1

2008-2009

CHAPTER1
1. Introduction
The object of this chapter is to discuss briefly the concept of power
electronics, applications of power electronics and the types of power
converters described in this lectures.
1.1.CONCEPT OF POWER ELECTRONICS:
Power electronics deals with conversion and control of electrical power with
the help of electronic switching devices. The magnitude of power may vary
widely, ranging from a few watts to several gigawatts. Power electronics
differs from signal electronics, where the power may be from a few
nanowatts to a few watts, and processing of power may be by analog (analog
electronics) or digital or switching devices (digital electronics). One
advantage of the switching mode of power conversion is its high efficiency,
which can be 96% to 99%. High efficiency saves electricity. In addition,
power electronic devices are more easily cooled than analog or digital
electronics devices. Power electronics is often defined as a hybrid
technology that involves the disciplines of power and electronics.
Power electronics belongs partly to power engineers and partly to electronics
engineers. Power engineering is mainly concerned with generation,
transmission, distribution and utilization of electric energy at high
efficiency;' Electronics engineering, on the other hand, is guided by
distortion less production, transmission and reception of data and signals of
very low power level of the order of a few watts, or mill watts without much
consideration to the efficiency. In addition, apparatus associated with power
engineering is based mainly on electromagnetic principles whereas that in
electronics engineering is based upon physical phenomena in vacuum,
gases/vapors and semiconductors. Power electronics is a subject that
concerns the application of electronic-principles into situations that are rated
at power level rather than signal level. It may also defined as a subject that
deals with the apparatus and equipment working on the principle of
electronics but rated at power level rather than signal level. For example,
semiconductor power switches such as thyristors, GTOs etc. work on the
principle of electronics (movement of holes and electrons), but have the'
name power attached to them only as a description of their power ratings.
Similarly, diodes, mercury-arc rectifiers and thyratrons (gas-filled triode);
high-power level devices, form a part of the subject power electronics;
because their working" is based on the physical phenomena in gases and
 2

vapors, an electronic process. As the inclusion of all such power-rated

electronic equipments would be a voluminous task, the present book is
devoted to the study of semi-conductor-based power-electronic components
and systems only.
It should be understood that the techniques used in the design of high
efficiency and high-energy level power electronic circuits are quite different
from the employed in the design of low-efficiency electronic circuits at
signal levels.

1.2APPLICATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONICS:

Some Applications of Power Electronics:
1.Aerospace:
Space shuttle power supplies, satellite power supplies, aircraft power
systems.
2.Commercial:
Advertising, heating, air-conditioning, central refrigeration, computer and
uninterruptible power supplies, elevators, light dimmers and flashers.
3.Industrial:
Arc and industrial furnaces, blowers and fans, pumps and compressors,
industrial lasers,
transformer-tap 'changers, rolling mills, textile mills, excavators, cement
mills, welding.
4. Residential :
Air-conditioning, cooking, lighting, space heating, refrigerators, electric-
door openers, dryers, fans, personal computers, other entertainment
equipment, vacuum cleaners, washing and sewing machines, light dimmers,
food mixers, electric blankets, food-warmer trays.
5. Telecommunication:
Battery chargers, power supplies ( dc and UPS ).
6. Transportation:
Battery chargers, traction control of electric vehicles, electric locomotives,
street cars~ trolley buses subways, automotive electronics.'
7. Utility systems:
High voltage dc transmission (HVDC), excitation systems, VAR
compensation, static circuit breakers, fans and boiler-feed pumps,
supplementary energy system (solar, wind).
1.3.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POWER
ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS
 3

(i)High efficiency due to low loss in power-semiconductor devices.(ii)High

reliability of power-electronic converter systems.
(iii)Long life and less maintenance due to the absence of any moving parts.
(iv)Fast dynamic response of the power-electronic systems as compared to
electromechanical converter systems.
(v)Small size and less weight result in less floor space and therefore lower
installation cost.
(vi)Mass production of power-semiconductor devices has resulted in lower
cost
of the, converter equipment Systems based on power electronics, however,
suffer
from the following disadvantages;
(a) Power-electronic converter circuits have a tendency to generate
harmonics in the supply system, as well as in the load circuit.
In the load circuit, the performance of the load is influenced, for example, a
high harmonic content in the load circuit causes commutation problems in dc
machines, increased motor heating and more acoustical noise in both dc and
ac machines.
So steps must be taken to filter these out from the output side of a converter.
In the supply system, the harmonics distort the voltage waveform and
seriously influence the performance of other equipment connected to the
same supply line. In addition, the harmonics in the supply line can also
cause interference with communication lines. It is, therefore necessary to
insert filters on the input side of a converter.
(b) Ac to dc and ac to ac converters operate at a low input power factor
under certain operating conditions. In order to avoid a low pf, some special
measures have to be adopted.
(c)Power-electronic controllers have low overload capacity. These
converters must, therefore, be rated for taking momentary overloads. As
such, cost of power electronic controller may increase.
(d)Regeneration of power is difficult in power electronic converter systems.
The advantages possessed by power electronic converters far outweigh their
disadvantages mentioned above. As a consequence, semiconductor-based
converters are being' extensively employed in systems ,where power flow is
to be regulated. As already stated, conventional power controllers used in
many installations have already been replaced by semiconductor-based
power electronic controllers.
1.4. POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
 4

Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was introduced first in 1957. Since then,
several other power semiconductor devices have been developed. All these
semiconductor devices are enumerated below along with their ratings. Power
diodes are available up to 3000 V, 3500 A, 1 kHz. Thyristors have ratings up
to 6000V,3500 A, 1 kHz. SITHs (static induction thyristors) can operate up
to 4000 V,2200 A,20 kHz.
GTOs (gate-turn off thyristors) have ratings of 4000V,3000 A, 10 kHz.
MCTs (MOS controlled thyristors) can work up to 600 V, 60 A, 20 kHz.
Triacs have power ratings of 1200V, 300 A, 400 Hz. BJTs are used up to
power ratings of 1200 V, 400 A, 10 kHz. Power MOSFETs (metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistors) and SITs (static induction transistors)
have relatively low range of 1000 V,50 A and 1200 V, 300 A respectively
.Both these devices can, however, operate satisfactorily up to a frequency
range of 100 kHz.
IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors) are available up to 1200 V, 400 A
and 20 kHz.Based on (i) turn-on and turn-off characteristics and (ii) gate
signal requirements, the power semiconductor devices can be classified as
under: (a) Diodes: These are uncontrolled, rectifying devices. Their on and
off states are controlled by power- supply.
b) Thyristors : These have controlled turned-on by a gate signal. After
thyristors are turned-on, they remain latched-in on-state due to internal
regenerative action, (c) Controllable switches: These devices are turned-on
and turned-off by the application
of control signals. The devices which behave as controllable switches are
BJT, MOSFET, GTO,SITH, IGBT, SIT and MCT.
SCR, GTO, SITH and MCT require pulse-gate signal for turning them on ;
once these devices are on, gate pulse is removed. But BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
and SIT require continuous signal for keeping them in turn-on state.
The devices which can withstand unipolar voltage ate BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
and MCT .Thyristors and GTOs are capable of supporting bipolar voltages.
Triac and RCT (reverse conducting thyristor) possess bidirectional current
capability whereas all other remaining devices ( diode, SCR, GTO, BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT, SIT, SITH,MCT) are unidirectional current devices.
1.5 TYPES OF POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS A power
electronic system consists of one or more power electronic converters. A
power electronic converter is made up of some power semiconductor
devices controlled by integrated circuits. The switching characteristics of
power semiconductor devices permit a power electronic converter to shape
the input power of one form to output power of some other form. Static
 5

power converters perform these functions of power conversion very

efficiently. Broadly speaking, power electronic converters (or circuits) can
be classified into six types as under:
1.Diode Rectifiers: A diode rectifier circuit converts ac input voltage into a
fixed dc voltage. The input voltage may be single-phase or three phase.
Diode rectifiers find wide use in electric traction, battery charging,
electroplating, electrochemical processing, power supplies, welding and
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
2.Ac to dc converters ( Phase-controlled rectifiers) : These convert constant
ac voltage to variable dc output voltage. These rectifiers use line voltage for
their commutation as such these are also called line-commutated or
naturally-commutated ac to dc converters.
Phase-controlled converters may be fed from I-phase or 3-phase source.
These are used in dc drives, metallurgical and chemical industries, excitation
systems for synchronous machines etc.
3.DC to dc converters ( DC Choppers) : A dc chopper converts fixed dc
input voltage to a controllable dc output voltage. The chopper circuits
require forced, or load, commutation to turn-off the thyristors. For lower
power circuits, thyristors are replaced by power transistors. Classification of
chopper circuits is dependent upon the type of commutation and also on the
direction of power flow. Choppers find wide applications in dc drives,
subway cars, trolley trucks, battery-driven vehicles etc.
4.DC to ac converters (inverters) : An inverter converts fixed dc voltage to a
variable ac voltage. The output may be a variable voltage and variable
frequency. These converters use line, load or forced commutation for
turning-off the thyristors. Inverters find wide use in induction-motor and
synchronous-motor drives, induction heating, UPS, HVDC transmission etc.
At present, conventional thyristors are also being replaced by GTOs in high-
power applications and by power transistors in low-power applications.
5.AC to ac converters: These convert fixed ac input voltage into variable ac
output voltage. These are of two types as under:
a.AC voltage controllers (AC voltage regulators) : These converter" circuits
convert fixed ac voltage directly to a variable ac voltage at the same
frequency. AC voltage controller
employ two thyristors in ant parallel or a triac. Turn-off of both the devices
is obtained by line commutation. Output voltage is controlled by varying the
firing angle delay. AC voltage controllers are widely used for lighting
control, speed 'control of fans, pumps etc.
 6

b.Cycloconverters : These circuits convert input power at one frequency to

output power at a different frequency through one-stage conversion. Line
commutation is more common in these converters, though forced and load
commutated cycloconverters are also employed.
These are primarily used for slow-speed large ac drives like rotary kiln etc.
6. Static switches: The power semiconductor devices can operate as static
switches or contactors. Static switches possess many advantages over
mechanical and electromechanical circuit breakers. Depending upon the
input supply, the static switches are called ac static switches or dc static
switches.
1-6 POWER ELECTRONIC MODULES
A power electronic converter may require two, four or more
semiconductor devices depending upon the circuit configuration. Power
modules consisting of two, four or six devices are, at present, available. Thus, a
power electronic converter can be assembled from power modules instead of
from individual semiconductor devices. A power module has better
performance characteristics as compared to conventional devices so far as
their switching characteristics, operating speed and losses are concerned.
Gate drive circuits for individual devices or power modules are also
commercially available. As a result of these developments, now intelligent
modules have come in the market.
Intelligent module, also called smart-power, is state-of-the-art power
electronics and it consists of power module and a peripheral circuit. The
peripheral circuit comprises of interfacing of power module with the
input/output through proper isolation from low-voltage signal and from
high-voltage power circuit, a drive circuit, protection and diagnostic
circuitry against maloperation like excess current, over voltage etc,
microcomputer control and controlled power supply. The user has merely to
connect the existing supply and the load terminals to the smart-power. At
present, intelligent modules are being used extensively in power electronics.
It is reported that there are more than twenty manufacturers of intelligent
modules.
 7

Interdisciplinary Nature Of Power Electronics is illustrated in fig. below:

 8

Chapter Two
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
2. Introduction:
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was introduced first in 1957. Since then,
several other power semiconductor devices have been developed. All these
semiconductor devices are enumerated below along with their ratings.
Power diodes are available up to 3000 V, 3500 A, 1 kHz. Thyristors have
ratings up to 6000 V, 3500 A, 1 kHz. SITHs (static induction thyristors) can
operate up to 4000 V, 2200 A, 20 kHz. GTOs (gate-turn off thyristors) have
ratings of 4000 V, 3000 A, 10 kHz. MCTs (MOS controlled thyristors) can
work up to 600 V, 60 A, 20 kHz. Triacs have power ratings of 1200 V, 300
A, 400 Hz.BJTs are used up to power ratings of 1200 V, 400 A, 10 kHz.
Power MOSFETs (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors) and
SITs (static induction transistors) have relatively low range of 1000 V, 50 A
and 1200 V, 300 A respectively. Both these devices can, however, operate
satisfactorily up to a frequency range of 100 kHz.IGBTs (insulated gate
bipolar transistors) are available up to 1200 V, 400 A and 20 kHz.
Based on (i) turn-on and turn-off characteristics and (ii) gate signal
requirements, the power semiconductor devices can be classified as under :
(a) Diodes : These are uncontrolled rectifying devices. Their on and off
states are controlled by power supply.
(b Thyristors : These have controlled turned-on by a gate signal. After
thyristors are turned-on, they remain latched-in on-state due to internal
regenerative action.
(c) Controllable switches : These devices are turned-on and turned-off by the
application of control signals. The devices which behave as controllable
switches are BJT, MOSFET, GTO, SITH, IGBT, SIT and MCT.
SCR, GTO, SITH and MCT require pulse-gate signal for turning them on ;
once these devices are on, gate pulse is removed. But BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
and SIT require continuous signal for keeping them in turn-on state.
The devices which can withstand unipolar voltage are BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
and MCT. Thyristors and GTOs are capable of supporting bipolar voltages.
Triac and RCT (reverse conducting thyristor) possess bidirectional current
capability whereas all other remaining devices ( diode, SCR, GTO, BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT, SIT, SITH, MCT ) are unidirectional current devices.
The object of this chapter is to describe imported power diode, power
transistor and thyristor.
 9

2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DIODES

Power diode is a two-layer, two-terminal, p-n semiconductor device. It has one pn-
junction formed by alloying, diffusing or epitaxial growth. The two terminals of
diode are called anode and cathode, Fig. 2.1 (a). Two important characteristics of
power diodes are now described.
2.1.1. Diode V-I Characteristics
When anode is positive with respect to cathode, diode is said to be forward biased.
With increase of the source voltage Vs from zero value, initially diode current is
zero. From Vs = 0 to cut-in voltage, the forward-diode current is very small. Cut-in
voltage is also known as threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. Beyond cut-in
voltage, the diode current rises rapidly and the diode is said to conduct. For silicon
diode, the cut-in voltage is around 0.7 V. When diode conducts, there is a forward
voltage drop of the order of 0.8 to 1 V.
When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse
biased. In reverse biased condition of the diode, a small reverse current,
called leakage current, of the order of the microamperes or mill amperes (for
large diodes) flows. The leakage current increases slowly with the reverse voltage
until breakdown or avalanche voltage is reached. At this breakdown voltage, diode
is turned on in the reversed direction.
If current in the reversed direction is not limited by a series resistance, the current
will become quite high to destroy the diode. The reverse avalanche breakdown of a
diode is avoided by operating the diode below specified peak repetitive reverse
voltage VRRM. Fig. 2.1 (c) illustrates diode characteristics where VRRM and cut-in
voltage are shown.

Fig. 2.1. (a) p-n junction (b) diode symbol (c) V-I characteristics of diode.
Diode manufacturers also indicate the value of peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a
diode. This is the largest reverse voltage to which a diode may be subjected during
its working. PIV is the same as V^^-.
The power diodes are now available with forward current ratings of 1 A to several
 10

thousand amperes and with reverse voltage ratings of 50 V to 3000 V or more.

2.1.2. Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics
After the forward diode current decays to zero, the diode continues to conduct in the
reverse direction because of the presence of stored charges in the two layers. The
reverse current flows for a time called reverse recovery time trr The diode regains its
blocking capability until reverse recovery current decays to zero. The reverse
recovery time trr is defined as the time between the instant forward diode current
becomes zero and the instant reverse recovery current decays to 25% of its reverse
peak value IRM as shown in Fig. 2.2 (a).

Fig. 2.2. Reverse recovery characteristics (a) variation of forward current if

22.2.TYPES OF POWER DIODES

utDiodes are classified according to their reverse recovery characteristics. The three
types of power diodes are as under :
(i) General purpose diodes (ii) Fast recovery diodes (iii) Schottky diodes.
These are now described briefly.
2.2.1.General-purpose Diodes
These diodes have relatively high reverse recovery time, of the order of abo 25 us.
Their current ratings vary from 1 A to several thousand amperes and the range of
voltage rating is from 50 V to about 5 kV. Applications of power diodes of this type
include battery charging, electric traction, electroplating, welding and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
2.2.2.Fast-recovery Diodes
The diodes with low reverse recovery time, of about 5 (is or less, are classified as
fast-recovery diodes. These are used in choppers, commutation circuits, switched
 11

mode power supplies, induction heating etc. Their current ratings vary from about
1 A to several thousand amperes and voltage ratings from 50 V to about 3 kV.
For voltage ratings below about 400 V, the epitaxial process is used for diode
fabrication. These diodes have fast recovery time, as low as 50 ns.
For voltage ratings above 400 V, diffusion technique is used for the fabrication of
diodes. In order to shorten the reverse-recovery time, platinum or gold doping is
carried out. But this doping may increase the forward voltage drop in a diode.
2.2.3.Schottky Diodes
This class of diodes use metal-to-semiconductor junction for rectification purposes
instead of prc-junction. Schottky diodes are characterised by very fast recovery time
and low forward voltage drop. Rectified current flow is by majority carriers only
and this avoids the turn-off delay accompanied with minority carrier recombination.
Their reverse voltage ratings are limited to about 100 V and forward current ratings
vary from 1 A to 300 A. Applications of Schottky diodes include high-frequency
instrumentation and switching power supplies.
The electrical and thermal characteristics of power diodes are similar to those of
thyristors .
2.3. POWER TRANSISTORS
Power diodes are uncontrolled devices. In other words, their turn-on and turn-off
characteristics are not under control. Power transistors, however, possess controlled
characteristics. These are turned on when a current signal is given to base, or
control, terminal. The transistor remains in the on-state so long as control signal is
present. When this control signal is removed, a power transistor is turned off.
Power transistors are of three types as under :
(i)Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).
(ii)Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).
(iii) Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) .
2.3.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors
A bipolar transistor is a three-layer, two junction npn or pnp semiconductor
device. With one p-region sandwiched by two ra-regions, Fig. 2.3 (a), npn
transistor is obtained. With two p-regions sandwiching one n-region, Fig. 2.3
(b),pnp transistor is obtained. The term' bipolar ' denotes that the current
flow in the device is due to the movement of both holes and electrons. A
BJT has three terminals named collector, emitter and base. An emitter is
indicated by an arrowhead indicating the direction of emitter current. No
arrow is associated with base or collector.
 12

2.3.1.1. Steady-state Characteristics. Out of the three possible circuit

configurations for a transistor, common-emitter arrangement is more
common in switching applications. So, henceforth, npn transistors will only
be considered.
Input characteristics. A graph between base current IB and base-emitter
voltage VBE gives input characteristics. As the base-emitter junction of a
transistor is like a diode, IB versus VBE graph resembles a diode curve.When collector-emitter
voltage VcE2 is more then VcE1,base current decreases as shoun in Fig.2.4(b).
Output characteristics. A graph between collector current Ic and collector-
emitter voltage VCE gives output characteristics of a transistor. For zero base
current, i.e. for IB = 0, as VCE is increased, a small leakage (collector) current
exists as shown in Fig. 2.4 (c). As the base current is increased from IB = 0 to
751 IB2 etc, collector current also rises as shown in Fig. 2.4 (c).
 13

Leakage
current
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2.4

2.4. POWER MOSFETs

A metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a recent
device developed by combining the areas of field-effect concept and MOS
technology.
A power-MOSFET has three terminals called drain, source and gate in place
of the corresponding three terminals collector, emitter and base for BJT. The
circuit symbol of power MOSFET is as shown In Fig. 2.5 (a). Here arrow
indicates the direction of electron flow. A BJT is a current controlled device
whereas a power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device. As its operation
depends upon the flow of majority carriers only, MOSFET is a unipolar
device. The control signal, or base current in BJT is much larger than the
control signal (or gate current) required in a MOSFET. This is because of
the fact that gate circuit impedance in MOSFET is extremely high, of the
order of 10 ohm. This large impedance permits the MOSFET gate to be
driven directly from microelectronic circuits. BJT suffers from second
breakdown voltage whereas MOSFET is free from this problem. Power
MOSFETs are now finding increasing applications in low-power high
frequency converters.
2.4.1. MOSFET Characteristics
The static characteristics of power MOSFET are now described briefly. The
basic circuit diagram for n-channel power MOSFET is shown in Fig. 2.5 (a)
where voltages and currents are as indicated.
(a) Transfer characteristics. This characteristic shows the variation of drain
 14

current ID as a function of gate-source voltage VGS. Fig. 2.5 (b) shows

typical transfer characteristic for n-channel power MOSFET. It is seen that
there is threshold voltage VGST below which the device is off. The magnitude
of VGST is of the order of 2 to 3 V.

(a) (b) (c)

FIG.2.5.MOSFET Char. Circuit symbol

(b) Output characteristics. Power MOSFET output characteristics shown in

Fig. 2.6 indicate the variation of drain current ID as a function of drain-
source voltage VGS as a parameter. For low values of VDS the graph between
ID - VDS is almost linear ; this indicates a constant value of on-resistance RDS
= VDS/ID. For given VGS, if VDS is increased, output characteristic is relatively
flat indicating that drain current is nearly constant. A load line intersects the
output characteristics at A and B. Here A indicates fully-on condition and B
fully-off state. Power MOSFET operates as a switch either at A or at B just
like a BJT.
 15

Fig.2.6

2.4.2. Comparison of MOSFET with BJT

Power MOSFET has several features different from those of BJT. These are
outlined as under :
(i) Power MOSFET has lower switching losses but its on-resistance and
conduction losses are more. A BJT has higher switching losses but lower
conduction loss. So at high frequency applications, power MOSFET is the
obvious choice. But at lower operating frequencies (less than about 10 to 30
kHz), BJT is superior.
(ii) MOSFET is voltage controlled device whereas BJT is current controlled
device.
(iii) MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient for resistance. This
makes parallel operation of MOSFET easy.If a MOSFET shares increased
current initially, it heats up faster , its resistance rises and this increased
resistance causes this current to shift to other devices in parallel. A BJT has
negative temperature coefficient, so current-sharing resistors are necessary
during parallel operation of BJTs.
(iv) In MOSFET, secondary breakdown does not occur, because it has
positive temperature coefficient. As BJT has negative temperature
coefficient, secondary breakdown occurs. In BJT, with decrease in
resistance, the current increases. This increased current over the same area
results in hot spots and breakdown of the BJT
(v) Power MOSFETs in higher voltage ratings have more conduction loss.
(vi) The state of the art MOSFETs are available with ratings upto 500 V,
140 A whereas BJTs are available with ratings up to 1200 V, 800 A.
2.5. INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)
 16

IGBT is a new development in the area of power MOSFET technology. This

device combines into it the advantages of both MOSFET and BJT. So an
IGBT has high input impedance like a MOSFET and low-on-state power
loss as in a BJT. Further, IGBT is free from second breakdown problem
present in BJT. IGBT is also known as metal-oxide insulated gate transistor
(MOSIGT), conductively-modulated field effect transistor (COMFET) or
gain-modulated FET (GEMFET). It was also initially called insulated gate
transistor (IGT).

2.5.1. IGBT Characteristics

The circuit of Fig. 2.7(a) shows the various parameters pertaining to IGBT
characteristics.

FIG.2.7 .IGBT.(a) Circuit digram ,(b)static V-I char. And (c)transfer char.
IGBT symbol)

2.5.2. Applications of IGBT

IGBTs are widely used in medium power applications such as dc and ac
motor drives, UPS systems, power supplies and drives for solenoids, relays
and contactors. Though IGBTs are somewhat more expensive than BJTs, yet
they are becoming popular because of lower gate-drive requirements, lower
switching losses and smaller snubber circuit requirements. IGBT converters
are more efficient with less size as well as cost, as compared to converters
based on BJTs. Recently, IGBT inverter induction-motor drives using 15-20
kHz switching frequency are finding favour where audio-noise is
objectionable. In most applications, IGBTs will eventually push out BJTs.
At present, the state of the art IGBTs are available up to 1200 V, 500 A.
Table below shows the comparisons of transistors.
 17

2.6 Thyristor
A thyristor has characteristics similar to a thyratron tube. But from the
construction view point, a thyristor (a pnpn device) belongs to transistor
(pnp or npn device) family. The name 'thyristor', is derived by a combination
of the capital letters from THYRatron and transISTOR. This means that
thyristor is a solid state device like a transistor and has characteristics similar
to that of a thyratron tube. The present-day reader may not be familiar with
thyratron tube as this is not being taught these days.
2.6.1 TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THYRISTORS: Thyristor is a
four layer, three-junction, p-n-p-n semiconductor switching device. It has
three terminals; anode, cathode and gate. Fig. 2.8(a) gives constructional
details of a typical thyristor. Basically, a thyristor' consists of four layers of
alternate p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors forming three junctions
Jl, J2 and J3 as shown in Fig. 2.8 (a). The threaded portion is for the
purpose of tightening the thyristor to the frame or heat sink with the help of
a nut. Gate terminal is usually kept near the cathode terminal Fig. 2.8 (a).
Schematic diagram and circuit symbol for a thyristor are shown respectively
in Figs. 2.8 (b) and (c). The terminal connected to outer p region is called
anode (A), the terminal connected to outer n region is called cathode and that
 18

connected to inner p region is called the gate (G). For large current
applications, thyristors need better cooling; this is achieved to a great extent
by mounting them onto heat sinks. SCR rating has improved considerably
since its introduction in 1957. Now SCRs of voltage rating 10 kV and an
rms current rating of 3000 A with corresponding power-handling capacity of
30 MW are available. Such a high power thyristor can be switched on by a
low voltage supply of about 1 A and 10 W and this gives us an idea of the
immense power amplification capability (= 3 x 106) of this device. As SCRs
are solid state devices, they are compact, possess high reliability and have
low loss. Because of these useful features, SCR is almost universally
employed these days for all high power-controlled devices. An SCR is so
called because silicon is used for its construction and its operation as a
rectifier (very low resistance in the forward conduction and very high
resistance in the reverse direction) can be controlled. Like the diode, an SCR
is is an unidirectional device that blocks the current flow from cathode to
anode. Unlike the diode, a thyristor also blocks the current flow from anode
to cathode until it is triggered into conduction by a proper gate signal
between gate and cathode terminals. For engineering applications of
thyristors, their terminal characteristics must be known.
an unidirectional device that blocks the current flow from cathode to anode.
Unlike the diode, a thyristor also blocks the current flow from anode to
cathode until it is triggered into conduction by a proper gate signal between
gate and cathode terminals. For engineering applications of thyristors, their
terminal characteristics must be known.

Fig.2.8
 19

2.6.2. Static V-I Characteristics of a Thyristor:

An elementary circuit diagram, for obtaining static. V-I characteristics,, of a
thyristor is shown in Fig. 2.9 (a). The anode and cathode are connected to main
source through the load. The gate and,cathode are fed from a source Es which
provides positive gate current from. Gate to cathode.
Fig.2.9 (b) shows static V-I charact. of a thyristor. Here Va is the anode voltage
across, thyristor terminals A, K and la is the anode current. Typical SCR V-I
characteristic shown in Fig. 2.7 (b) reveals that a thyristor has three -basic modes of
operation namely reverse blocking mode, forward blocking (off-state) mode and
forward conduction (on-state) mode.

Fig.2.9

2.6 .3 THYRISTOR TURN-ON METHODS

With anode positive with respect to cathode, a thyristor can be turned on by
anyone of the following techniques:
(a)Forward voltage triggering. (b)gate triggering. (c)dv/ dt triggering.
(d)Temperature triggering. (e)Light triggering.

2.6.4TWO-TRANSISTOR MODEL
The principle of thyristor operation can be explained with the use of its two-
transistor model (or two-transistor analogy), Fig. 2.10 (a) shows schematic
diagram of a thyristor. From this figure, two-transistor model is obtained by
bisecting the two middle layers, along the dotted line, in two separate halves
 20

as shown in Fig. 2.10 (b). In this figure, junctions Jl - J2 and J2 - Ja can be

considered to constitute pnp and npn transistors separately. The circuit
representation of the two-transistor model of a thyristor is shown in
Fig2.10(c).

Fig. 2.10. Thyristor (a) its schematic diagram, \b\ and (c) its two-
transistor model

2.7. THYRISTOR PROTECTION

Reliable operation of a thyristor demands that its specified ratings are not exceeded.
In practice, a thyristor may be subjected to over voltages or over currents. During
SCR turn-on, di/dt may be prohibitively large. There may be false triggering of
SCR by high value of dv/dt. A spurious signal across gate-cathode terminals may
lead to unwanted turn-on. A thyristor must be protected against all such abnormal
conditions for satisfactory and reliable operation of SCR circuit and the equipment.
SCRs are very delicate devices, their protection against abnormal operating
conditions is, therefore, essential. The object of this section is to discuss various
techniques adopted for the protection of SCRs.

(a) di/dt protection. When a thyristor is forward biased and is turned on by a

gate pulse, conduction of anode current begins in the immediate
neighborhood of the gate-cathode junction. Thereafter, the current spreads
across the whole area of junction. The thyristor design permits the spread of
conduction to the whole junction area as rapidly as possible. However, if the
rate of rise of anode current, i.e. di/dt, is large as compared to the spread
velocity of carriers, local hot spots will be formed near the gate connection
on account of high current density. This localised heating may destroy the
 21

thyristor. Therefore, the rate of rise of anode current at the time of turn-on
must be kept below the specified limiting value. The value of di/dt can be
maintained below acceptable limit by using a small inductor, called di/dt
inductor, in series with the anode circuit. Typical di/dt limit values of SCRs
are 20—500 A/µ sec.
Local spot heating can also be avoided by ensuring that the conduction
spreads to the whole area as rapidly as possible. This can be achieved by
applying a gate current nearer to (but never greater than) the maximum
specified gate current.

(b) dv/dt protection. With forward voltage across the anode and cathode
of a thyristor, the two outer junctions are forward biased but the inner
junction is reverse biased. This reverse biased junction J2, Fig2.8(b), has the
characteristics of a capacitor due to charges existing across the junction. In
other words, space-charges exist in the depletion region around junction J2
and therefore junction J2 behaves like a capacitance. If the entire anode to
cathode forward voltage Va appears across J2 junction and the charge is
denoted by Q, then a charging current i given by Eq. (2.7) flows :

(2.7a)
As Cj, the capacitance of junction J2, is almost constant the current is given
by

If the rate of rise of forward voltage dVa/dt is high, the charging current i
will be more. This charging current plays the role of gate current and turns
on the SCR even when gate signal is zero. Such phenomena of turning-on a
thyristor, called dv/dt turn-on must be avoided as it leads to false operation
 22

of the thyristor circuit. For controllable operation of the thyristor, the rate
of rise of forward anode to cathode voltage dVa/dt must be kept below the
specified rated limit. Typical values of dv/dt are 20 - 500 V/usec. False turn-
on of a thyristor by large dv/dt can be prevented by using a snubber circuit
in parallel with the device.

2.7.1. Design of Snubber CircuitsA snubber circuit

consists of a series combination of resistance Rs
and capacitance Cs in parallel with the thyristor as
shown in Fig. 2. 11. Strictly speaking, a capacitor
Cs in parallel with the device is sufficient to y
prevent unwanted dv/dt triggering of the SCR.
When switch S is closed, a sudden voltage appears Fig. 2.11Snubber circuit across SCR.
across the circuit. Capacitor C behaves like a short
circuit, at a slow rate such that dv/dt across Cs and therefore across SCR is
less than the specified maximum dv/dt rating of the device. Here the
question arises that if Cs is enough to prevent accidental turn-on of the
device by dv/dt, what is the need of putting Rs in series with Cs ? The
answer to this is as under.
Before SCR is fired by gate pulse, Cs charges to full voltage Vs. When the
SCR is turned on, capacitor discharges through the SCR and sends a current
equal to Vs/ (resistance of local path formed by Cs and SCR). As this
resistance is quite low, the turn-on di/dt will tend to be excessive and as a
result, SCR may be destroyed. In order to limit the magnitude of discharge
current, a resistance Rs is inserted in series with Cs as shown in Fig. 2.11.
Now when SCR is turned on, initial discharge current Vs/Rs is relatively
small and turn-on di/dt is reduced.
In actual practice ; Rs, Cs and the load circuit parameters should be such
that dv/dt across Cs during its charging is less than the specified dv/dt rating
of the SCR and discharge current at the turn-on of SCR is v/ithin reasonable
limits. Normally, Rs Cs and load circuit parameters form an underdamped
circuit so that dv/dt is limited to acceptable values.
 23

In practice, designed snubber parameters are adjusted up or down in the

final assembled power circuit so as to obtain a satisfactory performance of
the power electronics system therefore voltage across SCR is zero. With the
passage of time, voltage across Cs builds up.

2.8. HEATING, COOLING AND MOUNTING OF THYRISTORS

Some power loss occurs in a thyristor during its working. The various
components of this power loss in the junction region of a thyristor are as under :
(i) Forward conduction loss .
(ii)Loss due to leakage current during forward and reverse blocking.

(iii) Switching losses at turn-on and turn-off

(iv) Gate triggering loss
At industrial power frequencies between zero and 400 Hz, the forward conduction
loss, or on-state conduction loss, is usually the major component. But switching
losses become dominant at high operating frequencies. These electrical losses
produce thermal heat which must be removed from the junction region. The thermal
losses and hence the temperature rise of the device increase with the thyristor rating.
The cooling of thyristors, therefore, becomes more difficult as the SCR rating
increases.
The heat produced in a thyristor by electrical loss is dissipated to ambient fluid(air
or water) by mounting the device on a heat sink. When heat due to losses is equal to
that dissipated by the heat sink, steady junction temperature is reached.Thyristor
heating and hence its junction temperature rise is dependent primarily on current
handled by the device during its working. As such, current rating of thyristors is
often based on thermal considerations.

2.9. GATE TURN OFF (G.T.O.) THYRISTOR:

A gate turn-off thyristor, a pnpn device, can be turned on like an ordinary
thyristor by a pulse of positive gate current. In inverter and chopper circuits,
a thyristor can be turned off by forced commutation. For such applications, a
GTO is, however, a more versatile device ; it can be easily turned off by a
negative gate pulse of appropriate amplitude. GTOs were developed
 24

sometimes in the late 1960s but these could not find commercial use because
of certain performance problems. Only recently, modern technology has
helped in the improved performance of GTOs and these are now being used
in several commercial inverters.
As no forced commutation circuitry is required for GTOs, inverters using
these devices are compact and cost less. The negative gate current required
to turn off a GTO is quite a large percentage (20 to 30%) of anode current
prior to commutation. For example, an 800 A GTO will require a negative
current pulse of 200 A peak for turning it off. Fig. 2.12(a) gives the circuit
symbols of a GTO. The symbols shown in (a) (i) and (ii) are self
explanatory, gate
current can go in for turning on and out for turning off. But the symbol a (iii) looks
easy when circuit configurations using GTOs are to be drawn.
2.9.1 Static V-I Characteristics of GTOs
Typical static V - I characteristics for a GTO thyristor are shown in Fig. 2.12 (b). It
is seen from these characteristics that latching current for large power GTOs is
several amperes (here 2A) as compared to 100—500 mA for conventional
thyristors of the

(a) (6)
Fig. 2.12. Gate turn-off thyristor (a) circuit symbol and (b) its static V-I
characteristics.
same rating. If gate current is not able to turn on the GTO, it behaves like a high
voltage, low gain transistor with considerable anode current. This leads to a
noticeable power loss under such conditions.

A GTO has the following disadvantages as compared to a conventional thyristor :

(i) Magnitude of latching and holding currents is more in a GTO. (ii) On state
voltage drop and the associated loss is more in a GTO. (iii) Due to the multi
 25

cathode structure of GTO, triggering gate current is higher than that required for a
conventional SCR. (iv) Gate drive circuit losses are more.(v) Its reverse-voltage
blocking capability is less than its forward-voltage blocking capability. But this is no
disadvantage so far as inverter circuits are concerned.
In spite of all these demerits, GTO has the following advantages over an SCR :
(i) GTO has faster switching speed.(ii) Its surge current capability is
comparable with an SCR. (iii) It has more di/dt rating at turn-on.
(iv)GTO circuit configuration has lower size and weight as compared to
SCR circuit unit.(v)GTO unit has higher efficiency because an increase
ingate-drive powerlos sandon-state loss is more than compensated by the
elimination of forced commutation losses.(vi) GTO unit has reduced
acoustical and electromagnetic noise due to elimination of commutation
chokes.
In view of the above facts, GTO devices are now being used for (a) high-
performance drive systems, such as the field-oriented control scheme used in
rolling mills, robotics and machine tools , (b) traction purposes because of
their lighter weight and (c) adjustable-frequency inverter drives. At present,
GTOs with ratings up to 2500 V and 1400 A are available.

2.10The Diac (Bidirectional Thyristor Diode)

A cross-sectional view of a diac showing all its layers and junctions is depicted in
Fig. 2.13 (a). If voltage V12, with terminal 1 positive with respect to terminal 2,
exceeds break-over voltage VB01i then structure pn pn conducts. In case terminal 2
is positive with respect to terminal 1 and when V2i exceeds breakover voltage VB02,
structure pn pn' conducts. The term 'diac' is obtained from capital letters, Diode that
can work on AC. Fig. 2.13 (b) gives the circuit symbol and Fig. 2.13(c) the V-I
characteristics of a diac. It is seen that diac has symmetrical breakdown
characteristics. Its leads are interchangeable. Its turn-on voltage is about 30 V. When
conducting, it acts like a low resistance with about 3 V drop across it. When not
conducting, it acts like an open switch. A diac is sometimes called a gateless triac
 26

Fig. 2.13. (a) Cross-sectional view (b) circuit symbol and (c) V-I
characteristics of a diac.

2.11. The Triac

An SCR is a unidirectional device as it can conduct from anode to cathode
only and not from cathode to anode. A triac can, however, conduct in both
the directions. A triac is thus a bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It
is used extensively for the control of power in ac circuits. Triac is the word
derived by combining the capital letters from the words TRIode and AC.
When in operation, a triac is equivalent to two SCRs connected in
antiparallel. The circuit symbol and its characteristics are shown in Fig.
2.14 (a) and (b) respectively. As the triac can conduct in both the directions,
the terms anode and cathode are not applicable to triac. Its three terminals
are usually designated as MT1 (main terminal 1), MT2 and the gate by G as
in a thyristor.
 27

Fig2.14. (a) Circuit symbol and (6) static V-I characteristics of a triac.

REFRENCES:
1.Power Electronics by Dr.P.S.BIMBHRA. 1999 .
2.Power Electronics ,Circuit,Devices,And Applications by Dr.Muhammad
H.Rashid.2004.
3. Power Electronics and Motor Drives by Dr.Bose.2006.