LECTURE NOTESON

CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING(Theory-4)

6th Semester

(Preapred By Satyajit Pani,Lect. Electrical)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICALENGINEERING
ITT CHOUDWAR
BASIC DEFINITION IN BLOCK DIAGRAM MODEL:
Block diagram: It is the pictorial representation of the cause-and-response relationship between input
and output of a physical system.

(a) (b)
Fig. (a) A block diagram representation of a system and
(b) A block diagram representation with gain of a system

Output: The value of input multiplied by the gain of the system.

Summing point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which two or more signals can be
added or subtracted. In Fig, inputs R(s) and B(s) have been given to a summing point and its output
signal is E(s). Here,

Fig. A block diagram representation of a system showing its different components

Take-off point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which a signal can be taken directly
and supplied to one or more points as shown in Fig.
Forward path: It is the direction of signal flow from input towards output.
Feedback path: It is the direction of signal flow from output towards input.
RULES FOR REDUCTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM MODEL:

.
PROCEDURE FOR REDUCTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM MODEL:
Step 1: Reduce the cascade blocks.
Step 2: Reduce the parallel blocks.
Step 3: Reduce the internal feedback loops.
Step 4: Shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards left.
Step 5: Repeat step 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.
Step 6: Find transfer function of whole system as

PROCEDURE FOR FINDING OUTPUT OF BLOCK DIAGRAM MODEL WITH

MULTIPLE INPUTS:
Step 1: Consider one input taking rest of the inputs zero, find output.
Step 2: Follow step 1 for each inputs of the given Block Diagram model and find
their corresponding outputs.
Step 3: Find the resultant output by adding all individual outputs.

Example 1:- Find C(s)/R(s) using block diagram reduction rules

Example-2:- Determine output C due to inputs R & U using the superposition method.
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS (SFGS)
It is a pictorial representation of a system that graphically displays the signal transmission in it.

Basic Definitions in SFGs:

Input or source node: It is a node that has only outgoing branches i.e. node ‘r’.
Output or sink node: It is a node that has only incoming branches i.e. node ‘c’.
Chain node: It is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches i.e. nodes ‘x1 ’,
‘x2’,‘x3’,‘x4’,‘x5’and ‘x6’.
Gain or transmittance: It is the relationship between variables denoted by two nodes or value of a
branch., Transmittances are ‘t1’, ‘t2’,‘t3’,‘t4’,‘t5’and ‘t6’.
Forward path: It is a path from input node to output node without repeating any of the nodes in between
them. There are two forward paths, i.e. path-1:‘r-x1-x2-x3 -x4-x5-x6 -c’ and path-2:‘r-x1 -x3 -x4-x5-x6-c’.
Feedback path: It is a path from output node or a node near output node to a node near input node
without repeating any of the nodes in between them.
Loop: It is a closed path that starts from one node and reaches the same node after trading through other
nodes. There are four loops, i.e. loop-1:‘x2-x3-x4 -x1’, loop-2:‘x5 -x6- x5 ’, loop-3:‘x1 -x2-x3-x4-x5-x6 -x1’ and
loop-4:‘x1-x3-x4 -x5-x6-x1’.
Self Loop: It is a loop that starts from one node and reaches the same node without trading through other
nodes i.e. loop in node ‘x4’ with transmittance ‘t 55’.
Path gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a forward path. The path gains
are P1 = t1t2t3t4t5 (for path-1) and P2 = t9t3t4t5 (for path-2).
Loop gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a loop. There are four loops,
i.e. L1 = -t2t3t6, L2 = -t5t7, L3 = -t1t2t3t4t5t8, and L4 = -t9t3t4t5t8.
Dummy node: If the first node is not an input node and/or the last node is not an output node than a node
is connected before the existing first node and a node is connected after the existing last node with unity
transmittances. These nodes are called dummy nodes. ‘r’ and ‘c’ are the dummy nodes.
Non-touching Loops: Two or more loops are non-touching loops if they don’t have any common nodes
between them. L1 and L2 are non-touching loops

PROPERTIES OF SFGS:
 Applied to linear system
 Arrow indicates signal flow
 Nodes represent variables, summing points and take-off points
 Algebraic sum of all incoming signals and outgoing nodes is zero
 SFG of a system is not unique
 Overall gain of an SFG can be determined by using Mason’s gain formula
SFG FROM BLOCK DIAGRAM MODEL:

Step-1: All variables and signals are replaced by nodes.

Step-2: Connect all nodes according to their signal flow.

Step-3: Each of gains is replaced by transmittances of the branches connected between two nodes of
the forward paths.

Step-4: Each of gains is replaced by transmittances multiplied with (-1) of the branches connected
between two nodes of the forward paths.

MASON’S GAIN FORMULA:

Transfer function of a system=

Where,
N= total number of forwardpaths
Pk= path gain of kth forward path
∆= 1 - (∑loop gains of all individual loops) + (∑gain product of loop gains of all possible two non-
touching loops) - (∑gain product of loop gains of all possible three non-touching loops) + …
∆k= value of ∆ after eliminating all loops that touches kth forward path
Example:- Find overall transfer function of system using Mason’s gain formula
CONSTRUCTION OF SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH FROM ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS:-
Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations
 CHAPTER#2
TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

TIME RESPONSE OF CONTROL SYSTEM:

Time response c(t)is the variation of output with respect to time. The part of time response that goes
to zero after large interval of time is called transient response c tr(t). The part of time response that
remains after transient response is called steady-state response css(t).

STANDARD TEST SIGNALS

1. Impulse Signal: An impulse signal δ(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

Laplace transform of impulse signal is

2. Step Signal: A step signal u(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

Laplace transform of step signal is

 3. Ramp Signal: A step signal r(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

(8.10)

Laplace transform of ramp signal

is

4. Parabolic Signal A step signal a(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

Laplace transform of parabolic signal is

TIME RESPONSE OF 1ST ORDER SYSTEM:
(i) Unit Step Response:-
Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.
So, r(t)=u(t)

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by each other.
Hence, equate the numerator terms.

1=A(sT+1)+Bs
By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A = 1.
Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.
0=T+B
⇒B=−T
Substitute, A = 1 and B = −T in partial fraction expansion of C(s)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

 The unit step response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

The transient term in the unit step response is -

The steady state term in the unit step response is –

The following figure shows the unit step response

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of t. It is gradually
increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady state. So, the steady state value depends
on the magnitude of the input.
(ii) Unit impulse response:
Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.
So, r(t)=δ(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

R(s) =1

Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.

Applying Inverse Laplace Transform on both the sides,

 The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and it is
zero for negative values of ‘t’.

TIME RESPONSE OF 2ND ORDER SYSTEM

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open loop transfer function,
ωn2 / s(s+2δωn) is connected with a unity negative feedback.
STEP RESPONSE OF 2ND ORDER SYSTEM

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system. Laplace transform of the unit step
signal is,

Taking the inverse Laplace Transform of above equation, we get

The above expression of output c(t) can be rewritten as
TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATION

Delay Time
It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant. It is
denoted by td.
Rise Time
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This is
applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped systems, consider the duration
from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is denoted by tr.
As per definition, the magnitude of output signal at Rise times is 1. That is c(t) = 1, hence

Peak Time
It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is denoted
by tp. At t=tp the first derivate of the response is zero.
As per definition at the peak time, the response curve reaches to its maximum value. Hence at
that point,
Peak Overshoot
Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final value
of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Mathematically, we can write it as

Mp=c(tp) − c(∞)

Where,c(tp) is the peak value of the response, c(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the
response.
Settling time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the specified
tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The
settling time is denoted by ts.
The settling time for 5% tolerance band is –

The settling time for 2% tolerance band is –

Where, τ is the time constant and is equal to 1/δωn.

Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to the
damping ratio δ.
Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are independent of the system gain. That means
even the system gain changes, the settling time ts and time constant τ will never change.

Steady state error:-

The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady state is known
as steady state error. It is represented as ess. We can find steady state error using the final value
theorem as follows.

Where,

E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal, e(t)

A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback is shown as follows.

E (s ) = R (s)- B (s ) --- (i)

B (s )= C (s ) H (s ) ----(ii)

C (s ) = E (s ) G (s )---- (iii)

Applying value of B(s) of eq 2 into eq 1

E (s ) = R (s)- C (s ) H (s )

Applying value of C(s) of eq 3 into above eq

E (s ) = R (s)- E (s ) G (s ) H (s )

Therefore, steady-state error depends on two factors, i.e.

(a) type and magnitude of R(s)
(b) open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)
Types of input and Steady-state error:
(i)Step Input:
(ii) Ramp Input:

Where,

(iii) Parabolic Input:

STATIC ERROR COEFFICIENT METHOD
EFFECT OF POLE AND ZERO TO TRANSFER FUNCTION

(i) Addition of a pole to the Forward Path Transfer Function:-

(a) Increases the order of the system
(b) Increases the overshoot
(c) Reduces stability
(d) Increase rise time
(e) Reduces bandwidth
(ii) Addition of a pole to the Closed-Loop Transfer function:-
(a) Increases rise time
(b) Decreases overshoot
(iii) Addition of a zero to the Closed-Loop Transfer function:-
(a) Decreases rise time
(b) Increases overshoot
(iv) Addition of a zero to the Forward path Transfer function:-
(a) Added zero far away from imaginary axis – Overshoot large & damping is very poor
(b) When zero moves to the right – Overshoot reduce & damping improves
(c) When zero moves closer to the origin – Overshoot increases & damping improves
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal.

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is K P.

Where,

U(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t)

E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)

KP is the proportionality constant

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
proportional controller is shown in the following figure.

DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of the error signal.

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is KDs

Where, KD is the derivative constant.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
derivative controller is shown in the following figure.
INTEGRAL CONTROLLER
The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error signal.

Where, KI is the integral constant.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

PROPORTIONAL DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLER

The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.
Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is KP+KDs.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
proportional derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system without
affecting the steady state error.

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROLLER

The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of outputs of
the proportional and integral controllers.

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting
the stability of the control system.

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER

The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of
the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
proportional integral derivative controller is shown in the following figure.
 CHAPTER#3
ANALYSIS OF STABILITY BY ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUE

STABILITY
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has the values
between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output. We know that the unit step signal has the value of one
for all positive values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the first order control
system is stable since both the input and the output are bounded.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS BASED ON STABILITY

We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.

Absolutely stable system

Conditionally stable system
Marginally stable system

Absolutely Stable System

If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is known as the
absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of
the open loop transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed loop control
system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function present in the left
half of the ‘s’ plane.

Conditionally Stable System

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is known as
conditionally stable system.

Marginally Stable System

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and constant
frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system. The
open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer function
is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is marginally stable if
any two poles of the closed loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis.
ROUTH-HURWITZ STABILITY CRITERION
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient condition
for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then we can say that
the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the necessary condition, then it
may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is helpful for knowing whether the control
system is stable or not.

NECESSARY CONDITION FOR ROUTH-HURWITZ STABILITY

The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be
positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative real
parts.

Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is -

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation. This
means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is of zero
value.

SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR ROUTH-HURWITZ STABILITY

The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should have
the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should be
either positive or negative.

ROUTH ARRAY METHOD

If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then the control
system is stable. If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the right half of the ‘s’
plane, then the control system is unstable. So, we have to find the roots of the characteristic
equation to know whether the control system is stable or unstable. But, it is difficult to find the
roots of the characteristic equation as order increases.

So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method. In this method, there is
no need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the Routh table and
find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh table. The number of sign
changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the number of roots of characteristic equation
that exist in the right half of the ‘s’ plane and the control system is unstable.

Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table.

Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of sn and continue
up to the coefficient of s0.
Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table
below. Continue this process till you get the first column element of row s0.
Note − If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you can divide
the row elements with that factor for the simplification will be easy.
The following table shows the Routh array of the nth order characteristic polynomial.
Example

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial,

are positive. So, the control system satisfies the necessary condition.
Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign change in
the first column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.

SPECIAL CASES OF ROUTH ARRAY

We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is difficult to
complete the Routh table from these two situations.

The two special cases are −

The first element of any row of the Routh’s array is zero.

All the elements of any row of the Routh’s array are zero.
Let us now discuss how to overcome the difficulty in these two cases, one by one.

 First Element of any row of the Routh’s array is zero

If any row of the Routh’s array contains only the first element as zero and at least one of the
remaining elements have non-zero value, then replace the first element with a small positive
integer, ϵ. And then continue the process of completing the Routh’s table. Now, find the number
of sign changes in the first column of the Routh’s table by substituting ϵ tends to zero.

 All the Elements of any row of the Routh’s array are zero
In this case, follow these two steps −

Write the auxiliary equation, A(s) of the row, which is just above the row of zeros.

Differentiate the auxiliary equation, A(s) with respect to s. fill the row of zeros with
these coefficients.

ROOT LOCUS
The Root locus is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation by varying system gain K
from zero to infinity.

We know that, the characteristic equation of the closed loop control system is
 From above two cases, we can conclude that the root locus branches start at open loop poles and
end at open loop zeros.

ANGLE CONDITION AND MAGNITUDE CONDITION

The points on the root locus branches satisfy the angle condition. So, the angle condition is used
to know whether the point exist on root locus branch or not. We can find the value of K for the
points on the root locus branches by using magnitude condition. So, we can use the magnitude
condition for the points, and this satisfies the angle condition.

Characteristic equation of closed loop control system is

The angle condition is the point at which the angle of the open loop transfer function is an odd
multiple of 1800.
Magnitude of G(s)H(s) is –

The magnitude condition is that the point (which satisfied the angle condition) at which the
magnitude of the open loop transfer function is one.

THE ROOT LOCUS IS A GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION IN S-DOMAIN AND IT IS

SYMMETRICAL ABOUT THE REAL AXIS. Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in
the s-domain having the values either as real or as complex conjugate pairs.

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCUS

Follow these rules for constructing a root locus.

Rule 1 − Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the‘s’ plane.

Rule 2 − Find the number of root locus branches.

We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop zeros. So,
the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of finite open loop poles P or the
number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater.

Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N as

N=P if P≥Z
N=Z if P<Z
Rule 3 − Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.

If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 1800, then that point
is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side of a point
on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore, the branch of points which
satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus branch.

Rule 4 − Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.

If P=Z, then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite
open loop zeros.
If P>Z, then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at
finite open loop zeros and P−Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop
poles and end at infinite open loop zeros.
If P<Z , then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at
finite open loop zeros and Z−P number of root locus branches start at infinite open loop
poles and end at finite open loop zeros.
So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when P≠Z. Asymptotes give the direction
of these root locus branches. The intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis is known as
centroid.
We can calculate the centroid α by using this formula,
Rule 5 − Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an imaginary axis.

We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis and the
value of K at that point by using the Routh array method and special case (ii).

If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the root locus branch
intersects the imaginary axis and vice-versa.

Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then the
elements of the entire row are zero. Find the value of K for this combination.

Substitute this K value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection point of
the root locus branch with an imaginary axis.

Rule 6 − Find Break-away and Break-in points.

If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then there will
be a break-away point in between these two open loop poles.
If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then there will
be a break-in point in between these two open loop zeros.

Note − Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus branches.

Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points.

Write K in terms of s from the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0.

Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero. Substitute these values of s in
the above equation.
The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break points.

Rule 7 − Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival.

The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex conjugate open
loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively.
Example
Let us now draw the root locus of the control system having open loop transfer function,

Step 1 − The given open loop transfer function has three poles at s = 0,

s = -1, s = -5. It doesn’t have any zero. Therefore, the number of root locus branches is equal

to the number of poles of the open loop transfer function.

N=P=3

The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line segment between s=−1, and
s=0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch of the root locus on the real
axis is the line segment to the left of s=−5.

Step 2 − We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using the given
formulae.

0  5 1
Centroid =  2
3
The angle of asymptotes are
Step 3 − Since two asymptotes have the angles of 60 and 300, two root locus branches intersect
the imaginary axis. By using the Routh array method and special case(ii),
the root locus branches intersects the imaginary axis at and

There will be one break-away point on the real axis root locus branch between the poles s =−1
and s=0. By following the procedure given for the calculation of break-away point, we will get it
as s =−0.473.

EFFECTS OF ADDING OPEN LOOP POLES AND ZEROS ON ROOT LOCUS

The root locus can be shifted in‘s’ plane by adding the open loop poles and the open loop
zeros.

If we include a pole in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus branches
will move towards right half of ‘s’ plane. Because of this, the damping ratio δ decreases.
Which implies, damped frequency ωd increases and the time domain specifications like
delay time td, rise time tr and peak time tp decrease. But, it effects the system stability.

If we include a zero in the open loop transfer function, then some of root locus
branches will move towards left half of ‘s’ plane. So, it will increase the control system
stability. In this case, the damping ratio δ increases. Which implies, damped frequency
ωd decreases and the time domain specifications like delay time td, rise time tr and peak
time tp increase.
 CHAPTER#4
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady state
response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The steady state response
of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency response. In this chapter,
we will focus only on the steady state response.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it

produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output sinusoidal
signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles. Let the input signal
be

Where,

A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.

ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

We can write, angular frequency ω0 as shown below.

ω0=2πf0
Here, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal. Similarly, you can follow the same
procedure for closed loop control system.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

The frequency domain specifications are
  Resonant peak
 Resonant frequency
 Bandwidth.

Consider the transfer function of the second order closed control system as
Resonant Peak:
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by Mr. At u=ur, the
Magnitude of T(jω) is -

Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot in the time domain
transient response for certain values of damping ratio δ. So, the resonant peak and peak overshoot
are correlated to each other.

Bandwidth:
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero
frequency value.
At ω=0, the value of u will be zero.
Substitute, u=0 in M.

Therefore, the magnitude of T(jω) is one at ω=0

At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of magnitude of T(jω)) at ω=0

Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time tr in the time
domain transient response.

POLAR PLOTS
Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the magnitudes are
represented by normal values only.
This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and the
radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are represented
by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles with negative
values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 270 0 in anti-clock wise direction is equal
to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.

RULES FOR DRAWING POLAR PLOTS

Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.

 Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
 Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω)
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0. So, the polar
plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞ So, the polar
plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary term of
G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term of
G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω) by
considering the other value(s) of ω.

Example:
Consider the open loop transfer function of a closed loop control system.
So, the polar plot starts at (∞,−900) and ends at (0,−2700). The first and the second terms within
the brackets indicate the magnitude and phase angle respectively.

Step 3 − Based on the starting and the ending polar co-ordinates, this polar plot will intersect the
negative real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −1800 or 1800. So,
by equating the phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −180 0 or 1800, we will
get the ω value as √2.

By substituting ω=√2 in the magnitude of the open loop transfer function, we will get M=0.83.
Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when ω=√2 and the polar coordinate is
(0.83,−1800).
So, we can draw the polar plot with the above information.

BODE PLOTS

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −

 Magnitude plot
 Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, yaxis
represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and
the phase angle (linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.

The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

Basic of Bode Plots:

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms present
in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.
Case-1:
The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself -
is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal line
will shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line will
shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all the
positive values of K.

Case-2:
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)= S
Magnitude M=20logω dB
Phase angle ϕ=900
At ω=0.1rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At ω=1rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At ω=10 rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/dec. This line started at
ω=0.1rad/sec having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It is touching 0
dB line at ω=1 rad/sec. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
Case-3:
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s) H(s)=1+sτ.
2
Magnitude = 1  (s )
Phase angle =

For , the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.

For , the magnitude is 20logωτ dB and phase angle is 900.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot

The magnitude plot is having magnitude of 0 dB up to ω=1τ rad/sec. From ω=1τ rad/sec, it is
having a slope of 20 dB/decade. In this case, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees up
to ω=1τ rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 90 0. This Bode plot is called the
asymptotic Bode plot. As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines,
the Exact Bode plots resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact
Bode plots will have simple curves instead of straight lines.

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF BODE PLOTS:

Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.

 Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.
 Substitute, s=jω in the above equation.
 Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.
 Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10th of the minimum corner frequency
or 0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot upto 10 times maximum
corner frequency.
 Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
 Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
STABILITY ANALYSIS USING BODE PLOTS

From the Bode plots, we can say whether the control system is stable, marginally stable or
unstable based on the values of these parameters.
 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
 Gain margin and phase margin

Phase Cross over Frequency:

The frequency at which the phase plot is having the phase of -1800 is known as phase cross over
frequency. It is denoted by ωpc. The unit of phase cross over frequency is rad/sec.

Gain Cross over Frequency:

The frequency at which the magnitude plot is having the magnitude of zero dB is known as gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc. The unit of gain cross over frequency is rad/sec.

The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross over frequency
and the gain cross over frequency is listed below.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then
the control system is marginally stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then
the control system is unstable.

Gain Margin:
Gain margin GM is equal to negative of the magnitude in dB at phase cross over frequency.
GM= - 20log(Mpc)
Where, Mpc is the magnitude at phase cross over frequency. The unit of gain margin (GM) is
dB.
Phase Margin:
The formula for phase margin PM is PM=1800+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at gain cross over frequency. The unit of phase margin is degrees.

****The stability of the control system based on the relation between gain margin and phase
margin is listed below.

 If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are positive, then the control system
is stable.
 If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are equal to zero, then the control
system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative, then the control
system is unstable.

Example: Sketch the Bode plot for the Transfer function

G(s) = 1000
(1+0.1 )(1+0.001𝑠)
Determine the a) Phase Margin
 b) Gain Margin
c) Stability of the System

Solution: Step-1 Put s =jω

G(jω) = 1000
(1+j0.1ω )(1+j0.001ω)
The given transfer function is of type '0’ system. Therefore the initial slope of the Bode plots
0 db/decade. The starting point is given by.
20 log10 K = 20 log10 1000 = 60 db
1
Corner frequencies ω1= =10 rad/sec.
0.1
1
ω2 = =1000 rad/sec.
0.001

Step 2 : Mark the starting point 60 db on y-axis and draw a line of slop 0 db/decade up to
first corner frequency.
Step 3 : From first corner frequency to second corner frequency draw a line with slope
(0 – 20) = -20 db/decade).
Step 4 : From second corner frequency to next corner frequency (if given) draw a line
having the slope -20 + (-20) = -40 db/decade.
Step 5 : The magnitude plot is complete and now draw the phase plot by calculating
the phase at different frequencies (as given in table).
Step 6: From the bode plot
From the point of intersection of magnitude curve with 0 db axis draw a line on
phase curve. This line cuts the phase curve at - 154°
P.M = -154-(-180)
= +26°
Step 7: Gain margin G.M =∞
Since, P.M = + 26° and gain margin =∞, the system is inherently stable.

ω - Arg (1 + j0.1ω ) -Arg (1 + j0.001ω) Resultant

-tan-1 (0.1 ω) -tan-1 (0.001 ω)

50 -78.6° -2.86° - 81.46°

100 - 84.2° -5.7° - 90°
150 - 86.2° - 8.5° - 94°
200 - 87.13° - 11.3° - 98°
500 - 88.85° -26.56° -115.4°
800 - 89.28° - 38.65° -127.93°
1000 -89.48° -45° -134.42°
2000 - 89.72° - 63.43° -153.15°
3000 - 89.8° - 71.56° -161.36°
5000 - 89.88° - 78.69° -168.57°
8000 - 89.92° - 82.87° -172.79°
CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE
C(s) G(s)
Consider transfer function 
R(s) 1  G(s)H (s)
For unity feedback H(s) =1

C(s)  G(s)

R(s) 1  G(s)
Put s= jɷ
C( j) G( j)

R( j) 1  G( j)
From figure
From above equation

Frequency response consists of 2 parts: (1) magnitude (2) phase angle. Both can be plotted against
different values of ɷ.
 CHAPTER#5
NYQUIST PLOT

NYQUIST PLOT

Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop control
systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete
frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P
poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane
must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we can write the number of encirclements N as,
N=P−Z
 If the enclosed‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed closed
path in the ‘s’ plane.
 If the enclosed‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the‘s’ plane by selecting it
as a closed path. This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer
function are in the left half of the‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are
nothing but the roots of the characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation
increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic
equation as follows.

 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open
loop transfer function.
 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed
loop transfer function.

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the right half
of the ‘s’ plane. i.e. P=0⇒N=−Z

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right
half of the ‘s’ plane. i.e. Z=0⇒N=P

Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point (1+j0)
must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open
loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the
characteristic equation plane.
RULES FOR DRAWING NYQUIST PLOTS

Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.

 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.

 Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s
= 0, then varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.

 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero
(0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).

 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or
zeros at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror
image of the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the
point where the polar plot starts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system using
the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the encirclement, then the
closed loop control system is absolutely stable.

STABILITY ANALYSIS USING NYQUIST PLOTS

From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable, marginally stable
or unstable based on the values of these parameters.

 Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

 Gain margin and phase margin

Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase angle is 1800) is
known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc.

Gain Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as the gain
cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.

The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency and
gain cross over frequency is listed below.

 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is stable.
 If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc, then
the control system is marginally stable.
 If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc, then the
control system is unstable.
Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist plot at the phase
cross over frequency.

Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.

Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain cross over
frequency.
PM=1800+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.

The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain margin and the phase
margin is listed below.

 If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is positive, then the
control system is stable.
 If the gain margin GMs equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero degrees, then the
control system is marginally stable.
 If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is negative, then the
control system is unstable.

Example:- Draw the nyquist plot and assess the stability of the closed loop system whose open
K
loop transfer function is G(s) H(s) =
s(2s  1)
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POLES & ZEROS TO G(s)H(s) ON THE SHAPE OF
NYQUIST PLOT

a) Addition of poles at s=0:- It will affect the stability of the closed loop system adversely.
A system that has a loop transfer function with more than one pole at s=0 is likely to be
unstable or difficult to stabilize.
b) Addition of finite non zero pole:- It shifts the phase of nyquist plot by -90̊ at ɷ= ∞. The
stability is adversely affected.
c) Addition of a Zero: - The effect of addition of zero is to rotate the nyquist plot by 90̊ in
the counter clockwise direction without effecting the value at ɷ = 0. So it has the effect of
reducing the overshoot & the general effect of stabilization.
CONSTANT MAGNITUDE CIRCLE (M- CIRCLE)

If M = 1, then from the above equation we obtain X = -1/2.This is the equation of a straight line
parallel to the Y-axis and passing through the point (-1/2, 0).

Divide both the sides by (1-M2)

The constant M locii for different value of M. It is clear that:

i. The locii are symmetrical wrt to M= 1
ii. The M-circles for M>1 are on the left side of the line M=1 and for M<1 the constant M-
circles are on the right side of the line M =1.
CONSTANT PHASE CIRCLE (N- CIRCLE):

It is observed that
a) The centre is lying always at a distance x= -1/2 and y depends upon the phase shift.
b) All the circles passes through -1 as well as 0.
NICHOLS CHART

 The chart consisting of constant-magnitude loci and constant phase-angle loci in the log-
magnitude versus phase diagram is called Nichols chart.
 The critical point (-1+j0) is mapped to the Nichols chart as the point (0 dB, 180degree).
The Nichols chart contains curves of constant closed-loop magnitude and phase angle.
 The designer can graphically determine the phase margin, gain margin, resonant peak
magnitude, resonant peak frequency, and bandwidth of the closed loops system from the
plot of the open-loop locus.
 The Nichols chart is symmetric about -180 degree axis. The constant-magnitude loci and
constant phase-angle loci repeat for every 360 degree, and there is a symmetry at every
180 degree. The constant-magnitude loci are centred about the critical point (0 dB, -180
degree).
 The intersection of the open-loop frequency response curve and the constant-magnitude
loci and constant phase-angle loci give the values of the magnitude and the phase angle of
the closed loop frequency response at each frequency point.
 If the open-loop frequency response curve does not intersect the constant-magnitude loci
but is tangent to it, then the resonant peak value of the closed-loop frequency response is
given by that loci. The resonant peak frequency is given by the frequency at the point of
tangency.
 The phase crossover point is the point where the open-loop locus intersects the -180 degree
axis, and the gain crossover point is the point where the locus intersects the 0 dB axis.
 The phase margin is the distance (measured in degrees) between the gain crossover point
and the critical point (0 dB, -180 degrees).
 The gain margin is the distance (in decibels) between the phase crossover point and the
critical point. The frequency at the intersection of the open-loop locus and the -3 dB locus
gives the bandwidth.