Wave Optics Handout

Wave Optics
HANDOUT DIFFRACTION AND POLARISATION OF LIGHT

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Bending of light rays from sharp edges of an opaque obstacle or aperture and its spreading in the
eometricle shaddow region is defined as diffraction of light or deviation of light from its rectilinear
propogation tendency is defined as diffraction of light.
Diffraction was discovered by Grimaldi

Theoritically explained by Fresnel
Diffraction is possible in all type of waves means in mechanical or electromagnetic waves shows
diffraction.
Diffraction depends on two factors :
(i) Size of obstacles or aperture
(ii) Wave length of the wave
Condition of diffraction. Size of obstacle or aperture should be nearly equal to the wave length of light 
a
  ~a ~1

If size of obstacle is much greater then wave length of light, the rectilinear motion of light is observed.
It is practically observed when size of aperture or obstacle is greater than 50  then obstacle or
aperture does not shows diffraction.
Wave length of light is in the order 10–7m. In general obstacle of this wave length is not present so light
rays does not show diffraction and it appears to travel in straight line Sound wave shows more
diffraction as compare to light rays because wavelength of sound is high (16 mm to 16m). So it is
generally diffracted by the objects in our daily life.
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ADVYE - 21
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Wave Optics
Diffraction of ultrasonic wave is also not observed as easily as sound wave because their wavelength is
of the order of about 1 cm. Diffraction of radio waves is very conveniently observed because of its very
large wavelength (2.5 m to 250 m). X-ray can be diffracted easily by crystel. It was discovered by Lave.
TYPES OF DIFFRACTION
(i) There are two type of diffraction of light :
(a) Fresnel's diffraction (b) Fraunhofer's's diffraction
(a) Fresnel diffraction
If either source or screen or both are at finite from the diffracting device (obstacle or aperture), the
diffraction is called fresnel diffraction and the pattern is the shadow of the diffracting device modified by
diffraction effect.
Example :- Diffraction at a straight edge, small opaque disc, narrow wire are examples of fresnel
diffraction.
(b) Fraunhofer diffraction

Fraunhofer diffraction is a particular limiting case of fresnel diffraction.
In this case, both source and screen are effectively at infinite distance from the diffracting device and
pattern is the image of source modified by diffraction effects.
Example :- Diffraction at single slit, double slit and diffraction grating are the examples of fraunhofer
diffraction.
Comparison between fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

(a) Source and screen both are at finite Source and screen both are at infinite
distance from the diffractor distance from the diffractor
(b) Incident and diffracted wave fronts are
spherical or cylinderical Incident and diffracted wavefronts are plane
due to infinite distance from source
(c) Mirror or lennses are not used for obtaining
the diffraction pattern Lens are used in this diffraction pattern
(d) Centre of diffraction pattern is sometime Centre of diffraction is always bright
bright and sometime dark depending on
size of diffractor and distance of observation
point.
(e) Amplitude of wave coming from different Amplitude of waves coming from different
half period zones are different due to half period zones are same due to same
difference of obliquity obliquity
ADVYE - 22
Wave Optics
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION DUE TO SINGLE SLIT
Ab is single slit of width a, Plane wavefront is incident on a slit AB. Secondary wavelets coming from
every part of AB reach the axial point P in same phase forming the central maxima. The intensity of
central maxima is maximum in this diffrection. Where n represents direction of nth minima Path
difference BB' = a sin n\
n
for nth minima a sin n = n  sin n  n = (if n is small)
a

When path difference between the secondary wavelets coming from A and B is n or 2n  
2

or even multiple of then minima occurs
2

For minima a sin n = 2n  
2

When path difference between the secondary wavelets coming from A and B is (2n + 1)
2

or odd multiple of then maxima occurs
2

For maxima a sin n = (2n + 1) where n = 1, 2, 3 ......
2
n = 1  first maxima and n = 2  second maxima.
In alternate order minima and maxima occurs on both sides of central maxima.
For nth minima

If distance of nth minima from central maxima = xn
distance of slit from screen = D, width of silt = a
2n n
Path difference  = a sinn =  sinn =
2 a
xn
In POP' tan n = If n is small  sin n  tann n
D
n D x n
Xn =  n = n = First minima occurs both sides on central maxima.
a D a
D x 
For first minima x = and = =
a D a
2d
Linear width of central maxima wx = 2x  wx =
a
2
Angular width of central maxima w = 2 =
a
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Wave Optics
SPECIAL CASE
Lens L2 is shifted very near to slit AB.
In this case distance between slit and screen will be nearly equal
to the focal lenght of lense L2
(i.e. D  f)
x n n f
n = n =   xn = 
f a a
2f
wx =
a
2x 2x
and angular width of cnetral maxima wB = 
f a
Fringe width
Distance between two consecutive maxima (bright fringe) or minima (dark fringe) is known as fringe
width.
 D n D D
= xn + 1 – xn = (n + 1) – =
a a a
 Intensity curve of Fraunhofer's diffraction
2
 2 
Intensity of maxima in Fraunhofer's diffrection is determined by I =   0
 (2n  1) 
I0 = intensity of central maxima
n = order of maxima
4 
intensity of first maxima I1 = d 2 0  0  
9 22
4 
intensity of second maxima I2 = 0  0
252 61
Diffraction occurs in slit is always fraunhofer diffraction as diffraction pattern obtained from the cracks
between the fingers, when viewed a distant tubelight and in YDSE experiment are fraunhofer diffraction
GOLDEN KEY POINTS

 The width of central maxima , that is, more for red colour and less for blue.
i.e., wx  
 as blue < red wblue < wred
 For obtaining the fraunhofer diffraction, focal length of second lens (L 2) is used.
wx f 1/a
width will be more for narrow slit
 By decreasing linear width of slit, the width of central maxima increase.
RESOLVING POWER (R.P.)

A large number of images are formed as consequence of light diffraction of from a source. If two
sources are separated such that their central maxima do not overlap, their images can be distinguished
and are said to be resolved R.P. of an optical instrument is its ability to distinguish two neighbouring
points.
Linear R.P. d / D here D = Observed distance
Angular R.P. d /   d = Distance between two points,
ADVYE - 24
Wave Optics
(1) Microscope : In reference to a microscope, the minimum distance
between two lines at which they are just distinct is called Resolving
limit (RL) and it's reciprocal is called Resolving power (RPO)
 2 sin  
R.L. = and R.P. =  R.P. 
2 sin   
= Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object
 = Refractive index of the medium between object and objective.
= Half angle of the cone of light from the point object, sin = Numerical aperture.
(2) Telescope : Smallest angular separations (d) between two distant object, whose images are
1.22
separated in the telescope is called resolving limit. So resolving limit d = and resolving power
a
1 a 1
(RP) = = R.P.   where a = aperture of objective.
d 1.22 2
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION :
Interference Diffraction
(1) It is the phenomenon of superposition of two (1) It is the phenomenon of superposition of
waves coming from two different coherent two waves coming from two different parts
sources of the same wave front.
(2) In intrference pattern, all bright lines are equally (2) All bright lines are not equally bright and
bright and equally spaced equally wide. Brightness and width goes on
decreasing with the angle of diffraction.
(3) All dark lines are totaally dark (3) Dark lines are not perfectly dark. Their
contrast with bright lines and width goes on
decreasing with angle of diffraction.
(4) In interference bands are large in number (4) In diffraction bands are a few in number
POLARISATION
Experiments on interference and diffraction have shown that light is a form of wave motion. These
effects do not tell us about the type of wave motion i.e. whether the light waves are longitudinal or
transverese. The phenomenon of polarization has helped to establish beyond doubt that light waves are
transverse waves.
UNPOLARISED LIGHT
An ordinary beam of light consists of a large number of waves emitted by the atoms of the light source.
Each atom produces a wave with its own orientation of electric vector E so all direction of vibration of
E are equally probable.
The resultant electromagnetic wave is a super position of waves produced by the individual atomic
sources and it is called unpolarised light. In ordinary or unpolarised light, the vibrations of the electric
vector occur symmetrically in all possible directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light.
ADVYE - 25
Wave Optics
POLARISATION
The phenomenon of restricting the vibration of light (electric vector) in a particular direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave is called polarisation of light.
In polarised light, the vibration of the electric vector occur in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light and are confined to a single direction in the plane (do not occur symmetrically in all
possible directions.)
After polarisation the vibrations become asymmetrical about the direction of propagation of light.
POLARISER
Tourmaline crystal
When light is passed through a tomaline crystal cut parallel to its optic axis, the vibrations of the light
carrying out of the tourmaline crystal are confined only to one direction in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light. The emergent light from the crystal is said to be plane polarised light.
Nicol Prism
A nicol prism is an optical device which can be used for the production and detection of plane polarised
light. It was invented by William Nicol in 1828.
Polaroid
A polaroid is a thin commercial sheet in the form of circular disc which makes use of the property of
selective absorption to produce an intense beam of plane polarised light.
PLANE OF POLARISATION AND PLANE OF VIBRATION :
The plane in which vibrations of light vector and the direction of propogation lie is known as plane of
vibration A plane normal to the plane of vibration and in which no vibration takes place is known as
plane of polarisation.
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF POLARISATION OF LIGHT

Take two tourmaline crystals cut parallel to their crystallographic axis (optic axis)
First hold the crystal A normally to the path of a beam of colour light. The emergent beam will be
slightly coloured.
Rotate the crystal A about PO. No change in the intensity or the colour of the emergent beam of light.
Take another crystal B and hold it in the path of the emergent beam of so that its axis is parallel to the
axis of the crystal A. The beam of light passes through both the crystals and outcoming light appears
coloured.
ADVYE - 26
Wave Optics
Now, rotate the crystal B about the axis PO. It will be seen that the intensity of the emergent beam
decreases and when the axes of both the crystals are at right angles to each other no light comes out of
the crystal B.
If the crystal B is further rotated light reappears and intensity becomes maximum again when their axes
are parallel. This occurs after a further rotation of B through 90º
This experiment confirms that the light waves are transverse in nature.
The vibrations in light waves are perpendicular to the direction of propogation of the wave.
First crystal A polarises the light so it is called polariser.
Second crystal B, analyses the light whether it is polarised or not, so it is called analyser.
METHODS OF OBTAINING PLANE POLARISED LIGHT

Polarisation of reflection
The simplest method to produce plane polarised light is by reflection. This method was discovered by
Malus in 1808. When a beam of ordinary light is reflected from a surface, the reflected light is partially
polarised. The degree of polarisation of the polarised light in the reflected beam is greatest when it is
incident at an angle called polarising angle or Brewster's angle.
Polarising angle
Polarising angle is that angle of incidence at which the reflected light is completely plane polarisation.
Brewster's Law
When unpolarised light strikes at polarising angle P on a interface separating a rare medium from a
denser medium of refractive index , such that = tan P then the reflected light (light in rare medium)
is completely polarised. Also reflected and refracted and refracted rays are normal to each other.
This relation is known as Brewster's Law.
The law state that the tangent of the polarising angle of incidence of a transparent medium is equal to
tis refractive index = tan P
In case of polarisation by reflection :
(i) For i = P refracted light is partially polarised.
(ii) For i = P reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
(iii) For i < P or i > P both reflected and refracted light become partially polarised.
sin P
According to snell's law =  ..........(i)
sin r
sin P
But according to Brewster's law  = tanO =  ..........(ii)
cos P
sin P sin P
From equation (i) and (ii) = sinr = cosP
sin r cos P
 sinr = sin (90º – P) r = 90º – P or P + r = 90º
Thus reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular
ADVYE - 27
Wave Optics
By Refraction
In this method, a pile of glass plates is formed by taking 20 to 30 microscope slides and light is made to
be incident a polarising angle 57º. According Brewster law, the reflected light will be plane polarised
with vibrations perpendicualr to the plane of incidence and the transmitted light will be partially
polarised.
Since in one reflection about 15% of the light with vibration perpendicular to plane of paper is reflected
therefore after passing through a number of plates emerging light will become plane polarised with
vibrations in the plane of paper.
By Dichroism
Some crystals such as tourmaline and sheets of iodosulphate of quinone have the property of strongly
absorbing the light with vibrations perpendicular of a specific direction (called transmision axis) and
transmitting the light with vibration parallel to it. This selective absorption of light is called dichroism. So
if unpolarised light passes through proper thickness of these, the transmitted light will plane polarised
withvibrations parallel to transmission axis. Polaroids work onthis principle.
By scattering :
When light is incident on small particles of dust, air molecule etc. (having smaller size as compared to
the wavelength of light,) it is absorbed by the electrons and is re-radiated in all directions. The
phenomenon is called as scattering. Light scattered in a direction at right angles to the incident light is
always plane-polarised.
ADVYE - 28
Wave Optics
Law of Malus
When a completely plane polarised light beam light beam is incident analyser, then intensity intensity of
emergent light varies as the square of cosine of the angle between the planes of transmision of the
analyser and the polarizer. I cos2I = I0 cos2
 
 (i) If  = 0º then I = I0 maximum value (Parallel arrangement)
(ii) If = 90º then, I = 0 minimum value (Crossed arrangement)
If plane polarised light of intensity I 0 (= KA2) is incident on a polaroid and its vibrations of amplitude A
make angle with transmission axis, then the component of vibrations parallel to transmission axis will
be A coswhile perpendicular to it will be be A sin.
Polaroid will pass only those vibrations which are parallel to transmission axis i.e. Acos ,
 I0 A2
So the intensity of emergent light I = K (Acos )2 = KA2cos2
 If an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light its intensity becomes half.
If light of light emerging from the second polaroid is :
I2 = I1 cos2  = angle between the transmission axis of the two polaroids.
Optical Activity
When plane polarised light passes through certain substances, the plane of polarisation of the
emergent light is rotated about the direction of propagation of light through a certain angle. This
phenomenon is optical rotation.
The substance which rotate the plane of polarision rotates the plane of polarisation is known as optical
active substance. Ex. Sugar solution, sugar crystal, solidum chlorate etc.
Optical activity of a substance is measured with the help of polarimeter in terms of specific rotation
which is defined as the rotaion produced by a solution of length 10 cm (1dm) and of unit concentration
(1g/cc) for a given wave length of light at a given temp.
 
specific rotation   t ºC  = rotation in length L at concentration
LC
Types of optically active substances
(a) Dextro rotatory substances
Those substance which rotate the plane of polarisation in clockwise direction are called dextro rotatory
of right handed substances.
(b) Laveo rotatory substances
These substance which rotate the plane of polarisation in the anticlockwise direction are calledlaveo
rotatory or left handed substances.
The amount of optical rotation depends upon the thickness and density of the crsytal or concentration in
case of solutions, the temperature and the wavelength of light used.
Rotation varies inversely as the square of the wavelength of light.
ADVYE - 29
Wave Optics
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF POLARISATION
By determining the polarising and and using Brewster's law  = tanP refractive index of dark
transparent substance can be determined.
In calculators and watches, numbers and letters are formed by liquid crystals through polarisation of
light called liquid crystal display (L.C.D)
In CD player polarised laser beam acts as needle for producing sound from compact disc.
It has also been used in recording and reproducing three dimensional pictures.
Polarised light is used in optical stress analysis known as photoelasticity.
Polarisation is also used to study asymmetries in molecules and crystals through the phenomenon of
optical activity.
Some Questions with their solutions

1. Light of wavelength 6000Å is incident normally on a slit of width 24 × 10 –5 cm. Find out the angular
position of second minimum from central maximum ?
2. Light of wavelength 6328Å is incident normally on a slit of width 0.2 mm. Calculate the angular width of
central maximum on a screen distance 9 m ?
3. Light of wavelength 5000Å is incident on a slit of width 0.1 mm. Find out the width of the central bright
line on a screen distance 2m from the slit ?
4. The fraunhofer diffraction pattern of single slit is formed at the focal plane of a lens of focal length 1m.
The width of the slit is 0.3 mm. If the thrid minimum is formed at a distance of 5 mm from the central
maximum then calculate the wavelength of light.
5. Find the half angular width of the central bright maximum in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a slit of
width 12 × 10–5 cm when the slit is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 6000Å.
6. Light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident on a slit of width 0.30 mm. The screen is placed 2 m from the slit.
Find (a) the position of the first dark fringe and (b) the width of the central bright fringe.
7. A Slit of width a is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 650 nm at normal incidence.

Calculate the value of a when :
(a) the first minimum falls at an angle of diffraction of 30º
(b) the first maximum falls at an angles of diffraction of 30º
8. Red light of wavelength 6500 Å from a distance source falls on a slit 0.50 mm wide. What is the
distance between the first two dark bands on each side of the central bright of the diffraction pattern
observed on a screen placed 1.8 m. from the slit.
9. In a single slit diffraction experiment first minimum for 1 = 660 nm coincides with first maxima for
wavelength 2. Calculate 2.
10. Two polaroids are crossed to each other. When one of them is rotated through 60º, then what
percentage of the incident unpolarised light will be transmitted by the polaroids ?
11. At what angle of incidence will the light reflected from water (= 1.3) be completely polarised ?
12. If light beam is incident at polarising angle (56.3º) on air-glass interface, then what is the angle of
refraction in glass ?
13. A polariser and an analyser are oriented so that maximum light is transmitted, what will be the intensity
of outcoming light when analyer is rotated through 60º.
ADVYE - 30
Wave Optics
Solutions
Sol.1 a sin= 2  given = 6 × 10–7 m, a = 24 × 10–5 × 10–2 m
2 2  6  107
sin= =   = 30º
a 24  107
Sol.2. given = 6.328 × 10–7 m, a = 0.2 × 10–3 m

2 2  6.328  107 6.328  103  180
w= =  radian = 
a 2  104 3.14

2 2  2  5  10 7
Sol.3 wx = = = 20 mm
a 104
nf ax n 3  104  5  103
Sol.4 xn =  = = = 5000Å [ n = 3] 
a fn 3 1

Sol.5  sin=    = half angular width of the central maximum.
a
 6  10 5
a = 12 × 10–5 cm, = 6000 Å = 6 × 10–5 cm  sin = = = 0.50  = 30º
a 12  10 5

Sol.6 The first fringe is on either side of the central bright fringe.
here n = + 1, D = 2m, = 6000 Å = 6 j 10–7 m
x ax
 sin=   a = 0.30 mm = 3 × 10–4 m  a sin = n   = n
D D
n D  1 6  107  2 
 (a) x=   x=+  4  = +4 × 10 m
–3
a  3  10 
The positive and negative signs corresponds to the dark fringes on either side of the central bright
fringe.
(b) The width of the central bright fringe y = 2x = 2 × 4 × 10–3 = 8 × 10–3 m = 8 mm

Sol.7 (a) for first minimum sin1 =
a
 650  10 9 650  109
  a= = = = 1.3 × 10–6 m
sin 1 sin 30º 0.5
3 3 3  650  10 9
(b) for first maximum sin1 = ,  a= = = 1.95 × 10–6 m
2a 2sin  2  0.5
Sol.8 Given = 6500Å = 65 × 10–8 m, a = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10–3 m., D = 1.8 mm
Sol.9 For minima in diffraction pattern d sin= n

1
 For first minima d sin1 = (1)1  sin1 = 
d
3 3 2
 for first maxima d sin2 =  2 sin2 = 
2 2d
 Two will coincide if, 1 = 2 or sin1 = sin2
1 3 2 2 2
 = 2 = 1 = × 660 nm = 440 nm.
d 2d 3 3
ADVYE - 31
Wave Optics
Sol.10 Initially the polaroids are crossed to each other, that is the angle between their polarising directions is
90º. When one is rotated through 60º, then the angle between their polarising directions directions will
become 30º.
Let the intensity of the incident unpolarised light = I0
This light is plane polarised and passes through the second polaroid.
The intensity of light emerging form the second polaroid is I2 = I1 cos2
 = the angle between the polarising directions of the two polaroids.
1 I2 3
I1 = I0 and = 30º so O2 = I1 cos230º  = 
2 I0 8
I2 3
  transmission percentage = × 100 = × 100 = 37.5%
I0 8
Sol.11 = 1.3, From Brewster's law tan P = = 1.3 = tan–1 1.3 = 53º
Sol.12 iP + rP = 90º rP = 90º – iP = 90º – 56.3º = 33.7º
2
 1 I
Sol.13 According to Malus Law I = I = I0 cos2 = I0 cos260º = I0   = 0
2 4


ADVYE - 32

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Wave Optics

HANDOUT DIFFRACTION AND POLARISATION OF LIGHT

Diffraction was discovered by Grimaldi

(ii) Wave length of the wave

(b) Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

For nth minima

GOLDEN KEY POINTS

RESOLVING POWER (R.P.)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION :

EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF POLARISATION OF LIGHT

METHODS OF OBTAINING PLANE POLARISED LIGHT

Polarised light is used in optical stress analysis known as photoelasticity.

Some Questions with their solutions

7. A Slit of width a is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 650 nm at normal incidence.

Sol.2. given = 6.328 × 10–7 m, a = 0.2 × 10–3 m

Sol.9 For minima in diffraction pattern d sin= n

Sol.12 iP + rP = 90º rP = 90º – iP = 90º – 56.3º = 33.7º

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