Data Analysis

 is a process used by researchers to reduce data to a story and interpret it to

derive insights. The data analysis process helps reduce a large chunk of data
into smaller fragments, which makes sense.
EXPLANATION: Data analysis is the most crucial part of any research. Data analysis
summarizes collected data. It involves the interpretation of data gathered through the
use of analytical and logical reasoning to determine patterns, relationships or trends.
Why analyze data in research?
 Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell or problems to
solve. It starts with a question, and data is nothing but an answer to that
question.
EXPLANATION: Data analysis is essential in research as it provides the answers to
questions and helps researchers tell a story or solve a problem. It is the process of
examining and interpreting data to make meaningful conclusions and informed
decisions.
Types of data in research
Qualitative data
It is the data presented has words and descriptions, then we call it qualitative data.
Although you can observe this data, it is subjective and harder to analyze data in
research, especially for comparison
EXPLANATION: Example: Quality data represents everything describing taste,
experience, texture, or an opinion that is considered quality data. This type of data is
usually collected through focus groups, personal qualitative interviews, or using open-
ended questions in surveys.
Quantitative data
It is the data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are called quantitative data.
This type of data can be distinguished into categories, grouped, measured, calculated,
or ranked.
EXPLANATION: Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length, weight, scores,
etc. everything comes under this type of data. You can present such data in graphical
format, charts, or apply statistical analysis methods to this data. The (Outcomes
Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a significant source of
collecting numeric data.
Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research
 Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently employed
technique for data analysis in research methodology.
 EXPLANTION: Content analysis involves systematically categorizing and
interpreting textual data to identify patterns or themes. Content analysis is a
widely used method in qualitative research that involves systematically
categorizing and interpreting textual data to identify patterns or themes. It is used
to analyze various forms of communication, such as written, spoken, or visual
data, to understand the underlying meanings or messages conveyed by the data.
Content analysis involves breaking down the data into manageable units, such
as words, phrases, or sentences, and coding them into specific categories or
themes. The themes or categories can then be analyzed to draw meaningful
insights or conclusions from the data. Content analysis is particularly useful when
analyzing large volumes of qualitative data and can provide valuable insights into
social and cultural phenomena, individual behavior, and attitudes, among other
areas of study.
 Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyze content gathered from
various sources such as personal interviews, field observation, and surveys.
EXPLANATION: Narrative analysis focuses on understanding the stories or
personal accounts provided by research participants. Narrative analysis is a
qualitative research method that focuses on understanding the stories or
personal accounts provided by research participants. It involves analyzing the
narrative structure, content, and context of the stories or accounts to identify the
underlying themes, meanings, or messages conveyed by the data. Narrative
analysis is commonly used to study personal experiences, identities, or cultural
beliefs, and can provide rich and nuanced insights into individual perspectives or
collective phenomena. The method typically involves collecting data through in-
depth interviews, focus groups, or written narratives, and analyzing the data
through coding, categorizing, and interpreting the narratives. Narrative analysis is
a flexible and adaptable method that can be used across a wide range of
research areas, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, and education.
 Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to
analyze the interactions with people.
EXPLANATION: Discourse analysis examines how language is used to construct
social reality and meaning within a particular context. Discourse analysis is a
qualitative research method that examines how language is used to construct
social reality and meaning within a particular context. It involves analyzing the
use of language in social interactions, such as conversations, interviews, or
media texts, to understand how meaning is constructed, negotiated, or contested
through language. Discourse analysis aims to reveal the underlying assumptions,
ideologies, and power relations that are embedded in language use and how
they shape social practices and identities. The method typically involves
analyzing language at different levels, such as the grammatical structure,
vocabulary, and rhetorical devices used in the discourse, as well as the social
 context, cultural norms, and historical background that influence the language
use. Discourse analysis is used in various fields, such as sociology,
anthropology, linguistics, communication studies, and psychology, to study
diverse phenomena, such as social inequality, identity formation, media
representations, or political discourse.
 Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon
happened, then using grounded theory for analyzing quality data is the best
resort.
EXPLANATION: Grounded theory is a systematic approach to analyzing data
that involves developing a theory through the careful analysis of data and
observation, rather than beginning with a pre-existing hypothesis. Grounded
theory is a systematic approach to analyzing data that involves developing a
theory through the careful analysis of data and observation, rather than
beginning with a pre-existing hypothesis. It is a qualitative research method that
aims to generate a theory that is grounded in the data collected from the
research participants. The method typically involves collecting and analyzing
data through in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observations, and
systematically coding and categorizing the data to identify emerging themes,
patterns, or relationships. The theory is then developed based on these emerging
themes, rather than being guided by preconceived notions or existing theories.
Grounded theory aims to generate a theory that is grounded in the lived
experiences of the participants, and it is commonly used in social sciences, such
as sociology, psychology, and education, to study diverse phenomena, such as
social processes, organizational behavior, or health outcomes.
Preparing data analysis for quantitative research
 Phase I: Data Validation- is done to understand if the collected data sample is
per the pre-set standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided into four
different stages
o Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to
the survey or the questionnaire
EXPLANATION: Fraud checks are an essential aspect of data
validation in research, particularly in online surveys or questionnaires.
The goal of fraud checks is to ensure that each response comes from
a genuine respondent and not from automated or fake sources. These
checks may involve several measures, such as verifying the IP
address of the respondent, checking for duplicate responses, or using
CAPTCHA tests to ensure that the respondent is human. Fraudulent
responses can distort the data and invalidate the research findings, so
it is essential to implement fraud checks to maintain the integrity of the
data.
o Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is
selected or chosen in compliance with the research criteria
EXPLANATION: screening is an essential step to ensure that
participants meet the research criteria. Screening helps to ensure that
the collected data is relevant to the research question and that the
participants meet the eligibility requirements for the study. For
instance, if the research question is related to a particular age group,
gender, or occupation, then the participants must fit these criteria. The
screening process may involve collecting demographic information
from the participants or using specific screening tools to assess their
eligibility. Ensuring that the participants meet the research criteria is
crucial to obtain accurate and relevant data for the study.
o Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while
collecting the data sample
EXPLANATION: checking the procedures is an essential step to
ensure that ethical standards were maintained during data collection.
This is particularly crucial when dealing with human participants as the
study should be conducted in a manner that protects their rights and
well-being. The procedures should be designed to minimize potential
risks to the participants, obtain informed consent, protect the
confidentiality of the data, and ensure that the study is conducted in a
fair and unbiased manner. The research team should follow
established ethical guidelines and obtain approval from relevant ethical
review boards before conducting the study. Checking the procedures
during data validation helps ensure that the study was conducted in an
ethical and responsible manner, which is essential for maintaining the
credibility and trustworthiness of the research findings.
o Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all
the questions in an online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked
all the questions devised in the questionnaire.
EXPLANATION: Completeness checks are an important aspect of data
validation in research, particularly when dealing with surveys or
questionnaires. The goal of completeness checks is to ensure that all
questions are answered by the respondents, or if the respondent skips
any question, then the interviewer must ask all the questions in the
questionnaire to obtain complete responses. This is essential because
missing responses or skipped questions can lead to missing data or
incomplete information, which can affect the analysis and interpretation
of the research findings. Completeness checks can be done manually
or using software, and any missing data or skipped questions can be
 followed up with the respondents or the interviewers to obtain complete
data.
 Phase II: Data Editing- more often, an extensive research data sample comes
loaded with errors. Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or
sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein the
researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors.
EXPLANATION: the researchers identify and correct errors in the collected data,
such as incorrect entries or missing fields. Researchers carefully review the
collected data to identify any errors or inconsistencies. These errors may include
incorrect or incomplete entries, missing values, or discrepancies between
responses. Once these errors are identified, researchers can take steps to
correct or reconcile them. This process helps ensure that the data is accurate
and reliable, which is crucial for making valid conclusions and informed decisions
based on the research findings.
 Phase III: Data Coding- out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data
preparation associated with grouping and assigning values to the survey
responses.
EXPLANATION: the researchers group and assign values to the survey
responses. This is a critical phase as it involves identifying patterns or themes in
the data, which can help answer research questions and support the
development of theories. Data coding is a critical phase in data preparation and
involves grouping and assigning values to the survey responses. This phase is
important as it helps researchers identify patterns or themes in the data, which
can help answer research questions and support the development of theories.
During data coding, the researchers review the data collected, identify key
concepts, ideas, or themes that emerge from the data, and develop codes or
labels to represent them. The coding process may involve using software
programs to help manage and analyze the data or manually coding the data by
hand. Once the data is coded, the researchers can analyze the coded data to
identify relationships between the codes, develop categories or themes, and
generate insights that can be used to answer research questions. The process of
data coding is iterative, and researchers may need to revise their codes or
categories based on further analysis of the data or new insights that emerge
during the research process.