The

Project work
On
“solar power Inverter ”

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
Electrical Engineering
(Session: 2019-2023)
Submitted By:
1.Vaibhav Vasu (201901397)
2.Shaktiman (201901390)
3. Nandlal (201901378)
4. Sarfraj aalam ( 201901389)
5. Shivam ( 201901391)

CRSSIET, JHAJJAR

Under the supervision of :

Mr. Sachin Dahiya
Mr Sandeep Yadav
Department of Electrical Engineering

Ch. Ranbir singh State Institute of engineering and technology ,Jhajjar (HR)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work embodies this dissertation

entitled ‘project work on SOLAR POWER INVERTER’
being submitted by Nandal,Sarfraj aalam ,
Shaktiman ,Shivam, Vaibhav Vasu for the partial
fulfillment of requirement for award of ‘bachelor of
technology in Electrical engineering’ discipline to
CRSSIET,JHajjar during the academic Year 2019-23 is a
record of bonified piece of work ,undertaken by him in
the supervison of undersigned.

Guided by Aprroved by
Mr. Sandeep Yadav Mr.Sachin Dahiya
Assistant professor H.O.D
CRSSIET ,Jhajjar CRSSIET,Jhajjar
 DECLARATION

We Nandal, sarrfraj aalam , Shaktiman , Shivam ,Vaibhav

VAsu are student of ‘B.tech in electrical engineering ,
CRSSIET Jhajjar ,hereby declare that the work ,which is
being presented by dissertion ,entitiled “ Project work on
SOLAR POWER INVERTER “ submitted in partial
fulfillment of requirement for the award of degree of
BTECH in Electrical engineering is an authentic record of
our own work carried under the guidance of , we have
not submitted the matter embodied in this report for the
reward of any other degree .

We also declare that “A check for Plagiarism

has been carried out on the dissertation and is found
with in the aaceptable limit and report of which is
enclosed herewith”

Submitted to
Mr. Sachin Dahiya
Mr. Sandeep YAdav
PLAGIARISM CHECK REPORT

Project Title “ Solar power Inverter”

PLAGIARISM TOOL USED

http://www.electronicshub.org/solar-battery-charger-
circuit/
http://youtu.be/32wY1U7Hs1A

Result obtained : 20% Plagiarism

The Origianility of test is 80 Percent
 APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that dissertation “PROJECT WORK ON

sarfraj aalam , Shaktiman ,shivam , Vaibhav VASu are
approved for this award of Btech degree in electrical
engineering discipline to CRSSIET ,JHAJJAR (HR)

INTERNAL EXAMINAR EXTERNAl EXAMINER

NAME: NAME:
DATE: DATE:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

we would like to express our profound gratitude to

Mr.Sachin Dahiya (name of the HOD), of Electrical
engineering_ department, and their contributions to
the completion of my project titled SOLAR POWER
INVERTER.
We would like to express our special thanks to our
mentor Mr. Sandeep Yadav for his time and efforts
he provided throughout the year. Your useful advice
and suggestions were really helpful to me during the
project’s completion. In this aspect, WE are eternally
grateful to you.
WE would like to acknowledge that this project was
completed entirely by us and not by someone else.
Signature

Name;- Nandal
Sarfraj Alam
Shivam
Shaktiman
Vaibhav VAsu
 Index

Page no.
Abstract 8 -10
Chapter 1 –Introduction 11
1.1 General 12
1.2 Material Requirement 13-14
1.3 Types of solar inverter 15-23
Chapter 2 –Methodology 24
2.1 Battery charger 25-36
2.2 Inverter 37-49
2.3 Step up transformer 50
Chapter 3 –Result and Conclusion 51 -54
Chapter 4 –future scope 55 – 57
Chapter 5 –Refrence 58- 59
 Abstract

In recent years, the interest in solar energy has risen

due to deluge oil prices and environmental concern.
In many remote or nascent areas, direct access to
an electric grid is contrary to reason and a
photovoltaic inverter system would make life much
lucid and more adaptable. With this in mind, this
project targets to design, build, and test a solar
panel inverter. This inverter system could be used
as a backup power during outages, battery charging,
or for typical household applications. The chief
features of the system are a true 50Hz, 230Vrms
sinusoidal voltage output, a wide input range, and ,
The big idea of this project is to design an inverter
that will enable the inversion of a DC power source,
supplied by Photovoltaic (PV) Cells, to an AC power
source that will be used to supply a load .The benefit
of this project is to give access to an everlasting and
pollution free source of energy. INTRODUCTION
The world demand for electrical energy is constantly
growing, and conventional energy resources are
disappearing and are even vulnerable to be
depleted. Moreover; their prices are increasing. For
these reasons, the need for alternative energy
sources has become cardinal, and solar energy in
particular has proved to be a very promising
alternative because of its availability and pollution-
free nature. Due to the increasing efficiencies and
decreasing cost of photovoltaic cells and the
improvement of the switching technology used for
power conversion, we are interested in developing
an inverter powered by PV panels and that could
supply stand-alone AC loads. Solar panels produce
direct currents (DC), and to connect these panels to
the electricity grid or use them in other industrial
applications, we should have an AC output at a
certain required voltage level and frequency. The
conversion from DC to AC is essentially
accomplished by means of a DC-AC inverter, which
is the major component in the system. Yet, the
output of the solar panels is not continuously
constant and is related to the instantaneous sunlight
intensity and ambient temperature.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

A solar inverter or photovoltaic (PV) inverter is a

type of power inverter which converts the
variable direct current (DC) output of
a photovoltaic solar panel into a utility
frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed
into a commercial electrical grid or used by a
local, off-grid electrical network. It is a
critical balance of system (BOS)–component in
a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of ordinary
AC-powered equipment. Solar power inverters have
special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic
arrays.
We are working on battery based inverter
/charger ,which charge and supply to load during day
and at night ,the charged battery will feed the load .
1.2 Material Requirement
1.21 Solar Plate
1.22 Solar Charger
a) Lm317 Voltage regulator
b) Diode – 1n4007
c) Capacitor -0.1 microfarad
d) Schottky Diode -3A,50v
E)Resistors-220,680 ohm
F) pot-2k
g) connecting wires
1.23 Battery 12v
1,24 Solar inverter
a)Capacitor -1000 microfaard and 0.1 micro farad
b) pot 10k
c) IC 4047
d)Resistor x 2 (10k)
e) switching transistorx2
1.25 Transformer (step up 220 v)
 1.3 The different types  of solar inverters are
mentioned below:
 Stand Alone Solar Inverter

In these, there may be no connection to a solar panel.

Photovoltaic batteries are charged directly and get DC
power from PV batteries or engine generators or wind or
hydro turbines. Some bring together vital battery chargers to
refill the battery coming from an AC source wherever this
can be done. Also because these inverters are isolated from
their utility grids. They don’t require anti-islanding
protection. Enquire Now for Solar Panels
Stand-alone solar inverter advantages: A stand-alone
inverter, also known as an off-grid inverter comes in a
variety of sizes and output waveforms. The pure sine
 inverter is essential for the best output. It is suitable for solar
home systems, rural electrification, and village
electrification in isolated areas where there is no utility grid.
 Grid-Tie Inverters

They match the phase along with a utility-charged sign

wave. They also turn off during power losses to help with
safety. Here, they don’t help during emergencies of this sort.
It is good for a home that is powered by a utility grid to take
advantage of net metering. The G.T.I is fooled that a utility
grid is still functioning even if it is turned off due to load
circuits that resonate in the electrical system.
Suggested Read: Solar Energy Advantages And
Disadvantages
 Grid-tie inverters advantages: It is less expensive.
Because it has a cheap cost of equipment and installation, a
grid-tied system will allow you to save more money. It does
not necessitate the use of batteries, which are typically
costly. Furthermore, because there are no batteries,
maintenance costs are kept to a minimum. Overall, the grid-
connected system is inexpensive to install and maintain.

The grid acts as a virtual battery for you, electricity is a

resource that should be used as soon as possible. With a
grid-tied system, the entire grid acts as a virtual battery,
storing extra electricity temporarily. Because the grid
functions as a battery and there is no inefficient battery
involved, almost nothing goes to waste in this arrangement.
 String Inverters
Solar panels are installed in rows, each on a “string”. If you
have 25 panels you may have 5 roes of 5 panels. Multiple
strings are connected to one string inverter. Each string
carries the DC power that the solar panel produces to the
string inverter where it’s converted into usable AC power
which is then consumed as electricity. Depending on the
size of the installation, you may have many string inverters
and these would be receiving DC power from a few strings
only. String inverters are commonly used in residential and
commercial applications. A popular inverter over central
inverters in micro utilities. String inverters can also be put
together with what you call power optimizers. Power
optimizers are module-level powered kinds of electronics.
This means that they have to be put in a module-level so
that each solar panel has one.  P.O offers benefits similar to
micro inverters but they happen to be less expensive and so
 this can be for you a good option between using strictly
string inverters or micro-inverters.
String inverters advantages:
String inverters are the most reliable type of solar inverter
because they are the oldest. String inverters have most of the
kinks sorted out after decades on the market. They are also
the most affordable solar inverter choice.
String inverters can also be found on the side of your house
or near the side of a ground-mount system. This enables
easy monitoring, repair, or replacement of the inverter.
 Central Inverters

They are similar to string inverters but much larger and can
support more strings on the panels. In this type of inverter,
instead of many strings running directly to the inverter, the
strings are connected together in a common sort of combiner
box that runs in the DC power to the central inverter where
it is converted to AC power. They are best made for large
installations with regular production across the array.
Central inverters advantages: This type of inverter has the
highest capacity and is most typically utilized in utility-scale
systems such as solar farms. Their capacities can range from
100kW to many megawatts. These inverters are often
designed to link directly to the electric grid, which is why
they are typically packaged with a power station. They also
have the advantage of being less expensive per kilowatt and
easier to install and manage.
 Micro Inverters

These are good for residential and commercial

 installation. These also happen to be module-level
electronics, therefore each is put in one panel. P.O.
though does not convert DC to AC which is done by
M.I. right at the panel and so you don’t require a string
inverter. Due to the conversion at the panel level if one
or two panels are shaded or produce less electrical
output than other panels then the other panels
continue to still work at their optimal level and remain
unaffected. Systems which have micro-inverters can
be more efficient, but these often cost more than string
inverters.
 Micro inverters advantages: The major advantage of
micro-inverters is that they are designed to find the
ideal voltage for each system and generate the
maximum peak power voltage, or Vpp. Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a feature that allows
the microinverter to track real-time sun intensity and
cell temperature as it varies throughout the day.
Microinverters provide panel-level monitoring of the
solar system, allowing any solar output faults to be
diagnosed more easily and precisely.
 Battery Based Inverter/Chargers
They are becoming more important today. They are bi-
directional in nature. They include a battery charger
and inverter. They require a battery to work. They can
be grid-interactive or stand-alone grid type or off-grid
depending on the UL rating and design. So, here we
gave you a rough route map of the types of inverters
for solar panels available in the market. Have fun
comparing and seeing what suits you best.
Battery-based inverters advantages: 
The main advantage of the battery-based inverter is it
reduces grid power consumption and provides
continuity in power supply also they provide load
management that works better than its counterparts,
its operating cost is quite low which makes it
affordable and easy to maintain.We are working on
battery based inverter /charger ,which charge and supply
to load during day and at night ,the charged battery will
feed the load .
 CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY

2.1 Solar Battery Charger Circuit

Contents 
o 0.1 Solar Battery Charger Circuit Principle:

 1 Solar Battery Charger Circuit Diagram:

o 1.1 Solar Battery Charger Circuit Design:
 o 1.2 How to Operate this Solar Battery Charger
Circuit?
o 1.3 Solar Battery Charger Circuit Advantages:
o 1.4 Solar Battery Charger Circuit Applications:
o 1.5 Limitations of this Circuit:
 2 Related Articles
Solar concept is not new for us. We all know the
importance of solar energy. Solar gadgets are
increasing day by day. As non-renewable energy
sources are decreasing, usage of solar energy is
increased. This solar energy is not only used on the
Earth but also used in space stations where no
electrical power is available.

Here is the simple circuit to charge 6V, 4.5Ah

rechargeable Lead-acid battery from the solar panel.
This solar charger has current and voltage
regulation and also has over voltage cut off facilities.
This circuit may also be used to charge any battery
at constant voltage because output voltage is
adjustable. (We have already seen the circuit
diagram of 9v battery charger circuit using LM311
and SCR in the earlier post.)

Solar Battery Charger Circuit Principle:

Here the solar panel produces 12V DC. The
charging current passes to LM317 voltage regulator
through the diode D1. The output voltage and
current are regulated by adjusting the adjust pin of
LM317 voltage regulator.

Solar Battery Charger Circuit Diagram:

Solar Battery Charger Circuit Diagram

Circuit Components:
 Solar panel – 12V
 LM317 voltage regulator
 DC battery
 Diode – 1n4007
 Capacitor – 0.1uF
 Schottky diode – 3A, 50V
 Resistors – 220, 680 ohms
 Pot – 2K
  Connecting wires

Solar Battery Charger Circuit Design:

The circuit uses a 12V solar panel and an adjustable
voltage regulator LM317. Solar panel consists of
1.2V rated solar cells. Pot RV1 is used to set the
output voltage to the battery. Diode D2 prevents the
discharge of battery.

For 6V Application:
 Output voltage: set for 7v
 Input voltage:
 Battery discharged (6v): 8.75V@1.5mA
 Battery charged (7V): 9V min @10mA

For 12V Application:

 Output voltage: set for 14v
 Input voltage:
 Battery discharged (12v): 14.75V min @
1.5mA ( available from solar panel
characterized for 12V operation).
 Battery charged (14V): 16V min @ 10mA.
Power Dissipation:
In this project, power is limited because of the
thermal resistance of LM317 voltage regulator and
the heat sink. To keep the temperature below 125
degree Celsius, the power must be limited to 10W.
LM317 voltage regulator internally has temperature
limiting circuit so that if it gets too hot, it shuts down
automatically.

When battery is charging, heat sink becomes warm.

When completing the charging at maximum voltage,
heat sink runs hot. This heat is because of excess
power that not needed in the process of charging a
battery.

Current Limiting:
As the solar panel provides constant current, it acts
as a current limiter. Therefore the circuit does not
need any current limiting.

Solar Charger Protection:

In this circuit, capacitor C1 protects from the static
discharge. Diode D1 protects from the reverse
polarity. And voltage regulator IC provides voltage
and current regulation.

Solar Charger Specifications:

 Solar panel rating: 20W (12V) or 10W (6V)
 Vout range: 5 to 14V
 Maximum power dissipation: 10W (includes
power dissipation of schottky diode)
 Typical drop out value: 2 to 2.75V (depends on
load current)
 Max current: 1.5A (internally it limited to 2.2A)
 Voltage regulation: +/- 100mV

How to Operate this Solar Battery

Charger Circuit?
1. Give the connections according to the circuit
diagram.
2. Place the solar panel in sunlight.
3. Now set the output voltage by adjusting pot RV1
4. Check the battery voltage using digital multi
meter.
 Solar Battery Charger Circuit
Advantages:
 Adjustable output voltage
 Circuit is simple and inexpensive.
 Circuit uses commonly available components.
 Zero battery discharge when no sunlight on the
solar panel.

Solar Battery Charger Circuit

Applications:
 This circuit is used to charge Lead-Acid or Ni-Cd
batteries using solar energy. (You may get an
idea about How a Lead Acid Battery Charger
Circuit Works by reading the earlier posts.)

Limitations of this Circuit:

1. In this project current is limited to 1.5A.
2. The circuit requires high drop-out voltage.

2.1.1) LM317 Voltage regulator

The power supply received at the load end or
consumer end has fluctuations in the voltage levels
due to irregular loads or based condition of the local
 power grid. These voltage fluctuations may lead to
the reduction of the lifespan of the electrical and
electronic appliances of the consumer or damage to
the loads.  So, it is required to protect loads from over
and under voltages or need to provide a constant
voltage to the loads and to maintain stability in system
voltage using the regulation technique. Voltage
regulation can be defined as maintaining constant
voltage or maintaining the voltage level of a system
within acceptable limits over a wide range of load
conditions and thus, voltage regulators are used for
voltage regulation. For linear voltage regulation, and
occasionally adjustable LM317 voltage regulator is
used wherein the non-standard voltage is intended.
2.1.2) Diode 1n4007
The 1N4007 is the most commonly used rectifier
diode. It is commonly used in rectifier circuits,
protection circuits and regulator circuits. The lead
near to the silver line is the cathode and the other
lead is anode, current is allowed to flow only form
anode to cathode. The specifications of the 1N4007
diode are:
 Reverse Voltage: 1000V (peak)
 Forward Current: 1A
 Peak Forward Current: 30A
 Reverse leakage current: 5uA
 Applications of 1N4007 Diode:
 Prevent reverse polarity problem
 Current flow regulators
 Half Wave and Full Wave rectifiers
 Used as a protection device

2.1.3) Capacitor 0.1 micro farad

This is a 0.1uF - (104) Ceramic Capacitor Use this

capacitor for power decoupling, having a smooth
power in your circuit, timing circuits etc. It is
always a good idea to put one of these next to the
power pins of a microcontroller.
2.1.4) schottky diode -3A 50v

The schottky diode is a type of metal –

semiconductor junction diode, which is also known
as hot-carrier diode, low voltage diode or schottky
barrier diode. The schottky diode is formed by the
junction of a semiconductor with a metal. Schottky
diode offers fast switching action and has a low
forward voltage drop. As we are aware that in a PN
junction diode, p-type and n-type are joined together
 to form a PN junction. Whereas, in a Schottky diode
metals like platinum or aluminum are used instead of
P type semiconductors. 

2.1.5) Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are
used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels,
to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses.
High-power resistors that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution
systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly
with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements
(such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as
sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical
networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits.

2.1.6) Pot -2K

Potentiometer are very important part of electronic

circuits as they are used across wide range of applications
ranging from comparator circuits, voltage control, LED
intensity to even volume and fan speed control in our
homes. A potentiometer is a variable resistor with three
terminals, where Two terminals are connected to a
resistive element and the third terminal is connected to an
 adjustable round wiper. The position of the wiper
determines the output voltage.
Potentiometers are variable resistances as they can
provide a variable resistance by simply varying the
knob on the top. The resistance value at the output pin
will decide the amount of resistance offered to the current
flow and hence by varying the resistance we can control
the current flow in the circuit. This 2K ohm compact
linear Potentiometer with plastic dust-cap is suitable for
bread board as well as PCB. This is center tap type so two
pins will measure full 2K resistance and on third pin
resistance will vary in accordance to rotation. A small flat
screw driver is used for changing the value. They are not
meant to be used by end used but in final assembly line to
set sensitivity and calibrate the circuits, that is why they
have low rotation life.

2.2) Solar Inverter

This solar inverter took supply from battery and solar

charger (which is connected to solar plate ) at the
same time in form of dc .At the day time ,the solar
charger will charge the battery and give supply to
solar inverter ,the solar inverter will convert dc to ac
with help of Ic 4047 ,and solar inverter feed the step
up transformer and the night ,the fully charged
battery feed the solar inverter .The Resistor ,
capacitor , pot , switching transistor are used for
protection of ic4047 .

Fig ckt dia of solar inverter

2.2.1 IC4047
Pin Configuration

Pin No. Pin Name Description

1 C Used to connect external capacitor

2 R Used to connect external resistor

3 RCC Common pin for connecting resistor and capacitor to it

4 AST’(Astable bar) Low when used in Astable mode

5 AST High when used in Astable mode

6 -Trigger When used in Monostable mode we give High to Low transition to

this pin

7 Vss Ground pin of IC

8 +Trigger When used in Monostable mode we give Low to High transition to

this pin

9 EXT RESET It’s an external reset pin. By giving a high pulse to this pin,

it resets the output Q to low and Q’ to high

10 Q Give normal high output

11 Q’ Inverse output of pin 10, means it gives low output

12 Retrigger Used in Monostable mode to simultaneously retrigger +trigger

and –trigger pin

13 OSC Out Gives oscillated output

 14 Vdd Positive input pin of IC

Features
 Power Consumption is low
 Provide Monostable (one-shot) and Astable (free
running) operation
 High noise immunity
 Only one resistor and capacitor required externally
 Standardized, symmetrical output characteristics

The CD 4047 IC is one kind of multivibrator including

a high voltage. The operating of this IC can be done
in two modes like Monostable &Astable. This IC
requires an exterior resistor & capacitor to decide
the output pulse width within the monostable mode
& the o/p frequency within the astable mode. This IC
operates at 5Volts, 10Volts, 15Volts & 20Volts.
The 4047 IC works in two modes like astable and
monostable. In monostable mode, the o/p pulse
width can be determined through an external resistor
that is connected in between two pins of IC like pin-1
& pin-3. Similarly, in astable mode, the o/p
frequency can be determined through the external
capacitor that is connected in between two pins like
Pin2 & Pin3.
Astable Mode
When the IC is used in Astable mode then the pin5
must be HIGH & the PIN must be LOW.
Consequently, you will get output which is fluctuating
constantly in between LOW & HIGH. Here, the
circuit is given below for Multivibrator in Astable
mode: The circuit for 4047 IC in astable mode is
shown below.

4047 IC in Astable Mode

Mathematically, the oscillated o/p frequency from
pin-13 can be calculated through the following
formulaThe o/p frequency of oscillator = 1 / 4.4RC
The pulse duration can be found by using the
following formula

t = 2.48RC

Monostable Mode
When the same IC is used
in monostable mode then you have to utilize
the +trigger & –trigger pins. At +trigger pin,
by providing a transition from Low to High &
at –trigger pin, High to Low transition, you
can obtain a Monostable o/p. The circuit for
4047 IC in monostable mode is shown
below.

Mathematically, the formula to find the frequency

value at pin10 & pin 11 is:

F = 1 / 8.8RC
2.2.2 Switching Transistor

Using a transistor as a switch is the simplest

application of the device. A transistor can be
extensively used for switching operation either for
opening or closing of a circuit. Meanwhile, the basic
concept behind the operation of a transistor as a
switch relies on its mode of operation. Generally, the
low voltage DC is turned on or off by transistors in
this mode.
Both PNP and NPN transistors can be utilized as
switches. A basic terminal transistor can be handled
differently from a signal amplifier by biasing both
NPN and PNP bipolar transistors by an “ON / OFF”
static switch. One of the main uses of the transistor
to transform a DC signal “On” or “OFF” is solid-state
switches.

Some devices, including LEDs, only require several

milliamperes of DC voltages at the logical level and
can be directly controlled via the logical gate output.
High-power devices such as generators, solenoids
or lamps usually need more power to use transistor
switches than the usual logic gate.
Transistor Switch’s Working Regions or
Operating Modes
Meanwhile, the saturation zone and cut-off area are
known as the transistor switch’s working regions.
This implies that, by switching between its “top-off”
(saturation) and “absolute OFF,” the transistor is
used as a switch to basically overwrite its Q-Point
and the voltage dividers circuit that is needed for
amplification.

Cut-Off Region
The transistor’s operating specifications include the
base current (IB), the collector current (IC) and the
The “cut-off” area is at the bottom of the curves, the
blue, shaded area and the yellow zone on the left is
the transistor “saturation” region.
emitter-collector voltage (VCE).

Characteristics of Cut-off Region

 The transistor is used as an “open switch”
 The bases and input are grounded (0v)

 The base emission voltage is VBE > 0.7 V

 The basic emitter is reversed

 The full-OFF (cut-off area) transistor (“Collector

Flow = 0”) • VOUT = VCC = “1′′”

 No collector current flows (IC = 0)

Instead, we can describe the “cut-off region” or “OFF

mode,” both in reverse bias, with Vb < 0.7 V and IC =
0, when using a bipolar transistor as a switch

Saturation Region
In this mode or region the highest base current is
applied, leading to the overall collector current
causing the average collector-emitter voltage to fall
and the leakage surface as small as possible and
the maximum current that flows across this
transistor. That is why the “Fully ON” transistor is
triggered.
Alternatively, we can define the “saturation field” or
“ON step,” all junctions forward, VW > 0.7 V and IK =
complete when using a bipolar transistor as a
switch.
Let us consider a base-biased transistor in a CE
configuration. When we extend the voltage rule of
Kirchhoff to the circuit’s input and output side, we
will write,
VBB = IBRB + VBE … (1)
VCE = VCC – ICRC … (2)
VBB is the input voltage (Vi) and VCE  is the output
Voltage DC (Vo). That’s why we got;
Vi = IBRB + VBE
Vo = VCC – ICRC
First, let’s look at the shift in Vo as Vi rises from zero
A Silicon junction transistor remains in a Cutoff state
as long as Vi is less than 0.6 V. Also, IC= 0. Vo= VCC.
Thus, the transistor switches into an active state
when Vi goes past 0.6 V. IC >0 and Vo are also
decreasing (because ICRC is increasing). Originally,
with rising Vi, IC increases almost linearly.
Vo also decreases linearly until its value drops below
1 V. Post this, the change becomes non-linear and
the transistor moves into the state of saturation.
Vo continues to decrease on increasing Vi but never
becomes zero. Here’s a Vo vs Vi plot (also referred
to as the transition features of a reference
transistor).

There are two things to remember here:

When Vi is low and the transistor is unable to
forward-bias, Vo is high(= VCC).
If Vi is sufficiently high to saturate the transistor, Vo is
very low (~0).
It is also switched off when a transistor is not
conducting. On the other side, it is turned at when it
is in the state of depletion. Bringing these
components together, imagine a resistor that
determines the low and high values below and
above those points of voltage
Such levels suit the transistor’s cutoff and saturation.
We might say in such a situation that a small input
turns off the transistor and a high input switches on
it. These circuits are designed to prevent the
transistor from staying in an active state. That’s how
a transistor can act as a switch.

Applications Of Transistor As a Switch

The transistor as a switch has the following uses:
 The LED feature is the most widely employed
practical application that is used as a switch for
the transistor.
  The relay operation can be managed by making
the necessary circuit changes in order to
connect and control some external devices with
respect to the relay.
 With this idea of transistors, the dc motors can
be controlled and monitored. This software is
used to turn the engine on and off. The motor
speed can be modified by changing the
transistor frequency values.
 Light-bulb is one of these switches ‘ examples. It
can switch the light on if the setting is bright and
off depending on the dark surroundings. A light-
dependent resistor (LDR) is used to do this.

2.3 Step up transformer

A step-up transformer is a type of transformer that

converts the low voltage (LV) and high current from
the primary side of the transformer to the high
voltage (HV) and low current value on the
secondary side of the transformer. The reverse of
this is known as a step down transformer.
A transformer is a piece of static electrical
equipment which transforms electrical energy (from
primary side windings) to the magnetic energy (in
the transformer’s magnetic core) and again to the
electrical energy (on the secondary transformer
side). A step-up transformer has a wide variety of
applications in electrical systems and transmission
lines.
 CHAPTER 3
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

solar power inverters have earned a positive

reputation in local and international markets. We are
known for user-friendly interface and full load high
efficiency. Also, the professional industrial design
gives these systems a competitive edge compared
to other brands.

over sine wave because for lighting a t.

A solar inverter helps to optimize the output
of your solar panels, so that you can get the
most electricity possible from them.
Additionally, a solar inverter can help to
protect your appliances and electronics from
damage by providing a safe power source.
Also solar inverter improves grid efficiency
and provide efficient tracking of power
drawbacks output.

While solar inverters are generally very

reliable, there are a few potential to using
them.

One potential issue is that solar energy

inverters can generate a fair amount of heat,
which can shorten their lifespan. Additionally,
if the power grid goes down, your solar
energy system will likely go down as well
since most solar inverters require an AC
connection to function. Finally, solar energy
inverters can be quite expensive, so if you’re
on a budget, you may want to look into other
renewable energy options. 

If you’re considering installing solar panels,

you may be wondering how much a solar
energy inverter will cost. Solar energy
inverters are an important part of any solar
panel system, as they convert the DC power
produced by the solar panels into AC power
that can be used by your home or business.
Solar energy inverters vary in price,
depending on the type and size of the unit.
Generally, however, you can expect to pay
between $500 and $2000 for a solar energy
inverter.

A solar inverter is a key component of any

solar energy system, converting the direct
current (DC) electricity produced by the solar
panels into alternating current (AC) electricity
that can be used to power your home or
business. Solar inverters are designed to
operate in a wide range of conditions, making
them a critical part of any solar energy
system. By understanding how a solar
inverter works, you can ensure that your
solar energy system is able to produce the
maximum amount of power possible.
 CHAPTER 4

FUTURE SCOPE
Generation of solar energy has tremendous scope in India.
The geographical location of the country stands to its
benefit for generating solar energy. The reason being
India is a tropical country and it receives solar radiation
almost throughout theyear, which amounts to 3,000
hours of sunshine. This is equal to more than 5,000
trillion kWh. Almost, all parts of India receive 4-7 kWh
of solar radiation per sq
metres. This is equivalent to 2,300–3,200 sunshine hours
per year. States like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, and West Bengal have great potential for
tapping solar energy due to their location. Since majority
of the population live in rural areas, there is much scope
for solar energy being promoted in these areas. Use of
solar energy can reduce
the use of firewood and dung cakes by rural household.
Many large projects have been proposed in India, some of
them are: i).Thar Desert of India has best solar power
projects, estimated to generate 700 to 2,100 GW, ii). The
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
launched by the Centre is targeting 20,000 MW of
solar energy power by 2022, iii).Gujarat’s pioneering
solar power policy aims at 1,000 MW of solar energy
generation, and Rs. 130 billion solar power plan
wasunveiled in July 2009, which projected to produce 20
GW of solar power by 2020.Apart from above, about 66
MW is installed for various applications in the rural
area, amounting to be used in solar lanterns, street
lighting systems and solar water pumps, etc.
Thus, India has massive plan for Solar Energy generation
that may not only fulfill the deficit of power generation
but also contribute largely in Green Energy Production
to help to reduce the Climatic Changes globally.
CHAPTER 5

REFRENCE
1. Solar power inverter by D K
chahaun
2. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/solar-
invertermccoymart.com/post/
types-of-solar-inverter/
Thank YOU