GENERAL PHYSICS III

Optics
&
Quantum Physics
 What does we learn in Gen. Phys. III?

Many physical phenomena of great practical interest to engineers,

chemists, biologists, physicists, etc. were not in Gen. Phys. I & II

 Wave phenomena of light:

 Interference: what happens when two or more waves overlap?

Interference!

(Light passing through two slits give such kind of picture)

 • Diffraction: The image of an object is not
exact in fine details.
For example, the image of a
circular disk is diffused

Interference & diffraction can be

analyzed if we regard light as a wave

 Quantum Physics:

The development of experimental equiment and techniques 

modern physics can go inside the microscopic world (atoms,
electrons, nucleus, etc.)
 New principles, new laws for the microscopic (subatomic)
world were discoverved
 The basis concept: wave  particle duality

Examples: light wave  photon

electron  electron wave etc…

• Subatomic objects obey new mechanics: quantum mechanics

On the basis of quatum mechanics we study structure and

properties of atoms, nucleus, solids, laser rays, etc…
 Chapter XVII

Interference of light

§1. Interference of coherent sources of light

§2. Interference in thin films
§3. Interferometer
§1. Interference of light from coherent sources:

1.1 Coherent sources of light:

We consider an overlap of light that comes from two sources.

A remarkable phenomen takes place, if two sources satisfy some

following conditions:

The sources are monochromatic. It means that they emit light

of a single color.
A monochromatic light corresponds to a sinusoidal electromagnetic
wave with a single frequency f and wave length 
Two sources have the same frequency f (the same wave length )
Two souces are permanently in phase, or , at least, have any definite
constant phase difference

Then, two sources are called coherent sources.

 Notes:
Recall the formula for a sinusoidal e-m wave:
2 
y x , t A cos   x vt 
A cos 
kx 2ft A cos 
kx t 
 
v speed A amplitude
2
wavelength k  wavenumber or wavevector

f frequency 2f angular frequency

Common sources of light do not emit monochromatic light

(single-frequency light)

→ However one can produce approximately monochromatic light:

• by using filters which block all but a very narrow range
of wave length
• by using light from a laser
1.2 Interference of light through narrow slits:
Young’s experiment on double-
double- slit interference
(Thomas Young performed in 1800)

Monochromatic
light source at a
great distance, Observation
or a laser.
Slit pattern screen
 Light (wavelength is incident on a two-slit (two narrow,
rectangular openings) apparatus:
I1
 If either one of the slits is closed, a
diffuse image of the other slit will appear S1
on the screen. (The image will be
“diffuse” due to diffraction. We will
discuss this effect in more detail
later.) S2 Diffraction
profile
Monochromatic light
screen
 If both slits are now open, we see (wavelength )
interference “fringes” (light and dark
bands), corresponding to constructive S1
and destructive interference of the
electric-field amplitudes from both
slits.
S2

Light fringes
Dark fringes I
 Observer
 r1
S1

Light r2
d

S2

 Important quantity: path difference  = r2 - r1

The light density at the location of observer depends on the
path difference 

A path difference corresponds to a phase difference 

of
two waves at the observer’s point




 One has a simple formula for the path difference, ,
when the observer is far from sources.
sources.
(Assume 2 sources radiating in phase)
Observer

d r Normal to d

When observer distance >> slit spacing

(r >> d) : = dsin
 
d
The corresponding phase difference
 at the observer’s point:





 d sin
 
 At observer’s points that satisfy the condition 
m

m = 0, ±1, ±2,... → two waves
are in phase and reinforce each other, we say
/d

that there is constructive interference
at these points y
r /d
Constructive
= dsin= m Interference
d
 0
If 
 
m + 1)→ two waves I
cancell each other → there is -/d
destructive interference
Destructive L
= dsin= (m + 1/ )
2 Interference

m=2 Usually we care about the linear

“lines” of
(as opposed to angular)
constructive m=1 displacement y of the pattern
interference: (because our screens are often
 m=0
= sin-1(m
d flat):

m=-1 y = L tan

m=-2
The slit-spacing d is often large compared to , so that is small.

Then we can use the small angle approximations to simplify our results:

For small angles: (<< 1 radian)

sin 
tan (only in radians!) y = L tan L (in radians)
Y L
Constructive
Interference:
d)
m(
L/d


y m(
d)L
L/d

m = 0, ±1, ±2,...
d  0
I
-L/d
Destructive (m + 1/2)(
d)
Interference: L
y (m + 1/2)(
d)L
 Example:
S1
A laser of wavelength 633 nm is y
incident on two slits separated by
0.125 mm.
S2

1. What is the spacing y between fringe maxima on a screen 2m away?

a. 1 m b. 1 mm c. 1 cm

2. If we increase the spacing between the slits, what will happen to y?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase

3. If we instead use a green laser (smaller ), y will?

a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
 Example (continue)

S1
A laser of wavelength 633 nm is y
incident on two slits separated by
0.125 mm.
S2

1. What is the spacing y between fringe maxima on a screen 2m away?

a. 1 m b. 1 mm c. 1 cm
First question: can we use the small angle approximation?

d = 125 m; = 0.633 m  d >>  is small

d sin
i = mi  ~ d i  i mi (
d)
y L( 2 – 
1) L(2 – 1) (d) = L/d = (2 m)(0.663 m)/125 m = 0.01 m

2. If we increase the spacing between the slits, what will happen to y?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
3. If we instead use a green laser (smaller ), y will?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
 Example (continue)

S1
y
A laser of wavelength 633 nm is
incident on two slits separated by
0.125 mm.
S2

1. What is the spacing y between fringe maxima on a screen 2m away?

a. 1 m b. 1 mm c. 1 cm

2. If we increase the spacing between the slits, what will happen to y?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
Since y ~ 1/d, the spacing decreases. Note: This is a general phenomenon
– the “far-field” interference pattern varies inversely with slit dimensions.
3. If we instead use a green laser (smaller ), y will?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
Since y ~ , the spacing decreases.
 Note:

If a monochromatic source is replaced by a white light one →

how is the interference picture?

We have known that the location of (light or dark) fringers depends

on the wavelength 
therfore

• At y = 0 (the center light fringer) the maxima for all wavelengths

coincide → there is a white light fringer

• The nearby fringers have spectrum colors (like in rainbow)

• Far fringers are not visible (are diffused)

§2. Interference in thin films:

This kind of interference takes place when light reflects from a

thin film (for example, a soap bubble, a thin layer of oil floating
on water)

In this case there is an overlap

eye
of light waves: one is reflected
from the upper, the other from
the lower surface.

2.1 Calculation of path difference of two light waves:

First we consider the case that the incident light is monochromatic

with the wavelength 
b: the thickness of the film
n: the index of refraction
the path difference between
the reflected waves 1 & 2

By elementary geometry it is

not difficult to obtain

Using the formula one can eliminate i1 or i2

We must take into account one more effect: the phase shift of
a wave after reflection
 We use the follwing theoretical results from Maxwell’s theory of
electromagetism:
• If na > nb → the phase shift of
reflected wave relative to the incident na
wave is zero
nb
• If na < nb → the phase shift of
reflected wave relative to the incident
wave is radian ( a half cycle)

We can take into account this phase shift by introducing a

complementary term in the formula of path difference 

Remark:
The path difference of two reflected waves depends on b, i1 (or i2)
At the points that satisfy 
m (m = 0, ±1, ±2,...) → we have
cnstructive interference
At the points that satisfy = (m+1/2)
→ destructive interference
2.2 Interference on a film with two parallel surfaces:

screen (at the

focus of lens)

lens

Light waves that have the same incident angle i1’ ( i2’’ ) converge
at P’ (P’’ )
Recall the formula (here b = constant)

there will be constructive or destructive interference that depends

on incident angles i1 → the interference picture will be light & dark
rings centered at O. It’s called interference rings with the same
inclination
2.3 Interference on a thin wedge:

Shine a beam of parallel light

rays on a thin wedge
→ There is interference between
two light rays 1 & 2, reflected
from the upper & the lower
sides, at the points of thickness b.
Interference takes place also for
light reflected at other points, for example, between the rays 1’ & 2’.

With small angles 

we can use the previous formula for the path

difference 

There will be constructive or destructive interference that depends

on the thickness b at reflected points. On the screen we have light &
dark interference fringers. These are called interference fringers
with the same thickness.
2.4 Newton’s rings:

• Newton’s rings are an example of interference

fringers with the same thickness
Flat-prominal
• Using a glass plate and a lens lens
one can create an air wedge
between them Thick glass plate
with parallel
surfaces

• The incident light is normal to the flat

plane of the lens. One can observe the
interference of light waves reflected
from the air wedge.
•The interference picture is a system of
light & dark rings
 Notes:

Interference fringers with the same inclination are observed

under the conditions: b = const; incident angles i vary.
Interference fringers with the same thickness are observed
under the conditions: i = const (parallel beam); b varies.

If the light is white → the fringers have rainbow colors

Under real conditions, when you observe a soap bubble or a thin

layer of oil floating on water, you see bands of color → these are
interference fringers mixing of both types (incident angles &
thickness of films can both vary.

Interference on thin film has many application in engineering,

for example, to check the quality of processing surfaces of
material.
§3. Interferometer:

Interferometer is
a device that uses Compensator
interference for plate
various applications.
Monochromatic
source
The principal components
of a Michelson interferometer:
Beam
• Beam splitter P1: A glass plate splitter
with a thin coating of silver
→ Light can reflect on and Observer
pass through it.
• Compensator plate P2: A plate identical to P1, but without silver layer.
It’s role is to ensure that rays 1 &2 pass through the same path inside
glass (by 3 times of thickness of one plate).
 Interference picture depends on path difference between two
rays 1’ & 2’ (it equals the difference of the paths P1-M1-P1 and
P1-M2-P1).

 It is convenient to estimate the path difference if we imagine that

the mirror M2 is replaced by its image M2’
→ interference of rays 1’ & 2’ can be considered as the rays reflected
from two surfaces M1 & M2’
• By screws W1 one can vary the angle between M1 & M2’, then we
can keep them parallel, or create a wedge
• By screw W2 one can finely displace M2’
Application of interferometer:
To make precise measurment of wavelengths. For example, Michelson
observed interference picture when the path diference ~ 500.000 
Then 
 M1 M2’ / 500.000, it means that by measuring M1 M2’ one
can have precisely the result for 
 .
We have known about the Michelson-Morley experiment that proved
the invariance of light speed c, one of principles of theory of relativity.
 Resume

Conditions for interference: Light waves are from coherent sources.

Practically, the best way to have coherent sources is to split light
waves from a unique monochromatic source, then direct them to
overlap

Vibration state of each invidual wave at any point depends on optical

path length n.L, where L is geometrical length → the important
quantity for interference is optical path difference of two waves:
* If = m → the phase difference  
m(
 )
→ two light waves are in phase, and reinforce each other
→ constructive interference

* If = (m + ½) (

→ the phase difference = (2m+1) 
→ two light waves have opposite phases, and cancell each other
→ destructive interference
The path length difference between two light rays reflected from
the upper and the lower surfaces of a thin plate is

This formula can applied to two cases:

* In the condition that b = const; i1 varies → interference

fringers are called fringers with the same inclination

* In the condition that i1 = const; b varies → interference

fringers are called fringers with the same thickness