exchanged bed are given in the tabulated form. Quality of water can also
deteriorate due to resin fouling. Various types of foulants which can contaminate
the Ion Exchange resin.
Defects Causes Remedies
Obtain new water analysis and

1.Change in Increase in TDS
Set water meter to new capacity.
Raw water
Composition % change in Na/TC Calculate new capacity to
or Alk/TA the increased load.
Flow meter not working

Check, rectify or replace
Service or out of calibration
cycle
Conductivity meter not Check power to conductivity
Exceeding
working or working meter Calibrate meter
Specification
inaccurately Cell dirty, Replanitinize.
Check and follow proper

Insufficient chemical regeneration Check and rectify.
Weak regenerant (less Faulty internal distributor or
Faulty Chemical or too much broken strainer on top in
regeneration dilution water) Poor pack bed system.Insufficient
distribution of regenerant power water flow at required
Ejector not functioning pressure to ejector Check
or Chemical going very rubber lining above ejector,
slowly check for chokage in ejector,
air lock in vessel or if every
thing is ok change faulty
ejector.
High Backwash in Reduce Backwash flow rate.

Loss of ion Downflow system Dechlorinate. Check performance
exchange Chemical attack by of ACF Unit. If no ACF unit
Resin Oxidizing agent like is there, use reducing agent
chlorine Excessive (like sodium sulphite).
high pressure flow Check & Rectify. Do not
rate Broken Strainers exceed specification Check for
in Upflow system/ resin in effluent or resin or in
Upset supporting bed resin trap.. Change strainer
or damaged underdrain. Rectify bottom distributor.
Air sucking through This happens sometime during
ejector in Pack bed injection. Take care
system

1 Air, chlorine or other
oxidizing agent can oxidize
Fouling of Oxidized iron or manganese iron and manganese
Ion Exchange in raw water(Normally Pretreatment with any of
material effects cation)Excessive the above Cleaning by Hcl
turbidity in raw for cation or by Brine
for Anion
Excessive turbidity in raw

Channeling water Excessive Resin fines See fouling of resins Short
or short Resin degraded Excessive circuiting for possible
Circuiting high flow rates or operating cause Resin Dirty
pressure Cross
Contamination of Resin
in Mix bed
High Pressure See fouling of resins See in Fouling of Resin

drop across Short circuiting for possible Use Clean regenerant
resin bed cause Resin Dirty chemical, Use DM water
for dilution
Obstructions in pipelines Inspect pipeline clean and

Restricted p u m p Ve s s e l s e t c ., remove obstruction. Replace
flow Damaged Rubber lining pipe with good rubber
Valves not properly opened lining or rectify Open valve
Strainer clogged due to dirt fully (except control valve)
and resin fines Clean strainers (For removal
of resin)
Pump not 1. See pump trouble 1. See Pump Trouble

delivering shooting chart for cause Shooting for solution
Excessive Organic Fouling of Anion Brine Treatment. For

Rinsing Ion Exchange Resin extreme Condition Sodium
hypochlorite dosing, Should
be done under supervision
29
Increased Concen- See method of
-tration of sulphuric Regeneration Use
acid in cation correct method of
Improper regeneration Regen- regeneration Give
Regeneration -erant dosage too low extended backwash
or too weak Inadequate (30 minutes or more)
backwash Damage to clean the resin bed.
underdrain or internal Replace or Rectify
distributor
Have storage system

Very slow service rate and operate at higher
Low service increases leakage from flow or use recycle
flow rate unit (will reflect on system.Minimum linear
anion unit ) velocity should not fall
below 2 M3/Hr /M2
Replace Note :- Valve

Leakage can give
Valve leakage Defective Valve wrong reading in
instruments & water
analysis
Cation Life – 5 to
Nominal aging 10 years
1 Replace old resin
of Resin Anion Resin – 3 to
5 years
3 to 5 % per
Attrition Loss 1 Top up resin lost
annum
Water should not be

totally drained after
Inadequate Improper Drain rinsing. The level of
mixing of Resin. down Air Mixing water should always
Applies to time too short be above resin bed
Mixed Bed only Not Enough air Air mixing should be
done for minimum of
ten minutes Check air
requirement & blower
capacity
Can be caused by
Problem of leakage of cation Add Cation Resin to
middle collector Resin Improper make up Loss or add
in mixed bed dilution of inert resin Check
regenerant Change
Broken collector

Indian standard grade for the commonly used
regeneration chemicals
Hydrochloric Acid -- IS 265
Sulphuric Acid -- IS 266
Sodium Hydroxide -- IS 252 (Tech/Rayon Grade 46% lye)
IS 1021 (Pure Grade - Flakes)
Sodium Carbonate -- IS 251 (Tech Grade)
Sodium Sulphite -- IS 247 (Tech Grade)
Sodium chloride -- IS 297 (Tech Grade)
Alum -- IS 260 (Tech Grade)
Recommended impurity level for Hydrochloric Acid
Impurity Maximum level
Fe 0.01%
Other metals(total) 10 ppm
Organic Matter 0.01 %
H2SO4 as SO3 0.4 %
Oxidants(HNO3,Cl2) 5 ppm
Suspended matter as turbidity 0
Inhibitors none
Concentration and density of HCl solution

Percent Sp.Gravity Grams/Liter
1 1.0032 10.03
2 1.0082 20.16
4 1.0181 40.72
6 1.0279 61.67
8 1.0376 83.01
10 1.0474 104.7
12 1.0574 126.9
14 1.0675 149.5
16 1.0776 172.4
18 1.0878 195.8
20 1.0980 219.6
22 1.1083 243.8
24 1.1187 268.5
26 1.1290 293.5
28 1.1392 319.5
30 1.1493 344.8
32 1.1593 371.0
34 1.1691 397.5
36 1.1789 424.4
31
Recommended impurity level for Sodium Hydroxide
NaCl 0.6%
NaClO3 30 ppm
Na2CO3 0.75%
Fe 10 ppm
Heavy metals(Total) 5 ppm
SiO2 50 ppm
Na2SO4 0.2 %
Concentration and density of NaOH solution

1 1.0095 10.10
2 1.0207 20.41
3 1.0318 30.95
4 1.0428 41.71
5 1.0538 52.69
6 1.0648 63.89
7 1.0758 75.31
8 1.0869 86.95
9 1.0979 98.81
10 1.1089 110.9
16 1.1751 188.0
20 1.2191 243.8
26 1.2848 334.0
30 1.3279 398.4
36 1.3900 500.4
40 1.4300 572.0
46 1.4873 684.2
50 1.5253 762.7
Recommended impurity level for Sodium Chloride
Sulphate 0.6%
Magnesium and Calcium 30 ppm
Concentration and density of NaCl solution

Specific Gravity Percent Grams/Liter
1.005 1 10.05
1.012 2 20.25
1.027 4 41.07
1.041 6 62.47
1.056 8 84.47
1.071 10 107.1
1.086 12 130.2
1.101 14 154.1
1.116 16 178.5
1.132 18 203.7
1.148 20 229.5
1.164 22 256.0
1.180 24 283.2
1.197 26 311.2

Concentration and density of H2SO4 solution
1 1.005 10.05
1.5 1.008 15.12
2 1.012 20.24
3 1.018 30.54
4 1.025 41.00
5 1.032 51.60
10 1.066 106
15 1.109 166.1
20 1.140 228
30 1.219 365.7
40 1.303 521.2
50 1.395 697.5
98 1.906 1799
100 1.944 1831
Common conversion factors for ion exchange calculation

To convert from To Multiply by
Kgr/ft3 as CaCO3 g CaO/Litre 1.28
Kgr/ft3 as CaCO3 g CaCO3/Litre 2.29
Kgr/ft3 as CaCO3 eq/litre 0.0458
g CaCO3/litre Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) 0.436
g CaO/litre Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) 0.780
Flow Rate
To convert from To Multiply by
U.S. gpm/ft3 BV/hr 8.02
U.S. gpm/ft2 M/hr 2.45
U.S. gpm M3/hr 0.227
BV/min U.S. gpm/ft3 7.446
Other Parameters
Parameter To convert from To Multiply by
Pressure drop PSI/ft MH2O/M of Resin 2.30
PSI/ft G/cm2/M 230
Regenerant
Ibs/ft3 g/litre 16.0
concentration
Density Ibs/ft3 g/litre 16.0
Rinse requirement U.S. gal/ft3 BV 0.134
33
1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds
1 Cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds
1 cubic centimeter of water weighs 1 gram
1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram
1 cubic meter of water weighs 1 metric ton
1 metric ton = 2240 lb.
Water analysis conversion factor
Atomic /molecular Equivalent

Substance To CaCO3
weight Weight
Calcium 40.0 20 43.8
Magnesium 24.3 12.25 4.12
Sodium 23.0 23.0 2.17
Potassium 39.1 39.1 1.28
Iron (ferrous) 55.8 27.9 1.79
Iron (ferric) 55.8 18.6 2.69
Aluminium 27.0 9.0 5.56
Barium 137.4 68.7 0.73
Strontium 87.6 43.8 1.14
Anions
Atomic / Equivalent
Substance To CaCO3
molecular weight Weight
Bicarbonate 61.0 61.0 0.82
Carbonate 60.0 60.0 0.83
Chloride 35.5 35.5 1.41
Sulphate 95.1 48.0 1.04
Nitrate 62.0 62.0 0.81
Phosphate 95.0 31.7 1.58
Sulphide 32.1 16.0 3.13
Co2 44.0 44 1.14
Silica 60.1 60.1 0.83

Set-Points for Brine regeneration to remove organic fouling
First Subsequent
Salt Caustic
Parameter Units Caustic
Regeneration Regeneration
Regeneration
Quantity of Gm/liter 32 112 32

Regenerant
Regenerant % 3.5 15 5
Strength
Quantity of Grams 912 745.6 640

dilute /liter
Regenerant
Volume of Liter/liter 0.9246 0.6968 0.6432

Regenerant of resin
Flow Rate of M3/Hr/M3 2.8 1.6 1.92

Regenerant of resin
Time for Minutes 20 25 20

Regeneration
Flow Rate of M3/Hr/M3 1.6 4 1.6

Rinse Water of resin
Time for Minutes 10 15 10

Rinsing
35
CHAPTER 5

Softener
(Basic ion exchange process)
Thumb rules of designing a Softener
STEP 1 – To select resin quantity (liters) for a particular hardness (ppm) for a
particular output (m3) per regeneration per hour based on regeneration level
160 gm/liter, ion exchange capacity = 55, TDS limit = 1500 ppm, refer TABLE 1
Resin Quantity = Load (ppm as CaCO3) * Flow * time
Ex. Capacity
For example
Load = Hardness = 100 ppm as CaCO3
Flow = 5M3 /hr
Time = (Service cycle) = 12 hrs.
Ex. Capacity = 60 gm as CaCO3
= 100 liters
Resin Quantity = 100 * 5 * 12
60
Note:
Na / TC and TDS and correction factor should be applied.
Actual Resin Quantity = 60 * correction due Na/TC factor * Correction due to TH
factor = 60 * 0.96 * 0.97 = 56 (approximately)
Hence Ion Exchange load for designing a softener is 56. These calculations are
based on Ion Exchange resin and will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer
resin.
STEP 2 – To select vessel model for a selected resin quantity, approx. flow
rates based on linear velocity- min (8 M3/M2/hr) and max (25 M3/M2/hr), and
free board 5-100 %, refer TABLE 2
Important points on Softener
Regeneration level, hardness leakage desired and correction factors can be
found from resin supplier's graph.
Suggested vessel selection chart for softeners
TABLE 1: STEP 1 – To select resin quantity ( liters) for a particular hardness
(ppm) for a particular output(m3) per regeneration per hour based on
regeneration level 160 gm/liter, ion exchange capacity = 55, TDS
limit=1500 ppm)
Output Resin Qty

b/w in liters for various hardness
Regen-
Hardness Hardness Hardness Hardness Hardness Hardness Hardness
-eration
= 150 = 250 = 350 = 500 = 650 = 800 = 1000
(OBR M3)
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
5 13.5 22.5 31.5 45.0 58.5 72.0 90.0
10 27.0 45.0 63.0 90.0 117.0 144.0 180.0
37
15 39.0 65.0 91.0 135 175.5 216.0 270.0
20 52.5 87.5 122.5 180 234.0 288.0 360.0
25 66.0 110.0 154.0 225 292.5 360.0 450.0
30 79.5 132.5 111.3 270 351.0 432.0 540.0
35 91.5 152.5 213.5 315 409.5 504.0 630.0
40 105.0 175.0 245.0 360 468.0 576.0 720.0
45 118.5 197.5 276.5 405 526.5 648.0 810.0
50 132.0 220.0 308.0 450 585.0 720.0 900.0
55 144.0 240.0 336.0 495 643.5 792.0 990.0
60 157.2 262.0 366.8 540 702.0 864.0 1080.0
65 171.0 285.0 399.0 585 760.5 936.0 1170.0
70 184.5 307.5 430.5 630 819.0 1008.0 1260.0
75 198.0 330.0 462.0 675 877.5 1080.0 13500
80 210.0 350.0 490.0 720 936.0 1152.0 1440.0
85 223.0 372.0 521.0 765 994.5 1224.0 1530.0
90 237.0 395.0 553.0 810 1053.0 1296.0 1620.0
95 250.5 417.5 584.5 855 1111.5 1368.0 1710.0
100 262.5 437.5 612.5 900 1170.5 1440.0 1800.0
TABLE 2: STEP 2 – To select vessel model for a selected resin
quantity, approx. flow rates based on linear velocity min=8
m3/m2/hr and max=25 m3/m2/hr, and free board 5-30 %
Vessel
Resin Approx. Free Approx.
Vessel
Flow Rate Model Resin Flow Free
Qty Board
(liters) Min-max Capacity Qty Rate Board Model
(%) Capacity
LPH (liters) (liters) Min-max (%)
LPH (liters)
6 x 32
160-500 8%
(14.6 liters)
10x54
415-1,295 6 %
13.5 (63.8 ltrs)
160-500 20 % 6 x 35 60
(16. l liters) 12x48
584-1,825 30 %
(78.5 ltrs)
6 x 35
160-500 33 % (18.0)
12x48
584-1,825 12 %
(78.5 ltrs)
70
7 x 40
212-663 9% 13x54
(24.5 ltrs) 704-2,200 50 %
22.5 (106 ltrs)
7 x 44
212-663 20 % 13x54
(27.1 ltrs) 80 704-2,200 33 %
(106 ltrs)
8x40
276-865 16 % (31.4 ltrs) 13x54
90 704-2,200 18 %
(106 ltrs)
27.0 8x44 13x54

276-865 29 % (34.9 ltrs) 100 704-2,200 6 %
(106 ltrs)
9x35 822-2,570 50 % 14x65

350-1,093 26 % (33.9 ltrs)
(150 ltrs)

9x35
31.5 350-1,093 8%
(33.9 ltrs) >100 822- ~ 14x65
<140 2,570 (150 ltrs)
10x35
415-1,295 27 %
(40.1 ltrs) >140 1,000- 16x65
~
<180 3,140 (182 ltrs)
10x40
415-1,295 48 % (46.5 ltrs) >180 1,400- 18x65
<240 4,370 ~ (250 ltrs)
10x35
39 415-1,295 3%
(40.1 ltrs)
>240 1,900- 21x62
<300 6,000 ~ (310 ltrs)
10x40
415-1,295 19 %
(46.5 ltrs) >300 2,300- 24x62
~
<430 7,300 (450 ltrs)
10x44
415-1,295 33 %
(51.7 ltrs) >430 3,700- 30x72
~
<650 11,600 (710 ltr)
10x40
45 415-1,295 3% (46.5 ltrs)
>650 5,400- ~ 36x72
<950 16,800 (1020 ltr)
10x44
415-1,295 15 %
(51.7 ltrs) >950 9,400- 48x72
<1250 29,448 ~ (1840 ltr)
10x47
415-1,295 22 % (55.0 ltrs)
> 1250 16,000- 63x64
~
<1700 50,240 (2500 ltr)
415-1,295 42 % 10x54
(63.8 ltrs)
39
CHAPTER 6

Membrane System
Conventional and membrane process solutions to common water problems
Constituent of Conventional Membrane
concern process process
Coagulation/flocculation
Turbidity Suspended solids Media filtration Microfiltration
Biological contamination Disinfection
Color Activated carbon
Odor Cl, + media filtration Ultrafiltration
Volatile organics aeration
Hardness Lime softening
Sulfates ion exchange
Nanofiltration
Manganese Oxidation, filtration
Iron Ion exchange
Heavy metals Coagulation/flocculation
Total dissolved Distillation Reverse osmosis
solids Nitrate Ion exchange Electrodialysis
Pretreatment water quality for membrane processes

Spiral CA Spiral PA EDR
Suspended matter
Turbidity NTU <1.0 <1.0 <5
SDI <4.0 <4.0 <15
Ionic content
Iron, mg/L <2.0 <2.0 <0.1
(ferrous)
Manganese <0.5 <0.5 <0.1
mg/L
Silica mg/L(w/o) <160 <160 <saturation
in concentrate in feed
Chemical Feed
Residual
Chlorine ppm <1.0 ND ND
Scale inhibitor
mg/l in 12-18 12-18 As required
concentrate
Acidification pH 5.5-6.0 4-10 As required
Maximum feed
40 45 43
temperature oC
Maximum LSI
with Scale Note +2.45-+2.8 2.1
inhibitor
41
Note:- Type of Membrane PA = polyamide, CA = Cellulose Acetate and EDR =
Electrodialysis Reversal CA membranes work in Narrow pH range 5.5-6.0 and
require acidification to prevent hydrolysis. Therefore, the Langelier Saturation
Index of the existing concentrate tends to be low enough and scale inhibitor for
calcium carbonate scale is not required.
Troubleshooting Guide
CHECK VERIFY EFFECT
Pressure drop Has not increased More than 15% indicates

between by more than 15%. fouling of feed path and
feed and reject. membrane surface.
Requires cleaning
Pressure drop Has not increased by More indicates fouling

between feed more than 15%. of membrane surface.
and permeate Requires cleaning.
Permeate Has not increased More indicates fouling

conductivity by more than 15%. of membrane surface.
Requires cleaning.
Is within More can cause membrane

Acid dosing recommended damage or sulfate scaling.
value. Less can cause carbonate
scaling or metal oxide
fouling.
Verify by calibration
and carry out of lab Wrong operation False
Instruments check of the sense of security that
Reading parameters the everything is OK.
instrument is
monitoring.
The pH controller
generally controls acid More or less acid dosing
pH meter dosing pumps. The pH than required.Effect
calibration controller should be of this has already been
& control calibrated periodically mentioned earlier.
and tripping of dosing
pump to the set point
should be checked.

Probing with ¼ 'plastic Failure can lead to increase
tube and by measuring salt passage, increase
O ring how far it has been permeate flow. Decrease
inserted. pressure drop.
If fully closed, 100%

recovery will result and
Brine valve Should not be closed fully. cause membrane damage
due to precipitation of
inorganic salt.
Foulants & Their Impact
Possible Pressure Permeate Salt

Foulants
Location drop Flow Passage
Normal to Normal to
Metal Oxide 1St Stage Decreased
increased increased
Colloidal Normal to Normal to

Fouling 1St Stage increased
Decreased
increased
Scaling Last Stage Increased Decreased Increased
Biological Normal to Normal to

Fouling Any Stage increased Decreased increased
Organic Decreased to
All Stages Normal Decreased
Fouling increase
Oxidant(Cl2) 1St Stage Normal to

(Most Severe) increased Increased Increased
Abrasion 1st Stage Decreased Increased

(carbon,Silt) Increased
O-ring or Random Normal to Normal to

Increased
glue leaks decreased increased
Recovery too Normal to Increased

All stages Decreased
high Decreased
43
Cleaning of RO Membrane
RO membranes get fouled with suspended solids contained in the feedwater or
with sparingly soluble salts, as minerals are concentrated. Pretreatment is
done to reduce the fouling potential of feedwater but inspite of that fouling
occurs over a period of time.
Symptom of fouling
1. Decrease in Product flow.
2. Increase in salt passage.
3. Increase in differential pressure
4. Deterioration in permeate quality
5. Increase in the differential pressure across the RO stage.
Indications that the system requires cleaning

1. A 10 to 15 % decline in normalized Product flow.
2. A 10 % increase in salt passage.
3. 15 % increase in differential pressure.
Types of Foulants
1. Inorganic fouling – Like Calcium Scales or Metal Oxides
2. Organic Fouling – Example Humic Acid
3. Particulate Deposition or colloidal fouling –Particulate matter
4. Biofouling
Types of Membrane Cleaning Solutions

The number of formulation for cleaning solutions is varied but we are
mentioning only the common type of cleaners used for most common fouling
problems.
Foulant Cleaning Chemicals Remarks

0.2 % HCl
Inorganic Salts 0.5 % Phosphoric Acid
2.0 % Citric Acid
Metal Oxides (Iron) 0.5 % Phosphoric Acid
1.0 % Sodium Hydrosulphite
0.1%Sodium Hydroxide,30 oC
Inorganic Colloids 0.025 % Sodium Dodecylsulphate
(silt) 0.1 % NaOH, 30 oC
Biofilms 0.1 % NaOH, 30 oC
1 % Sodium salt of ETDA and
0.1 % NaOH
0.025 % Sodium Dodecylsulphate
Organics
0.1 % NaOH 30 oC
0.1% sodium triphosphate 1.0 %
Sodium salt of ETDA

Flux
The throughput of a pressure-driven membrane filtration system expressed as
flow per unit of membrane area (e.g., gallons per square foot per day (gfd) or
liters per hour per square meter (Lmh).
System Operating Water
Type of Water Flux (gpd/ft2) & (M3/M2.d)
Municipal wastewater (sewerage) 8-12 - or 0.33-0.49
Treated River or Canal water 8-14 – or 0.33-0.57
Surface Water (lakes/Reservoir) 8-14 – or 0.33-0.57
Deep Wells (low turbidity) 14-18- or 0.33-0.73

RO Permeate Water 20-30 –or 0.81-1.22
Surface seawater 7-10 - or 0.29 –0.40
Beach well seawater 7-10 - or 0.29 –0.40
If the water quality is better, higher flux that can be used without causing
excessive fouling.
Number of Elements: When the flux has been set and the element area (a
function of the specific membrane selected) is known, the required number of
elements can be calculated:
Number of elements =Permeate Flow (LPD)/(LMH)*Active Membrane area (M2)
Recovery Rate = (Permeate Flow rate / Feed flow rate)*100
Osmotic pressure
Osmotic pressure can be defined as the pressure and potential energy
difference that exists between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable
membrane.
A rule of thumb for osmosis is that 1 psi of osmotic pressure is caused by every
100 ppm (mg/l) difference in total dissolved solids concentration (TDS).
Selection of Feed pumps

Feed pumps should be selected on the basis of high efficiency. Variable
frequency drives now are commonplace in brackish water RO Plants. These
frequency drives should also be selected on similar basis. Typical feed pump
energy requirements for brackish water RO plants range from 0.5 to 2 kWh/M3
and for seawater it is less than 3 kWh/M3 with the use of energy recovery
device.
Scaling of Membrane Process

Scaling is predicted by Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) or at a higher ionic
strength the Stiff & Davis Index predicts the scaling tendency more accurately.
45
u
If pH >pHs (or pHsd) then water is saturated with calcium carbonate.
u
If pH <pHs (or pHsd) then water is unsaturated.
u
A positive value of index indicates tendency towards scaling.
u
With the scale inhibitors available nowadays an LSI <+2.4 can be
easily controlled.
u
Circulating a muriatic acid solution can easily redissolve carbonate
scale. Lowering the pH during operation can also dissolve it.
u
In predicting the solubility limits of sulphate two points are important.-
u
a) Modern RO membranes reject divalent ions very well. Therefore it is
reasonable to assume a zero
percent salt passage when calculating the concentrating factor CF.
u
b) Compounds are more soluble in the concentrate than in feed water.
The solubility product constant Ksp of each compound increases with
ionic strength.
u
As a rule of thumb, the scale inhibitor dosages for RO systems are
calculated as concentrations in the concentrate of 12 –18 Mg/liter. This
value is then converted to a feed water dosage using the CF for design
recovery and assuming zero percent salt passage.
To predict the product and concentrate composition and

volume:
u
There are four important pieces of information needed to predict
the product and concentrate composition and volume:
u
Recovery rate, (Ret): -The recovery rate is limited by the
concentration of sparingly soluble salts in the feed water. Lowering the
pH and adding anti-scalants can increase the potential recovery rate.
The other determining factor is the configuration of the membrane
system. Each element can recover approximately 10 percent of the
feed flow as product. Generally, 50 percent recovery is assumed for a
6-element vessel.
u
Rejection rate: -Manufacturers lists a rejection rate for chloride and
one for sulfate or other divalent ions for NF membranes. For greater
accuracy, use a weighted average based on the feed water
composition. For instance, if the feed water has a ratio of 3: 1 mono-
valent to multi-valent ions and the rejection rates are 90 percent for
chloride and 99.5 percent for sulfate, the weighted average rejection
rate would be Rejection = (0.75*0.9)+(0.25*0.995) / (0.75+0.25)
=0.924 If the goal is to minimize concentrate volume, choose a
membrane with a very high rejection. However, if the goal is to
minimize concentrate TDS, choose a membrane that will produce the
target water quality. NF membranes are sufficient in many cases.

u
Feed water-dissolved solids concentration, C, in mg/L.
u
Target delivery water concentration after blending, C, in mg/L.
u
Accurate product and concentrate concentration prediction
calculations that take concentration polarization into consideration
can get quite complex, but do no provide that much more accuracy in a
first pass cost estimate.
Product concentration, Cp in mg/L:
Cp= Cf (1-Rejection) / Recovery
Concentrate concentration Cc in mg/L
Cc =Cf* Rejection / (1-Recovery)
The maximum amount of blend water that can be mixed with the membrane
product and still achieve the target water quality is calculated as follows,
assuming filtered feed water is used for the blend water:
Qb = Qt (Ct- Cp) / (Cf-Cp)
Where Qb is the maximum blend volume in m3/day, Q, is the target volume in

m3/day, and Ct is the target dissolved solids concentration in mg/L. If there is a
component of the blend water that is more limiting than the total dissolved
solids, there are two options. Either plan to remove that component from the
blend water or use the concentration of that component in the blend water for
Cf and the estimated remaining concentration of it in the membrane product
water for Cp.
As an example, consider the following situation:
Cf = 900 mg/L with 0.5 mg/L manganese
Rejection = 0.95
Recovery = 0.85
Ct = 300 mg/L with less than 0.05 mg/L manganese
Cp = 900*(l-0.95)/0.85 = 56 mg/L
Cb = (300-56)/ (900-56) = 0.29 or 29 percent blending with feed water.
When the manganese concentration is considered as the limiting component:

Cf = 0.5 mg/L manganese
Rejection = 0.95 Recovery = 0.85
Ct = Less than 0.05 mg/L manganese
Cp = 0.05*(l-0.95) / 0.85 = 0.03 mg/L
Cb = (0.05-0.03) / (0.5-0.03) = 0.04 or 4 percent blending with feed water.
47
If the blend water is filtered with greensand or the manganese is removed in
some other way, the higher level of blending is possible, otherwise not.
However it is decided, once the blend volume has been established, the
membrane process feed, product, and concentrate flows are set (all in
m3/day):
Qp = Qt- Qb
Qf = Qp / Recovery
Qc = Qp (1-Recovery) / (Recovery)
Pump Horsepower for RO

Using the following assumptions:
Feed water is being pumped from a tank of approximately the same height as
the membrane skid, 10 meters of pipe Pipe is a 10 cm (4 in.) in diameter for 20-
cm (8-in.) modules and 5 cm (2 in.) for 10 cm (4 in.) module.
Horsepower (Hp) without energy recovery
Hp = hg+0.5v2+p*Qf*1000/(746*Ef)
Horsepower (Hp) with energy recovery
Hp = (hg+0.5v2+p)(1-Er)*Qf*1000/746
Where h is height difference between top of tank and membrane inlet in m,
g is gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2
v is velocity = Q / pipe area, m/s,
Qf = membrane feed flow, m3/sec,
1000 = mass of one m3 of water in kg,
746 = conversion factor from J/s to hp,
Ef= combined Efficiency of Pump and Motor
E recovery = energy recovery in decimal, 0.20 - 0.30 depending on concentrate
pressure.

CHAPTER 7
49
Steam Boiler
Steam Boiler System
The principal components of a steam boiler system include a steam boiler,
condensate return tank, condensate pump, deaerator, feedwater pump, steam
traps, low water flame cut-off controller, chemical feeder, and make-up water
treatment equipment. However, depending on the size of the system and the
end use of the steam, other components may include a converter or heating
coils, unit heater, steam sparger, jacketed steam cooker, and/or steam
sterilizer
List of Problems Caused by Impurities in Water
Impurity(Chemical Common Chemical

Problems
Formula) Treatment Methods
Carryover of feedwater into Neutralizing amines,
Alkalinity (HCO3-, steam,produce CO2 in steam filming amines,
CO3 2- and CaCO3) leading to formation of combination of both,
carbonic acid (acid attack) and lime-soda.
Hardness (calcium Lime softening,

Primary source of scale in
and magnesium phosphate, chelates
heat exchange equipment
salts, CaCO3) and polymers
Iron (Fe3+and Causes boiler and water Phosphate, chelates

Fe2+) line deposits and polymers
Corrosion of water lines,

boiler, return lines, heat Oxygen scavengers,
Oxygen (O2) exchanger equipment,etc. filming amines and
(oxygen attack) deaeration
Corrosion occurs pH can be lowered by

pH
when pH drops addition of acids and
below 8.5 increased by addition
of alkalis
Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion Chlorination
(H2S)
Scale in boilers Scale in boilers and

Chlorination and cooling water cooling water
systems systems

Troubleshooting Water system for Boiler
Condition Possible Cause Action
Improper functioning Regenerate/repair

of Water softener water softener.
Hardness in Take condensate
Boiler feed samples at all
Infiltration of raw
Water steam converters
water at converters.
to pinpoint place
of infiltration. Make
necessary repair.
Deaerator malfunction. Check deaerator press

Dissolved oxygen
Feedwater pump /temp.Check deaerator
in Feedwater
sucking air at the valve to ensure the
exceeds the
seal. most effective opening.
recommended
Insufficient sodium Repair feedwater pump
range.
sulfite residual. seal.
Testing reagent Replenish test reagents.

shelf life expired. Repair or adjust chemical
Chemical feed feed pump.
Consistently low pump inoperative Clean or replace chemical
Chemical residual or out of adjustment. feedline.
in system(General). Restriction in the Make sure the chemical
chemical feedline. you are using is what
Mistake in chemical you want. Increase
identification. chemical dosage. Inspect
Inadequate amount boiler and condensate
of treatment chemical. piping system for any
Makeup water increase indication of leaks. Make
due to lead in the sure drain valves on
system (boiler section condensate receiving
or condensate). tanks are closed.
Check boiler blowdown
valves to ensure 100%
shut-off. Check continuous
blowdown valves setting.
Check water softener. See

Increased hardness action for “Hardness in
Low phosphate in feedwater. boiler feed water.” Select
residual. Wrong type/choice phosphate based on the
of phosphate. needed Po4 percent to
ensure the highest quality
for the hardness content.
51
Check sulfite feed
Chemicals feed pump
system and make necessary
inoperative.
adjustment/repair.
An increase of oxygen
Low sulfite Check deaerator operation
content
residual. and make necessary
in feedwater.
adjustment/repair.
Improper sampling
Increase sodium sulfite
or testing technique.
feed rate. “Collecting Water
Samples. Test for sulfite
first. Stir sample smoothly.
Increase blowdown rate.

Total dissolved Insufficient boiler Adjust the surface blow
solids exceed blowdown. down valve.
the Excessive chemical Analyze boiler water to
recommended addition. determine treatment
range. chemical residual and
make adjustments.
Boiler water carryover Reduce the total dissolved

with the steam. solids in the boiler by
High total Too much amine blowdown. Make sure water
dissolved injected. level is not too high.
solids in Infiltration of raw Reduce amine injection,
condensate. water at converters. but maintain the
Active corrosion recommended pH.
occurring in the Take condensate samples
system. at all steam converters and
test for hardness and TDS
to find the point of
infiltration. Make necessary
repair.
Analyze the condensate for
iron/copper content. Ensure
amine treatment is reaching
all points in the condensate
system.
Boilers
Boilers use varying amounts of water to produce steam or hot water, depending
on their size. They require make up water to compensate for uncollected
condensate or to replace blow down water. These units have a tendency to
develop leaks as they age.

Water Efficiency Opportunities:
1. Install a condensate return system – A condensate returns system
reuses condensate water as make-up water. This can save up to 50-70
percent of the water used and can save energy as well.
2. Locate and repair leaks – Boilers can develop leaks in steam traps and
the distribution system. Escaping steam wastes both water and energy.
3. Limit blow down – Adjust blow down limits to near the minimum required
to properly flush the system and maintain desired water quality.
4. Establish an effective corrosion and scale program –Regularly
inspect boiler water and fire tubes. Reducing scale by chemical treatment
or mechanical removal will increase heat transfer and energy efficiency
and will reduce the amount of blow down necessary to maintain water
quality.
5. Install automatic controls to treat boiler make up water.
Eliminate systems that mix condensate with cool fresh water for blow down to
the sewer.
Water Treatment Recommendation
1.The make-up water treatment to these systems depends on the

boiler pressure and the end use of the steam.
2.The make-up should preferably be softened for low pressure
steam boiler.
3.The make-up must be softened & dealkalized for steam boiler
A systems when the total alkalinity concentration in the make-up
is high (i.e., systems where the boiler is blown down to control
alkalinity rather than TDS).
4. In boiler system where silica controls the blowdown, the
make up water should be demineralized.
1.Sodium sulphite must be added at a point after mechanical

deaeration such that a residual sulphite concentration of 30-60
ppm (50 – 100 ppm Na2SO3) is maintained in the boiler water.
B 2.It does not matter if the sulphite concentration is more but
it should not be less than 30 ppm SO3 or 50 ppm Na2SO3.
3.The sulphite-oxygen reaction may be catalyzed by adding
5 ml of cobaltous chloride solution per 100 g of sodium sulphite.
1. If the pH of the boiler water is less than 10.5, caustic must be

added to the boiler.
2. If the pH of the boiler water is greater than 11.5, the
C blowdown rate must be increased and the caustic addition
must be decreased—the boiler water pH level must be
10.5-11.5 pH.
53
1. If the boiler water total alkalinity concentration is greater than
700 ppmCaCO3, then the blowdown rate must be increased and
the caustic or trisodium phosphate addition must be decreased.
D
2. The boiler water total alkalinity concentration must be less
than 700 ppm CaCO3;
1. If the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity concentration is less
than 150 ppm CaCO3, caustic or tri-sodium phosphate must be
added to the boiler water.
E 2. Alternately, if the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity concentration
is greater than 300 ppm CaCO3, the blowdown rate must be
increased and the caustic or tri-sodium phosphate addition
must be decreased—the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity
must be 150-300 ppm CaCO3
1. If the phosphate is added upstream of the boiler feed pumps,
hexameta phosphate must be used since tri-sodium phosphate
would precipitate hardness salts, thus increasing the wear on
pump seals. Hexameta phosphate on the other hand keeps
hardness in solution until it reaches the boiler, at which point
F the alkalinity and increased temperature there converts it to
trisodium phosphate;
2. If the phosphate is added directly to the boiler water, either
hexameta or tri-sodium phosphate may be used;
3. If the phosphate is being consumed more rapidly than tri-
sodium phosphate is being added (i.e.,hardness in leakage
into the system), hexameta phosphate should be used at least
temporarily because it has a higher phosphate concentration
and thus a higher capacity for hardness than tri-sodium
phosphate;
4. When hexameta phosphate is used, its conversion to tri-
sodium phosphate in the boiler effectively reduces the
OH alkalinity concentration and the pH level of the boiler
water;
1. If the pH level of the condensate return is less than 8.5, a
neutralizing amine such as morpholine must be added to the
feedwater after the make-up location.
2. If the pH level of the condensate return is greater than
G 9.5, the amine addition must be decreased the condensate
return pH level must be 8.5-9.5.
3. If problems persist in achieving proper pH levels in the
condensate return system, seek the advice of the water
treatment consultant. If there is no condensate return,
amine must not be added
In conjunction with the above controls and regulation of boiler
blowdown, the boiler water neutralized total dissolved solids
H
must be controlled within the limits of 1500-3000 ppm (or
2000-4000 micromhos/cm).
Note:- For Details See Boiler Water Treatment Manual.

Note
Hydrazine Sulphate oxygen scavenging should only be used with drum
type boilers. Drum boilers have blowdown facilities. TDS levels should be
monitored more rigorously when using hydrazine sulphate as an oxygen
scavenger, since TDS levels may increase with the formation of ferrous
sulphate.
The venting is not sufficient. Increase

venting by opening the manually
operating vent valve.
Excessive oxygen
content in deaerator The steam pressure reducing valve
effluent not working properly. Check valve for
free operation.
Check water and, if possible, steam

flow rates vs. design. Trays or scrubber
and inlet valves are designed for specific
flow ranges.
Temperature in storage Spray nozzle not working. There could

tank does not correspond be deposit or sediment on the nozzle
within 5 º F of on the spring broken or seat. Leaking
stuffing boxes of pump upstream of
saturation temperature
deaerator can be the cause Repair
of the steam
stuffing box or seal with deaerated water.
Excessive consumption Trays collapsed-possibly from interrupted

of oxygen scavenger steam supply or sudden supply of cold
water causing a vacuum. Condensate
may be too hot. Water entering the
deaerating heater must usually be cooled
if the temperature.
55
Chemical dosage
Oxygen scavenger
Sodium sulphite
7.88 ppm of sodium sulphite is required to remove 1ppm of dissolved oxygen.

This requirement is for pure sodium sulphite. 93 % pure sodium sulphite will
require 10 ppm of sodium sulphite per ppm of oxygen. The amount of catalyst
required is 0.25 %
Hydrazine
Theoretically 1 ppm of Hydrazine reacts with 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen. In

practice of 1.5 to 2 ppm is used for 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen
Amine Requirement
Amount of amine required for maintaining pH of 8.0 in water containing 10 ppm
CO2
Morpholine –37 ppm: - It has a specific gravity of 1.002 and has a pH of 9.7 for
100-ppm solution
Cyclohexylamine –15 ppm: - It has a specific gravity of 0.86 and has a pH of
10.7 for 100-ppm solution
Suggested dosage of Sodium sulphite & Hydrazine
Dosage of Sodium sulphite

Boiler pressure (Kg/Cm2) Ppm Na2SO3.
14.00 80-90
21.00 60-70
31.00 45-60
42.00 30-45
52.00 25-30
64.00 15-20
70.00 Not recommended
105.00 Not recommended
Recommended Hydrazine Residual

Drum pressure (Kg/Cm2) Residual Hydrazine in ppm.
63.00 0.1-0.15
70.00 0.1-0.15
105.00 0.05-0.10
175.00 0.02-0.03
210.00 0.01-0.02

Type of Amine Conditions Amount needed
Ammonia Co2 Absent 0.2 ppm to give pH 9.0
1 ppm to give pH 9.0
Cyclohexylamine Co2 Absent
2.3 parts per part of CO2 to give pH
CO2 Present
8.1 (corresponds to bicarbonate)
2.0 parts per part of CO2 to give
pH 7.4
1.4 ppm per ppm of Co2
to give pH of 7.0
Notes
Cyclohexylamine is not for use in systems having a feedwater alkalinity
more than 75 ppm
These system lengths are for classification only and are not absolute. For
example a medium length system may have more of the characteristics of
a long system if lines are poorly insulated or because of bad design.
Amine Limits
Amine Limitation
Cyclohexylamine Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam.
DEAE Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam.
Hydrazine Zero in steam
Morpholine Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam.
Octadecylamine Not to exceed 3 ppm in steam.
Note:- These should not come in contact with food products and hence any
steam in contact with milk and other such products should not have amine.
57
Limits on Boiler water conditions for an effective
treatment program
Boiler Maxi- Maxim Maxi- Range Range Range *Lign
Pressure -mum um Con -mum Sulfite Phosph Alkalini osulphon
psig(kg/ TDS ductivity Silica (ppm ate(pp ty(ppm ate
cm2) (ppm) ( mho) (ppm) SO3) mPO4) CaCO3) (ppm)
1-15
(1.05) 6000 9000 200 30-60 30-60 300-500 70-100
16-149
(1.12-10.5) 4000 6000 200 30-60 30-60 220-500 70-100
150-299
(10.5-20) 4000 6000 150 30-60 30-60 220-500 70-100
300-449
(20-30) 3500 5250 90 20-40 30-60 180-450 70-100
450-599
3000 4500 40 20-40 30-60 170-425 60-90
(31-40)
600-749
2500 3750 30 15-30 30-60 170-425 50-80
(41-52)
750
2000 3000 20 15-30 30-60 170-425 40-90
(>52)
NOTE
Ortho-Phosphate
Hydroxyl Alkalinity (Causticity)
Sodium Lignosulfonate (as tannic acid)
Range
BIS Standard for Feed water and Boiler Water
1st Standard (10392-1982)
Chemical requirements for feed water and boiler for low

and medium pressure boilers:
Feed Water:
Upto20Kg 21 Kg/cm2 40Kg/cm2

Parameters Unit
/cm2 - 39Kg/cm2 - 59Kg/cm2
Total ppm as
<10 <1.0 <0.5
Hardness CaCO3
pH Value 8.5-9.5 8.5-9.5 8.5-9.5
Dissolved As ppm
0.1 0.02 0.01
Oxygen
As ppm
Silica 5 0.5
SiO2

Boiler water
Upto20 21 Kg/cm2to 40Kg/cm2

Parameters Kg/cm2 39 Kg/cm2 59Kg/cm2 Unit
Total Not Not Not

Hardness Detectable Detectable Detectable
Total As ppm
700 500 300
Alkalinity CaCO3
Caustic As ppm
350 200 60
alkalinity CaCO3
11.0 11.0 to 10.5 to

pH Value
to 12.0 12.0 11.0
Residual ppm as
30 to 20 to
Sodium -- Na2SO3
50 30
Sulphite
Residual 0.1 to 0.1 to 0.05 to ppm as

Hydrazine 1.0 0.5 0.3 N2H4
Ratio Na2SO4
/Caustic Al Above Above Above
kalinity (NaOH) 2.5 2.5 2.5
Ratio Na2SO4/
Above Above Above
Totallkalinity
0.4 0.4 0.4
(as NaOH)
20 to 15 to 5 to ppm as
Phosphate
40 30 20 PO4
Total
Dissolved 3500 2500 1500 ppm
Solids
<0.4 of <0.4 of
As ppm
Silica Caustic Caustic 15
SiO2
Alkalinity Alkalinity
59
ASME Guidelines for Water Quality in Modern Industrial
Water Tube Boilers for Reliable Continuous Operation
Boiler Feed Water Boiler Water

Specific
Drum Total Total
Iron Copper Silica Conductance
Pressure Hardness Alkalin
(ppm (ppm (ppm (micro mh
(psi) (ppm ity**(ppm
Fe) Cu) SiO2) os/cm)(unn
(kg/cm2) CaCO3) CaCO3)
eutralized)
0-300
(0-20) 0.100 0.050 0.300 150 700* 7000
301-450
(21-30) 0.050 0.025 0.300 90 600* 6000
451-600
(31-42) 0.030 0.020 0.200 40 500* 5000
601-750
(43 –52) 0.025 0.020 0.200 30 400* 4000
751-900
(53-63) 0.020 0.015 0.100 20 300* 3000
901-1000
(64-70) 0.020 0.015 0.050 8 200* 2000
1001-1500
(71-105) 0.010 0.010 0.0 2 0*** 150
1001-1500
(71-105) 0.010 0.010 0.0 1 0*** 100
ABMA Standard Boiler Water Concentrations for Minimizing

Carryover
Drum Boiler Water

Pressure Total Specific** Conductance
(psig) Silica*(ppm Alkalinity (micromhos
SiO2) (ppm CaCO3) /cm)
0-300 150 700 7000
301-450 90 600 6000
451-600 40 500 5000
601-750 30 400 5000
751-900 20 300 3000
901-1000 8 200 2000
1001-1500 2 0 150
1501-2000 1 0 100
This value will limit the silica content of the steam to 0.25 ppm as a function of
selective.

Boiler Water Limits
Boiler Pressure Suspended

psig TDS Alkalinity Silica*
Solids
0 to 300 3500 700 300 125
301 to 450 3000 600 250 90
451 to 600 2500 500 150 50
601 to 750 2000 400 100 35
751 to 900 1500 300 60 20
901 to 1000 1250 250 40 8.0
1001 to 1500 1000 200 20 2.5
1501 to 2000 750 150 10 1.0
Over 2000 500 100 5 0.5
Silica Levels Allowed in Boiler Water
Boiler Pressure (psi) Allowable Silica (as ppm SiO2)
0-15 150
16-149 150
150-299 150
300-449 90
450-599 30
40 750
600-749 20
61
CHAPTER 8

Cooling Water Treatment
Description of Process
Cooling towers are heat exchangers that are used to dissipate large heat loads
to the atmosphere. They are used in a variety of settings, including process
cooling, power generation cycles, and air conditioning cycles. All cooling towers
that are used to remove heat from an industrial process or chemical reaction
are referred to as industrial process cooling towers (IPCT). Cooling towers used
for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), are referred to as comfort
cooling towers (CCT). Cooling towers are classified as either wet towers or dry
towers. Dry towers use a radiator like cooling unit instead of water evaporation.
Objective for Cooling Water Treatment
The following four basic objectives for Cooling Water Treatment are
1. Minimize problems from corrosion, scale, deposition, and growth to obtain
maximum efficiency.
2. Implementation and control must be "do-able" with a minimum input of
labor and money.
3. Cost effective as possible considering the total water system capital and
operating costs.
4. Must be environmentally acceptable.
Factors important for cooling System

Following steps are necessary to optimize the cycle of concentration (COC) for
a cooling tower and evaluate cooling water requirement or replacement
1. Evaluate the cooling system
2. Determine the water quality constituents sand concentration limits for
cooling system protection
3. Evaluate water treatment requirements
4. Choosing monitoring and maintenance requirement

Create a plan to change chemistry or flow rates, if problem occurs.
63
Equipment Material of construction
Cooling tower Wood, Plastic, Metal and fiber glass
Piping for cold water Mild steel (MS), PVC, Stainless steel
(SS) and fiber glass
Heat exchangers(Chillers, Copper, copper alloy, SS, &

Jacketed vessel, etc) galvanized steel tubes
Covers of Heat exchangers & Mild steel Water lines may be

Support plates of copper
Type of Material Effect of impurity
GI Pipes Corrosion (white rust) at High TDS

and pH above 8.5 or less than 6.5
Corrosion due to chloride, Chloride above

200 ppm can create problem in Ss304
when deposit forming conditions exist but
Stainless steel if no deposit forming surface can withstand
around 1000 ppm Cl. 316 SS can withstand
about 5000 ppm Cl even with deposit
forming surface
Highly corrosive due to solids and also

Mild steel due to acidic or basic conditions
Oxygen also corrosive to mild steel
Copper & Copper

Corrosion to ammonia
alloys
Natural decay. Can get

Wood chemically attacked.
Corrosion resistant. Biomass can

Plastic
get built up on plastic film

Cooling Tower Maintenance Schedule
Daily/Weekly Periodic Annual
1.Test water sample for 1.Check the distribution 1.Check the casing
proper concentration of spray nozzles to ensure basin,and piping
dissolved solids. Adjust even distribution over for corrosion and
bleed water flow as needed. the fill. decay.Without
2.Measure the water treat- 2.Check the distribution proper mainte
-ment chemical residual basin for corrosion,leaks, -nance,cooling
in the circulating water. and sediment. towers may suffer
Maintain the residual 3.Operate flow control from corrosion
recommended by your valves through their and wood decay.
water treatment specialist. range of travel and Welded repairs
3.Check the strainer on re-set for even water are especially
the bottom of the collection flow through the fill. susceptible to
basin and clean it if 4.Remove any sludge corrosion. The
necessary. from the collection basin protective zinc
4.Operate the make-up and check for corrosion coating on galva
water float switch manually that could develop into -nized steel towers
to ensure proper operation. leaks. is burned off
5.Inspect all moving parts 5.Check the drift elimina during the welding
such as drive shafts,pulleys, tors, air intake louvers, process. Prime
and belts. and fill for scale build-up. and paint any
6.Check for excessive Clean as needed. welded repairs
vibration in motors, fans, 6.Look for damaged or with a corrosion
and pumps. out- of-place fill elements. resistant coating.
7.Manually test the vibration 7.Inspect motor supports, 2.Leaks in the
limit switch by jarring it. fan lades, and other cooling tower
8.Look for oil leaks in mechanical parts for casing may allow
gearboxes. excessive wear or cracks. air to bypass the
9.Check for structural 8.Lubricate bearings and fill. All cracks,
deterioration, loose bushings. Check the level holes, gaps, and
connectors, water leaks, of oil in the gearbox. Add door access panels
and openings in the casing. oil as needed. should be properly
10.During periods of cold 9.Adjust belts and pulleys. sealed.Remove
weather, check winterization 10.Make sure there is proper dust, scale, and
equipment. Make sure any clearance between the fan algae from the
ice accumulation is within blades and the shroud. fill, basin, and
acceptable limits. 11.Check for excessive distribution spray
vertical or rotational replay nozzles to
in the gearbox output maintain proper
shaft to the fan. water flow.
65
Cooling Tower Inspection Process
Generally, the cooling tower structure and system should be inspected every
six months in temperate climates. In more tropical and desert climates the
interval should be more frequent, in accordance with equipment manufacturer
and engineering recommendations. A list of items that need to be inspected is
shown below:
u Wooden structural members: - Look for rotten and broken boards,
loose hardware and excessive fungal growth. The plenum area after
the drift eliminators is the most likely to suffer wood rot, since biocides
added to the water do not reach this area. Pay particular attention to
structural members in this area.
u Other structural members: - Check concrete supports and
members for excessive weathering and cracking. Look for metal
corrosion. On fiberglass ductwork and piping, check for cracking and
splitting.
u Water distribution throughout the tower should be uniform. Check
piping for leaks.
u Fans should be free of excessive vibration. Check mounts for
deterioration and looseness. Examine blade leading edges for fouling,
corrosion and dirt buildup. Check the fan stack for integrity, shape and
stack-to-blade clearance.
u Inspect for broken fill, debris in the fill, scale on fill water outlet.
u Look for debris and plant growth in the drift eliminator. Make sure the
eliminator is not broken or missing altogether.
u Check for alga growth, scale and plugged nozzles in the hot water bay
(cross flow towers). Nozzles should be checked monthly during the
cooling season.
u Record all observations on the Operator Checklist. This should include
gearbox oil levels, oil additions (frequent refills could be a sign of
bearing wear or leaks), water data, chemical inventories and hot
water bay observations.
Cooling Water Monitoring
u
Be sure to keep the water log sheet records up to date. Maintain a
record of necessary components, control ranges, control capabilities
(especially for calcium, pH, alkalinity, biocide, chemical feeds,
conductivity, possible phosphate content.) Follow water treatment
procedures closely.
u
Periodically check the water appearance for turbidity and foam.
u
Inspect wet surfaces for evidence of slime, algae or scale. Do the same
for submerged surfaces. Use a corrosion coupon to monitor system
corrosion rates where potential corrosion problems are indicated.
u
Monitor chemical additions for visible and uniform flow and proper
rate.

u
Heat exchangers can also be monitored for heat transfer performance
to give an early warning of water treatment deficiencies. Small side
stream test heat exchangers are available commercially for
monitoring cooling water site fouling. Biological growth can rapidly
cause systems to get fouled. Slime appearing on a submerged coupon
is a good indicator that there is a problem. Submerged coupons, which
are found in the cooling tower reservoir, indicate growth in less
accessible areas of the cooling tower.
Treatment
Chlorination
Filtration
Sulphuric acid
Inhibitors
Antiscalant
Antifoulant
Fouling in cooling system
Reasons of Fouling If fouling is not controlled, it will
Silt introduced by the makeup water result in heavy deposits inside
Dirt from air cooling water tubes, resulting in
reduced tube diameter.
Reaction of residues from chemical treatment Fouling is controlled by filtration and
Microbiological debris by chemicals and oxidation by
Products produced by corrosion such as chlorine and or ozone
hydroxides and insoluble salts
Selection of capacity of side stream filter
% reduction of undissolved solids Select 80 %
Time desired for reduction in hours = t= 48 hours maximum
select maximum in 48 hours
Blowdown = b in M3/hrs b=100 M3/Hrs
V= total volume of cooling system M3 6000
Filtration rate F= v/t Loge[(100)/(100-%reduction)]-b
Microorganism
Bacteria, algae and fungi present in cooling water decreases the efficiency of heat
transfer in cooling tower and condensers.
Chlorine is the most widely used chemical in industry as oxidizing agent for destruction
and dissolution of microorganism
Chlorine is only effective when pH is between 6 to 7
Cooling water pH %of HOCl for effective
oxidation
6 97
7 76
8 24
9 3
At pH 7 in CW system every 1 ppm Cl2 dosed only 0.76
ppm is used as oxidizing agent for control of
microorganism
General guidelines for chlorine dosing of reasonably good water

Cooling Water System Estimated Chlorine dosage
67
Cooling Water System Estimated Chlorine dosage
Once Through inland Lake Continuous dosing of 1-2 ppm + shock
/river/seawater dosing of 3-5 ppm for 15 minutes after
every 8 hour cycle
Recirculation cooling Continuous 1-2 ppm. Shock dose

water system of 3-5 ppm
Makeup water for CW
Continuous 1-2 ppm.
circulation water
Calculation of H2SO4 Dosing System
CW circulation rate CWR=34000

(CWR*P/100
Makeup water percentage P=2 *Q) /1000
Acid dosing =34000*
M Alkalinity to be Required AH 0.02*130/
M=150
maintained ppm 1000=88.4
M.Alkalinity in Makeup kgs at 98 %
A=140
water ppm
Cycle of concentration C=2 Dosage Quantity at 30oC
Quantum of Q=[(A*C)-M]=[(140*2)
M.Alkalinity ppm -150]=130 H2SO4 % Sp.Gr Dosing
D=AH/
98 1.826 Sp.Gr
=88.4/
1.826
=48.4
lph

Impact of Water quality Parameters on Cooling Systems
Water Quality
Impact on System Treatment
Parameters
Scaling Calcium scaling
more troublesome because Softening by external
Hardness of inverse solubility of treatment Antiscalant
(Ca +Mg ) some calcium salts) Descaling if scaling
Magnesium salt problematic has taken place
whenn silica levels high.
Can be corrosive. Useful in
Alkalinity mainly Dealkalization
predicting Calcium
due bicarbonate
carbonate scale potential
Difficult to remove
Silica
silica deposit
TSS Apart from makeup water, Pretreatment like
SS can also be present as coagulation and
corrosion and deposit by clarification Side
products. Can be cause of stream filtration
Under deposit corrosion by
adhering to bio film.
Ammonia Ideal nutrient for Micro Bromine better
organism, Highly corrosive disinfectant in presence
to copper, Reduces chlorine of Ammonia Air stripping
effectiveness as Disinfectant
Problem when in high Close monitoring of
Phosphate concentration (Ca>1000 Blowdown. Proper
ppm) & (PO4 >20 ppm) use of dispersant
Calcium Phosphate deposit
Corrosive at higher
concentration For SS 300
Chloride ppm considered corrosive
but for other metals >1000
ppm considered corrosive
Forms undesirable foulants
with Phosphate.Deactivates
Iron specialized polymers used
to inhibit calcium phosphate
scaling.
BOD Indication of Bio growth Oxidizing Biocide
Good at low levels but can
Zinc contribute to deposit at
higher level
Organism Manure for microorganism
Heavy Metal Galvanized Corrosion
69
Non Oxidizing Biocides
Min Max
% Dose Feed Min Max
Material Formula Form active Dose
ppm Time pH pH
ppm
1 Methylene- SCN-
bis- CH2-
thiocya- SCN SS 10 25 50 1/wk 6 8
-nate
Tetrahydro
3,5-
Dimethyl-
2H-1-3,5- C5H10
2 Thiadia- N2S2 Sol 24 30 60 1/wk 6.5 14
zone-2-
Thione
Na Dime-
thyl– C3H6NS2
Dithio- Na Sol 30 20 40 1/wk 7 14
3
carbamate
Dibromo-
Nitrilo- C3H2N2
4 Propion- OBr Sol 20 6 15 1/wk 6 8
-amide
(Chloro) C4H4NOS
5 Methyl-
Cl &
isothiazolin C4H5NOS Sol 1.15 25 50 1/wk 6 9.5
one
O=CH
Glutaral (CH2)3 45 14
6 Sol 25 100 1/wk 6
dehyde CH=O
Alkyl-
Benzyl-
RC6H5
7 Dimethyl Sol 9.4 30 120 1/wk 6 14
Ammonium (CH3)3
Chloride NCl
Dioctyl- (C6H17)2
Dimethyl (CH
8 3)2 Sol 50 30 120 1/wk 6 14
Ammonium
NCl
Chlorite
SS-suspension & Sol=Solution (Source –Technical Data sheet of Vulcan

Chemicals).

Oxidizing Biocides:
Residual Max
% Feed Min
Material Formula Form Require-
FAC Type pH pH
ments
Min Max
Dose Dose
ppm ppm
Chlorine ClO2 sol – 0.2 0.5 C 5 9

Dioxide
Chlorine Cl2 gas 100 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
Calcium
Ca
Hypochl- solid 65 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
(OCl)2
orite
Sodium
Hypochl-
orite NaOCl solution 12 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
(I)
Sodium
Hypochl- NaOCl solution 5 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
orite(D)
Lithium
Hypochl LiOCl solid 35 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
orite
Trichloro
Isocyanuric (CON
acid Cl)3 solid 89 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
Sodium
Dichloro
(CON)3
Isocyanuric solid 56 0.5 1.0 C 6 7.5
Cl2 Na
acid
Bromo,
Chloro, C5H6N2
Dimethyl O2ClBr ––
solid 0.2 0.5 C 7 10
Hydantion
Sodium 38%
Bromide- as
NaBr varies 2.0 4.0 C 7 10
“Chlorine” NaBr
71
Diagnostic Indicators for Cooling Systems
Indicator Possible Problem Possible Solution

Metals: High corrosion rate Improve corrosion
Copper>0.25 mg/l Inadequate chemical protection through
Iron>1.0 mg/l dosage control Use of use of an additive or
Zinc>0.5 mg/l OR conditioning chemicals by other means
Measured corrosion containing copper or Improve additive
rates zinc dosage control and/or
Copper>0.2MPY monitoring Eliminate
Mild steel piping>3 MPY use of additives
Mild steel Hex tubing> containing copper
0.5 MPY or zinc Consider
Galvanized steel>4 MPY replacing copper
components or piping
Additives: Overuse of these Reduce or stabilize
Chlorine > 0.5 mg/l oxidizing chemicals additive dosage
Ozone >0.2 mg/l leads to high Improve monitoring
corrosion rates Install an automatic
conductivity probe
controlled oxidizing
agent feed system.
Carbon dioxide> Copper oxide

5 mg/l protection is inhibited Raise pH
pH < 7.0 Inadequate Implement pH

pH control control Check
dosage of low-pH
additives
Water velocity: Leaks or system failure Reduce recirculation

> 3 feet/sec @ >150ºF High rate of corrosion rate Increase line size
> 5 feet/sec @ 120ºF of copper piping;could Replace copper
> 8 feet/sec @ <90ºF cause leaks or system elements with non
failure metallic parts or other
non copper parts
Conductivity outside System operation Investigate: System

the manufacturer's not optimized Possible settings Chemical
recommended range misuse of additives dosing rates Blow
Improper blowdown down system operation
rate
The water consumption The heat load to the Check if additional heat
rate has increased system has greatly load has been added
greatly. increased. Possible on the system today.
massive system leak. Check the system for
leaks. Inspect sanitary
sewer and storm sewer
manholes on site for
unusually high flows.

Cooling water distribution headers in all plants are generally of carbon steel
without any protective lining. In some places Hume pipe are also used to severe
corrosion.
Coolers and condensers (tube Bundles)
Fertilizers – Stainless steel and carbon steel
Oil refineries – general admiralty brass but in some cases combination of
admiralty brass and carbon steel
Petrochemicals- Combination of 90-10 Copper Nickel, admiralty brass, SS and
carbon steel
LPG Plants- mainly carbon steel
Acrylic Fiber Plants – Stainless steel, Copper –Nickel and carbon steel
Chilling and refrigeration - 90-10 copper Nickel, Copper / SS
Air compressor & Nitrogen Plants – Admiralty Brass
Power plants – Copper-Nickel /Copper /SS
Control limits for various cooling water treatments
Table1
SHMP + Zn SHMP+CrO4+Zn
Characteristics Unit Normal Maximum Normal Maximum
1 pH Mg/L 6.3 6.8 6.5-7.0 7.0
2 MO Alkalinity Mg/L *1 *1
3 Ca Hardness Mg/L 200-300 300 200-300 300
4 Total hardness Mg/L 300-500 500 300-500 500
5 Chloride as Cl Mg/L 200-300 300 *2

200-300 300*2
6 Sulphate as SO4 Mg/L 800-1000 1000 800-1000 1000
7 Silica as SiO2 Mg/L 75-100 100 75-100 100

20-30
8 TSS Mg/L *3
30 (50) 20-30 30
(30-50)
Organo Phosphate
9 Mg/L
(HEDP) as PO4
10 Total Inorganic
Phosphate as PO4 Mg/L 15-20 25*4 10-15 15*4
11 Chromate as CrO4 Mg/L –– –– 20-25 30*4
12 Zinc Sulphate Mg/L 3-5 2-3

5*4 3*4
as Zn
Polymeric –– ––
13 Mg/L 5-10 10
dispersant
14 TDS Mg/L 1200-1500 1500 1500-2000 2000
*1-MO Alkalinity will find its own level based on pH to be maintained.
*2- In case of stainless steel exchangers, chloride levels will be low
depending on design.
*3- With polymeric dispersant
*4 Actual inhibitors levels depend on operating conditions
73
Table2
Zn+O-PO4+ Zn +HEDP Zn +HEDP +

Polymer SHMP (max)
Characte Maxi Maxi Nor Maxi
Unit Normal Normal
ristics mum mum mal mum
1 pH Mg/L 7.5–8.0 8.0
2 MO Alkalinity Mg/L
*1 *1 *1
300-
3 Ca Hardness Mg/L 400 300-400 400 300-400 400
400
Total hardness Mg/L 600- 800 600-800 800 600-800 800

4
800
5 Chloride as Cl Mg/L 200-300 300*1 200-300 300*2 200-300 300*2
Sulphate as 800- 800-
6 Mg/L 1200 800-100 1200 1200
SO4 1000 1000
7 Silica as SiO2 Mg/L 75-100 125 75-100 125 75-100 125
TSS Mg/L 30-50 50 20-30 30 20-30 30

8 (30-50)*3 (50)*3 (30-50)*3 (50)*3
Organo Phos
9 phate(HEDP) Mg/L – –
8-10*4 10*4 4-6*4 4-6*4
as PO4
Total Inorga
10 nic Phosp- Mg/L – – – –
-hate as PO4 6-8*4 8*4
Orthophos
11 phate as PO4 Mg/L – – – –
8-10*4 15*4
12 Zinc Sulphate
as Zn Mg/L 1-1.5 1.5 2-3 3 1.5-2 2
Polymeric Mg/L 20-30 50 5-10 10 15-20 20

13 dispersant
14 TDS Mg/L 1500- 2000 1500- 2000 1500-

2000 2000 2000
*1-MO Alkalinity will find its own level based on pH to be maintained.

*2- In case of stainless steel exchangers, chloride levels will be low
depending on design.
*3- With polymeric dispersant
*4 Actual inhibitors levels depend on operating conditions

Puckorius Scaling Index
The Langelier Saturation Index and Ryznar Stability Index were originally
developed to identify scaling (calcium carbonate) and corrosion tendencies of
water in supply piping. These indexes, which are still in wide use today, are
considered very conservative. Most scaling and corrosion conditions identified
by these indexes can typically be controlled by specialty chemicals. Their
usefulness is therefore limited, but because of their common use, the following
calculation procedure is provided The Puckorius Scaling Index modifies the
Ryznar Stability Index by calculating the pH of the bulk water, and thus, more
accurately predicts scaling conditions.
LSI = (measured pH) - (pHs). A positive value indicates scale; a negative value,
no scale.
RSI = (2 pHs) - (measured pH). A value below 6 means scale; above 6, no
scale.
Calculating pH of saturation (pHs).
The pH of saturation (pHs) can be determined from the relationship between
various characteristics of water. The following factors and formula are used in
determining the pHs:
(1) Factors Needed to Calculate pHs:
A = Total Dissolved Solids (ppm), table B-1
B = Temperature (oF), table B-2
C = Calcium Hardness (ppm as CaCO3), table B-3
D = Total Alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3), table B-4
(2) pHs = 9.30 + A + B - (C + D)
Calculation of Calcium Carbonate Saturation Index
Factor "A" FOR Total dissolved Solids Factor "B" FOR Temperature
o o
Total Solid Value of C F Value of “B”
Mg /liter “A” 0-1 32-34 2.6
2-6 36-42 2.5
50 0.07
7-9 44-48 2.4
100 0.1 10-13 50-56 2.3
14-17 58-62 2.2
600 0.18
18-21 64-70 2.1
2.1 72-80 2.0
1000 0.2
28-31 82-88 1.9
2000 0.22 32-37 90-98 1.8
38-43 100-110 1.7
3000 0.24 44-50 112-122 1.6
51-55 124-132 1.5
4000 0.25 56-64 134-146 1.4
65-71 148-160 1.3
5000 0.26
72-81 162-178 1.2
75
Factors "C" for Calcium Hardness (as ppm CaCO3)* Zero
to 1000 ppm
Calcium Hardness Calcium Hardness
Value of “C” Value of “C”
As CaCO3 As CaCO3
10-11 0.6 10-11 1.0
12-13 0.7 12-13 1.1
14-17 0.8 14-17 1.2
18-22 0.9 18-22 1.3
23-27 1.0 23-27 1.4
28-34 1.1 28-34 1.5
35-43 1.2 35-43 1.6
44-55 1.3 44-55 1.7
56-69 1.4 56-69 1.8
70-87 1.5 70-87 1.9
88-110 1.6 88-110 2.0
111-138 1.7 111-138 2.1
139-174 1.8 139-174 2.2
175-220 1.9 175-220 2.3
221-270 2.0 221-270 2.4
271-340 2.1 271-340 2.5
341-430 2.2 341-430 2.6
440-550 2.3 440-550 2.7
551-690 2.4 551-690 2.8
691-870 2.5 691-870 2.+
871-1000 2.6 871-1000 3.0

Equilibrium pH Value (pHeq) determined from Total
Alkalinity
Alkalinity
ppm Alkalinity, ppm CaCO3, tens
hundreds 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 –– 6.00 6.45 6.70 6.89 7.03 7.14 7.24 7.33 7.44
100 7.47 7.53 7.59 7.64 7.68 7.73 7.77 7.81 7.84 7.88
200 7.91 7.94 7.97 8.00 8.03 8.05 8.08 8.10 8.15 8.15
300 8.17 8.19 8.21 8.23 8.25 8.27 8.29 8.30 8.32 8.34
400 8.35 8.37 8.38 8.40 8.41 8.43 8.44 8.46 8.47 8.48
500 8.49 8.51 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.56 8.57 8.58 8.59 8.60
600 8.61 8.62 8.63 8.64 8.65 8.66 8.67 8.67 8.68 8.70
700 8.71 8.72 8.73 8.74 8.74 8.75 8.76 8.77 8.78 8.79
800 8.79 8.80 8.81 8.82 8.82 8.83 8.84 8.85 8.85 8.86
900 8.87 8.88 8.89 8.89 8.90 8.90 8.91 8.92 8.92 8.93
Example 1
Water from a cooling tower has a TDS of 1,000 ppm, calcium hardness of 500
ppm (as CaCO3), total alkalinity of 100 ppm (as CaCO3) and measured pH of
8.2. The hottest temperature on the waterside of the heat exchanger is 120oF.
pHs = 9.30 + A + B - (C + D)
pHs = 9.30 + 0.20 + 1.57 - (2.30+2.00) = 6.77
Example 2
Water from a cooling tower has a total alkalinity of 100 ppm (as CaCO3) and a
measured pH of 8.2 (same as example 1). From table 5, the pHeq is 7.47.
PSI = (2pHs) - (pHeq) = 2 (6.77) - 7.47
= 13.54 - 7.47 = 6.07
RSI = (2pHs) - (measured pH) = 13.54 -
8.2 = 5.34
LSI = (measured pH) - (pHs) = 8.2 -
6.77 = +1.43
The pHeq may also be calculated as follows:
pH eq = 1.485 log TA + 4.54 where TA denotes total alkalinity.
77
Scaling Indices versus conditions
LSI PSI/RSI Condition

3.0 3.0 Extremely severe scaling
2.0 4.0 Very severe scaling
1.0 5.0 Severe scaling
0.5 5.5 Moderate scaling

0.2 5.8 Slight scaling
0.0 6.0 Stable water, no scaling, no tendency to dissolve scale

-0.2 6.5 No scaling, very slight tendency to dissolve scale
-0.5 7.0 No scaling, slight tendency to dissolve scale

-1.0 8.0 No scaling, moderate tendency to dissolve scale
-2.0 9.0 No scaling, strong tendency to dissolve scale

-3.0 10.0 No scaling, very strong tendency to dissolve scale
Selection of capacity for side stream Filter for cooling tower
F=V/t loge [(100) / (100-% reduction)]-b

% of reduction of undissolved solids (select 80 %)
t= time desired for reduction in hours (select maximum of 48 hours)
b= blowdown rate in m3/hr
V= total volume of cooling system in M3
Example for V=6000 M3, t=48 hours and b=100 M3/Hr
F=100 M3/H

CHAPTER 9
79
Pumps
Introduction
Pumps play a vital role in any water treatment system. Pump moves liquid from
one place to another. Hence selection of pump is very critical in all water
treatment system. Here we are giving general guideline, which will help, in
discussing with the pump manufacturer or supplier.
Types of Pump
The three types of pump most commonly employed are Centrifugal, Rotary and
Reciprocating. Each class of pump is further divided into.
Pump Class Type

Volute
Diffuser Single stage and
Centrifugal Regenerative turbine Multistage. See
Vertical Turbine manual on pumps
Mixed Axial Flow
Axial flow (Propeller)
Gear
Vane
Cam & Piston
Rotary
Screw
Lobe
Shuttle Block
Direct acting
Simplex
Reciprocating Power(including Crank
Duplex
& Flywheel)
Triplex
Diaphragm
Piston
Characteristics of different types of pumps
Characteristics Centrifugal Rotary Reciprocating

Discharge Flow Steady steady steady
Usual Maximum
suction lift (Meters) 4.6 6.7 6.7
Clean, clear dirty

abrasive and liquids Viscous,
Liquid handled Nonabrasive Clean and clear
with high solid
content.
Discharge
Pressure range Low to high Medium Low to high

Usual capacity Smallest to
Small to Relatively
range largest
medium small
available
How increased Decrease and None
head affects capacity Decrease None for duplex and triplex
Power input Depends on Increase Increase

specific speed
How decreased
Increase None Increases
head affects
marginally
capacity
Depends on
Power input specific speed Decrease Decrease
Liter/sec 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200

Average
efficiency 34 44 50 58 66 72 75 78 81 83
Total head
in meters
5 0.15 1.23 0.30 0.43 0.75 1.47 1.96 3.15 6.05 11.8
7 0.20 0.31 0.41 0.59 1.04 1.91 2.75 4.4 8.48 16.6
10 0.29 0.45 0.59 0.85 1.49 2.73 3.92 6.3 12.1 23.6
20 0.58 0.89 1.18 1.69 2.97 5.45 7.84 12.6 24.2 47.3
30 0.87 1.34 1.77 2.54 4.46 8.18 11.8 18.9 36.3 71.0
50 1.44 2.23 2.94 4.23 7.43 13.6 19.6 31.5 60.5 118
70 2.02 3.12 4.12 5.92 10.4 19.1 27.5 44.0 84.8 166
100 2.88 4.46 5.88 8.45 14.9 27.3 39.2 63.0 121 236
200 5.77 8.92 11.8 16.9 29.7 54.5 78.4 126 242 473
300 8.65 13.4 17.7 25.4 44.6 81.8 118 189 363 710
500 14.4 22.3 29.4 42.3 74.3 136 196 315 605 1180
81
Basic guideline for selecting Pump
1. Sketch the proposed piping layout. Base the sketch on actual job condition.
Single line diagram can be used
2. Determine the required capacity of pump. The required capacity is the flow
rate, which has to be handled at a particular pressure. Once the flow rate
has been determined a suitable factor of safety is applied. In any case it
should not be less than 10 %
3. Compute the total head on pump
4. Analyze the liquid conditions. Obtain complete data on liquid to be
pumped.
5. Select the class and type as given in the table
6. Evaluate the pump chosen for installation. Check specific speed, impeller
type and operating efficiency.
Formulas required for pump Calculation

Specific speed of impeller
Nq=3.65*n*Q ½ / H ¾, Where n= speed in rpm
H= head in meters,
Q= discharge in Cubic meter /sec
This calculation allows comparison of all types of rotodyanmic pump on equal
footing.
Pressure and Specific Gravity
Pressure developed by pump is proportional to specific gravity of liquid.
P=H, Where Y is the specific gravity
H in meters = Pressure in absolute atmosphere/ Sp.Gravity
H in Feet = Pressure psi/Sp.
Power Absorbed by pump

Power = *Q*H /C1*n, Where Y is Sp.Gravity
Q –Discharge rate (capacity) in Cubic meter /sec
H= head in Meter
C1 = 75 for power in Metric HP
= 76.04 for power in British HP
= 101.98 for power in Kw
=1000 kgf/M3 at 4C
Motor, brake, and water horsepower can be calculated as follows:
Mhp = Brake horsepower / Motor efficiency
Bhp = Water horsepower / pump efficiency
Whp = head (ft) x flow (gpm) /3960
To better understand the performance and operating characteristics of pumps,

operators should become familiar with the pump curve that is supplied by the
manufacturer for each pump.

Pump curves usually show three curves on one sheet:
u
The head-capacity curve shows the discharge in gallons per minute
(gpm) the pump will deliver against various heads when operated at
the proper speed. This curve shows that as the head increases, the
discharge decreases, until there is no further discharge. Conversely,
as head decreases, flow increases.
u
The second curve, also plotted against flow, shows the efficiency at
which the pump operates at various points on the head capacity curve.
This curve shows that no pump is 100% efficient, due to internal
friction losses. The highest efficiency that can be hoped for is around
85%. Efficiency can be expected to decrease with age and wear.
u
The third curve, the brake horsepower curve, shows power consumed
plotted against flow. If we know the total head at which the pump is
operating, we can use the curve to find the gallons pumped. The power
required by the pump, as well as the pump efficiency, can also be read
from the curve for any set of conditions. This curve shows that it
usually takes more horsepower to pump more water: the lower the
flow, the lower the horsepower required, and the higher the flow, the
higher the horsepower required.
83
CHAPTER 10

Raw Water Treatment
Objectives
The objectives of a public water supply water system are to provide safe and
aesthetically appealing water to the customers without interruption and at a
reasonable cost- an adequate quantity of water at sufficient pressure for fire
protection and industrial water for manufacturing.
Selection of Water Treatment Processes
Selection of a suitable water treatment process for a given utility is always a
complex and diverse task. Conditions are likely to be different for different water
utility. Adoption of an appropriate water treatment process by a water utility is
influenced by the necessity to meet the regulatory guidelines, the desire of the
utility and its customers to meet other water quality standards and objectives and
the need to provide water service at the lowest reasonable cost. A water
treatment plant should be designed considering the fact that it should supply
continuous and safe water to the customers regardless of the raw water
characteristics and the environmental conditions. Hence, the selection of
treatment process is important in the plant design. The ultimate plant design has
a system that is proven to be simple, effective, reliable, durable and cost-
effective.
The design of water treatment plant starts with the preliminary studies that
include:
1. Design period;
2. Water supply areas – identifying the areas to be served;
3. Population – estimating the present and future population;
4. Estimating maximum daily water demand;
5. Evaluation and selection of the water source;
6. Size of the treatment plant;
7. Location of the treatment plant site; and
8. Financing.
The selection of package treatment plants and special proprietary devices or

processes should be based on proper consideration of:
Raw water condition and demand variability;
1. Operation and maintenance;
2. Servicing, repairs or replacement; and
Operational flexibility.
85
Water Treatment Processes
Aeration
Aeration is the process of bringing water and air into close contact in order to
remove dissolved gases, such as carbon dioxide, and to oxidize dissolved
metals such as iron. It can also be used to remove volatile organic chemicals
(VOC) in the water. Aeration is often the first major process at the treatment
plant. During aeration, constituents are removed or modified before they can
interfere with the treatment processes. Examples of aeration processes include
diffused mechanical nozzle spraying, multiple tray cascading and packed
power type.
Coagulation
The first step destabilizes the particle's charges. Coagulants with charges
opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the
negative charges on dispersed non-settlable solids such as clay and color-
producing organic substances.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small-suspended particles are capable of
sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and
called microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye. The water surrounding the
newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the particles' charges
have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion.
More coagulant may need to be added.
Flocculation
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation
occurs. Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from
submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles.
The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of
slow mixing. Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce
larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through
additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the
coagulant or with organic polymers added. Macroflocs are formed. High
molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this
step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase
settling rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water
is ready for the sedimentation process.

Sedimentation
Sedimentation basins are used to settle out the floc before going to the filters.
Some type of sludge collection device should be used to remove sludge from
the bottom of the basin.
Filtration
Removal of suspended solids by filtration plays an important role in the natural
treatment of groundwater as it percolates through the soil. It is also a major
part of most water treatment. Groundwater that has been softened or treated
through iron and manganese removal will require filtration to remove floc
created by coagulation or oxidation processes. Since surface water sources are
subject to run-off and do not undergo natural particles and impurities.
Iron and manganese in water also promote the growth of iron bacteria, a group
of organisms that obtains its energy for growth from the chemical reaction that
occurs when iron and manganese mix with dissolved oxygen. These bacteria
form thick slime growths on the walls of the piping system and on well screens.
Such shines are rust-colored from the iron and black-colored from the
manganese. Variations in flow can cause these slime growths to come loose,
resulting in dirty water in the system.
Disinfection
The object of disinfection is to kill disease-causing organisms present in the
water. With regard to water treatment, disinfection refers to the destruction of
most intestinal or fecal bacteria. Sometimes disinfection is not complete. Some
viruses and especially some protozoa, such as Giardia or cryptosporidium,
could survive the disinfection process. The only method of complete protection
is to sterilize the water by boiling it for a period of 15 to 20 minutes
The methods of disinfection practical in public water supplies are chlorination,
ozonation, use of ultra-violet light, and over-liming. Potassium permanganate,
iodine, bromine, and silver are also used, but less frequently. Chlorination is so
widely used that the term disinfection and chlorination are almost the same in
waterworks practice.
Coarse Screen
Coarse screens, often termed bar screens or racks, and must be provided
to intercept large, suspended or floating material. Such screens or racks
are made of l/2-inch to 3/4-inch metal bars spaced to provide 1- to
3-inch openings.
Fine Screen
Surface waters require screens or strainers for removal of material too
small to be intercepted by the coarse rack, These may be basket-type,
in-line strainers, manually or hydraulically cleaned by back washing
or of the traveling type, which are cleaned by water jets. Fine screen,
clear openings should be approximately 3/8 inch.
87
Design Parameters for Water Treatment Processes
Aeration
Forced or induced draft aeration devices should be designed to ensure
even water distribution, adequate counter currents of air and proper
external exhausting. As a guide, the loading should be within the range
of 0.7 to 3.4 L/s per m² of total tray area (0.8 to 4 gpm/ft.) and 5 or
more trays used with separations not less than 150 mm (6 inches).
Where pressure aeration is proposed for oxidation purposes,
consideration should be given to compressed air quality and mixing, the
scaling potential of the water and subsequent air release. Aerators
should have a bypass and provisions should be made for inspection
and cleaning of the devices. Exhaust gases should be vented outside
the building.
Coagulation
To achieve proper coagulation, high intensity rapid mixing is considered
necessary. It is recommended that rapid mixing be accomplished by
either an in- line-mixing device or mixing in a separate process tank.
Typical energy gradients (G values) would be in the range of 1000
sec-1. It is recommended that some flexibility be provided in rapid
mix design if possible.
Flocculation
The design of flocculation systems should allow for low velocities and
avoidance of rapid acceleration to ensure maintenance of a good floc.
When designing a flocculation process, selection of the mode of mixing
and determination of the physical relations and characteristics of the
flocculation tanks and clarifiers (sedimentation tanks) are among the
first decisions to be made; either hydraulic mixing or mechanical mixing
may be chosen. Where sedimentation follows flocculation, the
retention time for floc formation should be at least 30 minutes.
Sedimentation
This process is designed to remove a majority of the settleable solids
by gravitational settling, thereby maximizing the downstream unit
processes such as filtration. The factors that influence sedimentation
efficiency include: Surface overflow rate (also known as surface
loading rate); Inlet and outlet arrangements; type of sedimentation
tank; Raw water characteristics and local climate conditions. There are
three main configurations for sedimentation tanks: horizontal
rectangular basins; upflow sedimentation tanks; and upflow clarifiers
with sludge blanket.

Design Data
Typical
Design Design
Equipment Unit Remarks
Parameter Values
Design should
Coarse Coarse have provision
0.05–0.08 Meter /sec for disposing
Screen Screen
Debris removed
by screens
Fine Screen Velocity 0.4 –0.8 Meter /sec
Aeration Tray type 0.8-1.5 m3/m2/min

Water velocity 7.5 m3/m3
Air requirement 30-75 water cm
Tray spacing 50-160 m2/m3.s
Area required
Cascade Type 1.0-3.0 meter
Head 85-105 m2/m3.s
Area 0.3 m/s
Flow velocity
Spray Type 1.2-9 meter
Head 2.5-4.0 cm
Nozzle diameter 0.6-3.6 meter
Nozzle spacing 5-10 liter/sec
Nozzle discharge 105-320 m2/m3.s
Basin are about 70 kPa
Spray pressure
Rapid Mix 0.2-5

Coagulation Detention 700-1000 Min
time Velocity 3X104 S-1
gradient Gt –6X104
Slow Mix 0.2-5

Detention 15-60
Flocculation time Velocity 1X104
gradient –15X104
Gt
89
Rectangular Tanks 0.8 – 2.5 Meter/Hr
Surface overflow rate: 1.5 – 3 Hour
Detention time: 3–5 Meter
Water depth: > 1/5 M3/Hr.M
Width/Length < 11 Meter/Hr
Weir loading: 1.3 – 1.9 Hour
Upflow Clarifiers 1–3 Meter
Surface overflow rate: 3–5 M3/Hr.M
Sedime- Detention(settling) 7 m/h
-ntation time: <3 Meter/Hr
Water depth: 1– 3 Hour
Weir loading: 1–2 M3/Hr.M
Upflow velocity 7 - 15 m/h
Sludge Blanket < 0.6 minutes
Clarifiers 20
Surface overflow rate:
Detention (settling)
time:
Weir loading:
Upflow velocity:
Flocculation time
Rapid sand 120-140 M3/M2.day

filter Filtration 37-50 M3/M2.Hr
Rate Backwash 37-73 M3/M2.Hr
rate Air scour 24 Hour
Filtration system Minimum
filtration cycle >24(600) Inches
Filter media (mm)
depths Dual >200
Media Silica >450 mm
Anthracite mm
Pressure Filters <15 M/hour
Filtration rate
PAC is
Powdered
activated
carbon. The
Taste & Aeration as 0.5-2.5 Mg/liter dosage of
Odour described before. 0.5-5 Mg/liter PAC can at
Control KMnO 4 Dosage
times go upto
PAC dosage 50 mg/L
Disinfe- Chlorine Dose 1-5 Mg/liter

-ction Chlorine residual 0.5-1 Mg/liter
Ozone dose 1-5 Mg/liter
Fluoride Fluoride Dose 0.7-1.2 Mg/liter

Microfiltration m
Membrane 0.1– 0.2
(MF) kg/cm2
Processes 0.7 – 1.4
Pore size psig
(10 – 20)
Pressure
Ultrafiltration m mm
0.003 – 0.01
(UF) kg/cm2
0.7 – 7.8 (10-40)
Pore size psig
Pressure
0.001 – 0.005
Nanofiltration m mm
5.3 – 10.6 (150)
(NF) kg/cm2
Pore size psig
Pressure
<1 nm
Reverse osmosis
> > 14 (200)
(RO)
Pore size kg/cm2(psi)
Pressure
Distribution Velocity in mains 1-2 M/sec

Pressure 138-1000 kPa
Detention Parameters for Sedimentation for various

coagulants in Water treatment
Overflow Rate Detention Channel Loadings

Type of Treatment M3/M2/day Time hours M3/M/Day
Alum coagulation 20-30 2-8 150-220
Iron coagulation 28-40 2-8 200-275
Lime-soda
coagulation 28-45 4-8 200-275
91
CHAPTER 11

Industrial Waste Water Treatment
Industrial Pretreatment Processes
The treatment of industrial wastewater involves the same processes as
those used in the treatment of civil water. However, because of specific
compositions, the systems tend to vary. The chemical-physical type
processes are especially important for the removal of inorganic matter. The
basic processes used are
Wastewater Unit operation
Unit Operation
Screening
Comminution
Physical Flow equalization
Sedimentation
Flotation
Granular –medium Filtration
Precipitation
Adsorption
Chemical
Disinfection
Dechlorination
Other Chemical Processes
Activated sludge Process

Biological Aerated Lagoon
Trickling Filters
RBC
Pond Stabilization
Anaerobic digestion
Biological nutrient removal
Physical
Screening is removal of coarse solids by use of a straining device.

u
Sedimentation is gravity settling of pollutants out of the wastewater.
u
Flotation is the use of small gas bubbles injected into the wastewater,
u
which causes pollutant particles in the wastewater to rise to the
surface for subsequent removal.
Air stripping is removal of volatile and semi-volatile organic
u
compounds from wastewater by use of airflow.
93
Chemical
u
Neutralization is adjustment of alkalinity and acidity to the same
concentration (pH 7).
u
Precipitation is addition of chemicals to wastewater to change the
chemical composition of pollutants so that the newly formed
compounds settle out during sedimentation.
u
Coagulation is use of chemicals to cause pollutants to agglomerate
and subsequently settle out during sedimentation.
u
Adsorption is use of a chemical, which causes certain pollutants to
adhere to the surface of that chemical.
u
Disinfection is use of a chemical (or other method such as ultraviolet
radiation) to selectively destroy disease-causing organisms.
(Sterilization is the destruction of all organisms.)
u
Breakpoint chlorination is the addition of chlorine to the level that
chloramines will be oxidized to nitrous oxide and nitrogen, and
chlorine will be reduced to chloride ions.
Biological
u
Air activated sludge is an aerobic process in which bacteria consume
organic matter, nitrogen and oxygen from the wastewater and grow
new bacteria. The bacteria are suspended in the aeration tank by the
mixing action of the air blown into the wastewater. This is shown
schematically in Figure 1. There are many derivations of the activated
sludge process, several of which are described in this section.
u
High purity oxygen activated sludge is an aerobic process very similar
to air activated sludge except that pure oxygen rather than air is
injected into the wastewater.
u
Aerated pond/lagoon is an aerobic process very similar to air activated
sludge. Mechanical aerators are generally used to either inject air into
the wastewater or to cause violent agitation of the wastewater and air
in order to achieve oxygen transfer to the wastewater. As in air
activated sludge, the bacteria grow while suspended in the
wastewater.
u
Trickling filter is a fixed film aerobic process. A tank containing media
with a high surface to volume ratio is constructed. Wastewater is
discharged at the top of the tank and percolates (trickles) down the
media. Bacteria grow on the media utilizing organic matter and
nitrogen from the wastewater.
u
Rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a fixed film aerobic process
similar to the trickling filter process except that the media is supported
horizontally across a tank of wastewater. The media upon whom the
bacteria grow is continuously rotated so that it is alternately in the
wastewater and the air.
u
Oxidation ditch is an aerobic process similar to the activated sludge
process. Physically, however, an oxidation ditch is ring-shaped and is
equipped with mechanical aeration devices.

Pollutant Pretreatment Processes
Activated Sludge
Bio-Chemical
Trickling filter or RBC
Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Aerated lagoon
Oxidation ditch
Sedimentation
Total Suspended Screening
Solids (TSS) Flotation
Chemical precipitation
Nitrification/denitrification
Nitrogen Air stripping
Breakpoint chlorination
Chemical precipitation
Phosphorus Biological treatment
Air stripping
Biological treatment
Heavy metals Chemical precipitation
Evaporation
Membrane process
Coagulation
Fats, Oil and
Flotation
Grease (FOG)
Biological treatment
Membrane process
Volatile Organic Air stripping

Compounds Biological treatment
Carbon adsorption
Chemical disinfection
Pathogens UV radiation
ozonation
95
Pretreatment Items to Look for in the Field
Process for Efficient Operation
Physical
No blinding or clogging of screens, no
Screening
excessive build-up of material on the screen
Low flow rate, no short circuiting of flow, no

Sedimentation
floating sludge, scum removal if appropriate
Centrifugation
No scaling of packing and piping, or freezing
Air stripping
problems at low temperatures
Chemical
pH monitoring, automated chemical
Neutralization feed, adequate mixing
Automated chemical feed system, adequate
Precipitation mixing & contact timer
Coagulation mixing & contact timer
Efficient means of regeneration is key

Adsorption
to performance

Disinfection mixing & contact timer
Biological
Fine bubble aeration, even distribution of air

and mixing, dissolved oxygen concentration
Activated sludge monitoring, air flow turndown capability, no
bulking/floating sludge
Method for positive air circulation, even

Trickling filter
& periodic dousing of filter media
Rotating biological
contactor (RBC) Steady shaft rotation

CHAPTER 12
97
Chemical Cleaning
General Guidance
Chemical cleaning of water systems can be divided into two classifications: pre-
operational and remedial. Pre-operational cleaning is performed to prepare the
water-contacted metal surfaces to receive chemical treatment, which provides
protection from scale, corrosion, and microbiological growth. Remedial
cleaning is performed to restore water systems that have been fouled with
scale, corrosion products, and microbiological growth due to inadequate or
ineffective water treatment. Cleaning, particularly remedial cleaning is often
performed by outside contractors familiar with cleaning procedures,
techniques, and safety. It should be noted that if the water system is
significantly scaled, the chemical treatment program was obviously inadequate
and was not properly designed, set-up, controlled, or applied. After cleaning
has been completed, the chemical treatment program and QC program must
be improved so the same problem does not recur. Use of a well-designed QA
program would have produced identification and notification of potential and
developing problems before they became serious. Pre-operational cleaning is
often performed by contractors responsible for the fabrication of the water
system before turning it over to the military installation. Water system
operations personnel must assess the effectiveness of any cleaning process
that has been performed.
Pre-Operational Cleaning
Pre-operational cleaning can be performed on all new systems or pieces of
equipment installed in any existing system, including new boiler tubes or new
chiller copper tube bundles. New piping and coils will usually be contaminated
with materials such as mill scale, rust, oil, and grease resulting from the
fabrication, storage, and installation of the equipment. Pre-operational
cleaning is performed to remove these materials and prepare metal surfaces to
receive corrosion protection from chemical treatment. Pre-operational
cleaning agents that are used include detergents, wetting agents, rust
removers, and dispersants. These cleaning agents have a pH in the range of 9
to 11. Water systems containing piping or components constructed of
galvanized steel and aluminum should not be subjected to procedures that
require high pH (greater than 8.5) because this would contribute to initiating
corrosion of these surfaces.
The requirement for performing a pre-operational cleaning process is usually
written into the specification for new construction of a water system that must
be performed by a mechanical contractor. The mechanical contractor is
required to perform the work as directed in the specifications. However, if the
specifications are not appropriate for the specific system, including
consideration of all system metallurgy, the cleaning process may contribute to
corrosion to mild steel, galvanized steel, copper, or aluminum, or it may result
in incomplete cleaning of dirty and corroded metal surfaces. A qualified
inspector should review the specifications or qualified independent consultant
to ensure that cleaning agents and procedures have been specified
appropriately.

Remedial Cleaning
Remedial cleaning is performed to restore a water system that is fouled with
scale, corrosion products, or microbiological biomass due to inadequate or
ineffective waters treatment. The problem could have resulted from using
improper chemical technology, failure to maintain treatment levels within
control parameters or the failure of pretreatment equipment. The cleaning
agents used for remedial cleaning usually include acids, chelants, neutralizing
agents, and specialty cleaning chemicals.
Safety and Environmental Issues
Remedial cleaning may pose safety issues for personnel handling acids,
caustics, and various chemicals. There could also be environmental concerns
associated with chemical disposal. Inexperienced personnel should not
perform the chemical cleaning of an industrial water system.
Contracting Cleaning Services
For some cleaning jobs, such as large boilers and cooling towers, it may be
advisable to engage a service company specializing in chemical cleaning. If the
cleaning service is contracted, it is vital that adequate lines of communication
be established, and that safety procedures employed by the service company
comply with military regulations. An orientation meeting should be scheduled
between military installation personnel and the service company
representatives. At that time, the scope of the work can be defined, proper
procedures initiated, and the nature of the hazards described thoroughly. The
use of proprietary cleaning chemicals or chemical formulations may be
involved; disclosure of the use and nature of these chemicals should be made
at the orientation meeting. Military policies and restrictions can also be
explained.
Reasons for Cleaning
Maintenance of an effective water treatment program is essential to minimize
scale and corrosion problems in industrial water systems; however, scale and
deposits that form will require remedial cleaning (descaling). If not removed,
these scale and water-caused deposits may impact the safety of operations
personnel, interfere with heat transfer, and cause excessive damage to, or
destruction of, the water-using equipment. Cleaning is not appropriate for the
removal of deposits when corrosion of the system has advanced to the point
where a large number of leaks may result from the removal of the deposits.
Types of Deposits
The deposits that occur in water systems can be inorganic mineral salts and
corrosion products or organic (oily) or biological in nature. Deposits range in
composition from very dense crystalline structures, to very porous and loosely
bound materials, to gelatinous slimes. Most of the deposits formed from water
constituents consist of corrosion products such as iron and copper oxides,
mineral scales, or mixtures of these materials.
99
Waterside Deposits Located in Heat Exchangers
Water deposits located in heat exchangers are usually carbonate-based scales,
while steamside deposits may be a mixture of metallic oxides and organic
residuals from lubricating oil, particularly where reciprocating-type engines are
used. In steam systems, the oxides are usually iron and copper, resulting from
aggressive condensate. Microbiological deposits may form in cooling systems
from bacterial or algae growths, or from decomposition products of various
microorganisms.
Boiler Deposits
Boiler deposits may take various forms. In low-pressure boilers using a
relatively hard feedwater, deposits are essentially calcium and magnesium,
silicates, sulfates, carbonates, phosphates and hydroxides, plus some
organics. Deposits may also contain considerable amounts of silica, iron, and
copper. These deposits can be spongy or porous or relatively hard and glass-
like. Deposits of the latter characteristic occur where silica is present in
appreciable quantities in the boiler water. Deposits in medium-pressure to
high-pressure boiler systems usually are mixtures of iron and copper oxides
and phosphates. Dense deposits may tend to form in high-heat transfer areas.
Considerable quantities of sludge-type accumulations may be found in
downcomers, mud drums, waterwall headers, crossover tubes, and areas of
low water circulation in the boiler.
Remedial Cleaning Procedure
Cleaning procedure information and procedures presented in this Chapter are
general in nature and must be modified to fit specific applications. Because
contractors perform most cleanings, these procedures are provided only for
general information.
Cleaning Methods
There are two methods generally adopted for cleaning
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical
Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods are the oldest techniques used for removing deposits. To
perform an adequate mechanical-type cleaning, the equipment to be cleaned
may need to be partially or entirely dismantled. Even when equipment is
dismantled, some areas may be extremely difficult to reach and clean.
Chemical cleaning has largely replaced mechanical process equipment
cleaning as the most satisfactory method of removing deposits; however,
mechanical methods such as wire brushing, tumbling, scraping, and abrasive
blasting with sand and grit are still employed in special applications.
Chemical Methods
In this method acid or alkali is generally used for cleaning. At times there are
other chemicals which are also used for cleaning.

Cleaning Agents
Cleaning agents may be broadly classified as being acid, alkaline, organic, or
solvent cleaners. There is no general or universal cleaner that removes all
deposits. The selection of a solvent or cleaning agent is based on the material's
ability to remove or dissolve the deposit, as well as on cost considerations,
safety hazards, and the effect of the cleaning material on the metals involved.
General Guidance and Procedures for Preparing Cleaning Solutions
General guidance and procedures for preparing cleaning solutions of inhibited
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and inhibited sulfamic acids are provided in
paragraphs below. Inhibited acid contains special chemical inhibitors that
prevent the acid cleaner from attacking the base metal while allowing the acid
to remove the unwanted corrosion product or scale deposit.
Hydrochloric (Muriatic) Acid
Inhibited hydrochloric (muriatic) acid in strengths of 5 to 20% is very effective
for removing calcium scale and iron oxide; however, for most applications, a
10% solution is adequate. The following formulation is for a 10% hydrochloric
acid solution. It can be used for removing scale consisting primarily of
carbonates with lesser amounts of phosphates, sulfates, and silicates. This
type of scale is typically found in a steam boiler system containing copper alloys
that has been treated with a phosphate-based program. Depending on the
specific descaling application, some of these ingredients can be omitted from
the formulation.
Example Procedure for 10% Solution
The following is an example procedure that can be used to make 3785 liters
(1000 gallons) of a 10% solution:
1. Add 1079 liters (285 gallons) concentrated (36% strength) hydrochloric
acid, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 1146,
Specification for Muriatic Acid (Technical Grade Hydrochloric Acid), to
approximately 2271 liters (600 gallons) of water.
2. Add the proper amount of a corrosion inhibitor, Military Specification MIL-I-
17433, Inhibitor, Hydrochloric Acid, Descaling and Pickling, recommended
by the manufacturer to the diluted acid solution. The inhibitor must be
compatible with hydrochloric acid and must not precipitate under any
condition during the cleaning operation.
3. In a separate tank containing about 284 liters (75 gallons) of water:
4. Add 39 kilograms (85 pounds) of the chemical (1,3) diethylthiourea to
complex any copper and keep it from depositing. Do not use the
diethylthiourea as the corrosion inhibitor required in paragraph 9-
2.2.1(step 2) above.
5. Add 55 kilograms (120 pounds) of ammonium bifluoride, technical grade,
to help dissolve certain iron and silica scales.
6. Add 3.79 liters (1 gallon) of wetting agent,
Add the dissolved diethylthiourea, ammonium bifluoride, and wetting agent to
the diluted acid solution. Add sufficient water to obtain 3785 liters (1000
gallons).
101
Carbonate Deposits.
Carbonate deposits dissolve rapidly in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of free
carbon dioxide. The escaping carbon dioxide tends to create some circulation or
agitation of the acid, which ensures the continual contact of fresh acid with the
scale. Once the carbonate has been dissolved from a mixed deposit, a loose,
porous structure may be left behind. This residual material can be effectively
removed from the equipment either mechanically or by washing with high-
pressure water.
Phosphate Deposits
The removal of phosphate deposits can usually be accomplished by using
hydrochloric acid; however, phosphate deposits have a tendency to dissolve
rather slowly. To minimize the total cleaning time, a temperature of 49 to 60 °C
(120 to 140 °F) is usually necessary to remove a predominantly phosphate scale.
Metallic Oxides
Most metallic oxides found in deposits can be removed with hydrochloric acid. The
rate of dissolution is a function of temperature and solution velocity. If copper
oxides are present on steel surfaces, special precautions are needed to prevent
copper metal plate-out on the steel.
Silica and Sulfate Scale
Heavy silica and sulfate scale is almost impossible to remove with hydrochloric
acid. Special chemicals and procedures are required to remove this scale.
Hydrochloric Acid Limitations
Hydrochloric acid is not used to clean stainless steel because the chloride ion in
the acid solution may cause pitting or stress corrosion cracking. Hydrochloric acid
is not used for removing scale from galvanized steel surfaces since the galvanizing
will corrode. Aluminum is not cleaned using hydrochloric acid.
Sulfamic Acid
Sulfamic acid is an odorless, white, crystalline solid organic acid that is readily
soluble in water. An inhibited sulfamic acid compound, in a dry powder form, is
available. A 5 to 20% solution (2 to 9 kilograms to approximately 38 liters of water
[5 to 20 pounds to approximately 10 gallons of water]) is used for removing scale
from metal surfaces. The following information pertaining to sulfamic acid should
be considered.
u ?Carbonate deposits are dissolved in sulfamic acid in a similar manner as
in hydrochloric acid. All the common sulfamate salts (including calcium)
are very soluble in water.
u The dry powder form of sulfamic acid is safer to handle than a liquid
solution of hydrochloric acid; however, aqueous solutions of sulfamic acid
are much slower in action and require heating to remove scale. The
sulfamic acid solution is heated to a temperature in the range of 54 to 71
oC (130 to 160 oF) to obtain the same fast cleaning time that is achieved
by using hydrochloric acid at room temperature. Sulfamic acid is more
effective on sulfate scale than hydrochloric acid.

u Inhibited sulfamic acid, used at temperatures up to 43 oC (110 oF),
will not corrode galvanized steel. Its use is recommended for
removing scale in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and other
equipment containing galvanized steel. In general, sulfamic acid can
be applied to equipment while it is operating but should be drained
from the system after a few hours, and the concentration of the
normally used corrosion inhibitor should be increased several-fold to
protect the metal surfaces.
u ?Commercially prepared descaling compounds consisting of
concentrated or diluted inhibited acid (containing 7 to 28% of the acid
and inhibitor) may be purchased under various trade names at prices
4 to 30 times the cost of the ingredients themselves if purchased as
generic chemicals.
u ?Advertisements of some of these products may contain claims that
the acid does not attack cotton clothing and skin. These claims are
usually based on a very dilute solution of the acid that causes a
minimal attack on clothes and skin; however, the cost of the cleaning
process may be increased because a higher quantity of dilute product
may be needed. Be aware that handling acid in any strength must be
performed with considerable care, caution, and adherence to safety
procedures.
u The cost of diluted acid is expensive; therefore, concentrated acid of
government specifications should be purchased and diluted to usable
strengths. The necessary corrosion inhibitors can be added to the
dilute acid solution. Users of small quantities of acid cleaners (possibly
less than 38 liters [10 gallons] of diluted acid per year) may not be
able to justify purchasing undiluted acid and spending the time, cost,
and effort to prepare the cleaning solution.
Cleaning Preparation
u
The unit to be cleaned must be isolated from other parts of the system.
For systems that cannot be isolated by the closing of valves, isolation
may be accomplished using rubber blankets, wooden bulkheads with
seals, inflatable nylon or rubber bags, rubber sponge-covered plugs,
or blind flanges and steel plates with rubber seals.
u
Decide whether to clean using a soaking process or by circulating the
cleaning solution. In either case, temporary piping or hose lines will be
required to connect the cleaning solution mixing tanks or trucks to the
unit, with return lines to tanks or drains. Proper precautions and
adequate provisions must be made to protect equipment, isolate
control lines, replace liquid level sight glasses with expendable
materials, and provide suitable points for checking temperatures.
u
The entire cleaning procedure/process must be developed in detail
before starting chemical cleaning operations. Factors to be considered
include: the methods for controlling temperatures; the means of
mixing, heating, and circulating the chemical solution; proper venting
of dangerous gases from equipment to a safe area.
103
Methods for Removing Scale
Removing scale may be accomplished by circulating the inhibited acid solution
through the equipment or by soaking the equipment in a tank of inhibited acid.
Before starting any descaling process, check the acid to make sure it is properly
inhibited. You may check the acid by placing a mild steel coupon into a beaker
containing the prepared, diluted acid. You should notice no reaction around the
coupon. If you observe a reaction generating hydrogen gas bubbles around the
coupon, add more inhibitor.
Recirculating Cleaning Process for Boilers
The following example is an appropriate procedure for cleaning small boilers or
other systems using a hot recirculating inhibited acid solution:
1. Fill the boiler or system with preheated (71 to 77 oC [160 to 170 oF])
dilutes inhibited acid solution.
2. Allow the dilute inhibited acid solution to remain in place for 8 hours.
Circulate the acid solution for approximately 15 minutes each hour at a
rate of about 3.15 liters per second (50 gallons per minute) to ensure good
mixing.
3. Keep the temperature of the acid solution preheated at 71 to 77 oC (160 to
170 oF). Measure and record the temperature at least once every 30
minutes.
4. Check and record the acid strength at least every hour
5. Drain the system by forcing the acid solution out using 276 to 345
kilopascals (40 to 50 pounds per square inch gauge) nitrogen; follow
Specification A-A-59503, Nitrogen, Technical, Class 1. If leaks develop
when the system is under nitrogen pressure, you must use an alternate
method for removing the acid, such as pumping.
6. Fill the boiler with preheated (65 to 71 oC [150 to 160 oF]) water and soak at
this temperature for 15 minutes.
7. Drain under nitrogen pressure of 276 to 345 kilopascals (40 to 50 pounds
per square inch gauge).
8. Prepare this mild, acid-rinse solution: Add 7.57 liters (2 gallons) of
hydrochloric acid (ASTM E 1146 or IS 226) for each 3785 liters (1000
gallons) of water. Also add corrosion inhibitor, in the amount recommended
by the manufacturer.
9. Fill the boiler with the preheated (71 to 77 oC [160 to 170 oF]) mild acid-
rinse solution and soak for 30 minutes.
10. Drain the mild acid-rinse solution under nitrogen pressure at 276 to 345
kilopascals (40 to 50 pounds per square inch gauge). Maintain a positive
pressure of nitrogen in the boiler to prevent outside air from leaking inside.
11. Fill the boiler with the passivating solution preheated to 65 to 71 oC (150 to
160 oF), circulate for 10 minutes, and hold in the boiler at 65 to 71 oC for an
additional 30 minutes.
Drain and rinse boiler until the pH of the rinse water is pH 8 to 10.

Circulating Method without Heat
The steps below describe a typical process for descaling smaller equipment,
such as enclosed vessels or hot water heater coils, without heating the inhibited
acid solution:
1. Note that an acid cleaning assembly may consist of a small cart on which is
mounted a pump and an 18.9- to 189-liter (5- to 50-gallon) steel or
polyethylene tank with a bottom outlet to the pump.
2. Install sill cocks at the bottom of the water inlet of the heat exchanger and
the top of the water outlet so that a return line can be connected directly
from the acid pump and from the heat exchanger to the acid tank.
3. Prepare an inhibited acid cleaning solution
4. Pump the acid solution into the heat exchanger through the hose
connection. Continue circulation until the reaction is complete, as
indicated by foam subsidence or acid depletion.
5. If the scale is not completely removed, check the acid strength in the
system If the acid strength is less than 3%, add fresh acid solution and
continue circulation until the remaining scale is removed. Usually an hour
of circulation is adequate.
6. Drain the heat exchanger.
7. Neutralize remaining acid by circulating a 1-% sodium carbonate (soda
ash) solution {about 3.6 kilograms per 38 liters (8 pounds per 100
gallons)}for about 10 minutes.
8. Rinse thoroughly with water until the pH of the rinse water is pH 8 to 10.
Fill and Soak Method
1. Prepare an inhibited dilute acid solution in a container of suitable size.
2. Depending on the item to be cleaned and the types of scale involved, you
may want to place an agitator (mixer) in the tank or install a pump outside
the tank to circulate the acid solution. A method to heat the acid may be
required, such as a steam coil. All equipment must be explosion-proof and
acid-resistant.
3. Immerse the item to be cleaned in the dilute acid solution. Continue
soaking until the reaction is complete as indicated by foam subsidence or
acid depletion.
4. If the scale is not completely removed, check the acid strength. If it is less
than 3%, add additional acid and continue soaking the items until the
remaining scale is dissolved. Usually 1 to 2 hours of soaking is adequate.
5. Remove item from tank.
6. To neutralize remaining acid, immerse the item in a 1% sodium carbonate
(soda ash) solution (about 3.6 kilograms per 38 liters [8 pounds per 100
gallons]) for 2 to 3 minutes.
Rinse the item thoroughly with water.
105
Checking Acid Solution Strength
The initial strength of the dilute inhibited acid will vary from 5 to 20%, although
10% is typical. The strength of the acid decreases since acid is consumed in
dissolving the scale. The strength of the acid solution should be measured
periodically during a cleaning operation. When the acid strength falls below
3%, the solution may be discarded since most of its scale-dissolving capability
will have been used. Use the following procedure to check the acid strength:
Apparatus:
1. Burette, 25 milliliters (0.8 ounce) automatic (for sodium hydroxide
solution)
2. Bottle, with dropper, 50 milliliters (2 ounces) (for phenolphthalein
indicator solution)
3. Graduated cylinder, 10 milliliters (0.3 ounce)
4. Casserole, porcelain, heavy duty, 210-milliliter (7.1-ounce) capacity
5. Stirring rod
Reagents:
1. Sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 normality (N)
2. Phenolphthalein indicator solution, 0.5%
Method:
1. Measure 10 milliliters of acid solution accurately in the graduated cylinder.
2. Pour into the casserole.
3. Add 2 to 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the casserole and
stir.
4. Fill the automatic burette with the 1.0 N sodium hydroxide solution; allow
the excess to drain back into the bottle.
5. While stirring the acid solution constantly, add sodium hydroxide solution
from the burette to the casserole until color changes to a permanent faint
pink. This is the endpoint. Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-milliliter
(0.003-ounce).
Results:
For hydrochloric acid: Percent hydrochloric acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium
hydroxide x 0.36.
For sulfamic acid: Percent sulfamic acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide
x 0.97

WATER SAMPLE
TEST
PROCEDURES
107
WATER SAMPLE TEST PROCEDURES
Purpose of Testing
Testing of industrial water is done to determine the amount of treatment
chemicals in the water so that dosage levels can be properly regulated. These
tests are the only known means of having reliable operations, as far as the
water is concerned.
Testing Techniques
Accurate test results depend on following good basic laboratory procedures and
techniques.
1. Water analyses require certain chemical apparatus. These are scientific

instruments and are to be treated as such. The apparatus should be
HANDLED WITH CARE!
2. It is necessary to keep everything in GOOD ORDER at all times. Have a
place for everything and everything in its place! Be sure all bottles are
properly labeled and avoid mixing bottles! All bottles should be tightly
closed. Keep any reserve stock of solutions and reagents in cool, dark
place.
3. All equipment and apparatus should be kept CLEAN! Unless this is done,
the tests will not be reliable and errors will be introduced. Thoroughly rinse
and dry all glassware immediately after use. If color apparatus are
employed, do not expose to heat or to direct sunlight. If any liquid is spilled
on any of the equipment or apparatus, wipe off at once and dry.
4. MEASURE CAREFULLY! The apparatus are precision instruments that are
capable of very fine measurements. The results will be “off” if improper
amounts of samples are taken, if incorrect volumes of solution are added, if
the burette is not read correctly, of if the methods prescribed on the
following pages are not performed exactly as written.
5. The SUSPENDED MATTER OR SLUDGE will generally settle to the bottom if
the sample is allowed to stand before testing. The clear water can then be
used for the tests, making it unnecessary to filter (except for specific
tests). Theoretically, all water analyses should be made at 77oF (25oC);
however, no appreciable error will be introduced if the test is made
between 68 and 86oF (20 to 30oC). In general, the shorter the time
between the collection and the analysis of the sample, the more reliable
will be the results.
When the water sample color interferes with the analysis, it may be necessary
to filter the sample through activated charcoal, except for the sulfite and nitrite
tests.

Phenolphthalein (P) Alkalinity Test Procedure
APPARATUS:
Graduated Cylinder, 50 ml, Plastic
Bottle, w/Dropper (for Phenolphthalein Indicator) 2 oz
Casserole, Porcelain, Heavy Duty, 200 ml Capacity
Stirring Rod, Plastic
REAGENTS:
Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50
Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution, 1 percent
METHOD:
Measure the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder. The
amount should be based on the expected results of the test according to the
following:
u
Pour into the casserole.
u
Add 6 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution to the casserole and
stir. If the water does not change to a red color, there is no
phenolphthalein alkalinity present and the “P” reading is reported as
“zero.” If the water does change to red color, “P” alkalinity is present
and the test should be continued.
u
Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution
from the bottle to fill the burette just above the zero mark; then allow
the excess to drain back automatically into the bottle.
u
While stirring the water constantly, add Standard Sulfuric Acid slowly
from the burette to the casserole until the red color disappears and the
water resumes the original color of the sample before the
Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution was added. This is the end point.
Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-ml.
u
RESULTS: The P alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) is calculated as follows: P
alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) = (ml acid) x (factor)
P Alkalinity Expected,
As CaCO3 Sample Size Factor
Less than 100 50ml 20
More than 100 20ml 50
EXAMPLE:
4.3 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid were required to change the color of a 50 ml sample
of water from red to colorless:
P alkalinity = 4.3 x 20 = 86 ppm as CaC
109
Total (M) Alkalinity Test Procedures
APPARATUS:
Burette, 10 ml, Automatic (for N/50 Sulfuric Acid) (item 1001)
Graduated Cylinder, 50 ml, Plastic (item 1004)
Bottle, w/Dropper (for Mixed Indicator) 2 oz (item 1005)
Casserole, Porcelain, Heavy Duty, 200 ml Capacity (item 1003)
Stirring Rod, Plastic (item 1006)
REAGENTS:
Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50 (item 2001)
Mixed Indicator Solution, (item 2036)
METHOD:
Measure the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder. The
amount should be based on the expected results of the tests according to the
following:
u
u
Add 10 drops of Mixed Indicator Solution to the casserole and stir. If
the water changes to a light pink color, free mineral acid is present.
There is no mixed indicator alkalinity, and the “M” reading is reported
as “zero.” If the water changes to a green or blue color, “M” alkalinity is
present and the test should be continued.
u
Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution
to fill the burette to just above the zero mark; then allow the excess to
drain back automatically into the bottle.
u
While stirring the water constantly, add Standard Sulfuric Acid
Solution slowly from the burette to the casserole until the green or
blue color changes to light pink. This is the end point. Read the burette
to the nearest 0.1-ml.
M Alkalinity Expected,
As CaCO3 Sample Size Factor
Less than 100 50ml 20
More than 100 20ml 50
RESULTS:
The M alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) is calculated as follows:
M alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) = (ml acid) x (factor)

EXAMPLE:
5.9 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid were required to change the color of a 50 ml sample
of water from green to light pink:
M alkalinity = 5.9 x 20 = 118 ppm as CaCO3
NOTES:
u
If the end point color is difficult to see, repeat the entire test using 15
drops of Mixed Indicator Solution.
u
Just before the end point is reached, the green or blue color fades to a
light blue color and then becomes light pink. The end point is the first
appearance of a permanent pink color.
Value of P & M Bicarbonate Carbonate Hydroxide Total
Alkalinity Alkalinity Alkalinity Alkalinity Alkalinity
P= Zero M Nil Nil M
P< 1/2M M-2P 2P Nil M
P=1/2M Nil 2P Nil M
P>1/2M Nil 2(M-P) 2P – M M
111
Conductivity Test Procedure
Apparatus
Conductivity Meter & cell
In general, there are two types of conductivity meters. One has an electrode
that is put into a cell containing the water to be tested. The other has a small
cup mounted on the meter into which the water to be tested is poured. Either
type of meter may be automatically temperature compensated, or the meter
may require a temperature correction. The meter may indicate TDS or
conductivity as micromhos, but either measurement represents the same
characteristic of the water sample. Where the meter is designed to give either
measurement, it is important to always use the same measurement to avoid an
error.
Thermometer
Beaker
Graduated cylinder
Procedure
Determine the cell constant if necessary, either directly with a standard
potassium chloride solution (say 0.002N) or by comparison with a cell the
constant of which is known accurately. (In the later case, the concentration
and nature of the electrolytes in the liquid which is used for the comparison
should be the same and should be similar respectively to those of the liquids
with which the cell is likely to be used in practice.
Use some of the samples to washout the conductivity cell thoroughly. Fill the
conductivity cell with the sample. Measure the conductivity in accordance with
the instruction of the instrument manufacturer.
Results
Depending upon the type of meter used, the results are read as either
conductivity in micromhos or TDS in ppm. The relationship between these
measurements when these procedures are used is as follows:
TDS, ppm = 0.66 x Conductivity, micromhos
Conductivity, micromhos = 1.5 x TDS, ppm.

pH-Electrometric Method Test Procedures
Apparatus
pH Meter, Complete
Beaker, 150 ml,
Heavy Duty Plastic (3 each)
Wash Bottle, 500 ml, Heavy Duty Plastic
Reagents
Standard pH Buffer Solution, pH-4
METHOD:
Carefully follow the procedures provided with the pH meter. They should be
similar to the following:
u Turn the meter from “standby” to “on” position.
u Standardize instrument by immersing the electrode(s) into two
different Standard pH buffer Solutions in the test beaker as follows:
(a.) Place electrode(s) in pH-7 Buffer Solution and adjust the meter to
read pH-7.(b). Place electrode(s) in the second pH Buffer Solution,
either the pH-4 or pH-10, depending on the suspected range of the
unknown sample to be tested, and adjust the meter to the same pH.
u Remove electrode(s) and thoroughly wash with distilled or condensate
water.
u Immerse the electrode(s) in the water sample and turn the meter to
“test” or “pH” position and read meter.
u Rinse the electrodes with distilled or condensate water and turn the
instrument to the “standby” position. Do not turn off.
Notes:
u When not in use, keep the glass electrodes soaking in a pH-4 Buffer
Solution.
u When not in use, keep the plastic cap on the reference electrode.
Some reference electrodes must be kept full of electrolyte. Follow the
instrument instructions on this.
113
Total hardness Test Procedures
Introduction
Hardness is defined as the sum of the calcium and magnesium ions in water
expressed in milligrams per liter (or ppm) as calcium carbonate. Hardness tests
should be done on softeners to make sure they are functioning and deaerator
water to make sure no contamination is occurring.
This test is based on the determination of the total calcium and magnesium
content of simple by titration with a sequestering agent in the presence of
organic dye sensitive to calcium and magnesium ions. The red to blue color
change endpoint is observed when all calcium and magnesium ions are
sequestered.
Hardness tests should be conducted on water softeners and condensate but not
on boiler water as elevated iron concentrations can lead to chemical
interference and poor test results.
Reagent required
Hardness Reagent 0.01 M
Hardness Buffer
Hardness Indicator Powder
Procedure
u
Rinse the graduated cylinder and beaker or a test tube with the sample
to be tested. Fill the graduated cylinder to 50 mL and add this water to
the beaker or a test tube
u
If hardness is expected to be greater than 100 take a 50 ml sample
and if less than 100 then the sample can be of 20 ml
u
Add 5 drops of Hardness Buffer to the beaker using the plastic pipette.
Swirl to mix.
u
Add 1 spoon of Hardness Indicator Powder. Swirl to dissolve
completely. The sample will turn red if hardness is present. If the
sample is blue, the hardness level is completed to be zero.
u
If the sample colour is purple or red, add standard hardness titrating
solution slowly from the burette to the beaker until the purple or red
colour changes to blue. This is the end point. Read to nearest 0.1 ml
Calculation
u
For a 50 mL sample, ppm Hardness as CaCO3 = mL of Hardness
Reagent X 20.
u
For a 20 mL sample, ppm Hardness as CaCO3 = mL of Hardness
Reagent X 50.

Sulphite testing procedure
Introduction
Sulfite is used in boiler feedwater conditioning to prevent oxygen pitting by the
removal of dissolved oxygen. It is necessary to maintain an excess sulfite level
to ensure rapid and complete oxygen removal. This test is based on the
reaction of sulfite with iodine in acidic solution. The iodide-iodate titrant
generates iodine in the acidic solution. This iodine is consumed in a reaction
with excess sulfite. At the endpoint, excess iodine combines with the indicator
to form a blue colour.
Reagents required
Iodide-Iodate Reagent N/40
Acid Starch Indicator Powder
Phenolphthalein Indicator
Procedure
u
Rinse the graduated cylinder and beaker or a test tube with the sample
to be tested. Fill the graduated cylinder to 50 mL and add this water to
the beaker or a test tube
u
If sulphite is expected to be greater than 100ppm take a 50-ml sample
and if less than 100 ppm then the sample can be of 20 ml
u
Add 1 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator to the beaker using the
plastic pipette. Swirl to mix.
u
If the sample remains colourless proceed with step 5. If the sample
turns pink add Acid Starch indicator Powder one, 1gram at a time until
the sample becomes colorless. Swirl to mix between each addition of
indicator.
u
Fill the Titration Burette to the zero mark with Iodide-Iodate Reagent
N/40. Add the reagent slowly to the Erlenmeyer flask with constant
stirring. Continue to titrate until a permanent blue color develops in
the sample. Read the titrated volume from the burette.
Calculation
For a 50 mL sample,
Ppm sulphite as CaCO3 = mL of Iodide-Iodate Reagent X 20.
For a 20 mL sample,
Ppm sulphite as CaCO3 = mL of Iodide-Iodate Reagent X 50.
115
Chloride Test Procedure
Apparatus:
Burette, 10 ml Automatic (for Mercuric Nitrate Solution)
Graduated Cylinder, 50 ml, Plastic
Casserole, Porcelain, Heavy Duty, 200 ml Capacity
Stirring Rod, Plastic
Bottle, w/Dropper, 2 oz (for Chloride Indicator Solution)
Reagents
Standard Mercuric Nitrate Solution, 0.0141 N
Chloride Indicator Solution
Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50
Procedure
u
Measure the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder.
The amount should be based on the expected results of the tests
according to the following:
u
u
Add 1.0 ml of Chloride Indicator Solution to the water in the casserole
and stir for 10 seconds. The color of the water should be a green-blue
color at this point.
u
Add the standard Sulfuric Acid Solution a drop at a time until the water
turns from greenblue to yellow.
u
Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Mercuric Nitrate
Solution from the bottle to fill the burette just above the zero mark;
then allow the excess to drain back automatically into the bottle.
While stirring the sample constantly, add Standard Mercuric Nitrite Solution
slowly from the burette to the casserole until a definite purple color appears.
This is the end point.(The solution will turn from green-blue to blue a few drops
from the end point.) Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-ml.
Results
The Chloride, in ppm C1, is calculated as follows:
Chloride, ppm C1 = (ml of Mercuric Nitrate – 0.2) x factor.
Example
11.2 ml of 0.0141 N Mercuric Nitrate Solution was required to change the color
of a 50-ml sample of water from a green-blue to purple.
Chloride = (11.2 – 0.2) x 20 = 220 ppm)
Chloride Expected as Cl Sample Size Factor

Less than 20 ppm 50ml 10
More than 20 ppm 20ml 20

Checking Acid Solution Strength for Cleaning
The initial strength of the dilute inhibited acid will vary from 5 to 20%, although
10% is typical. Since the acid is consumed by dissolving the scale, the strength
of the acid decreases. The strength of the acid solution should be measured
periodically during a cleaning operation. When the acid strength falls below
3%, the solution may be discarded since most of its scale-dissolving capability
will have been used. Use the following procedure to check the acid strength:
Apparatus:
Burette, 25 milliliters (0.8 ounce) automatic (for sodium hydroxide solution)
Bottle, with dropper, 50 milliliters (2 ounces) (for phenolphthalein indicator
solution)
Graduated cylinder, 10 milliliters (0.3 ounce)
Casserole, porcelain, heavy duty, 210-milliliter (7.1-ounce) capacity
Stirring rod
Reagents:
Sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 normality (N)
Phenolphthalein indicator solution, 0.5%
Method:
u
Measure 10 milliliters of acid solution accurately in the graduated
cylinder.
u
u
Add 2 to 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the casserole
and stir.
u
Fill the automatic burette with the 1.0 N sodium hydroxide solution;
allow the excess to drain back into the bottle.
u
While stirring the acid solution constantly, add sodium hydroxide
solution from the burette to the casserole until color changes to a
permanent faint pink. This is the endpoint. Read the burette to the
nearest 0.1-milliliter (0.003-ounce).
Results:
For hydrochloric acid:
Percent hydrochloric acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.36
For sulfamic acid:
Percent sulfamic acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.97
117
Units and
Measurement
conversion

BASICS
Length
1 m = 39. 37 " | in = 3,281 ' | feet
1 in | " = 25.40 mm = 2,540·10-2 m
1 ft | ' = 304. 8 mm = 0.3048 m
Area
1 m² = 10.76 ft² = 1550 in²
1 ft² = 9,290·10-2 m²
1 in² = 6,452·10-4 m²
Volume
1 m³ = 6,102·104 in³
1 m³ = 35.31 cf | ft³ = 264.2 US Gallon
1 cf | ft³ = 2,832·10-2 m³ = 28.32 Liter | dm³
1 in³ = 1,639·105m³ = 1,639·10-2 Liter | dm³
1 US Gallon = 3,785·10-3 m³ = 3,785 Liter | dm³
1 UK Gallon = 4,546·10-3 m³ = 4,546 Liter | dm
1 mn3 Air=38.04 SCF Air=1.292 kg Air
1 SCF Air =2,629·10-2 mn 3 Air=3,397·10-2 kg Air
Density
1 kg/m³ = 6.243·10-2 lb/ft³
1 lb/ft³ = 16.02 kg/m³
Mass
1 kg = 2.205 lb | lbs
1 lb | lbs = 0.4536 kg
Velocity
1 m/s = 3.281 ft/s
1 m/s = 196.9 ft/min | FPM
1 FPM = 5.080·10-3 m/s
1 ft/sec. = 0.3048 m/s
Volume Flow
1 m³/h = 0.5885 CFM | ft³/min
1 CFM = 1.699 m³/h
1 SCFM = 1.577 mn 3/h Air (only)
Mass Flow
1 kg/h = 2.205 lb/h
1 lb/h = 0.4536 kg/h
119
Pressure
1 bar = 14.50 psi
1 bar = 100.0 kPa
1 bar = 0.9869 Atm.
1 mbar = 0.7501 mm Hg | Torr
1 mbar = 10.20 mm WG
1 mbar = 100.0 Pa
1 psi | lbf/in² = 6,895·10-2 bar
1 psi | lbf/in² = 6,804·10-2 Atm.
1 psi | lbf/in² = 6,895 kPa
Kinematic Viscosity
1 Pa·s = 1.000 cP
1 Pa·s = 0. 6720 lb/ (ft·s)
1 cP = 1,000·10-3 Pa·s | Ns/m²
1 cP = 1,000·10-3 kg/ (m·s)
1 lb/ (ft·s) = 1.488 Pa·s
1 lb/ (ft·s) = 1488 cP | mPa·s
Temperature
°C | Celsius = 5 · (°F – 32) / 9
°F | Fahrenheit = 32 + 9 · °C / 5
Heat Content & Energy
1 kJ | KN·m = 0.9478 Btu
1 kJ | KN·m = 0.2388 Kcal
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ
1 Btu = 0.2520 Kcal
1 kcal = 4,187 kJ
1 kcal = 3.968 Btu
1 kWh = 859.8 Kcal
Heat Load | Power
1 kW = 3412 Btu/h
1 kW = 859.8 Kcal/h
1 Btu/h = 2,931·10-4 kW
1 Btu/h = 0.2520 Kcal/h
1 kcal/h = 1,163·10-3 kW
1 kcal/h = 3.968 Btu/h
1 Boiler HP = 9.81 kW
Specific Heat
1 kJ/ (kg·K) = 0.2388 Btu/ (lb·°F)
1 kJ/ (kg·K) = 0.2388 kcal/ (kg·°C)
1 Btu/ (lb·°F) = 4,187 kJ/ (kg·K)
1 kcal/ (kg·°C) = 4,187 kJ/ (kg·K)

Common conversion factors for ion exchange
calculation
Capacity
To Convert To Multiply by
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) g CaO/Litre 1.28

Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) g CaCO3/Litre 2.29
Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) eq/litre 0.0458
g CaCO3/litre Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) 0.436
g CaO/litre Kgr/ft3 (as CaCO3) 0.780
Flow Rate
U.S.gpm/ft3 BV/hr 8.02

U.S.gpm/ft2 M/hr 2.45
U.S gpm M3/hr 0.227
BV/min U.S. gpm/ft3 7.46
Pressure drop
MH2O/M of Resin 2.30

PSI/ft
G/cm/M 230
Density
Lbs/ft3 gm/litre 16.0
Rinse requirement
U.S. gal/ft3 BV 0.134
121
Water Equivalents
One U.S. gallon - 0.1337 cubic foot
One U.S. gallon - 231 cubic inches
One U.S. gallon - 0.833 British Imp gallons
One U.S. gallon - 3.785 Liters
One U.S. gallon - 3785 cubic cm (Milliliters)
One U.S. gallon water - 8.33 Pounds (Lb)
One cubic foot - 7.48 U.S. gallons
One cubic foot of water - 62.43 Pounds
One litre/second - 15.9 (US) gal/Min
One cubic meter per hour - 4.4 (US) gal/min
One kgr / sq. cm - 14.2 pounds/sq. inch
One Pound/1000 gel - 120 parts per million
One inch/minute rise rate - 0.625 gpm/sq.ft
One cubic meter - 1000 liter
One cubic meter - 264.2 U.S gallons
One cubic meter - 220 British Imp gallons
Parts
Water Parts Milli- Grams per Grains Grains Kilogr
Analysis per -grams per hund- per U.S. per ains
Conver- million per Liter -red gallons British per
-sion (ppm) liter gms/L thous grs/U.S Imp cubic
table mg/L and gal gallon foot
pts/ grs/Im Kgr/
100000 gal cu.ft
1 Part per
million
1 1 .001 .1 .0583 .07 .0004
(1 ppm)
1 milli
gram per
litre (1mg 1 1 .001 .1 .0583 .07 .0004
/litre)
1 gram
per
litre(1m 1000 1000 1 100 58.3 70 .435
/litre)
1 Parts
per
hundred
thousand 10 10 .01 1 .583 .7 .00436
1pt /100
0000)

Water Analysis Conversion Table for Units Employed: Equivalents
Parts
Water Parts Milli- Grams Grains Grains Kilogr
per
Analysis per -grams per per U.S. per ains
hund-
Conver- million per Liter gallons British per
-red
-sion (ppm) liter gms/L grs/U.S Imp cubic
thous
table mg/L gal gallon foot
and
grs/Im Kgr/
pts/
gal cu.ft
100000
1 Grain
per U.S
gallon(1 17.1 17.1 .017 1.71 1 1.2 .0075
gr/U.S gal)
1 Grain
per
British
Imp gal-
14.3 14.3 .014 1.43 .833 1 .0052
-lon (1
gr /Imp
gal)
1 Kilograin
per cubic
foot (1 kgr 2294 2294 2.294 229.4 134 161 1
/cu.ft)
1 Parts per
million 1 0.1 .0583 .07 .1 .0560 .020
(1 ppm)
1 Part per
hundred
thousand
10 1 0.583 0.7 1 0.560 .20
(1 pt
/100000)
1 Grain per
US gallon 17.1 1.71 1 1.2 1.71 0.958 .343
(1 gpg)
1 English
or Clark 14.3 1.43 .833 1 1.43 0.800 .286
degree
1 French
Degrees 10 1 .583 .7 1 0.560 .20
(1.French)
1 German
Degrees
17.9 1.79 1.04 1.24 1.79 1 .357
(1 German)
123
Indian standard grade for the commonly used
regeneration chemicals
Regeneration Chemicals IS Number
Hydrochloric Acid IS 265
Sulphuric Acid IS 266

Sodium Hydroxide IS 252 (Tech/Rayon Grade 46% lyes)
IS1021 (Pure Grade - Flakes)
Sodium Carbonate Is251 (Tech Grade)
Sodium Sulphite Is251 (Tech Grade)
Sodium chloride IS 297 (Tech Grade)
Alum Is260 (Tech Grade)

Brief List of Reference
Betz Handbook
Demineralization by Ion exchange – S. Applebaum – Academic press
Reverse osmosis by Zahid Amjad – Van Nostrand Reinhold (NY)
Membrane Manual –Dow Chemical Company
Army Engineering Publications- Public bulletin No. 420-49-05
CIBO Energy efficiency handbook
WARE Boiler book on-line
“Chemical Treatment of Cooling Water in Industrial Plants”by Timothy Keister
(Basic Principals and Technology) ProChemTech International, Inc.
Brockway, Pennsylvania
Glegg handbook
Water and Wastewater by Hammer and Hammer
Dorfner, K., Ion Exchangers, Properties and Applications, Ann Arbor Science,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 972
Kunin, R., Ion Exchange Resins, Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Huntington, N.Y.,
1957
Nachod, F. C. and Schubert, J., editors, Ion Exchange technology, Academic
Press, New York, N.Y., 1957
Water treatment technology program Report no 29
Pure water handbook by osmonics
"Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes," Manual of Practice No. FD-3
Public Works Technical Bulletin 420-49-21 Boiler water treatment lessons
learned
Public Works Technical Bulletin 420-49-22 Cooling water treatment lessons
learned
(Published by the U.S. Army Installation Support Center)
International site for Spirax Sarco
Industrial Water Treatment Primer TYNDALL AFB, FL 32403-6001
Sedifilt.com
Web site of N.E.M Business Solutions
Website of Portland water bureau
How to Manage Cooling Tower Water Quality by Ken Mortensen in RSES journal
_5-03pd
And many more
125
Aqua Designs India Limited
Off 200 Feet Road,
Kolathur, Chennai - 600 099, India
Phone : +91 44 37171717
Fax : +91 44 37171737
Email : sales@aquadesigns.in
Web : www.aquadesigns.in

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Water Treatment

Since its inception, Aqua Designs has offered successful solutions on

The vision of MD Mr. Suthakar is to spread the message of harvesting water,

.......... and hence this book.

With best compliments from

Aqua Designs commitment to the environment, keeps it in the forefront of

Aqua Designs provides water solutions for Institutions, Industry, Municipal

Aqua Designs is supported by its own State-of-the-Art Laboratory for testing

Aqua Designs provides services starting from EIA to Designs to implementation

The customer satisfaction has lead Aqua Designs to be successful in various

Aqua Designs believes only in continual improvement. It keeps offering

Impurities in Water................................ ................................................................ ...................... 1

Filters ................................................................ ................................ ........................................... 8

Iron Removal Filters ................................ ................................................................ ..................... 13

Ion Exchange ................................ ................................................................ ................................ 17

Softener ................................................................ ................................ ....................................... 36

Membrane System................................ ................................................................ ....................... 40

Steam Boiler ................................ ................................................................ ................................ 49

Cooling Water Treatment................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 62

Pumps ................................................................ ................................ .......................................... 79

Raw Water Treatment ................................ ................................................................ ................. 84

Industrial Waste Water Treatment ................................................................ .............................. 92

Chemical Cleaning................................ ................................................................ ........................ 97

Phenolphthalein (P) Alkalinity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ........ 109

Total (M) Alkalinity Test Procedures ................................................................ ....................... 110

Conductivity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................... 112

pH-Electrometric Method Test Procedures ................................................................ ............. 113

Total hardness Test Procedures ................................................................ .............................. 114

Sulphite testing procedure ................................ ................................ ...................................... 115

Chloride Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 116

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT CONVERSION ...................................................... 118

BASICS................................................................ ................................ ..................................... 119

Impurities Effect Method of removal

Can clog pipelines and Coagulation, setting

Color Indication of organic, iron Coagulation, settling

Organic matter Can foul Ion exchange Coagulation, setting,

Bacteria Will depend upon the type Coagulation, filtration,

Iron Red water, corrosion, Aeration, coagulation,

pH High pH or low pH can both Ion exchange, addition

Calcium, Scaling, cruds with soap Ion exchange

02 WATER TREATMENT HAND BOOK

Sodium Unharmful when low in Ion Exchange through

Bicarbonates, Corrosion, foaming and Acid addition

Sulphate Scaling if associated Ion Exchange Reverse

Chloride Corrosion Ion Exchange

Nitrate Normally not found in Ion Exchange

Silica Scaling and deposition Ion Exchange

Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Open aeration,

Hydrogen Sulphide Corrosion Aeration, filtration

Oxygen Corrosion Deaeration

Ammonia Corrosion especially of Aeration

Free chlorine Corrosion By adding chemicals

Leakage: Electrolyte or silica passing through the demineralizing unit due to

Conductivity: The ability of a solution to carry current. Conductivity

Water Analysis Format

04 WATER TREATMENT HAND BOOK

Calcium Ca++ 125 Bicarbonates HCO3- 150

Magnesium Mg++ 105 Carbonates, CO3-- 0

Sodium Na+ 100 Chlorides Cl- 100