Mechanical Syatems Lab Manual

King Faisal University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
LAB
By Eng. Omar Osta
Eng. Monaf Hudhud
April 2018
CONTENT
Subject Page
Lab Policies and Guidelines a
Safety Instructions b
How to Write a Good Lab Report c
Exp. # 1 Linear Heat Conduction 1

Exp. # 2 Combined convection &radiation
Part One: Free Convection
11
Exp. # 3 Combined convection &radiation
Part Two: Forced Convection
15
Exp. # 4 Boiling heat transfer 20
Exp. # 5 Concentric tube heat exchanger 25

Exp. # 6 Cross flow heat exchanger - Cylinder in cross
flow 29
Exp. # 7 Cross flow heat exchanger - Finned Tube
Bundle in Cross Flow
35
Exp. # 8 Air Conditioning – Psychrometric chart 42

Exp. # 9 Free Vibration of a Simple Mass-Spring
System
47
LAB POLICIES AND GUIDELINES
 The class shall be divided into groups of no more than 5 students in each
group.
 The instructor will assign a group leader for each experiment. The group
leader will assign a task to each member in the group.
 Some Programs will perform one experiment only in each lab session,
since the nature of the experiment and the apparatus allow doing this,
also the theoretical course related to the lab taught in the same semester
with the lab course.
 Students will not be required to write and submit a laboratory report for
any experiment they did not perform due to malfunction of the
equipment.
 Attendance:
o Laboratory attendance is mandatory.
o The student will not be allowed to submit a report for an experiment in
which he has not participated.
o In case of excused absences, make-up laboratories will be considered
on a case-by-case basis.
 Reports:
o Individual reports are required for every experiment.
o Reports are type written.
o Reports are due 7 days from the day of the experiment.
o Late report will be subjected to a penalty of 10% per day. Late reports
will be accepted up to 3 days after the due date. No late report will be
accepted after that.
 Grading:
Reports 50% - 60%
Design of experiment 10%
 Exams could be one Exam [Final] OR two
Exams 30% - 40% exams [Mid & Final]
 Exams may be included by verbal part.
a
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS
SAFETY FIRST WHILE IN THE LABORATORY
1. No smoking is allowed in the laboratory.
2. No food or beverages are allowed in the laboratory.
3. Avoid long hair and long sleeved loose clothes and wear lab coat while conducting
experiments to minimize the risk of clothing getting caught in the machines.
4. Use appropriate personal protective equipment at all time, like Gloves, Safety glasses, Skin
Protection, Hearing Protection, and Foot Protection (don’t wear open sandals)
5. No running, playing, bantering, and kidding in the laboratory.
6. Know locations of first aid and all emergency equipments, such as fire alarm, water hoses,
fire extinguishers, fire blankets, eyewash stations, and safety showers. Know how to find and
use them.
7. Use laboratory equipment for its designed purpose.
8. Always follow instructions and use only machines and equipment that you are authorized
and qualified to operate.
9. Know and follow safety rules for specific experiments or tasks.
10. Working alone should be avoided. Someone should always be within call when a
laboratory procedure is being performed.
11. Avoid exposure to gases, vapors, and particulates by using a properly functioning
laboratory fume hood.
12. Use ground fault circuit interrupters where there is a risk of an operator coming in contact
with water and electrical equipment simultaneously.
13. Follow electrical safety rules and make sure your hands are dry before using electrical
equipment, grounding portable electrical tools. Make sure electrical wires are connected
properly without short circuit before operating. Wear protective clothing, well-insulated
groves and boots, if required.
14. Only trained, qualified personnel may repair or modify electrical or any equipment.
15. •Reduce fire hazard.
•Use shower for fire victims.
•Smother flames by wrapping in fire blankets.
•Spills of flammable solvents can be a source of fire.
16. Upon hearing fire alarm, you should evacuate the area and follow emergency procedure.
17. Report any damage to equipment or instrument and broken glassware to the laboratory
instructor as soon as such damage occurs.
18. Wash hands upon completion of laboratory procedures and remove all protective
equipment including gloves and lab coats.
PROPER CONDUCT IN THE LABORATORY AVOIDS ACCIDENTS.
b
HOW TO WRITE A GOOD LAB REPORT
A good lab report should contain the following items:
1. COVER PAGE:
The followings are included in a cover page:
 Name of University, College and Department.
 Student Name and Number.
 Experiment Name and Number.
 Instructor’s Name.
 Date.
2. TITLE:
 Should tell the reader what the report is about.
 Should be as short as possible.
3. OBJECTIVE:
 Should give the reasons for doing the work.
 Should define the problem.
4. THEORY:
 Should state the main assumptions with justifications.
 Should be brief.
 Should number the necessary equations in correct sequence.
5. APPARATUS:
 Describe the experimental rig and the instruments used to
perform the experiment.
 Include sketches of the test setup where appropriate.
6. PROCEDURE:
 Should be brief.
 Should be in short sentences.
 Should be in passive voice.
7. RESULTS:
 Each table should have a number and a title.
 The data should show the proper units.
c
8. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
 Should be clear.
 Should take care of units and make necessary conversions.
 Should present the calculated results in tables that are numbered
and named.
9. GRAPHS:
 Scales and units shown clearly.
 Points shown clearly.
 Graphs should have necessary numerical working such as
determination of slope.
 Title of the graph should explain what the graph shows.
10.DISCUSSION:
 Should make sure that the results are adequate.
 Should give an opinion on the reliability of the results.
 Should state the importance of the experiment on real life, and
mention some applications.
 Should state where the experiment helps to understand the
theory.
11.CONCLUSION:
 Should compare results with what is expected.
 Should estimate possible errors of the work.
 Should justify the conclusions by the results.
12.REFERENCES:
 List all references used in the report.
Note: Lab reports are to be typed, in a neat and orderly fashion, with all
pages numbered at the bottom. Be concise – quality not quantity is important.
d
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
KING FAISAL UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Exp. # (1)
Linear Heat Conduction
Objectives
1. To understand the heat transfer concept through homogeneous solid material section
2. To determine the Overal Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of heat through a combine
different materials in use
Apparatus:-
Figure (1): H111 Liner Heat Conduction Unite and HC111A Data Acquisition Upgrade
Figure (2): H111A shown without intermediate specimen (T4 & T5 not fitted)
Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 1

Figure (3): Specimen supplied
Figure (4): Schematic H111A Liner Heat conduction Unite

As we see in figure 1 , the Liner Heat Conduction Unite H111A allows the investigation of the
basic laws of heat transfer by conduction through a solid. The H111A is dependent upon the
Heat Transfer Unite H111. For heater power and temperature measurement .
The heat transfer module is cylindrical and mounted with its axis vertical to the base plate. The
heating section houses a 25mm diameter cylindrical brass section with 65 Watt (at 240V AC)
cartridge heater in the top end. An integral high temperature cut out (automatic reset) prevents
overheating. Power is supplies to the heater from the Heat Transfer Service Unite H111 via the
8-poles plug and lead.
There fixed thermocouples T1,T2,T3 are positioned along the heater section at 15mm intervals.
The cooling section is also manufactured from 25mm diameter brass to match the heated top
section and is cooled at its bottom end by water flowing through a chamber in the material.
Three fixed thermocouples T6,T7,T8 are positioned along the cooled section at 15mm intervals.
Four intermediate sections are supplies to place between the heated and cooled sections.
The heated section, cooling section and all the intermediate sections are located co-axially inside
plastic housings. An annular air gap insulates the specimens from the surroundings and
minimizes heat losses\gains.
The heated and cooled sections incorporate centralizing 'O' rings to ensure that each are held
concentrically. Similar 'O' rings are fitted to intermediate sections so that they are installed in
alignment.
Toggle clamps ensure that the heated and cooled sections are held tightly together, with or
without the intermediate sections installed.
Water for cooled sections is supplies from a local tap via the supplied hose.
The four intermediate sections supplied are as follows: -
Brass Specimen
30mm long, 25mm diameter fitted with two thermocouples T4,T5 at 15mm intervals along the
axis. With the brass specimen clamped between the heated and cooled sections a uniform 25mm
diameter brass bar is formed with 8 uniformly spaced (15mm intervals) thermocouples (T1 to
T8) refer to figure (4) The specimen is marked ' TOP' to ensure T4 precedes T5.
Stainless Steel Specimen
30mm long, 25mm diameter, No thermocouples fitted

Aluminum Specimen
30mm long, 25mm diameter, No thermocouples fitted

Brass Specimen with Reduced Diameter

30mm long, 13mm diameter. No thermocouples fitted.

In addition, the heat conducting properties of insulators such as cork and paper may be found by
clamping the insulating discs between the heated and cooled sections.
The effect of good thermal contact between conducting surface is demonstrated by experiments
with and without toggle clamps.
The value of heat transfer paste may be verified by experiments with and without paste.
Operating procedure
Heat Transfer Service Unite H111 with Liner Heat Transfer Untie H111A
Refer to figures (1) (2) (3) (4)
1- Ensure that the main switch is in the off position (the digital display should not be
illuminated). Ensure that the residual current circuit breaker on the rear panel is in the ON
position.
2- Turn the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set AC voltage to minimum. Ensure the Liner
Heat Transfer Unit H111A has been connected to the Heat Transfer Service Unite H111.
3- Ensure the cold water supply and electrical supply are turned on at the source. Open the
water tap unite the flow through the drain hose is approximately 1.5 liters\minute.
4- Release the toggle clamp tensioning screws and clamps. Ensure that the faces of exposed
ends of the heated and cooled sections are clean. Check the face of the intermediate
specimen (if in use) to be placed between the faces of the heated and cooled sections. If the
instructed in the individual procedures for the experiment, coat the mating faces of the
heated and cooled sections and the intermediate section (if use) with thermal conduction
paste. Ensure the intermediate section to be used is in the correct orientation then clamp
the assembly togather using the toggle clamps and tensioning screw.
5- Turn on the main switch and the digital displays should illuminate. Set the temperature
selector to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated end of the bar. Rotate the controller
to increase the voltage to that specified in the procedure for each experiment.
6- Observe the temperature T1. This should begin to increase.
7- Allow the system to reach stability. And take readings and make adjustments in the
individual procedure for each experiment.
8- When the experimental procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power to
the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool before
turning of the cooling water supply.
9- Ensure that the locally supplied water supply isolation valve to the unit is closed. Turn off
the main switch and isolate the electrical supply.
10- Note that if the thermal conducting paste is left on the mating faces of the heated and cooled
sections for a long period it can be more difficult to remove than if removed immediately
after completing an experiment. If left on the intermediate sections it can attract dust and
in particular grit which act as a barrier to good thermal contact.

First Experiment
Measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
uniform plane wall and demonstrate the effect of change of heat flow.
It is assumed that the installation and the commissioning procedures for the liner heat conduction
unit H111A
Procedure
Schematically this procedure is a system as shown below
Cooling water is flowing and the heater voltage, V=90volts

Monitor temperature T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 until stable
When the temperatures are stabilized record:
T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 and I
Reset the heater voltage to V=120volts and repeat the above procedure again recording the
parameters T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V and I when temperatures have stabilized.
When completed, reduce the heater voltage to zero and shut down the system as detailed in the
operation section.
THEORY
If the heated and cooled surface are clamped tightly together and are in good thermal contact, then
the two section can be considered as continuous homogenous sample of uniform cross section and
material.

According to Fourier's law of heat conduction:
If a plane section of thickness ∆X and Constant area A maintains a temperature difference ∆T

then the heat transfer rate per unite time 𝑸̇ by conduction through the wall is found to be:
̇ ∆𝐓
𝐐̇ ∝ 𝐀
∆𝐗
̇ ∆𝐓
𝐐̇ = 𝐂
∆𝐗
𝐐̇ ̇
=𝐂
∆𝐓
( )
∆𝐗
Where C is a constant that will be examined at later stage .
Test Results
Sample T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No
C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 Volts Amps
1
2
3
4
Distance
from T1
Calculated Data

Sample 𝐐̇ ∆𝐓𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐓𝟔−𝟖 ∆𝐗 𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐗 𝟔−𝟖 ∆𝐓𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐓𝟔−𝟖 𝐐̇ 𝐐̇

No ∆𝐗 𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐗 𝟔−𝟖 ∆𝐓 ∆𝐓
( 𝟏−𝟑 ) ( 𝟔−𝟖 )
∆𝐗 𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐗 𝟔−𝟖
-- W K K m m k\m k\m w\km w\km
1
2
3
4
Heat transfer rate from the heater
𝑄 = 𝑉̇ × 𝐼
Temperature difference in the heated section between T1 and T3
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 = ∆𝑇1−3 = ∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇3
Similarly Temperature difference in the heated section between T6 and T8
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = ∆𝑇6−8 = ∆𝑇6 − ∆𝑇8
The distance between the temperature measuring points, T1 and T3 and T6 and T8 are similar.
∆𝑋1−3 = ∆𝑋6−8 = 0.03𝑚
Hence, the temperature gradient along heated and cooled sections may be calculated from
∆𝑇1−3
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
∆𝑋1−3
∆𝑇6−8
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
∆𝑋6−8
If the constant rate of heat transfer is divided by the temperature gradients. The value obtained will
be similar if the equation
̇ ∆𝑇
𝑄̇ = 𝐶
∆𝑋
𝑄̇
=𝐶
∆𝑇
(∆𝑋)
Is valid
Hence, substituting the values obtained gives for the heated section and cooled sections
respectively the following values
∆𝑇1−3
𝑄̇ ⁄( )
∆𝑋1−3

∆𝑇6−8
𝑄̇ ⁄( )
∆𝑋6−8
Draw the relation between temperature and the distance from T1 (temperature distribution for each
volt value .
Second Experiment
Understand the use of the Fourier Rate Equation in determining rate of heat flow through solid
materials for one dimensional, steady flow of heat.
It is assumed that the installation and the commissioning procedures for the liner heat conduction
unit H111A
Procedure
Schematically this procedure is a system as shown below
Figure (5)
Cooling water is flowing and the heater voltage, V=120volts, this will provide temperature
gradient along the length of the bar.
Monitor temperature T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 until stable
When the temperatures are stabilized record:

T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V and I
Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and repeat the above procedure again
recording the parameters T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V and I when temperatures have
stabilized.
When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero
and shut the system.
THEORY
If the heated and cooled surface are clamped tightly together and are in good thermal contact, then
the two sections can be considered as continuous homogenous sample of uniform cross section
and material.
According to Fourier's law of heat conduction:
If a plane section of thickness ∆X and Constant area A maintains a temperature difference ∆T then
the heat transfer rate per unite time 𝑸̇ by conduction through the wall is found to be:
Figure (6)
̇ ∆𝐓
𝐐̇ ∝ 𝐀
∆𝐗
∆𝐗 = 𝑋ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑋𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
∆𝐓 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
If the Material of the wall is homogeneous and has a thermal conductivity K then :
̇ ∆𝐓
𝐐̇ = −𝐤𝐀
∆𝐗

The negative sign follows thermodynamic convention in that heat transfer is normally considered
positive in the direction of the temperature fall. However, for the purpose of the following
illustrations the negative sign will be ignored.
Test Results
Sample T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No
C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 C0 Volts Amps
1
2
3
4
Distance
from T1
Calculated Data
Sample 𝐐̇ ∆𝐓𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐓𝟒−𝟓 ∆𝐓𝟔−𝟖 ∆𝐗 𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐗 𝟒−𝟓 ∆𝐗 𝟔−𝟖 𝐤 𝟏−𝟑 𝐡𝐨𝐭 𝐤 𝟒−𝟓 𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐤 𝟔−𝟖 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐝
No Hot Int Cold Hot Int Cold
-- Watts K K K m m m w\mk w\mk w\km
1
2
3
4
The distance between the temperature sensors are not that the distance between T4 and T5 is less
than the other pairs of thermocouples
∆𝑋1−3 = ∆𝑋6−8 = 0.03𝑚
∆𝑋4−5 = 0.0015𝑚
Heat transfer rate from the heater
𝑄 = 𝑉̇ × 𝐼
Hence, the thermal conductivity k for NO1 in the result table is
∆𝑋1−3 𝑄̇
𝑘1−3 =
∆𝑇1−3 𝐴
 Draw the relation between temperature and the distance from T1 (temperature distribution
for each volt
 Find the slop of the plot
 Calculate the thermal conductivity of the specimen and compare with value from literature
 Comment on your results and plots
 State source of errors in this experiment.

Exp. # (2)
Combined convection &radiation
Part One: Free Convection
Objective:-
1. To determine the combined heat transfer (Qradiation + Qconvection) from a horizontal cylinder in
natural convection over a wide range of power inputs and corresponding surface temperatures.
2. To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free
convection.
Apparatus:-
Figure (1): Combined convection and radiation apparatus
Mechanical Systems Lab. - Exp # (2): Combined convection &radiation Page 11

Theory:-
If a surface, at a temperature above that of its surroundings, is located in stationary air at the
same temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of natural convection to the air and
radiation to the surroundings.
If a cylinder of diameter D and heated length L is at a temperature Ts that is above of the
surrounding air Ta then the air immediately adjacent to the cylinder will start to warm. This will
reduce the density and the air will flow upward due to buoyancy. The buoyant flow process will
transfer heat to the air and is referred to as natural convection heat transfer.
A horizontal cylinder is used in this experiment to provide a simple shape from which the heat
transfer can be calculated.
In the case of natural (free) convection the mean heat transfer coefficient (hc) can be calculated
using the following steps.
1. Grashof number calculation
𝑔𝛽 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝐷 3
𝐺𝑟 =
𝑣2
Where:-
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)
 = Volume expansion coefficient (K-1)
 = Dynamic viscosity of air (m2/s)
The volumetric expansion coefficient () = 1/ Tf
Where Tf is the film temperature which equal (Ts+Ta)/2
2.Raleigh number Ra
𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟 𝑃𝑟
Where Pr is the prandtl number
3. Nusselt number
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑐(𝑅𝑎 )𝑛
Where c and n are obtained from the table below
Ra C n
10-9to10-2 0.675 0.058
10-2to102 1.02 0.148
2 4
10 to10 0.850 0.188
104to107 0.480 0.250
7 12
10 to10 0.125 0.333
Table (1): listing constant c and exponent n for natural convection on a horizontal cylinder
4. Mean heat transfer coefficient (hc)
(𝐾. 𝑁𝑢)
ℎ𝑐 =
𝐷
Where:-
hc is the mean heat transfer coefficient for natural convection (W/m2K).
K is thermal conductivity of air (W/Mk).
Note The physical properties of air K, ,and Pr are take at film temperature (Tf).
Also the heat transfer coefficient for free convection may be calculated using the following
simplified equation.
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ) 0.25
ℎ𝑐 = 1.32 ( )
𝐷
Then the heat loss due to natural convection (Qc) can be calculated using the following relation.
Qc= hc As (Ts-Ta) (W)
Where As is the heat transfer area (surface area).
In the case of radiation the mean heat transfer coefficient (hr) can be calculated using the
following relationship.
(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑎4 )
ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝐹𝜎
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )
Where:-
 is Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 ( W/m2K4).
 is the emissivity of surface = 0.95.
F is the view factor = 1.
Then the heat loss due to radiation (Qr) can be calculated using the following relationship.
Qr= hr As (Ts-Ta) (W)
The total heat loss from the cylinder (Qtot ) = Qc + Qr

Procedure:-
1. Set the heater voltage to 50 Volt (adjust the voltage control potentiometer to give reading
of 5 Volt on the top panel meter with the selector switch set to position V).
2. Allow the surface temperature of the cylinder T10 to stabilize using the lower selector
switch/meter
3. When the temperatures are stable record T9, T10, V, and I in the table below.
4. Repeat steps 2&3 for 80, 120, and 150 Voltage.
Diameter of cylinder (D) = 10mm.

Heated length of cylinder (L) = 70mm.
Air Surface
Test No Voltage (V) Current(I) temperature temperature
T9(C) T10 (C)
1 50
2 80
3 120
4 150
Analysis & Results:-
Power
No hc (W/m2K) hr (W/m2K) Qc(W) Qr(W) Qtot(W)
Qin(W)
1
2
3
4
 Compare the theoretical values for Qtot with the measured values for Qin and explain any
differences in values.
 Compare the calculated heat transferred due to Convection Qc and radiation Qr. by
plotting Surface temperature Ts against hc & hr.
 Compare the value for hc obtained using the simplified and full empirical equations and
comment on any difference.
 Plot a graph of surface temperature T10 [Ts] against power input Qin and observe the
relationship.
 Calculate the efficiency of heat transfer

Exp. # (3)
Combined convection &radiation
Part Two: Forced Convection
Objective:-
1. To determine the effect of force convection on heat transfer from the surface of a cylinder at
varying air velocities and surface temperatures.
2. To demonstrate the relationship between air velocity and surface temperature for a cylinder
subject to forced convection.
Apparatus:-
Figure (1): Combined convection and radiation apparatus
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (3): Combined convection &radiation Page 15

Theory:-
In free (natural) convection the heat transfer rate from a surface is limited by the movement of
air which are generated by change in the density of the air as the air is heated by the surface. In
force convection the air movement can be greatly increased resulting in improved heat transfer
rate from a surface. Therefore a surface subjected to force convection will have a lower surface
temperature than the same surface subjected to free convection, for the same power input. If a
surface, at a temperature above that of its surroundings, is located in moving air at the same
temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of force convection to the air and
radiation to the surroundings.
If a cylinder of diameter D and heated length L is at a temperature Ts is placed in an air stream of
velocity Ue then heat will be transferred from the cylinder to the air stream. The rate of heat
transfer from the cylinder will be affected by the air velocity, the degree of turbulence in the air
approaching the cylinder, the surface temperature of the cylinder and the emissivity of the
cylinder and its surroundings.
The cylinder will not only lose heat due to the air velocity (forced convection) but also due to
radiation. If the surface temperature Ts is sufficiently high then the radiant component can
become a significant proportion of the heat transfer method, compared with the same cylinder in
still air, the rate of heat transfer due to convection will be higher and result in lower surface
temperature under the same power input conditions.
The heat transfer coefficient hf due to force convection and hr due to radiation can be calculated
using the following relationships:

 Calculation of heat transfer coefficient for radiation

(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑎4 )
ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝐹𝜎
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )
Where:-
 is Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 ( W/m2K4).
 is the emissivity of surface = 0.95.
F is the view factor = 1.
Ts is surface temperature of the cylinder (K).
Ta is the ambient temperature.

Then the heat loss due to radiation (Qr) can be calculated using the following relationship.
Qr= hr As (Ts-Ta) (W)
Where AS is the heat transfer area (surface area).
 Calculation of heat transfer coefficient for force convection
𝑘
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑁𝑢
𝐷
Where:
k is the thermal conductivity of the air (W/m2K).
D is the diameter of the cylinder. (m).
Nu is the average Nusselt number.
An empirical formula can be used to calculate the value for Nu as follows:
0.5
(0.62 𝑅𝑒 0.25 𝑃𝑟 0.33 ) 𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.3 + 0.25 ∗ (1 + ( ) )
0.4 0.66 282000
(1 + ( ) )
𝑃𝑟
Where;
𝑈𝑒 𝐷
Re is the Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣
Pr is the Prandtl number for air.
Ue is the effective air velocity Ue=1.22 Ua (m/s).

Note The physical properties of air K, ,and Pr are take at film temperature (Tf).
Then the heat loss due to force convection (Qf) can be calculated using the following relation.
Qf= hf As (Ts-Ta) (W)
Where AS is the heat transfer area (surface area).
The total heat loss from the cylinder (Qtot ) = Qf + Qr
Procedure:-
1. Start the centrifugal fan by pressing the switch on the connection box.
2. Open the throttle plate on the front of the fan by rotating the knob at the center to give a
reading of 0.5m/s on the upper panel meter.
3. Set the heater voltage to 200 Volt (adjust the voltage control potentiometer to give reading
of 200 Volt on the top panel meter with the selector switch set to position V).
4. Allow the surface temperature of the cylinder T10 to stabilize using the lower selector
switch/meter
5. When the temperatures are stable record Ua, T9, T10, V, and I in the table below.
6. Adjust the throttle plate to give a velocity of 1.0 m/s (stop selector switch set to position
Ua).
7. Allow the temperature stabilize then repeat the above reading.
8. Repeat the above procedure changing the air velocity in steps of 1.0 m/s until the air
velocity is 7.0 m/s.

Diameter of cylinder (D) = 10mm.
Heated length of cylinder (L) = 70mm.
Velocity of
Voltage Current Air Surface
air
Teat No V I temperature temperature
Ua
(V) (A) T9(C) T10 (C)
(m/s)
1 0.5
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
7 6
8 7

Effective
Test Power hf hr
Air velocity Qc(W) Qr(W) Qtot(W)
No Qin(W) (W/m2K) (W/m2K)
Ue (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
 Compare the theoretical values for Qtot with the measured values for Qin and explain any
difference in the two value values.
 Compare the calculated heat transferred due to force Convection Qf and radiation Qr. by
plotting Surface temperature Ts against hf & hr.
 Plot a graph of surface temperature T10 against corrected air velocity Ue.

Exp. # (4)
Boiling heat transfer
Objective:-
1. To demonstrate the boiling curve and the different boiling regimes, convective, nucleate
and film boiling.
2. To determine the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient up to and beyond the
critical condition.
Apparatus:-
A high electric heat element in a copper sleeve, the heat cylinder, submerged in R141b liquid is
mounted horizontally in a vertical glass chamber. The temperature T1 of the copper sleeve is
measured by the thermocouple and digital temperature indicator.
The electrical input to the heated cylinder is adjusted by the heater control, the actual heat
transfer rate being displayed on the digital wattmeter.
The instrumentation and heater are protected by the main switch, which is also miniature circuit
breaker\overload cut out.
At the upper end of the chamber is the water cooled condenser, a nickel plate coil of copper tube
through which cooling water flows. This coil condenses the vapor produced by the heat input
and the liquid formed returns to the bottom of the chamber for re-evaporation.
A water flow control and meter (4) used in conjunction with thermocouples T3 and T4 measuring
the condenser water temperatures.
The chamber pressure gauge indicates thermocouple T2 at the base of the chamber enable the
liquid temperature to be measured and the chamber pressure.
Figure 1: Boiling Heat Transfer Apparatus
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (4): Boiling heat transfer Page 20

Theory:-
Many familiar engineering applications involve condensation and boiling heat transfer. In a
household refrigerator, for example, the refrigerant absorbs heat from the refrigerated space by
boiling in the evaporator section and rejects heat to the kitchen air by condensing in the condenser
section (the long coils behind the refrigerator). In addition, in steam power plants, heat is transferred
to the steam in the boiler where water is vaporized, and the waste heat is rejected from the steam in
the condenser where the steam is condensed. Some electronic components are cooled by boiling by
immersing them in a fluid with an appropriate boiling temperature.
Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process just like evaporation, but there are significant
differences between the two.
Evaporation: occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when the vapor pressure is less than the saturation
pressure of the liquid at a given temperature. [Figure 2-a]
Boiling: occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface
maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid [Figure 2-b]
a b
Figure 2: Evaporation and boiling liquid-to-vapor phase change
Classification of boiling
Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling, depending on the presence of bulk fluid motion
Pool Boiling:
 Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow.
 Any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion of the bubbles under
the influence of buoyancy.
Flow Boiling
 Boiling is called flow boiling in the presence of bulk fluid flow.
 In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means
such as a pump.
Figure 3: Pool boiling and flow boiling

Pool Boiling - Boiling Curve

Consider the boiling of tap water in a pan on top of a stove. The water temperature will be below the
saturation temperature of 100°C at standard atmospheric pressure. As the water temperature rises,
and reaches the saturation temperature boiling starts and it takes different forms, depending on the
value of the excess temperature [∆Texcess = Ts-Tsat]. Four different boiling regimes are observed:
natural convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and film boiling. These regimes are
illustrated on the boiling curve in Figure 4, which is a plot of boiling heat flux versus the excess
temperature. Although the boiling curve given in this figure is for water, the general shape of the
boiling curve remains the same for different fluids.
Figure 3: Boiling Curve

Natural Convection (to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
• Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the
saturation temperature (about 2 to 6°C for water)
the liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state).
• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection currents.
• Heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural convection.
Nucleate Boiling
• The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites as we move
along the boiling curve toward point C.
Region A–B ─isolated bubbles:
• The stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface is primarily
responsible for the increased heat transfer coefficient.
• The large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the combined effect of liquid
entrainment and evaporation.
Region B–C ─ numerous continuous columns of vapor in the liquid
• After point B the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing ∆Texcess, and reaches a
maximum at point C.

• The heat flux at this point is called the critical (or maximum) heat flux, and is of prime
engineering importance.
Transition Boiling
• When ∆Texcess is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases.
• This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an
insulation.
• In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film boiling partially occur.
Film Boiling
• Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor film.
• Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is called the Leidenfrost point.
• The presence of a vapor film between the heater surface and the liquid is responsible for the low
heat transfer rates in the film boiling region.
• The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess temperature due to radiation to the liquid.
Procedure:-
 Switch on the mains electrical supply and the main switch on console.
 Check that the digital T1 temperature indicator is showing the same temperature as the liquid
R141b thermometer.
 Turn on the electrical and water supplies and adjust bolt to very low setting (<20 watts). Allow
the digital T1 temperature indicator to stabilize. Observe this and the liquid temperature T2 at
frequent intervals.
 Carefully watch the liquid surrounding the heated cylinder Convection currents will be observed.
And at the same time liquid will be seen to collect and drip on the condenser coils.
 Increase the heat input in increments by adjusting the condenser water flow rate by the water flow
control and meter.
 Nucleate boiling will soon start and will increase until vigorous boiling is seen, the temperature
difference (T1-T2) between the liquid and the metal being still quite moderate (<20K)
 Increase the heat input and at between 300 and 400 watts the nature of the boiling will be seen to
change dramatically and at the same time the metal-liquid temperature difference will rise quickly.
 The rate of evaporation falls to the low level and the condensed water flow rate must be reduced
to maintain a steady condenser pressure. The heat input should now be reduced to about 20-40
watts. Careful examination of the heated cylinder surface will show that it is now enveloped in an
almost unbroken film of vapor and this is the cause of the reduced heat transfer rate.
 The heat input should now be reduced to zero. It will be found that as the metal-liquid temperature
difference falls to about 80 K the boiling suddenly becomes vigorous as film boiling reverts to
nucleate boiling.
 Adjust the heater control about 30-50 watts and adjust the condenser water flow control and meter
utile the desired condenser chamber pressure is reached. Record the wattmeter chamber pressure,
heated cylinder temperature t1 and liquid temperature T2.
 Increase the heat input to say 100 watts, adjust the condenser water flow control and meter to give
the desired pressure and when steady, wait a few minutes then repeat the observation.
 Repeat the similar increments until the transition from nucleate to film boiling is reached. By
careful adjustment of heat input near this condition it is possible to make an accurate assessment
of critical conditions. When film boiling is established the heat input should be rapidly reduces
and the readings continued until the heater temperature reaches 1600 °C

 Switch of the main switch and the electrical supply.

 Circulate cooling water until pressure has fallen to atmospheric or below, depending on ambient
temperature.
Results:-
Heat input
𝑄̇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Metal Temperature
T1 (C)
Liquid Temperature
T2 (C)
Table (1) : Data
For the area A= 0.0018m2

Put the result in this table
Heat Flux
∅ = 𝑄̇⁄𝐴
𝑊\𝑚2
Temperature Difference
(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) K
Heat Transfer
coefficient
𝑸̇
𝒉=
𝑨(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
W/m2K
Table (2) :Results
Analysis:-
 Draw the relation between Heat Flux (W\m2) and Surface to liquid temperature difference (K)
 Draw the relation between surface heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) and surface to liquid
temperature difference (K)

Exp. # (5)
Concentric tube heat exchanger
Objective:-
To study the performance and the characteristics of double pipe, water to water, concentric tube
heat exchanger in both parallel and counter flow.
Theory:-
The transfer of heat from one medium to another is an essential process in almost all industrial
and commercial processes. From heavy engineering such as power generation and oil refineries,
to small domestic heating systems, heat exchangers carry out an important process that should
be understood by all engineers. In order to maximize the heat transfer rate or reduce the volume
of the heat exchanger, artificially increasing the turbulence of the two fluid streams is beneficial.
This can be achieved by a combination of increasing the stream velocity and having flow
diverters or baffles that cause rapid changes in flow direction.
Increasing the effective surface area of contact between the two streams will also increase the
heat transfer rate. If this can be achieved by the use of fins that do not result in an increase in
volume then this will result in a more efficient design. In industrial applications, design for ease
of maintenance is also important. Fouling of the heat transfer surfaces due to deposits from the
heat transfer media will result in reductions in efficiency with time. If this cannot be easily
removed then replacement of the heat exchanger is a costly solution.
One of the most common, conductive-convective, heat exchanger types is the concentric tube
heat exchanger. These exchangers are built of coaxial tubes placed the ones inside the others.
When both the fluids enter from the same side and flow through the same direction we have the
parallel flow (cocurrent flow), otherwise, if the fluids enter from opposite sides and flow
through the contrary direction we have the countercurrent flow.
Usually the countercurrent flow is more efficient from the heat transfer point of view.
The heat transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid is given by the following equation:
q  U  A  LMTD
Where: U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
A is the internal exchange surface area between the two fluids.
T1  T 2
LMTD is a log mean temperature difference, and it's given by
ln(T1 / T 2 )
ΔT1=T hot in- T cold in ΔT2=T hot out- T cold out for the parallel flow exchanger.
ΔT1=T hot in- T cold out ΔT2=T hot out- T cold in for the counter flow exchanger.
Figure 1: Temperature distribution for parallel flow heat exchangers
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (5): Concentric tube heat exchanger Page 25
Figure 2: Temperature distribution for counter flow heat exchangers

Apparatus:-
The apparatus is a double – pipe, water-to-water heat exchanger test unit with concentric pipes.
Figure 3: double – pipe heat exchanger

Useful Data
Inner Tube Outer Tube
Material Stainless steel Material Clear
Acrylic
Outside Diameter 0.012 m Inside Diameter 0.022 m
Wall Thickness 0.001 m Wall Thickness 0.003 m
Length 2×0.318 m
Active heat transfer section
Area 0.02198 m2
Procedure:-
 Turn on the main switch and heater switch
 Set the hot water temperature controller to 60 °C.
 Set the cold flow rate Vcold to 15 g/sec.
 Set the hot flow rate Vhot to 15 g/sec.
 Monitor the stream temperature, the hot, and the cold flow rate to insure these too
remain close to the original setting then record the following:
 T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6, Vcold and Vhot .
 Then adjust the cooling water flow control so that Vcold is approximately 30 g/sec.
maintain the Hot water flow rate at approximately 50 g/sec.
 Allow the conditions to stabilize and repeat the above observations
 The procedure may be repeat with different hot and cold flow rates and different hot
water inlet temperature if required.
Results:-
Table (1): Parallel flow results
Flow meters Temperatures (οC)
Hot water Cold water 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
Hot Cold LMTD U
water water (W) (W) ο
Inlet Middle Outlet Inlet Middle Outlet ( C) (W/m2K)
(g/sec) (g/sec) T1 T5 T2 T3 T6 T4
Table (2): Counter flow results

Flow meters Temperatures (οC)
Hot water Cold water 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
Hot Cold LMTD U
(W) (W)
water water Inlet Middle Outlet Inlet Middle Outlet (οC) (W/m2K)
(g/sec) (g/sec) T1 T5 T2 T3 T6 T4
Analysis:-
NOTE: The following analysis should be performed for both parallel and counter flow heat
exchangers.
1. Temperature distribution in heat exchanger.
 Plot the average inlet, intermediate and outlet temperatures of the two fluids as a function
of the length of the heat exchanger.
2. Overall heat transfer coefficient U and exchanger efficiency
 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 𝑈 × 𝐴 × 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡
 𝑈 = 𝐴×𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 𝑚̇ℎ𝑜𝑡 × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × ∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡
 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
 Heat Exchanger efficiency 𝜂 = 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡
 Plot U versus cold water flow rate.
Where:
ΔThot = Thot water inlet – Thot water outlet
ΔTcold = Tcold water outlet – Tcold water inlet
Cpw = 4.18 kj/kgK.
A = Internal exchange surface area between the two fluids = 0.02198 m2
KING FAISALUNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Exp. # (6)
Cross flow heat exchanger - Cylinder in cross flow
Objective:
To study the steady state heat transfer, and to determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a
single tube in a transverse flow air stream.
Theory:
 Introduction
In order to transfer heat between two fluids many forms of heat exchanger have been
devised. In one of the most common arrangements, heat is transferred between a fluid flowing
through a bundle of tubes and another fluid flowing transversely over the outside of the tubes.
This configuration is known as a Cross Flow Heat Exchanger and is shown schematically in
Fig.1
Figure (1): Cross flow heat exchanger
Various tube layouts have been devised in order to improve the efficiency of the cross
flow heat exchanger and thereby reduce the physical size for a given heat transfer rate. However,
the objective of all of the arrangements is to promote turbulence in the fluid flowing across the
tube bundle.
The reason for this lies in the fact that the overall heat transfer coefficient for a cross flow
heat exchanger is made up of three components. Firstly the surface heat transfer coefficient for
the fluid is flowing through the tubes, secondly the thermal conductivity and thickness of the
tube material, and thirdly the surface heat transfer coefficient for the fluid flowing over the
external surface of the tubes.
Enhancement of the first two components may be achieved by increasing flow velocity in
the tubes and reducing the tube wall thickness, or using a material of higher thermal
conductivity.
The third component may be increased by raising the stream velocity, thereby increasing
the external Reynolds Number of each individual tube. Alternatively, the tube layout may be
changed in order to maximize turbulence. This is achieved by ensuring that each row of tubes is
positioned such that turbulence induced by the preceding row is incident upon the next row.
Hence a cascade effect is produced such that the degree of turbulence increases with the depth of
the tube bundle.
The effect of turbulence is to enhance the surface heat transfer coefficient beyond the
level achieved by increased Reynolds Number alone.
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (6): Cross flow heat exchanger – Cylinder in cross flow Page 29
If the fluid flowing over the outside of the tubes is a gas, then the effective heat transfer
coefficient may be further increased by the use of extended surfaces, e.g. fins.
As cross flow heat exchangers occur in many varied forms throughout industry, it is essential
that engineers and technologists should be aware of the performance of such units.
A. Isolated Cylinder In Cross Flow

Two distinct types of convective heat transfer exist, these being laminar and turbulent.
In the case of laminar flow the fluid flows in filaments, or stream lines that do not mix.
Hence heat transfer from a surface in laminar flow must occur by conduction through the fluid
itself. Therefore the rate of heat transfer will be low and highly dependent upon the thermal
conductivity of the fluid.
In the case of turbulent flow mixing of the fluid occurs. Hence a “packet” of fluid may at
one instant be close to the heated surface and then rapidly transfer and dissipate in the stream,
thus transferring heat very quickly to the bulk of the fluid. Hence the higher the degree of
turbulence, the higher the rates of heat transfer.
For laminar flow it is possible to devise expressions for the mean surface heat transfer
coefficient in particular cases of geometry. For example, laminar flow in pipes and laminar flow
over flat plates. However, for external flow over cylinders this is not generally possible and
empirical methods must be used.
Similarly, except for special cases, turbulent flow conditions do not lend themselves to
simple theoretical analysis and therefore alternative methods are required in order to evaluate
surface heat transfer coefficients for general flow conditions.
One such method is to apply the principle of dynamic similarity.
This, along with certain assumptions, proves that the following statements are valid for
both laminar and turbulent flow:
1. The velocity distribution within two boundaries will be similar when the Reynolds
UL
Numbers are the same for both fields.

2. The temperature distribution within two boundaries will be similar when in addition to
C p
(1) the Prandtl Numbers ( ) are the same for both fluids.
k
hL
3. When (1) and (2) are satisfied, then the Nusselt Numbers ( ) for corresponding surface
k
elements will be the same and hence the average Nusselt Numbers will be the same for
both surfaces.
These conditions may be summarized by writing:
Nu  f (Re, Pr) ………………………………………………………………….(1)
It follows, therefore, that empirical data obtained for a certain set of conditions on
perhaps a scale model heat exchanger may be equally applied to a full scale unit providing that
the geometry, Reynolds and Prandtl Numbers are equal.
In order to reduce equation (1) to a usable form, dimensional analysis may be used and
this results in the following general relationship,
Nu  C Re m Pr n ……………………………………………………….……….(2)
Generally in the case of gases the Prandtl Number varies little. For the variations in
temperature and pressure normally encountered, and the Prandtl Number factor may be assumed
part of the constant C.
Therefore, by carrying out a series of tests on apparatus of a particular geometry at
varying Reynolds Numbers, it is possible to obtain values for the constants C and m.
For the case of an isolated cylinder in turbulent cross flow conditions, the following
relationship is generally accepted for Reynolds Numbers (based on cylinder diameter) between
4000 and 40,000.
Nu  0.174 Re 0.618 ………………………………………………………...…(3)
Alternatively, a more recently developed correlation applicable between Reynolds Numbers of 10
to 105 is,
𝜇𝑎
𝑁𝑢 = (0.4 𝑅𝑒 0.5 + 0.06 𝑅𝑒 0.666 )𝑃𝑟 0.4 ( )0.25 ……..………...…(4)
𝜇𝑠
Apparatus:
Figure (2): Cross flow heat exchanger apparatus
A vertical free standing air duct with variable speed fan into which a range of optional heat
exchanger accessories may be inserted. Duct air velocity is measured using two manometers
recording intake depression. Supplied complete with bench mounting instrumentation console
that provides power control and measurement for all of the optional heat exchanger accessories.
Instrumentation also allows measurement of the surface, intermediate and free stream
temperatures dependent upon the optional heat exchanger accessory in use. The instrumentation
console contains temperature limit control for all optional heat exchanger accessories and
electrical overload and earth leakage protection.
Single Tube Plate

A clear plastic plate with a centrally drilled hole to accept the single active element. Plate
dimensions such that it snugly fits the 200mm opening in the air duct.
Active Element
Electrically heated (maximum 70V) thick copper cylinder of nominally 15.8mm diameter and
50mm length. Heated area = 2.482 x 10-6 m2. Extreme ends are insulated to reduce errors due to
wall effects. Integral thermocouple senses surface temperature
Procedure:
(i) Ensure the instrument console main switch is in the off position. Ensure the fan is switched
off.
(ii) If the single tube plate is not in position, remove the four fluted nuts retaining the clear
plastic tube plate. Remove the existing tube plate and replace with the single tube plate. Refit
and tighten the nuts.
(iii) Insert the active element into the hole in the single tube plate and plug the lead into the
instrument console.
(iv) Connect the manometer hose between the duct pressure tapping and the left hand port of the
upper manometer.
NOTE: The letter on the manometer in use and the tube plate in use should match.
(v) Switch on the main switch at the console and adjust the fan speed to achieve a low-velocity
airflow through the duct (a depression H of approximately 4mm H2O).
(vi) Switch the voltage switch to 70V and adjust the heater control to give an indicated active
element surface temperature (T1) of approximately 95C. At low air velocities, the heat transfer
rate is low and it is advisable to adjust the heater control in increments, allowing time between
each adjustment for the system to stabilize.
(viii) When stable conditions occur, indicated by a constant active element surface temperature
(T1), record T1 and duct air temperature, T2 (by depressing the biased switch), H (mm H2O) and
V Volts.
(ix) Adjust the fan speed to increase the indicated air depression H to10mm H2O and hence the
duct air velocity.
(x) Adjust the heater control to give approximately the original active element surface
temperature (T1).
(xi) Again when stable, record T1, T2, H and V.
(xii) Repeat the above for increasing air velocities up to the maximum 50 Hz fan speed.
Results:
Atmospheric pressure Pa = 100 kPa

Heater element resistance R = 70 Ohms
Table (1): Experimental results for single tube.

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Active element
surface temperature
Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
4 11 20 32.5 44 54
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row Single tube
Table (2): Derived results for single tube.

Heat transfer rate
Q (W)
Heat flux
Ф (W/m2)
Active element surface
to air temperature
difference Ta-Ts (K)
Mean surface heat
transfer coefficient
h (W/m2K)
Duct air velocity
U (m/s)
Reynolds number
(Re)
Nusselt number
(Nu)
Analysis:
Calculate the followings:
 Heat transfer rate from the active element.
V2
Q Watts
R
Where: R=70 ohms
 Heat flux.
Q
 Where A is the area of heat transfer surface = 2.482 × 10-3 m2
A
 Mean surface heat transfer coefficient.

h W m-2K-1
(Ts  Ta )
 Duct air velocity.
T H
U  74.294 a m/s
Pa
Pa = 0.992x105 Pa
 Reynolds number.
Ud
Re  Where is the kinematic viscosity of air at Ta and d=15.86 x 10-3 m

 Nusselt number
hd
Nu   0.174 Re 0.618
k
k
h  0.174 Re 0.618
d
Where k is the thermal conductivity of the air at Ta.
On the same graph paper, plot h versus Re for the data obtained from the experiment, and the
data given by the Nusselt correlation.
Exp. # (7)
Cross flow heat exchanger - Finned Tube Bundle in Cross Flow
Objective:
1- To study the steady state heat transfer, and to determine the surface heat transfer coefficient
for Finned Tube Bundle in a transverse flow air stream.
2- To investigate the effect of external fins on heat transfer rate and heat transfer coefficient
Theory:
 Introduction
In order to transfer heat between two fluids many forms of heat exchanger have been
devised. In one of the most common arrangements, heat is transferred between a fluid flowing
through a bundle of tubes and another fluid flowing transversely over the outside of the tubes.
This configuration is known as a Cross Flow Heat Exchanger and is shown schematically in
Fig.1
Figure (1): Cross flow heat exchanger
Various tube layouts have been devised in order to improve the efficiency of the cross
flow heat exchanger and thereby reduce the physical size for a given heat transfer rate. However,
the objective of all of the arrangements is to promote turbulence in the fluid flowing across the
tube bundle.
The reason for this lies in the fact that the overall heat transfer coefficient for a cross flow
heat exchanger is made up of three components. Firstly the surface heat transfer coefficient for
the fluid is flowing through the tubes, secondly the thermal conductivity and thickness of the
tube material, and thirdly the surface heat transfer coefficient for the fluid flowing over the
external surface of the tubes.
Enhancement of the first two components may be achieved by increasing flow velocity in
the tubes and reducing the tube wall thickness, or using a material of higher thermal
conductivity.
The third component may be increased by raising the stream velocity, thereby increasing
the external Reynolds Number of each individual tube. Alternatively, the tube layout may be
changed in order to maximize turbulence. This is achieved by ensuring that each row of tubes is
positioned such that turbulence induced by the preceding row is incident upon the next row.
Hence a cascade effect is produced such that the degree of turbulence increases with the depth of
the tube bundle.
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (7): Cross flow heat exchanger – Finned tube bundle in cross flow Page 35
The effect of turbulence is to enhance the surface heat transfer coefficient beyond the
level achieved by increased Reynolds Number alone.
If the fluid flowing over the outside of the tubes is a gas, then the effective heat transfer
coefficient may be further increased by the use of extended surfaces, e.g. fins.
As cross flow heat exchangers occur in many varied forms throughout industry, it is essential
that engineers and technologists should be aware of the performance of such units.
Tube Bundles in Cross Flow
In the case of isolated cylinder in cross flow, the velocity used to calculate the Reynolds
Number of the flow is that of the stream approaching the cylinder.
However. For the case of the tube bundle obstructing the duct, it can be readily
appreciated that the velocity of the approaching the bundle will be far lower than the velocity
between the rows of the tubes, the duct area having been reduced by some function of the
transverse plan area of the tubes.
A characteristic reference velocity for a particular tube bundle is therefore taken, and an
accepted value is the stream velocity at the minimum free area.
For the schematic arrangement shown below, this would be established by determining
the minimum of the two areas denoted by the dotted or continuous lines.
Hence. If the empty duct has a cross sectional area of AD and the
minimum inter tube area is AT. the velocity through the heat exchanger will be:
𝐴
𝑈 ′ = 𝑈 𝑥 𝐴𝐷 …………………………………………………….(1)
𝑇
This velocity is used to calculate the Reynolds number used in the correlations.
An in the case of a single tube in cross flow, determination of a correlation for the mean
convective heat transfer coefficient for the tubes forming a cross flow heat exchanger must be
carried out experimentally. The tube position within the bundle adds a further variable to the
general turbulent flow equation (2) and this then has the form
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑒 𝑚 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 𝐹𝑛 ………………………………………….. (2)
Where Fn is a function of the number of tube rows crossed by the transverse stream.
An accepted form of the generalized equation (3)
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑒 0.635 𝑃𝑟 0.34 𝐹𝑛 ………………………………………..(3)
The Nusselt Number obtained from this correlation is a mean value for all of the tubes
within a bundle . Hence for design purpose a prediction may be obtained for the overall heat
transfer rate of the cross flow heat exchanger of a particulate size and number of rows.
The above equation is applicable to staggered arrangement of tubes, as in previous figure.
For Reynolds Number between 300 and 200000.
For a staggered tube bundle. Fn is found to vary in a manar shown the diagram below
Thus it may be seen that as the number of rows crossed increases, the effect is an increase
in the convective heat transfer coefficient. This is effectively due to the turbulence behind each
row adding to the turbulence due to the stream velocity.
However, as may be seen in the diagram above, a reduction in the rate of increase occurs
beyond approximately 10 rows. The stream effectively becomes 'saturated' in terms of
turbulence.
Apparatus:
Figure (2): Cross flow heat exchanger apparatus
A vertical free standing air duct with variable speed fan into which a range of optional heat
exchanger accessories may be inserted. Duct air velocity is measured using two manometers
recording intake depression. Supplied complete with bench mounting instrumentation console
that provides power control and measurement for all of the optional heat exchanger accessories.
Instrumentation also allows measurement of the surface, intermediate and free stream
temperatures dependent upon the optional heat exchanger accessory in use. The instrumentation
console contains temperature limit control for all optional heat exchanger accessories and
electrical overload and earth leakage protection.
Finned Tube Plate:

A clear plastic plate with 14 copper finned tubes of 25.4mm
fin diameter and 12.7mm root diameter. These being arranged
on an equilateral triangular pitch of 30mm between centers.
Tubes form four rows. Near the center of each row is an
identical dummy tube that may be removed and replaced with
the active element.
Active Element:
Electrically heated (maximum 70V) thick copper cylinder of
nominally 12.7mm diameter and 55mm length. External
surface has copper finning of 25.4mm diameter identical to
dummy tubes. Extreme ends are insulated to reduce errors due
to wall effects. Integral thermocouple senses surface
temperature.
Procedure:
1- Ensure the instrument console main switch is in the off position. Ensure the fans is switched
off.
2- If the single tube plate is not in position, remove the four fluted nuts remaining the clear plastic
tube plate. Remove the existing tube plate and replace with the single tube plate. Refit and
tighten the nuts.
3- Insert the active element into the hole in the tube plate and plug the lead into the instrument
console. Insert the dummy tubes into the remaining holes in the tube plate.
4- Connect the manometer hose between the duct pressure tapping the left hand port of the upper
manometer.
5- Switch on the main switch on the console and adjust the fan speed to obtain airflow throw the
duct ( a depression H of approximately 3.6mm H2O)
6- A test velocity should be chosen (say 16.5m s-2), and the parameters U, Ta and Pat insert in
the equation of intake depression. Adjust the speed fan to obtain the required depression.
7- Switch the voltage switch to 70V on the instrument and adjust the heater control to give a low
surface temperature T1 (say 20 -25 C0).
8- When stable conditions occur, indicated by the constant active element surface temperature
T1, T2 ( by depression the bias switch) H and V
9- Adjust the fan speed to increase the indicated air depression H to 10mm H2O and hence the
duct air velocity.
10- Adjust the heater control to give a slightly higher surface temperature and again, when stable
conditions occur, record T1 (ts) , T2 (ta), H and V.
11- Repeat the above procedure for increasing surface temperature up to the thermal cut out
condition (approximately T1=100 C) or until no further increase is available on the heater
control.
12- Fill the results in the tables and do the calculations depending on the following:
Pat= 1014 mbar
Results:
Atmospheric pressure Pa = 99.2 kPa

Heater element resistance R = 100 Ohms
Table (1): Experimental results for finned tube bundles.

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Active element
surface temperature
T1=Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
T2=Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Table (2): Derived results for finned tube bundles.

Heat transfer rate
Q (W)
Heat flux
Ф (W/m2)
Active element surface
to air temperature
difference Ta-Ts (K)
Mean surface heat
transfer coefficient
h (W/m2K)
Duct air velocity
U (m/s)
Effective air velocity
U' (m/s)
Reynolds number
(Re)
Nusselt number
(Nu)
Analysis:
Calculate the followings:
 Heat transfer rate from the active element.
V2
Q Watts
R
Where: R=70 ohms
 Heat flux.
Q
 Where A is the area of heat transfer surface = 2.482 × 10-3 m2
A
 Mean surface heat transfer coefficient.

h W m-2K-1
(Ts  Ta )
 Duct air velocity.
T H
U  74.294 a m/s
Pa
Pa = 0.992×105 Pa
 Effective air velocity.

U' = 2.167×U m/s
 Reynolds number.
𝑈′𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
Where is the kinematic viscosity of air at Ta and d=12.7 x 10-3 m
 Nusselt number
ℎ𝑑
𝑁𝑢 = = 𝐶 𝑅𝑒 0.635 𝑃𝑟 0.34 𝐹𝑛
𝑘
𝑁𝑢 × 𝑘
ℎ=
𝑑
Where k is the thermal conductivity of the air at Ta.
On the same graph paper, plot h versus Re for the data obtained from the experiment, and the
data given by the Nusselt correlation.
Compare between heat transfer coefficient for plain tube and finned tube [Note: use results of
previous experiment for plain tube data]
Exp. # (8)
Air Conditioning – Psychrometric chart
Objective:
After completing the experiment, you will be able to determine the thermodynamic properties of
air by using the Psychrometric Chart.
Theory:
 DEFINITION OF AIR CONDITIONING
Air conditioning is a combined process that performs many functions simultaneously. It conditions
the air, transports it, and introduces it to the conditioned space. It provides heating and cooling
from its central plant or rooftop units.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
define air conditioning as “The process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned
space”. As the definition indicates, the important actions involved in the operation of an air
conditioning system are:
Temperature control.
Humidity control.
Air filtering, cleaning, and purification.
Air movement and circulation.
This is well known that the factors have a considerable effect on human comfort in all
weather. For this reason air conditioning is used in most building, transportation facilities, and
where the human occupancy is high. Winter heating conditions require automatic control of the
heating source to maintain desired room temperatures. Humidity control for winter conditions
usually requires the addition of moisture by using a humidifier. Summer cooling conditions require
automatic control of the air conditioning system to maintain the desired room temperatures.
Humidity control for summer conditions requires dehumidifiers, which pass air to be cooled over
cold evaporator surfaces. In general, air filtering is the same for both summer and winter.
 COMFORT AND THE BODY

Comfort describes the delicate balance of feeling in the body in relationship to its surroundings.
Comfort involves four things, (1) Temperature, (2) Humidity, (3) Air Movement and (4) Air
Cleanliness.
Typical, when the body at rest (sitting) is in surroundings of 23.9º C and 50% humidity with a
slight air movement, the body is very close to being comfortable during summer conditions. In
winter, a different set of conditions applies. The following statements can be used as guidelines
for comfort.
1. In winter:
A. Lower temperature can be offset with higher humidity.
B. The lower the humidity is, the higher the temperature must be.
C. Air movement is more noticeable.
2. In summer:
A. When the humidity is high, air movement helps.
B. Higher temperatures can be offset with lower humidity.
3. The comfort conditions in winter and in summer are different.
4. Styles of clothes in different parts of the country make a slight difference in the conditioned
space temperature requirements for comfort.
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (8): Air Conditioning Laboratory Page 42

5. Body metabolism varies from person to person. Women for example, are not as warm natured
as men. The circulatory system generally does not work in older people as well as in younger
people. Human body temperature is normally 37ºC. We are comfortable when the heat level in our
body due to food intake is transferring to the surroundings at the correct rate. But certain conditions
must be met for this comfortable, or balanced, condition to exist. The human body will be
comfortable under a variety of temperature and humidity combinations. Most people are
comfortable in an atmosphere with the relative humidity between 30% and 70% and the
temperature between 21C and 29C (70F and 85F). This temperature is usually maintained
in cold weather by wearing adequate clothing. In hot weather, it is maintained by the evaporation
of moisture (sweat) and by radiation from the skin surface. However, the person is not
uncomfortable because body heat is being released by moisture evaporation from the skin surface.
 REFRIGERATION PROCESSES
Refrigeration is defined as the process of extracting heat from a lower-temperature heat source,
substance, or cooling medium and transferring it to a higher-temperature heat sink. Refrigeration
maintains the temperature of the heat source below that of its surroundings while transferring the
extracted heat, and any required energy input, to a heat sink, atmospheric air, or surface water. A
refrigeration system is a combination of component and equipment connected in a sequential
order to produce the refrigeration effect. The most common refrigeration system used for air
conditioning is the Vapor compression systems.
A schematic vapor compression system is shown in Figure (1-A) It consists of a compressor, a
condenser, an expansion device for throttling and an evaporator. The compressor-delivery head,
discharge line, condenser and liquid line form the high-pressure side of the system. The
expansion line, evaporator, suction line and compressor-suction head form the low-pressure side
of the system.
Figure 1: Vapor Compression System Schematic and Refrigeration Cycle on Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
Figure (1-B) shows the refrigeration cycle on a pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram. The pressure-
enthalpy diagram is the most common graphical tool for analysis and calculation of the heat and
work transfer and performance of a refrigeration cycle. A single-stage refrigeration cycle
consists of two regions: the high-pressure region (high side) and the low pressure (low side). The
change in pressure can be clearly illustrated on the p-h diagram. Also, both heat and work
transfer of various processes can be calculated as the change of enthalpy and state easily shown
on the p-h diagram.

Apparatus:
Figure 2: Air Conditioning Laboratory Trainer
Labtech's Air Conditioning Laboratory Trainer consists of the main components as follow:
1 Fiberglass Ducting 13 Solenoid Valve 2 Condensing Unit 14 Air Flow Sensor
3 Steam Generator 15 RH Sensor 4 Blower Fan Motor 16 Drain valve 5 Pre-Heater 6 Steam
Injector 18 Manual Valve 7 Evaporator 19 Filter Drier 8 Expansion Device TXV 20 Sight Glass
9 Re-Heater 21 Pressure gauges 10 Instrument and Control Panel 22 Refrigerant Flow Meter 11
Circuit Breaker panel 23 Piping and Wiring Diagram 12 Steam Generator Switch and Thermostat.
13 Solenoid Valve 14 Air Flow Sensor 15 RH Sensor16 Drain valve 17 Measuring Cylinder 18
Manual Valve 19 Filter Drier 20 Sight Glass 21 Pressure gauges 22 Refrigerant Flow Meter 23
Piping and Wiring Diagram 24 Drain Pan .
Procedure:
1. Prepare the equipment required for this experiment.
2. Switch on all MCBs while the other switches are still "off".
3. Press “START”button on the control panel.
4. Turn on and adjust the Fan Speed Control to "maximum" position.
5. Allow the system run for about 10 minutes. Only the Blower Fan is active during this

Figure 3 Schematic Diagram System

6. Observe the Humidity and Temperature display, then record the data reading of Dry bulb
temperature and humidity at point A-C-D-E.
7. After completing the observation, turn off the Fan Speed Control and Press the “STOP”
button.
8. Refer to the points for determining the others thermodynamic properties of air.
Use the psychrometric chart to plot the point into the chart. Draw the line of dry bulb based on
the temperature data vertically. Plot the intersection lines (between dry bulb line and relative
humidity curve) to determine position of the point.
9. Put the experiment result and the draft of each point on the table below:
No Measurement Dry Relative Wet Enthalpy Dew Moisture Specific

Point Bulb Humidity Bulb (kJ/kg) Point Content Volume
(ºC) (%) (ºC) (ºC) (kg/kg) (m3/kg)
1 Inlet air (A)
2 Before evaporator
(C)
3 After Evaporator
(D)
4 After Re-Heater (E)


Exp. # (9)
Free Vibration of a Simple Mass-Spring System
Objectives:
The main objectives of this experiment are:
 Studying the free vibration of a simple mass spring system.
 Obtain the spring constant from experimental data.
Apparatus:
The main feature of the spring-mass
system setup consists of Vibration frame with
a central helical spring is suspended vertically
by the use of an adjusting stud and upper
frame mount. The upper frame mount attaches
to both sides of the upper horizontal member
of the vibrations frame using special t-nuts and
fasteners. At the bottom end of the helical
spring is a hanger clevis. This enables the load
hanger assembly to be hooked onto the helical
spring by the use of the loop in the top end of
the hanger. The hanger assembly has a lower
ground rod attached which runs inside the
linear bearing installed into the lower frame
mounts. During vibration this gives the spring Figure 1: Mass Spring System setup
vertical stability.
The load hanger can accept a number of slotted
masses to vary the oscillating mass.
Manufacturer’s data for the spring gives a spring rate of: 285 N/m
Theory:
When an elastic system is displaced from its equilibrium position, the internal restoring
force (and hence the acceleration) is proportional to the displacement and is directed towards the
equilibrium position. Thus, the body oscillates with simple harmonic motion (SHM), the rate
being known as the natural frequency. In practice, internal damping will oppose the vibration,
which will soon cease unless maintained by external excitement.
Vibration involves the transformation of mechanical energy between kinetic and potential
energy. Hence, the simplest vibrating system contains at least a mean for potential energy storage
Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (9):Free Vibration of a Simple Mass-Spring System Page 47
and an element for the kinetic energy storage. The kinetic energy is stored in mass elements while
springs are the elements that are used to store the potential energy.
Springs are those elastic elements that deform when subjected to an external force. An
internal force that is proportional to the deformation is produced in the spring. If the internal force
produced in the spring is linearly proportional to the deformation the spring is linear otherwise the
spring is nonlinear.
The spring constant is a parameter indicating the relationship between spring load and the
deflection of the spring. With the helical springs normally used this relationship is linear. The
following equation gives the relationship between spring load F and spring deflection x.
F  kx …….……… (1)
Where k is the spring constant (stiffness).
Consider the spring mass system shown in figure 2. If the mass suspended by the spring
is m the mass deflection relation is given by:
g
x m
k …………… (2)
If the deflection of the spring is measured for different values of the mass, and the
deflection versus mass relation is drawn, the relationship is linear and the slope of the line is g/k.
Figure 2: Mass Spring System Figure 3: plot of x versus m

The mass spring system represents the simplest vibrating system. It consists of a kinetic
energy storage element (the mass) and a potential energy storage element (the spring). The
equation of motion for this system is given by:
d 2x
m 2  kx  0 …………… (3)
dt
where x is the deflection from the static equilibrium position, m is the mass and k is the stiffness
of the spring.
The solution of the equation of motion is expected to be harmonic. The general form for the
solution is gives by:
x(t )  X cos( n t   ) …………… (4)
Where ωn is the natural frequency, X is the amplitude and  is the phase angle. Both the
amplitude and the phase angle can be found from the initial conditions. The natural frequency is
given by:
𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √𝑚 ……………………………...(5)
The period of oscillation is given by:

𝑚
𝜏 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 ……………………………...(6)
4 2 4 2
Or   2 
2
m …………………… (7)
n k
If the period of oscillation is measured for
different values of mass and the square of
the measured period is plotted against the
added mass a linear relation as shown in
figure 4 is obtained. The slope can be found
and it could be employed to estimate the
spring constant k.
It is also noted that the abscissa m actually
represents both the added mass and the
equivalent mass for the spring, rod and the
Figure 4: plot of τ2 versus m
other components. Equation 5 shows that
the period is zero when the total mass m is
zero.
This indicates that the extension of the line passes through the calculated data must intersect
the m axis at –m0 which is the equivalent mass to the spring and other components
Procedure:
Part 1: Determination of (g/k);
1. Weigh the hanger assembly and record the mass in table 1.

2. Attach the spring to the Vibration frame and suspend the hanger assembly to the hanger
clevis.
3. Incrementally add 100g mass to the load hanger and record the extension of the spring.
Part2: Free vibration of simple mass spring system
1. Keep 4 x 100g masses (0.4kg) onto the load hanger assembly.
2. With a stopwatch in one hand, pull down on the base of the load hanger a suitable
distance.
3. Upon releasing the load hanger assembly, start the stopwatch and time a full 10
oscillations. Record the results into table 2.
4. Adjust the number of masses on the load hanger as desired and re-test, recording all
results into table 2 each time a new test is undertaken.
Data and results

Table 1
Mass Extension
(kg) (mm)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Table 2
m Time taken for The measured Natural 𝝉𝟐
(kg) 10 complete period 𝝉 frequency
oscillations (s) 𝝎𝒏
(s)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Analysis:
Part 1: Determination of spring constant.
1. Plot the values of mass versus spring extension (x).
2. Find the slope of the best line fit, then find the spring constant k. Compare with standard
one.
Part 2: free vibration of simple mass-spring system:
1. Using the measured data, calculate the period of oscillation.
2. Plot the square of the period versus the added mass.
3. Find the spring constant k using equation (7). Compare with standard one.
4. Find the equivalent mass of the spring and carriage.
5. Find the natural frequency of the system
6. Discuss the results obtained and the sources of error in this experiment.
7. What do you suggest to improve the experiment?

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King Faisal University

Lab Policies and Guidelines a

How to Write a Good Lab Report c

Exp. # 1 Linear Heat Conduction 1

Exp. # 4 Boiling heat transfer 20

Exp. # 5 Concentric tube heat exchanger 25

Exp. # 8 Air Conditioning – Psychrometric chart 42

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 1

Figure (3): Specimen supplied

Figure (4): Schematic H111A Liner Heat conduction Unite

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 2

30mm long, 25mm diameter, No thermocouples fitted

30mm long, 25mm diameter, No thermocouples fitted

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 3

30mm long, 13mm diameter. No thermocouples fitted.

Refer to figures (1) (2) (3) (4)

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 4

Cooling water is flowing and the heater voltage, V=90volts

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 5

According to Fourier's law of heat conduction:

If a plane section of thickness ∆X and Constant area A maintains a temperature difference ∆T

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 6

Sample 𝐐̇ ∆𝐓𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐓𝟔−𝟖 ∆𝐗 𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐗 𝟔−𝟖 ∆𝐓𝟏−𝟑 ∆𝐓𝟔−𝟖 𝐐̇ 𝐐̇

Heat transfer rate from the heater

Temperature difference in the heated section between T1 and T3

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 = ∆𝑇1−3 = ∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇3

Similarly Temperature difference in the heated section between T6 and T8

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = ∆𝑇6−8 = ∆𝑇6 − ∆𝑇8

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 7

When the temperatures are stabilized record:

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 8

T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V and I

According to Fourier's law of heat conduction:

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 9

∆𝑋1−3 = ∆𝑋6−8 = 0.03𝑚

Heat transfer rate from the heater

Hence, the thermal conductivity k for NO1 in the result table is

Mechanical Systems Lab. – Exp. # (1): Linear Heat Conduction Page 10

Part One: Free Convection

Figure (1): Combined convection and radiation apparatus

Mechanical Systems Lab. - Exp # (2): Combined convection &radiation Page 11

Where Tf is the film temperature which equal (Ts+Ta)/2

Qc= hc As (Ts-Ta) (W)

Where As is the heat transfer area (surface area).

The total heat loss from the cylinder (Qtot ) = Qc + Qr

Diameter of cylinder (D) = 10mm.

Mechanical Systems Lab. - Exp # (2): Combined convection &radiation Page 14

Part Two: Forced Convection

Figure (1): Combined convection and radiation apparatus

Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (3): Combined convection &radiation Page 15

Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (3): Combined convection &radiation Page 16

 Calculation of heat transfer coefficient for radiation

Ta is the ambient temperature.

Pr is the Prandtl number for air.

Ue is the effective air velocity Ue=1.22 Ua (m/s).

Analysis & Results:-

Mechanical systems Lab. - Exp # (3): Combined convection &radiation Page 18

Analysis & Results:-

plotting Surface temperature Ts against hf & hr.