INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS AND TESTING

Have you ever wondered what kind of materials have been used to build a house, a car, or any other kind
of thing that can be made? Have you ever thought about how they select the right materials or how they
know that these materials are good for building cars and other things?

Before we begin lets define Material first ? is

• The matter from which a thing is or can be made.

• A material is a substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object. Materials can be pure or
impure, living or non-living matter.

• Materials can be classified based on their physical and chemical properties, or on their geological
origin or biological function.

• Material science is the study of materials and their applications

What are those Materials?

• Our clothes are made of materials, our homes are made up of materials. [ Bricks, Wood, Gate: Iron,
Steel – SS, MS, Glass windows, vinyl sliding, metal silverware, ceramic dishes…]

• Most things are made from many different kinds of materials.

What is Testing.?
• In general, testing is to finding out how well something works. In terms of human beings, testing tells
what level of knowledge or skill has been acquired.

• In computer hardware and software development, testing is used at key checkpoints in the overall
process to determine whether objectives are being met. Example: Assessment test, Blood test, Eye
test…….

Materials testing : Measurement of the characteristics and behaviour of such substances

as metals, ceramics, or plastics under various conditions.

• The data thus obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of materials for various applications—
e.g., building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packaging. Whyis it Important?
• Materials testing is a respected and established technique which is used to ascertain both the physical
and mechanical properties of raw materials and components.

• It can be used to examine almost anything from human hair to steel, ceramics or composite materials

Why Materials Testing is performed?

• Materials Testing is performed for a variety of reasons and can provide a wealth of information about
the tested materials, prototypes or product samples.

• The data collected during testing and the final test results can be very useful to engineers, designers,
production managers and others. Here are some of the reasons material testing is important:

• Meeting requirements of regulatory agencies

• Selecting appropriate materials and treatments for an application

• Evaluating product design or improvement specifications

• Verifying a production

Why are metals/materials tested?

• Ensure quality

• Test Properties

• Prevent failure in use

• Make informed choices in using materials

• Factor of safety : Is the ration comparing the actual stress on a material and the safe useable stress
Major Types of MATERIALS :
METALS

CERAMICS

POLYMERS

COMPOSITES

 Metals • Steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum, Copper, Titanium, many others

 Ceramics • Glass, Concrete, Brick, Alumina, Zirconia, SiN, SiC
 Polymers • Plastics, Wood, Cotton (rayon, nylon), “glue”
 Composites • Glass Fiber-reinforced polymers, Carbon Fiber-reinforced
polymers, Metal Matrix Composites, etc.

History of Materials
• Man has been studying materials since before leaving the cave.

• Due to lack of communication, early man spent hundreds of millennia experimenting with stone tools.
• The first metal tools appeared perhaps only six thousand years ago.
• As our knowledge of materials grows, so does the sophistication of our tools.

• The more sophisticated our tools, the more sophisticated our accomplishments.

And Remember: Materials “Drive” our Society! Ages of “Man” we survive based on the materials we
control

• Stone Age – naturally occurring materials

• Special rocks, skins, wood

• Bronze Age

• Casting and forging

• Iron Age

• High Temperature furnaces

• Steel Age

• High Strength Alloys

• Non-Ferrous and Polymer Age

• Aluminum, Titanium and Nickel (superalloys) – aerospace

• Silicon – Information

• Plastics and Composites – food preservation, housing, aerospace and higher speeds

• Exotic Materials Age?

• Nano-Material and bio-Materials – they are coming and then

Another way of classification
Properties of material
• Properties of the material can be divided into two main

categories, namely, mechanical properties and physical properties.

• Definition of some mechanical properties

• Definition of some mechanical properties

Mechanical Testing •
Mechanical properties are obtained by mechanical testing.

• Mechanical testing is used for developing design data, maintaining quality control, assisting in alloy
development programs and providing data in failure analysis.

• Mechanical testing is usually destructive and requires test specimens of the material to be machined or
cut to the specific shape required by the test method

. • Measurement of the characteristics and behavior of such substances as metals, ceramics, or plastics
under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of materials for
various applications. Ex.: building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packing

o Classification of Mechanical Tests

• Destructive test

• Non-destructive test
Destructive: where a material or product is destroyed during the testing process, through
damage, breakage or wear and tear. This then gives the designer/manufacturer an idea of the
tolerances of the product or material.
Ex: Tensile test, Impact test, Bend test, Fatigue test, Torsion test, Creep test, etc.,

Destructive Testing
Hardness Testing
What it tests: wear/abrasion resistance, resistance to deforming or indenting.
 Brinell Vickers Rockwell
A steel ball is pushed into surface of the material. A pyramid shape is An indentation is made
The tester then records the depth and diameter of forced into the surface of steel ball or pyramid, t
the indent - from this they then calculate the the material. Using a indentation is with a mi
hardness number microscope the tester (yellow), then the same
records the surface area indented again with a
of the indent and works load (blue). The hardn
out the hardness number. then calculated digit
making it the quickest h
testing.
Fatigue Testing and Wear Testing
What it tests: wear and tear over time.
The way this is tested depends massively on
the end usage, for example if abrasion wear
needs to be tested the material may be put in
a situation where a disc of the same material is
rubbed against it for a prolonged period of time.
Like the chair testing in IKEA, where weight is
repeatedly added and then removed to simulate a
user sitting down and getting up repeatedly.

HardnessTesting
 What it tests: toughness, shock resistance.
A piece of material is loaded at this point a hammer swings down and strikes the material. The
tester then measures the travel of the hammer and calculates what energy has been absorbed -
this then gives an indication of how tough the material is.
Watch a short video here.
Izod Testing Charpy Testing
The material has a v shaped notch cut out. With the Izod test the The material has a V shaped notch
hammer strikes the top half at a 75 degree angle. also, this time the hammer strikes
in the centre of the material.

Tensile Testing
• The most common mechanical test is a tensile
test

What it tests: tensile strength, ductility, elasticity

and malleability.
This is where a test piece of material is held
between a clamp and moving jaw. This puts the
material under tension and stretches the material
until breaking point or beyond the machines
capabilities. During this process the material will
start "necking" (as shown on the image below) this
is where the material thins in a particular area
before snapping.

There is a computer attached which calculates the

distance travelled, this then generates a graph to
show where the maximum load is.
Watch a short video here.
 Non Destructive: these do not physically effect the product - these are usually carried
out on the end product before it is sent to the user or as a Quality Control method during
production.

• Test on real product and specimen

• This testing does not damage the specimen

• Commonly done to detect/locate defect in materials and products

• frequently to inspection of material and products

Non-Destructive Testing
Basic Quality Control Testing
Visual checks to find faults on the surface are used.

Liquid Penetration can also be used - this is where a liquid is applied onto the surface, the excess
is then removed and chalk is applied to make the area more visible.

Ex: Radiography, Ultrasonic inspection, etc.

Metal Testing
Magnetic Testing: the material will be magnetised,
iron particles are dusted over the material and where
magnetic lines are broken it visibly shows where the
defects or cracks are (see the area that has waved out
in the image) - used to check weldings in order to
make sure they are secure. Watch a short video here.

Acid Pickling: used with steel casings, the weak

acid solution will remove any oxides and when
washed the cracks will be visible.

Internal Defects
Use of Light: in pottery bright light can highlight hairline cracks or faults inside the material.

X-Rays: these can be used to find air bubbles in the fabrication of rubber for tyres, if bubbles are between the
fabric and supporting wires it can cause the tyre to fail and this could have fatal consequences.
The x-rays will travel faster through air pockets and different materials, this makes it easy to spot on the
resulting image where areas of issue are. This usually shows up as a dark spot on an x-ray.

Ultrasonic Testing: high frequency sound vibrations pass through the material and bounce back. In a solid
material it will reflect back immediately, in materials with defects the sound vibrations may scatter or will
take longer to bounce back - like the image to the left.

Introduction to Materials Selection (iv)

• Oneof the most challenging task of materials engineer is the proper selection of the material
for a particular job, e.g., a particular component of a machine or structure. • An engineer must
be in a position to choose the optimum combination of properties in a material at the lowest
possible cost without compromising the quality. Factors affecting the selection of materials: (i)
Component shape: The shape and size of a component has great effect on the choice of the
processing unit which ultimately effects the choice of the material. To make it more clear, we
consider an example, let the best possible production method is selected, under given
conditions, it is die casting, obviously, now the choice of the material becomes limited, i.e. one
can only choose materials with lower zinc, magnesium and thermoplastics. (ii) Dimensional
tolerance: There are some materials which can melting points, e.g. aluminium, be finished to
close tolerance while others cannot. Obviously, the required dimensional tolerance for finished
components will, influence the choice of materials. (iii) Mechanical properties: To select a
suitable material for specific conditions, all mechanical properties, e.g., toughness, hardness,
strength, etc. guide us

(iv) Fabrication (Manufacturing) requirements: • Method of processing of the material also

affects the properties of a component, e.g., forged components can be stronger than the casted
components. Different types of working processes may also give different types of fibre
structure. However, investment casting can provide precise dimensions at low cost machine
operations. in comparison to Note: fabrication requirements are: castability, i.e., ease in casting a
material, weldability-ease in welding the material, machinability-ease to machine a material,
formability-ease to form a material, hardenability etc. (v) Service requirements: Service
requirements are : • dimensional stability, • strength, • toughness, • heat resistance, • corrosion
resistance, • fatigue and creep resistance, • electrical and thermal conductivity etc.

(vi) Cost : (a) Cost of the material: • In most of the cases, the cost of raw material accounts about
50 % of the finished cost. Obviously, the cost of the material is a major factor which influences
the choice of the material or process. We must note that the use of cheaper material will not
always reduce the final cost of the component or product. Use of cheaper material may be
associated with higher processing cost due to large number of operations to be performed and
also more scrap. We can easily see that this sometimes makes the overall cost more than that of
expensive raw material in combination with low processing cost due to lesser number of
operations and lesser scrap. (b) Cost of processing: • In most of the industries, the processing
cost (labour cost) and other costs such as overhead costs account for about 50% of the
production cost. Overhead cost in automatic industries is much more than the other costs. If one
can somehow reduce all such costs, the total production cost will automatically reduce. (vii)
Availability of the material: • We may find that sometimes the availability of the material
becomes a governing factor. When the desired material supply is limited, then a costly material
which is available in ample quantity may be chosen. (viii) Environment • The effect that the
service environment has on the part; The effect the part has on the environment; The effect that
processing has on the environment @
 Selection of Material
There are many thousands of different engineering materials available today. But they can be placed into
one or other of the following categories:

1. Metals,

2. Polymers,

3. Ceramics and inorganic glasses,

4. Composites.

• All materials exhibit many different properties and qualities. The properties of material provide a basic
for predicting its behavior under various conditions.

• An engineer must have wide knowledge of materials and their properties so that he mayselect a
suitable material for his product. Metals – Strong, Heat Transfer, Deformable Ceramics – Hard but Brittle,
Insulation Polymers – Light, Flexible, Compressible Composites – Strength of Fiber & Flexibility of
Polymer

Procedure for materials selection

• The selection of an appropriate material and its subsequent conversion into a useful product with
desired shape and properties can be a rather complex process. Nearly every engineered item goes
through a sequence of activities that includes:

Design → material selection → process selection → production → evaluation → and possible redesign or
modification

Material Properties and Qualities

1. Physical properties– Colour, density, melting point, size, shape, finish…

2. Chemical properties– Corrosion resistance, atomic weight, atomic number, chemical composition…

3. Mechanical properties– Strength, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, hardness…

4. Electrical properties– Resistivity, Conductivity, capacitivity, dielectric constant…

5. Magnetic properties– Relative permeability, reluctivity, hysteresis…

6. Thermal properties– Specific heat, thermal capacity, conductivity, thermal fatigue…

7. Technological properties– Malleability, machinability, weldability, castability, formability…

8. Aesthetic properties– Appearance, texture and ability to accept special finishes.

9. Economic properties– Raw material and processing cost, availability.

10. Other properties– Optical, acoustical, and physiochemical properties

Factors to be considered for the selection of materials

Following factors should be considered:

1. Availability

2. Cost

3. Mechanical Properties :

4. Manufacturing consideration :

1. Availability : The Material should be readily available in market in large enough quantities to meet the
requirement.

2. Cost : For every application, there is limiting cost beyond which the designer cannot go. When the
limit exceeded the designer has to consider an alternative material. In cost analysis, there are two factors
namely cost of material and the cost of processing the material into finished goods. It is likely that the
cost of material might be low but the processing may involve costly machining operations.

3. Mechanical properties

• Mechanical properties are those characteristics of material that describe its behavior under the action
of external forces..

• Sound knowledge of mechanical properties is very essential for an engineer to select a suitable
material for his various design purposes. Types of Mechanical Properties: There are many mech.
Properties of a metal, some of the important mech. Properties are listed below, :

Ductility Toughness Brittleness Hardness Plasticity Elasticity Strength Malleability Brittleness Stiffness
Resilience Creep Endurance Impact strength Fatig
 4. Manufacturing consideration :
• It is important consideration in selection of materials.

• Sometimes, expensive materials are more economical than low cost material, which difficult
to machine.

Importance of Material Selection

 Validation and Qualification
VALIDATION “Validation means conformation by examination and provision of objective
evidence that a particular requirements for a specific intended use can be consistently fulfilled.”

QUALIFICATION “Qualification is the documented evidence that a specific equipment,

facility/system is fit / ready for intended use”.

Need for validation

 Basic requirement for the product quality system.  Assure every lot of each product meet all
the quality requirements.  It is capable of achieving the intended results.  For taking appropriate
actions in case of non-compliance
 Advantages of validation
 Conformation to GMP requirements.  To identify root cause of problems.  Makes process
better understand.  Reduces the risk of problems.  Reduces defect cost.  Assures smooth running of
the process.  Documents that process or activity is in control.  Maintains a company’s public image. 
Documents that the final product has followed reliable manufacturing process.

Thermal analysis
• Thermal analysis is a branch of materials science where the properties of materials are studied
as they change with temperature.

• Several methods are commonly used – these are distinguished from one another by the
property which is measured.

ABBREVIATIONS

• ICTAC - International Confederation for Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry

• DEA- Dielectric Analysis
• DSC- Differential Scanning Calorimetry
• TGA- Thermogravimetric Analysis
• TMA- Thermomechanical Analysis
• ÄHf- Heat of Fusion
• Tm - Melting Temperature, extrapolated endothermic onset temperature
• Tp- Peak Melting endothermic Temperature
• ÄHc-Heat of exothermic Crystallization
• Tc- Crystallization Temperature, extrapolated exothermic onset temperature
• Tcp- Peak exothermic Crystallization temperature
• ÄHv - Heat of endothermic Vaporization
• Tv - Vaporization temperature, extrapolated endothermic onset temperature
• Tvp - Peak Vaporization temperature
• Tg -Glass transition temperature
• ASTM- American Standards for Testing Materials
 Common Thermal Analysis Methods and the Properties Measured

• Thermal analysis is defined as “series of techniques for measuring the

temperature dependency of a physical property of a certain substance while varying the
temperature of the substance according to a specific program.”

• The substance referred to here includes reaction products.

Physical properties include mass, temperature, enthalpy, dimension, dynamic characteristics,

and others, and depending on the physical properties to be measured, the techniques of thermal
analysis

• Introduce thermal analysis at an entry level chemist or a new function for the experienced
pharmaceutical scientist.

• This teaching tool describes the introductory use of Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC),
Thermo-Mechanical Analysis (TMA) and to some extent Thermo-gravimetric Analysis (TGA) for
characterizing pharmaceuticals.
Basic Principles of Thermal Analysis

Thermal Analysis Techniques

Thermal Analysis