Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Current Electricity
(Part1)
Notes

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Introduction
We are going to learn about how the charges which are in motion constitute
the current, to study how current is used in our daily life.

For example: -
Glowing of bulb by switching on and off the switch.
All the electrical appliances work when the current passes through them.
Washing machines, iron box, battery, TV, laptop and so on.
In this chapter we will be able to give answers for the following questions :-
How electric current is produced by the movement of charges?
What are the different properties of current?
What constitutes the electric current?
What are the different laws which govern the electric currents?

Electric Current
Electric current is defined as flow of electric charge.
It is measured as rate of flow of charge. It means how much charge is flowing
with respect to time.
For example consider a charge of 20Coulomb flowing per second. Then the
current will be 20Coulomb/sec.
Electric current is denoted by I.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

It is written as I=dQ/dt, where dQ is rate of change of charge with respect to

time.
I unit is Amperes (A).
Direction of current determines from where the current originated and where it
will terminate.
It can be categorised into 2 ways:-Electronic and Conventional Currents.
Electronic current & Conventional current Electronic current
The electronic current is the flow of current in the direction of flow of electrons.

Conventional current
1. The current constituted by the positive charges and opposite to electronic
current. This is known as conventional current.
2. The conventional current direction is considered whenever we consider the
direction of current.

3. The direction of current is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

4. In any circuit the current is assumed to flow from positive end to negative
end.

Simple Electric Circuit

Definition of Ampere: -
1 Ampere is unit of measurement of rate of electrons flow or current in an
electrical conductor.
It represents one coulomb of electrical charge (6.24 x 1018 charge carriers)
moving past a specific point in one second.

Mathematically: - I=dQ/dt
Consider 1A =1C/1sec; where Unit of charge is coulomb and time is sec. => 1A
is the amount of current when 1C of charge (i.e. 6.24x1018 electrons) pass
through a point in 1 second.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Electromotive force
1. Emf(electromotive force) of the cell drives the current carriers to move in a
specific direction.
2. This Emf causes positive and negative charges to flow in a specific direction.
As a result current is generated.
3. Emf is a misnomer.
4. This means from the name it suggests it is a force but actually it is not.It is
the potential difference between the two electrodes.
5. It is known as force because it acts as initial force to start the flow of
charge.
6. Emf is defined as maximum work done per unit charge to take charge from
one point to another.
7. It can be also defined as maximum potential difference between (+ive) and
(ive) electrodes of the cell in an open circuit.
8. Emf provides an energy which does the work to move the charge from one
point to another.
9. As there is potential difference between the two electrodes the charges will
flow.
10.The charges will tend to flow from higher potential to lower potential.
11.There is no conductive path between the electrodes, so charges can’t flow
from inside the electrodes.
12.That is why a path is created by the circuit by the conducting wires.
13.The electrons start flowing towards the (+)ive terminal and as a result
electric current is generated.
14.Similarly (+) ive charges will flow towards the (-)ive terminal of the cell.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

15.Main reason for the flow of charge is the difference in the potential
between the electrodes of the cell.
16.This difference in the potential between the electrodes of the cell is known
as Emf.
Question:-
The storage battery of a car has an Emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the
battery is 0.4Ω, what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the
battery?
Answer:-
Emf of the battery, E = 12 V
Internal resistance of the battery, r = 0.4 Ω
Maximum current drawn from the battery = I
According to Ohm’s law, E=IR
I=(E/R)=(12/0.4) =30A
The maximum current drawn from the given battery is 30 A.

Difference between EMF and Potential Difference

EMF Potential Difference

Max potential differenceDifference

between of potential between any
electrodes in open circuit.
2 points in a closed circuit.

It is just measured between 2 points

It is a source of electric current.
in a circuit.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Potential difference is affected by

resistance in a circuit. As circuit is
closed and current flows through
this circuit
Emf is independent of resistance in there will be voltage
a circuit. drop due to resistance R.

If in a circuit resistance isAs circuit is closed and current flows

added
then it won’t affect the EMF through this circuit there will be
voltage drop due to resistance R.
between the electrodes as circuit is
open.

P.d. is related to entire closed

EMF is related to the cell only.
circuit.

Current as a scalar
Current is a scalar quantity. Current does not have direction.
Current follows the algebraic sum of 2 currents not the vector sum. For
Example: -If there are 2 wires and resistors are attached with them, then
the current will flow from +ive end to–ive end of the wire.
Whenever the direction of flow of current is specified it will be either by the
flow of electrons or the flow opposite to the direction of electrons.
Always from where the current originate it matters.
Current flow from positive terminal and move towards the negative terminal.
Flow of current will be opposite to the flow of electrons.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

To define the direction of the amount of charge that flows through the
particular area, Current density term was introduced.
Current density is a vector quantity
Current density tells about the amount of charge flowing per unit area and
about the direction of the current.
Direct current (DC)
In DC the electrons always flow in one direction.
For example: - Current that is generated from a battery. All the electrons will
flow towards positive terminal of the battery.

Alternating Current (AC)

1. In AC electrons flow back and forth changing direction multiple times in a
second.
2. Once the electrons reach one end then the polarity of the battery gets
reversed.

Polarity reverses

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Solids as Current carriers

In solids free electrons carry current. These electrons are free to move around
freely.
1. For example: -Consider Copper (Cu) Atomic number = 29. From the
electronic configuration (1s2 2s2 2p63s2 3p6 4s1 3d10) of Cu there is 1 electron
in the valence shell(outermost shell(4s1)).

2. The valence electron is most loosely bound to the nucleus so they have the
tendency to come out of atom.
3. By giving some energy to the atom the electrons from valence shell will first
move out of the shell.
4. These valence electrons keep on jumping from one atom to another.
5. The movement of free electrons gives rise to current in case of a solid.

Liquids as Current carriers

• In liquids positive and negative ions carries current in liquids.

• An ion is an atom or molecule in which total number of electrons is not
equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative
electrical charge.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

• Consider NaCl solution, chlorine has 7 electrons in the valence shell. As

chlorine is short of one electron to attain stable atomic configuration, it
always has the tendency to gain electron. And Na has one electron in its
outermost shell so it has the tendency to lose that electron to become
stable.
• As soon as electron loses Na, Na becomes Na+ ion and when the electron
enters chlorine shell, Cl becomes Cl-

• When we apply electric field across this liquid. Na+ move towards the
negative end and Cl- move towards positive end.

• Because of movement of these positive and negative ions current will be

generated.

• Atom becomes ion when it loses or gains an electron.

• In the above figure Chlorine has 7 electrons in the valence shell and Sodium
(Na) has 1 electron in the valence shell. On applying electric field, Cl
becomes Cl- ion by gaining one electron and Na loses 1 electron to become
Na+.

Gases as Current carriers

Gases are bad conductors of electricity because they neither have free
electrons nor have free ions to conduct current.
Gases can conduct electricity only if they are ionized.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Ionization Process:-

• Ionization is a process in which an electron is forcibly extracted from a gas.

• As a result atom will become +ively charged ion.
• By extraction of electron, there will be electrons as well as positively
charged ion which can carry current.

• Therefore positive ions and free electrons carry current in the gases.

Gases can be ionized by different ways:-

External Rays
For example: - When any radiation falls on a gas they can extract electrons
from a gas. As a result free electron and positively charged atom is left behind.
Electric field and high temperature
By the application of the electric field electrons can get extracted from the
gases forcibly and move towards the positive end of the electric field.

Solids Liquids Gases

Free electrons carry Positive and negative Positive ions and free
current. ions carry current. electrons carry current.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Electric current in Conductors

Conductors are those substances which allow electricity to pass through them.
Case 1:-Normal condition(Without Battery)
1. The free electrons(valence electrons) keep moving randomly. These
electrons will have some velocity with which they keep on moving randomly
inside the conductor. This velocity is known as thermal velocity.
2. As this entire motion is random therefore the average thermal velocity of
electrons is 0.
Case 2:- When external electric field is applied.
1. When battery is applied the electrons will start moving towards the positive
end of the conductor.
2. Positively charged ions get attracted towards negative ions, but as these
positively charged ions are heavy they don’t move.
3. As electrons move towards the positive end they get accelerated.
4. As electrons are moving in one direction they will collide with the positively
charged ions in the path.
5. The extra velocity whatever the electron gained by accelerating will be lost
as a part by collision.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

The net result is that the electron acquires a very small amount of velocity. The
average of this small velocity which they have acquired is known as Drift
velocity.
6. Drift velocity is the velocity with which the electrons get drifted towards the
positive end of the applied electric field.
Electrons have 2 velocities- Thermal and Drift.

Expression for electrons’ Drift Velocity

Mathematically:-
1. Initially before applying the electric field, electrons are moving randomly
such that the average thermal velocity is 0. That is vi=(v1+v2+v3+…+vn)/n=0.
2. E = external electric field applied to the conductor.
3. Length of the conductor = l and Potential Difference across (+) and (-) ends
=V
4. From the relation E=V/l as electric field is gradient of potential.
5. Each electron will experience a coulomb force because of electric field i.e.
6. F=-eE
7. Acceleration of each electron =F/m= (-eE)/me; where me mass of the
electron
8. But the gain in velocity due to acceleration is lost during collision of
electrons with +ive ions.
9. After the collision, velocity of an electron =v1 +a τ1 (using v=u+at)
10. Where τ1 =time taken by the electron to collide with positive ion,
v1=initial velocity.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

7. Similarly velocity of second electron =v2 +a τ2

8. Therefore average of these velocities = Drift Velocity(vd)
9. vd = ((v1+a τ1) +(v2 +a τ2)+(v3+a τ3) + …..))/n where n=no of electrons.
10. vd =(v1+ v2 +v3+….)/n +a(τ1+τ2+τ3+ ….)/n
Where (v1+ v2 +v3+….)/n =0= average of thermal velocities of all the electrons.
11. vd=aτ ; where τ =average time collapsed since each electron suffered
collision ;e (τ1+τ2+τ3+….)/n
12. Therefore vd =aτ ; using a= -eE/me
13. vd =-eEτ /me

Current in a metallic conductor. The magnitude of current density in a metal is

the magnitude of charge contained in a cylinder of unit area and length vd.
How is current related to electrons’ drift velocity?
Mathematically:-
a. Consider a conductor of length =L, Area of conductor=A and Potential
Difference = V.
b. Number of electrons per unit volume(Number Density) =n
c. Therefore total number of electrons in the conductor=n x V = nAL
d. Charge on total number of electrons =enAL (Equation(i))
e. Electric field =V/L; because of electric field electrons start drifting
f. Time taken by an electron to cross the conductor=(distance
covered/velocity)
=L/( vd) where vd = drift velocity
g. Therefore Current I = (total charge/time) = (enAL)/(L/vd) using (Equation(i))

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

h. I= enAvd =>I vd
i. Even though drift velocity is very small but the number of electrons which
are present in the conductor is very huge.
j. The drift velocity is small but the number of electrons is large so the current
is large.

Ohm’s Law
a. Ohm’s law is named after the scientist Ohm who gave this law.
b. According to the Ohm’s law current flowing through a conductor is directly
to the potential difference applied between the ends of the conductor.
This means if the potential difference applied at the ends increases then the
current flowing through the conductor also increases and vice-versa.
Mathematically

• Current flowing through the conductor I V where V is the potential

difference applied at the ends of the conductor.

• Or I=(constant) V where constant = 1/R where R =resistance of the

conductor
=> I=(1/R)V
=>V=IR
Graph between Current and Voltage

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

From Equation of straight line = y=mx+c; I=(1/R)V + 0;

Where I current along y-axis and V along x-axis. Also m (slope)=(1/R) which
denotes a straight line.
Derivation of Ohm’s Law
Mathematically:- vd = (-
eEτ/m) equation(i) E=-
V/L equation(i) From
Equation(i) and (ii) ; vd
=(eVτ)/(mL)
=> V=( vd mL)/eτ ;
Also I=Ane vd
=>vd=(I)/(Ane) equation(iii)
Therefore,
V = (ImL) /(Aneeτ) Using equation(iii)
=((mL) / (Ane2τ)I)
=(((ρL)/A))I where ρ= (m/ne2τ) Therefore
V=RI Hence proved.
Question:-
A potential difference of 200V is applied across the ends of a conductor of
resistance 50 ohms. Calculate the number of electrons flowing through it in
one second?
Answer:-
Given V=200V, R=50Ω; By Ohm’s law: - V=IR
=> I=V/R
=>200/50=4A.
I=Q/t = (ne)/t => n= (It)/e

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

= (4x1)/ (1.6x10-19) = 2.5x1019

Limitations of Ohm’s law
1. Ohm’s law is not true for all objects.
For example: - Behaviour of diodes. Diode is a device which allows
unidirectional flow of current. It does not follow ohm’s law.
2. Behaviour of Water Voltammeters.

Characteristic curve of a diode. Note the different scales for negative and
positive values of the voltage and current.

Question:-
A battery of Emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If
the current in the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is
the terminal voltage of the battery when the circuit is closed?
Answer:-
Emf of the battery, E = 10 V
Internal resistance of the battery, r = 3 Ω
Current in the circuit, I = 0.5 A
Resistance of the resistor = R
The relation for current using Ohm’s law is, I= (E/R+r)
R+r = (E/I) = (10/0.5) =20Ω
Therefore R=20-3=17Ω

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Terminal voltage of the resistor = V

According to Ohm’s law,
V = IR
= 0.5 × 17
= 8.5 V
Therefore, the resistance of the resistor is 17 Ω and the terminal voltage is 8.5
V.

Resistance

• Resistance is the property that resists flow of current.

• From Ohm’s law: - V=IR where R=resistance of the conductor.
• If huge amount of current flows through a circuit it will produce huge
amount of heat which can damage the circuit.
• Resistance helps to avoid damage to the circuit when huge amount of
current flows.
• Resistance will control the flow of current.
• When we apply some external field the free electrons will start moving
towards the positive end.
• They will keep colliding with the positive ions here and there. These
collisions give rise to resistance. Greater the collision more is the resistance
and vice-versa.

High resistance: - –

• In case of high resistance too many obstacles in the path of the electron.
Collisions will be more as a result resistance will be more. Therefore current
will be less.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Low resistance:-

• In case of low resistance obstacles are not so many in the path of the
electrons.
• Collisions will be less as a result resistance will be less. Therefore current
will be more.

Expression for resistance

• From Ohm’s law: V=IR => R=V/I o Where I =current flowing
through the conductor.
• R=(V/enAvd) ; Using Equation(i) I= enAvd
• where n=number density, A=area of conductor, vd=drift velocity
,e=charge on electron,m= mass of the electron
• =>R=(V/(enA)) x (m/(eEτ)) ; o Using vd= ((eEτ)/m)
▪ where τ=time elapsed between each successive collisions o => ((El)/(enA))
x((m)/eEτ)) ; ▪ Using E=V/l
▪ where V=potential difference and l=length ▪ By solving, R =(ml)/(ne2τA)
▪ =>This term (m/ne2τ) depends on the material. It can be taken as
constant for specific material.
▪ This constant is known as ρ.
▪ Therefore R= ρ (l/A). This ρ is known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the conductor.
From Equation R= ρ (l/A) the factors on which resistance depends:-

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

1. Length of the conductor. R

1. If length increases the resistance also increases.
2. Consider if the length of the conductor increases then electrons have to
travel more distance to reach positive end.
3. There will be more obstacles as a result resistance will increase.
2. Cross-sectional area of conductor. R (1/A).
1. If more cross-sectional area resistance will be less and vice-versa.
2. If the cross sectional area is increased the obstacles will remain the
same but the electrons will get more space to move freely without
colliding.
3. So there will be fewer collisions therefore resistance tends to decrease.
3. Nature of the material of conductor. ρ
1. ρ depends on number density(n), mass of the conductor(m), relaxation
time between each successive collisions(τ) and charge on the
conductor(e).
4. Temperature of the conductor.

How resistance varies with temperature?(For metals)

• With increase in temperature the random motion of molecules increases.
• Initially the metal atoms are at rest but when the temperature is increased
the metal atom starts vibrating as a result collision between metal atom
and free electrons increases and as a result resistance increases.
• Experimentally it was found:- o Rt=R0(1+α t +β t2)
▪ Where Rt=resistance at any temperature t.
▪ R0 =resistance at temperature 0.
▪ As temperature was very less therefore β t2 is neglected.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

o Therefore Rt=R0(1+α t) where α is known as temperature coefficient of

resistance. o α = (Rt - R0)/ (R0t). => If α is (+) ive this means Rt>R0 vice
versa.
▪ Conclusion:-
▪ α is positive for conductors.
▪ α is negative for insulators/semiconductors.

Question:-
A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial
current of 3.2 A which settles after a few seconds toa steady value of 2.8 A.
What is the steady temperature of the heating element if the room
temperature is 27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome
averaged over the temperature range involved is 1.70 × 10−4 °C −1?
Answer:-
Supply voltage, V = 230 V
Initial current drawn, I1 = 3.2 A
Initial resistance = R1, which is given by the relation, R1
=V/I =230/3.2 =71.87Ω.
Steady state value of the current, I2 = 2.8 A
Resistance at the steady state = R2, which is given as R2
=230/2.8 = 82.14Ω.
Temperature co-efficient of nichrome, α = 1.70 × 10−4 °C −1
Initial temperature of nichrome, T1= 27.0°C
Study state temperature reached by nichrome = T2
T2 can be obtained by the relation for α,

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

α= (R2 - R1)/ (R1(T2 – T1))

(T2 – 27)0C = (82.14 - 71.87)/ (71.87x1.7x10-4))
(T2 – 27)0C =840.5
T2 = 840.5 + 27
T2 =867.50C
Therefore, the steady temperature of the heating element is 867.5°C.
Question:-
A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at
100 °C. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver.
Answer:-
Temperature, T1 = 27.5°C
Resistance of the silver wire at T1, R1 = 2.1 Ω
Temperature, T2 = 100°C
Resistance of the silver wire at T2, R2 = 2.7 Ω
Temperature coefficient of silver = α
It is related with temperature and resistance as α
= (R2 - R1)/(R1(T2 –T1))
= (2.7 – 2.1)/ (2.1(100-27.5)) =0.0039°C−1
Resistivity
• Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.
• It is the resistance of the specific material; also it is specific to a material.
• R=ρ, If A and L =1 in Equation R= ρ (L/A).
• Resistivity is defined as resistance of unit length and unit area of a
conductor.
• Greater the resistivity, greater the field needed to develop a given current
density.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

o Consider 2 objects A and B and ρ of A is very high and ρof B is

comparatively low. o If we apply electric field E to B, then the same amount
of current I is produced. o And if same amount of electric field is applied to
material A, the same amount of current (i)won’t be produced as its resistivity
is more than B. o =>(i)<(I). o In order to have more current more electrons
should flow, the obstacles should be less. o This implies if resistivity is very
high then the resistance will be very high as a result current produced will be
less.
o To overcome more resistivity more electric filed is applied.
• Resistivity for perfect conductors is 0.In perfect conductors there is no
resistance at all.
• Resistivity for perfect insulators is infinite. There are so many obstacles as a
result resistance is more so current cannot flow at all.
• Resistance tells about the resistance of the conductor as whole whereas
resistivity tells about the resistance of a specific material.

Resistivity variation with Temperature-Metals

1. Case 1:- Normal temperature o At normal temperature the electrons are
free to move the resistance is not so much as a result some current is flowing
in the conductor.
2. Case 2:- Hot Metal
o As the temperature is more the metal atoms also start moving randomly.
o As a result collisions will be more as they face more obstacles as a result
resistivity increases.
o As collisions are more frequent therefore the average time between the
collisions decreases as a result τ decreases. o Therefore drift velocity
decreases and as a result current decreases.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Resistivity variation with Temperature-Non Metals

• In case of non-metals resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.
• In metals there will free electrons in the valence shell but in case of
nonmetals all the electrons are tightly bound to nucleus. Free electrons are
not present for conduction.
• But when the temperature is increased the atoms start moving away from
the nucleus.
• When temperature increases more electrons are available for conduction as
they set themselves loose from the atom. As result conductivity increases as
the temperature increases.
• Therefore resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.

Question:-
A wire is stretched to make it 0.2% longer. What is the percentage change in
resistance?

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Answer:-
Initial length l, Area =A and Resistance =R.
Final l’= l+0.2%l
=l+ (0.2/100) l
=1.002l
Area = A’, Resistance =R’
Volume remains constant.
Al=A’l’ => A’ =Al/l’ = (Al)/ (1.002l)
R’=(ρl’)/A’
Percentage change in resistance = ((R’-R/R) x 100) x100%
= ((ΔR/R) x100) %
ΔR = R’ – R =(ρ(l1/A1)) – (ρ(l2/A2)) = ρ((1.002l)/ (A/0.002)) – ρl/A
=(ρl)/A [(1.002)2 -1] = R x0.004
Therefore, ΔR/R =0.004
Therefore, the temperature coefficient of silver is 0.0039°C−1.
Question:-
A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform
cross-section 6.0 × 10−7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is
the resistivity of the material at the temperature of the experiment?
Answer:-
Length of the wire, l =15 m
Area of cross-section of the wire, a = 6.0 × 10−7 m2
Resistance of the material of the wire, R = 5.0 Ω
Resistivity of the material of the wire = ρ
Resistance is related with the resistivity as
R= ρ (l/A)
Ρ = (RA)/ (l)

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

= (5x6x10-7)/15 =2x10-7 Ω m
Therefore, the resistivity of the material is 2 × 10−7 Ω m.
Question:-
A wire of resistance 5Ω is drawn out so that its length is increased by twice its
original length. Calculate its new resistance?
Answer:-
Initially R=5Ω, Length=l, Area =A
Final Resistance R’, l’=l+2l, Area =A’
=> Al =A’l’
A’ = (Al)/l’ = (Al)/ (3l) = A/3
R’=(ρl’)/A =ρ (3l)/ (A/3)
= ρ (l/A) 9 =9(ρl)/A
=9R =9x5Ω
R’=45Ω

Current density
• Current density is defined as current flowing per unit area provided the area
is held normal to the current.
• Current density is a property which describes at a specific point of the
conductor.

• Consider a conductor and to know what amount of current is flowing

through a particular point of the conductor at particular time.
• Not only the magnitude but the orientation of the area plays an important
role.
• It is denoted by J.
• J=I/A where A=area vector

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

• It is a vector quantity.
• Current density changes as the orientation of the area changes.

• Mathematically:-
• J=dI/dA where dI=change of current with unit area.
• J.dA = dI ;=>JdAcosθ =>dI
• When dA is perpendicular to J then ,θ =900 => cosθ =1
• JdA=dI=> I=JA
• J=I/A .This is true only when the area vector is held normal to the direction of
the current.

Electrical Conductance and Conductivity

• Electrical Conductance is opposite to resistance.
• Conductance means something which conducts the current. Greater the
resistance lesser the conductance and vice-versa.
• Unit is mho/Siemen (S)

Conductivity
• Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity.

• It is denoted by σ.
• Unit :mho m-1/Sm-1

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Microscopic form of Ohm’s law

• It is known as microscopic as it tells about the phenomenon which takes

place inside the conductor.
• Current density ,J=σE
• J=I/A => I= Anevd ,therefore J=(Anevd)/A
• => nevd = ne(eEτ/m) using vd = (eEτ/m)
• =(ne2Eτ)/m
• Therefore J=(ne2Eτ)/m using ρ=m/(ne2τ)
• J=(1/ρ)E
• J=σE; this is the alternative form of Ohm’s law.

Question:-
In the Bohr model of Hydrogen atom, the electron circulates around the
nucleus in a path 5.1x10-11 at a frequency of 6.8x1015 revolutions per second.
Calculate the equivalent current?
Answer:-
Radius r =5.1x10-11 m
Frequency f=6.8x1015 rev/sec
I=Q/t => e/t; where t is the time taken by electron to complete 1 rev.
t= (Distance travelled in 1revolution)/Speed = (2πr)/v =>v=rω
where ω=angular frequency.
=>v=r2πf.
After calculations and simplifications, t=1/f,
I=ef =1.6x10-19 x 6.8x1015 =1.088x10-3A
Question:-
In a discharge tube, the number of hydrogen ions drifting across a cross section
per second is 1x1018, while the number of electrons drifting in the opposite

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

direction across another cross-section is 2.7x1018 per second. If the supply

voltage is 230V, what is the effective resistance of the tube?
Answer:-
Effective resistance=V/I where I =current through cross-section.
I=Q/t = (ne+ np) e/t= ((2.7x1018+1x1018)1.6x10-19)1sec =0.592A Therefore
Effective resistance =V/I =230/0.592= 3.9x102Ω.

Question:-
Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium and the other of copper have the
same resistance. Which of the two wires is lighter? Hence explain why
aluminium wires are preferred for overhead power cables.(ρAl = 2.63 × 10–8 Ω
m, ρCu = 1.72 × 10–8 Ω m, Relative density ofAl = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9.)
Answer:-
Resistivity of aluminium, ρAl = 2.63 × 10−8 Ω m
Relative density of aluminium, d1 = 2.7
Let l1 be the length of aluminium wire and m1 be its mass.
Resistance of the aluminium wire = R1
Area of cross-section of the aluminium wire = A1
Resistivity of copper, ρCu = 1.72 × 10−8 Ω m
Relative density of copper, d2 = 8.9
Let l2 be the length of copper wire and m2 be its mass.
Resistance of the copper wire = R2
Area of cross-section of the copper wire = A2 The
two relations can be written as:

R1=(ρ1l1)/A1 (i)
R2=(ρ2l2)/A2 (ii)

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

It is given that, R1=R2

(ρ1l1)/A1 = (ρ2l2)/A2
And,l1 = l2
Therefore (ρ1/A1) = (ρ2/A2)
= (A1/A2) = (ρ1/ρ2) =2.63x10-8/ (1.72x10-8)
= (2.63/1.72)
Mass of the aluminium wire, m1
= Volume × Density
= A1l1 × d1 = A1 l1d1 … (iii)
Mass of the copper wire, m2
= Volume × Density
= A2l2 × d2 = A2 l2d2… (iv)
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv), we obtain
= (m1)/ (m2) = (A1 l1d1)/ (A2 l2d2)
For l1=l2
=m1/m2 = (A1d1)/ (A2d2)
For (A1/A2) = (2.63)/ (1.72)
=m1/m2 =(2.63 x 2.7)/ (1.72 x 8.9) =0.46.
It can be inferred from this ratio that m1 is less than m2. Hence, aluminium is
lighter than copper. Since aluminium is lighter, it is preferred for overhead
power cables over copper.
Resistors
• Resistors are objects which resist the flow of current.
• There are 2 types of resistors:-
1. Wire bound resistors:-Wire bound resistors are made up of alloys.
1. Wires of alloy are wound over and over again to form a resistor.
2. They are used in car braking system, railway track system, etc.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Because the resistivity of an alloy does not change with temperature.

3. They are insensitive to temperature.

2. Carbon resistors: -
1. Carbon resistors are made up of carbon compound.
2. More the carbon content in the resistor less is the resistivity.
3. They are used in small electrical circuits.
3. Advantages:-
1. Compact
2. Inexpensive
4. Disadvantages:
5. They cannot withstand very temperature. With increase in temperature
there is change in the resistivity.

Resistor colour codes

• To know the resistance of a resistor colour coding is done.
• Carbon resistors have different colour bands or different colour rings
which have specific value.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Tolerance
Colour Number

Black 0

Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 3

Yellow 4

Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Grey 8

White 9

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Gold 5%

Silver 10%

No colour 20%

To
remember
the colour
codes:-

(B B Roy of
Great
Britain has
very good
wife).

To calculate
the
resistance
of this
resistor:-

First band =Brown, Second Band= Green, Third band = Red Last Band = Gold
Using colour codes 15x102Ω where 102 decimal multiplier for Gold +-(5%)

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Resistance = 1500Ω tolerance value is 5%

Note:-
• The first two colour bands represent the first two significant figures.
• The third band represents decimal multiplier
• Last band represents the tolerance. Tolerance means the possible
variation in percentage about the indicated value.
Chart of colour coded resistors

Combination of Resistors
Resistors can be combined in 2 ways:-
1. Resistors in Series: A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are
arranged in a single chain, resulting in common current flowing through
them.

Circuit Diagram

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

• ‘N’ number of resistors can be joined together.

• As all the resistors are connected to each other as a result same amount of
current flows through each resistor.
• But the Potential difference will be different in each resistor.
• Consider current flowing through all the resistors =I, Resistance across first
resistor=R1.
• Potential difference across resistor R1is V1, V1=IR1(By ohm’s Law)
• Similarly V2=IR2, V3= IR3 and so on.
• Therefore Total Voltage V=V1+V2+V3+….. +Vn
• IRequivalent =IR1+IR2+IR3+…. +IRn where Requivalent is the equivalent resistance
of the circuit.
• =>Requivalent =(R1+ R2+ R3+….+Rn)
• Therefore if the resistances are connected in series then the total
equivalent resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of all the resistors
in the circuit.
2. Resistors in Parallel:- A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are
arranged with their heads connected together, and their tails connected
together.

• The potential difference(V)across each resistor is same.

• The amount of current flowing is different. This means I= I1+I2+I3+…+In

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

• =>From Ohm’s law - (V/Requivalent) = (V/R1)+(V/R2)+(V/R3)+…..+(V/Rn)

• =>1/ Requivalent =(1/ R1+1/ R2+1/R3+….+1/Rn)
• Therefore if the resistances are connected in parallel then the total
equivalent resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of
all the resistors connected in the circuit.
Circuit diagram

Question:-
A network of resistors is connected to a 16 V battery with internal resistance of
1Ω, as shown in Fig.
(a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the network.
(b) Obtain the current in each resistor.
(c) Obtain the voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD.

Answer:- (a) The network is a simple series and parallel combination of

resistors. First the two 4Ω resistors in parallel are equivalent to a resistor =
[(4 × 4)/(4 + 4)] Ω = 2 Ω.
In the same way, the 12 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in parallel are equivalent to a
resistor of

[(12 × 6)/(12 + 6)] Ω = 4 Ω.

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

The equivalent resistance R of the network is obtained by combining these

resistors (2 Ω and 4 Ω) with 1 Ω in series, that is, R = 2 Ω + 4 Ω + 1 Ω = 7 Ω.
(b) The total current I in the circuit is I=E/(R+r)
=16V/(7+1) Ω =2A.
Consider the resistors between A and B. If I1 is the current in one of the 4 Ω
resistors and I2 the current in the other,
I1 × 4 = I2 × 4 that is, I1 = I2, which is otherwise obvious from the symmetry of
the two arms. But I1 + I2 = I = 2 A. Thus,
I1 = I2 = 1 A
that is, current in each 4 Ω resistor is 1 A. Current in 1 Ω resistor between B and
C would be 2 A.
Now, consider the resistances between C and D. If I3 is the current in the 12 Ω
resistor,
and I4 in the 6 Ω resistor,
I3 × 12 = I4 × 6, i.e., I4 = 2I3
But, I3 + I4 = I = 2 A Thus, I3
= (2/3) A,I4= (4/3)A
that is, the current in the 12 Ω resistor is (2/3) A, while the current in the 6 Ω
resistor is (4/3) A.
(c) The voltage drop across AB is
VAB = I1 × 4 = 1 A × 4 Ω = 4 V,
This can also be obtained by multiplying the total current between A and B by
the equivalent resistance between A and B, that is,

VAB = 2 A × 2 Ω = 4 V
The voltage drop across BC is
VBC = 2 A × 1 Ω = 2 V

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Class 12 Physics | Current Electricity | Part 1

Finally, the voltage drop across CD is VCD

= 12 Ω × I3 = 12 Ω × (2/3) A=8V.
This can alternately be obtained by multiplying total current between C and D
by the equivalent resistance between C and D, that is,
VCD = 2 A × 4 Ω = 8 V
Note that the total voltage drop across AD is 4 V + 2 V + 8 V = 14 V.
Thus, the terminal voltage of the battery is 14 V, while its Emf is 16 V. The loss
of the voltage (= 2 V) is accounted for by the internal resistance1 Ω of the
battery [2 A × 1 Ω = 2 V].

**********

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