The Internationalisation

of Higher Education
in the Mediterranean
CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE TRENDS
@2021 Union for the Mediterranean

Address: Union for the Mediterranean [UfM] ufmsecretariat

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Higher Education & Research
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E-mail: education@ufmsecretariat.org

Authors: (in alphabetical order): Maria Giulia Ballatore, Raniero Chelli, Federica De Giorgi, Marco Di Donato,
Federica Li Muli, Silvia Marchionne, Anne-Laurence Pastorini, Eugenio Platania, Martina Zipoli

Coordination: Marco Di Donato, UNIMED; João Lobo, UfM

Advisory: Itaf Ben Abdallah, UfM

Creative layout: kapusons

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How to cite this publication: UNIMED (2021). The Internationalisation of Higher Education in the Mediterranean,
Current and prospective trends. Barcelona: Union for the Mediterranean

Disclaimer: Neither the Union for the Mediterranean nor any person acting on behalf of the Union for the
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Copyright: © Union for the Mediterranean, 2021

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Acknowledgments
The publication benefited greatly from the contribution of the members of the Steering Committee, who met
four times (7 September and 29 October 2020, 12 January and 11 March 2021): Tarek El-Arabi, Director
of Egypt-EU Cooperation, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research of Egypt; Kostis Giannidis,
President, Erasmus Student Network (ESN); Malek Kochlef, Director General of International Cooperation,
Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and ICT of Tunisia; Giorgio Marinoni, Manager, Higher
Education and Internationalization policy and projects, International Association of Universities (IAU); Ana
Cristina Perdigão, Director, Erasmus+ National Agency, Portugal; Ivana Radonova, State Expert, Higher
Education Directorate, Ministry of Education and Science of Bulgaria; Laura Rumbley, Associate Director
of Knowledge Development and Research, European Association for International Education (EAIE); Akemi
Yonemura, Programme Specialist, Section of Higher Education, United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The UfM and the authors would like to warmly thank them.
 Table of contents
List of Abbreviations
Abstract

Foreword by the Secretary General of UfM

Foreword by the UNIMED Director

Introduction

1
Methodological Note _______________________________________________________ 9
1.1 Participatory approach and shared responsibility
1.2 Quantitative data collection
1.3 Qualitative data collection

2
Internationalisation of higher education in the Southern Mediterranean _______ 21
region: common features and peculiarities at the national and regional levels
2.1 Definition of Internationalisation of higher education
2.2 Context Analysis of the internationalisation of
higher education
Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania,
Morocco, Palestine, Tunisia
2.3 Mobility flows in the Mediterranean region

Box 1 - Recognition of qualifications

Box 2 - Internationalisation at home: an opportunity in the time of the
COVID-19 pandemic
Box 3 - Impact of cooperation programmes in the Mediterranean Region, as
perceived by practitioners

3
How to make regional cooperation more effective: challenges to face and _____ 133
inspiring practices
3.1Insights from regional organisations
3.2 Inspiring Practices
3.3 Complementarities and synergies in the Mediterranean

4
Enhancing internationalisation of higher education in the Mediterranean _____ 166
4.1 Country-specific recommendations and theme-based roadmaps
4.2 Region-specific recommendations

Conclusions

Authors profiles

Annex I - Stakeholders Register

Annex II - Final sample of the universities involved in the study
Annex III - Institutions involved in the Focus Groups
List of abbreviations
AArU Association of Arab Universities
American Council on Education
ACE
AFD Agence Française de Développement

ALECSO Arab League for Education, Culture and Science

ATIAH Developing Innovative Approaches and Tools for

Internationalisation at Home
AUF Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie

CB Capacity Building
Capacity Building in the field of Higher Education
CBHE
Center for Internationalization and Global Engagement
CIGE
CLCC Connected Learning in Crisis Consortium

CMI Center for the Mediterranean Integration

COIL Collaborative Online International Learning

DG EAC Directorate-General for Education and Culture

DIRE-MED Dialogue Interculturel, RÉseaux et Mobilité en MÉDiterranée

EACEA Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency

EAIE European Association for International Education

ECA European Consortium for Accreditation

ECTS European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System

ENIC European National Information Centre

ESN European Student Network

EUA European University Association

FAQ Frequently Asked Questions
GANTT Generalized Activity Normalization Time Table
HE Higher Education
HEA Higher Education Academy
HEI Higher Education Institution
HOMERe Higher Opportunity for Mediterranean Executive
Recruitment
H2020 Horizon 2020
IaH Internationalisation at Home
IAU International Association of Universities
ICM International Credit Mobility

1
 IIEP International Institute for Educational Planning
INDIRE Istituto Nazionale di Documentazione, Innovazione e Ricerca
Educativa
INSA National Institute of Applied Sciences
IoHE Internationalisation of Higher Education
IRO International Relations Office
KA 107 Key Action
LLL Lifelong Learning
LMD licence-master-doctorat
MENA Middle East and North Africa
Meric-NET Mediterranean Network of National Information Centres
on the Recognition of Qualifications
MIMI Modernization of Institutional Management of
Internationalization in South-Neighboring countries
Ministry of Education and Higher Education
MoEHE
NA National Agency

NARIC National Academic Recognition Information Centres

NASR National Authority for Scientific Research

NEO National Erasmus Plus Officer

NFQ National Qualification Framework

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
QA Quality Assurance

R&D Research and Development

R&I Research and Innovation
SEMSEM Services for Employability and Mobility
SPHeRE Structured Population and Health-services Research
Education
ST Steering Committee
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threat
TEMPUS Trans-European Mobility Programme for University Studies

UFTAM Université Franco-Tunisienne pour l'Afrique et la

Méditerranée
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

2
Abstract
The internationalisation of higher education is aimed at enhancing the quality and standards of
teaching and research. This study addresses mobility and cross-border education trends in the
Euro-Mediterranean region, with special emphasis on academic exchange, involving students,
scholars and administrative staff, as well as on the strategic international partnerships across
the globe. The study focuses on 10 countries: Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya,
Mauritania, Morocco, Palestine and Tunisia. It aims to investigate the internationalisation of
higher education focusing especially on resources and opportunities available at the national and
regional levels, to identify obstacles and challenges and to outline transferable inspiring practices
and finally to make a series of recommendations for the Union for the Mediterranean to foster
regional integration. As for the methodology, a survey investigating teaching and administrative
staff as well as student mobility was submitted to a sample of universities representing the 10
target countries; further interviews with international and regional stakeholders were conducted,
focus groups were established, involving the universities covered by the study and a thorough
desk research was undertaken. As a result, the report presents a detailed context analysis
with a focus on mobility flows to and from the 10 target countries, complemented by a wide
range of inspiring and scalable practices, as well as an overview of the role played by regional
organisations in providing opportunities, creating synergies and making resources available for
the higher education institutions in the Mediterranean. Country-specific recommendations were
designed in order to address national challenges. At the end of the research and consultative
process, a number of common themes for the Euro-Mediterranean region were also identified,
in relation to which additional recommendations were drafted, with the aim of enhancing the
internationalisation of higher education in the region. We are still far from the finish line and this
report has the ambitious goal to represent a building block for those willing to further explore
the issue. Here follow the main findings, which are common to more than one country: Erasmus+
emerged as the programme generating the largest impact on the internationalisation strategies
of higher education institutions; the need for university leadership to consider the administrative
staff as a key element to support internationalisation; the high fragmentation in the procedures
and systems of credit recognition and assessment of qualifications; difficulties were encountered
in collecting reliable and comparable data. Obtaining visas for international mobility, especially
for MENA countries to access Europe, has always been a serious obstacle to exchanges and
international cooperation should focus more on human and social sciences, often neglected
compared to hard sciences. Above all, the study highlights how, in most cases, internationalisation
is simply identified as mobility, while a more comprehensive internationalisation strategy would
be highly beneficial for institutions and staff and may increase attractiveness and participation.
Foreword
at contributing to shared knowledge and
understanding on internationalisation trends
and policies in the region as well as on
current mobility flows and available funding
Nasser Kamel schemes. It intends to facilitate continuous
Secretary General peer learning among the UfM countries on
Union for the Mediterranean policies and practices addressing common
challenges and priorities, fostering joint
Knowledge knows no boundaries and projects and initiatives.
thrives on exchanges across countries
and cultures, contributing to create The last Regional Meeting took place in
understanding, resilience, and skills. This is Cairo, Egypt, in December 2019, and stressed
all too clear in many areas of the world that the need to consolidate comprehensive
have seen enormous windfalls coming from data on the internationalisation of higher
decades of study exchange programmes and education across the UfM region. It also
joint research initiatives which have created underlined that - in the context of a world-
a sense of belonging to the international wide trend towards a new generation
community, have embraced diversity as an of universities - a change of scale in the
asset, and reinforced economic integration support mechanisms, and an ambitious
and growth. In Europe, the positive higher education initiative covering the
experience of the Erasmus+ programme, whole UfM region are necessary. This new
for instance, is often credited for being impulse should capitalize on the existing
pivotal in creating a European generation, regional networks and collaborations and
and studies have proved that students ensure a transformative impact on the
undergoing study periods abroad are more higher education systems and institutions.
employable in the long run.
Answering to such regional needs, the
All of this calls for stronger UfM has therefore ensured a follow-up
internationalisation of higher education by launching the present study, carried
systems, which goes far beyond academic out by the Mediterranean Universities
mobility, as this notion entails integrating Union, to support policy makers and other
an intercultural and global dimension in stakeholders. The findings and analyses
the teaching methods and the institutions’ represent a novelty in the evaluation and
governance. It is not a goal by itself, but a understanding of the importance of the
process aimed at enhancing the quality and internationalisation of higher education in
standards of education and research, and at the Mediterranean region. Such an exercise
making a valuable contribution to society at should be permanent so that we may
large. acquire a deeper understanding of the impact
of the efforts of all the actors involved, in
The Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) has particular the European Commission and
launched a regional dialogue process on the Union for the Mediterranean.
the internationalisation of higher education
in the Euro-Mediterranean region, with the The present study, while adopting a
aim of building a common vision for the comprehensive approach regarding
future of universities. This dialogue aims internationalisation, presents an overview

4
of the current regional situation in terms of Research Area. Indeed, it seems appropriate
higher education cooperation, mapping key to reflect on the opportunity to organise
features and patterns specific to the region. without delay a UfM Ministerial meeting
Furthermore, a series of recommendations on Higher Education, as the last of such
emerges from it, both at national and regional gatherings was held in Cairo in
regional level. They were formulated taking 2007. Only by investing in our future, in our
in consideration the most relevant existing youth, will we be able, as internationalisation
best practices and initiatives that can be practitioners, to guarantee a framework
replicated and upscaled in the region. of sustainability and prosperity in the
Mediterranean.
They point out proposals regarding
information-sharing mechanisms,
the improvement of present regional
initiatives and programmes, synergies
and complementarities between existing
mobility schemes and programmes,
and appropriate capacity-development
mechanisms for Higher Education
Institutions.

These recommendations are directed

towards international organizations,
governments, universities, and the civil
society, demonstrating that only a joint
effort could guarantee the strengthening of
this international dimension of education.
Hopefully, they will provide stimulus
for further joint discussions concerning
tangible initiatives and projects, and will
generate operational solutions to the
obstacles identified in the analysis of the
current situation, opening up a roadmap for
change.

The study states with clarity the importance

of the financial support and tools of the
Erasmus+ programme. International
credit mobility and capacity building of the
Erasmus+ programme represent success
stories that deserve to be reinforced,
supported, and enhanced. Thanks to
these initiatives, a widespread network
of Mediterranean Higher Education
Institutions is laying the foundations for a
Euro-Mediterranean Higher Education and

5
Foreword
plays a strategic and fundamental role
to guide policy makers, to encourage a
debate between stakeholders and decision
makers to develop concrete proposals
Marcello Scalisi focused on the many priorities of the Euro-
Director Mediterranean region. In this sense, it also
UNIMED, Mediterranean supports excellent projects and initiatives
by promoting a bottom-up approach to
Universities Union the positive reasons for Mediterranean
cooperation.
In 1991, Prof. Franco Rizzi, supported
by a small group of courageous Euro-
The study that UfM required from UNIMED
Mediterranean universities, founded UNIMED
goes exactly in this direction: to analyse the
– Mediterranean Universities Union. In
state of the art of the internationalisation of
thirty years of activity, UNIMED has pursued
university systems in the countries of the
academic dialogue as an instrument at the
southern shore of the Mediterranean, to
service of the Euro-Mediterranean cultural
develop effective proposals for all the actors
dialogue, as a bridge between Europe and
in the region and strengthening universities’
the southern shore of the Mediterranean,
cooperation. Our thanks go to the UfM for
and as an instrument at the service of peace
having, with this report, contributed to a
and the younger generations.
necessary and urgent reflection on Euro-
Mediterranean university cooperation. In our
The Barcelona process in 1995 laid the
expectation, this report will allow the actors
foundations for the consolidation of the
involved in this complex and challenging
Euro-Mediterranean partnership which
cooperation to further reflect on how to
has encountered - and still encounters -
improve the impact of our work for the
many obstacles and difficulties but which,
benefit of the Mediterranean Generation.
extraordinarily, has found in university
cooperation a concrete, real and living
Carrying out a study on the
instrument at the service of a dialogue,
internationalisation of university systems
which was often lacking at the political
during the dramatic times of COVID19 was
level. The European Commission, with
not easy. The whole system of our Euro-
successive programmes, has supported
Mediterranean academic relations has
and continues to support projects and
been strongly challenged. I must therefore
initiatives that have guaranteed the
thank all the universities, academic and
expression and consolidation of the Euro-
governmental institutions that collaborated
Mediterranean partnership and welcomed
in the drafting of this report. Their
“newcomers”, such as Libya. The Union for
commitment reinsured us that international
the Mediterranean with its constant and
cooperation cannot and must not be stopped.
daily action has ensured, since 2008, that
this space for dialogue also finds moments
This study should be considered as a starting
of political debate.
point, but a particularly exhaustive one.
There is significant room for improvement
The Union for the Mediterranean in its
once more reliable and comprehensive data
daily commitment to the construction of a
will be made available to researchers and
Euro-Mediterranean political space, also

6
international stakeholders, which have the our cultural policies.
duty to take advantage of the “unpacked
opportunities” that are still hidden beyond I thank the Union for the Mediterranean for
the curtains of misinterpretation and the pivotal role it plays for the construction
stereotypes. of a political and dialogue space in the
Mediterranean but also, in particular, for the
There are difficulties, but also opportunities, work that Higher Education and Research
in a region, full of dynamism and thirsting Division is doing. I thank the universities of
for cooperation, such as the Southern all the countries of the Mediterranean region
Mediterranean one. and the UNIMED collaborators who commit
themselves daily to weaving academic and
It is worth mentioning that Europe is still scientific relationships at the service of
perceived as the main partner and the most our communities. In this sense, the role of
important Higher Education arena. European university, regional or thematic networks
countries are still the top destinations for all takes on an even greater value in providing
South Mediterranean countries’ students, support and action. This role requires
teachers and administrative staff. Rather commitment, resources and energy. The
than considering it as an arrival point, this shared and strong willingness of enhancing
should be considered as a starting point. internationalisation of higher education
We have to reverse the perspective and systems in the Euro-Mediterranean region
abandon our orientalist lens, strengthening is undoubtedly a good sign that we are going
the reciprocity principle, beginning a new in the right direction.
era based on two-directions: cooperation
and collaboration. Let me say that UNIMED plays a fundamental
role in this direction for the entire
University mobility remains today both a Mediterranean region: an independent
challenge and an opportunity. An intense network which works in close contact with its
and even richer programme of university associated universities and with important
exchanges face-to-face, with the addition institutional players. A role, that of UNIMED,
of the virtual opportunities offered by built over time and which, thanks to the
the Virtual Exchange and Virtual Mobility work of all our associates and collaborators
programmes, is the only possible answer and friends. A role that we renew every day.
to strengthen a young Mediterranean
Erasmus generation capable of easily However, the most heartfelt thanks go to
setting aside our differences and mistrust those thousands and thousands of young
and to overcome them through dialogue and people who ask us to do even more, even
study as a form of solution to the common better. “Knowing is not enough; we must
challenges faced by our societies. apply. Willing is not enough; we must do”. It
is time to start working. It is time to act.
While drafting the report, we started a
consultation that involved over three
thousand students. This reveals their
growing interest and active participation in
international cooperation and represents
an important sign of hope for the success of

7
8
Introduction 1. Methodological
This study addresses the issue of incomplete
information available on Euro-Mediterranean Note
academic mobility and cross-border education
trends and identifies the resources and opportunities The research team relied on a structured
available in the Euro-Mediterranean region that methodology to conduct the research and
are related to the internationalisation of higher analyse the data, integrating quantitative
education, especially to academic mobility and and qualitative approaches. Conclusions, on
transnational education arrangements. Following every step of the way, were reached through
a thorough analysis and integrating quantitative the continuous involvement of universities,
and qualitative data collection methodologies, experts and stakeholders from the Euro-
a set of useful recommendations for the Union Mediterranean region, to validate the analysis
for the Mediterranean (UfM) were drafted, with in an ongoing process. The report is the
the aim of supporting the UfM in overcoming result of a collaborative effort made by the
identified obstacles and exploiting transferable UNIMED research team and a wide range of
good practices. The ultimate goal of this study is to actors representing different interests and
improve and enhance the internationalisation of the perspectives. Desk research, interviews and
Euro-Mediterranean higher education systems both consultations were conducted in English,
in terms of mobility and of academic cooperation. French, Italian and Arabic.
For the purpose of this study, 10 countries were
identified as targets: Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan,
Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Palestine and
Tunisia. The main objective of the research was
1.1 Participatory approach
to investigate the internationalisation of higher
The process of collecting, analysing and
education, focusing especially on the resources and
interpreting data was always supported by
opportunities available at the national and regional
a wide range of stakeholders, experts,
levels.
institutions, organisations, students and
The main topics of this study can be summarised
peers. UNIMED adopted a collaborative and
as follows: participatory approach to validate results
• Current state of the art of the and develop recommendations, investigating
internationalisation of higher education challenges, opportunities, synergies, good
institutions (HEIs) in the Euro-Mediterranean practices, barriers and collecting inputs at
region (mobility flows and context analysis); each step of the research process. Several
• Academic mobility and its impact on institutions consultations were conducted, along with
and individuals; interviews and focus groups, to make sure
• Cross-border education trends; researchers were on the right track, involving
• North-South and South-South academic informal contacts, the focal points of the
cooperation arrangements; study, the UNIMED Board of Directors and
• Impact of European programmes on Southern corroborating ideas with the support of
Mediterranean HEIs; previous studies and hypotheses.
• Digitalisation, virtual mobility and virtual
collaboration arrangements;
• Recognition and portability of qualifications,
related policies and strategies;
• Practices of internationalisation at home.

9
 Participatory and collaborative approach 1

Researchers provide Researchers invite Researchers and stakeholders

information and stakeholders involve form strong partnerships, share
services to on specific issues decision making, and create
stakeholeders knowledge throughout the project

Share
Inform Consult Involve Collaborate Leadership

Stakeholeders Researchers and stakeholders

provide information collaborate on each aspect of
and feedback to the project from development
researchers to completion

Selection of and • Jordan - Anas Al-Sobeh, Associate

consultations with the Focal professor and Director of the Refugees,
Points Displaced Persons, and Forced Migration
Studies Centre at Yarmouk University,
In order to guarantee access to the local in cooperation with the Director of the
institutions and stakeholders, UNIMED relied International Relations Office, Ghazi M.
on national focal points as its main references Magableh
for the investigation. A focal point was identified • Lebanon - Zeinab Saad, International
for each country and, in some cases, based Relations Committee General Coordinator
on the national higher education Ministry’s at the Lebanese University
indications. The role of the focal point was • Libya - Adel Dhiayf, International Relations
that of supporting activities in the country and Office Director at the University of Tripoli
facilitating the relations with the universities • Mauritania - Samir Abu Nassif - Vice
included in the sample, as well as providing President at the Lebanese International
relevant references for the research, so as to University and member of LIU Mauritania
overcome any potential risks and to identify • Morocco - Wail Benjelloun - Former
up-to-date opportunities. Here follows a list of President of Mohammed V University and
Focal Points: honorary President of UNIMED
• Algeria - Belhakem Mostéfai, Rector of the • Palestine - Nidal Dweikat, Vice President
University of Mostaganem of Planning and Quality Assurance at An-
• Egypt - Magda Abou El Safa, Director Najah National University, in collaboration
of Quality Assurance & Continuous with Kherieh Rassas, Deputy President for
Improvement Department, University of International Development and External
Sadat City Affairs of An-Najah National University
• Israel - No focal point, the activities were • Tunisia - No focal point, the activities were
coordinated directly by UNIMED coordinated directly by UNIMED

1 Source of the image: https://www.jbassoc.com/resource/importance-participatory-approaches-precision-ho-

me-visiting/ (last access February 2021)

10
Stakeholders Engagement University Networks, Policy Makers, Civil
Society Organisations, Business and Industry.
In order to gain a deeper and meaningful Stakeholders were also mapped according to
insight into the matter, consultations with their level of influence, whether they had an
relevant stakeholders in the field of higher impact at the national or international/regional
education in the Euro-Mediterranean region level. Mapping and engaging stakeholders
were performed. The research team identified was a key factor in ensuring a participatory
a large number of stakeholders in the region, approach, gaining a deeper understanding of
drawing up a stakeholder register with more dynamics, processes and relations affecting
than 90 actors to be interviewed for the the issue under examination. Stakeholders
purpose of the analysis. UNIMED made the were contacted in order to conduct an interview
most of its own partnerships with international and to gather key information about their
organisations in order to engage respondents perception, knowledge and opinion in relation
in the dialogue around the internationalisation to the internationalisation of HEIs in the Euro-
of HE in the region. The main goal of the Mediterranean region. The engagement of
interviews was to identify what the respondents stakeholders provided also an opportunity
deemed useful to boost the internationalisation to start reflecting on the recommendations:
of higher education, what current practices and suggestions were collected, inspiring practices
strategies they deemed to be worth upscaling, were discussed, opportunities were offered.
as well as the key challenges to face.
A relevant number of stakeholders were
The process of stakeholders’ mapping was contacted and agreed to take part in the study.
broken down into several steps. First, UNIMED However, due to the current situation, in most
entered the stakeholders in a register, listing countries (above all those hit by the COVID-19
all potential respondents and their affiliations. pandemic) it was not possible to conduct all
Then, based upon their role, nature and of the planned interviews. At the end of the
competences, the research team grouped the data collection process (in February 2021), 62
stakeholders into 6 main categories, making respondents had been interviewed. The full
sure that each category was sufficiently Stakeholder Register is available in Annex
represented. The categories identified are: I. Here follow the figures representing the
Education Community, Research Community, categories and level of influence of the 62
respondents in the study.

Composition of Stakeholders

Education Community 30

Research Community 3

University Networks 5

Policy Makers 16

Civil Society Organizations 8

Business and Industry 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

11
 Stakeholders’ Level of influence

19%

National
International
43% /Regional

1.2 Quantitative data location is defined as either a larger or

collection capital city, or a small or medium-sized
city. Rural universities are considered
Quantitative data were collected to as those located in small and medium-
investigate mobility flows, from a sample sized cities.
including higher education institutions • Public/Private3. A main distinction to
representing each country covered by the be made is the one between public and
study. The HEIs in the sample represent, at a private HEIs so that both are represented
national level: in the sample. A further distinction
• at least 50% of enrolled students; needs to be made in those countries
• at least 50% of appointed teachers;2 where private for-profit and private not-
• at least 50% of administrative staff. for-profit universities are considered
For each country, the key features of the as different categories. When this
whole sample are compared with national distinction is not made in the national
ones to assess the degree of consistency of regulations, all private institutions are
the selected institutions. To ensure variance considered as for-profit institutions.
within the sample, HEIs were selected • Historical/New. The average age of
according to a number of criteria: all HEIs in each country is estimated:
• Size. The size criterion for the HEIs is HEIs older than the average age are
defined based on the average number of considered historical, while those that
students enrolled, per country. Medium- are “younger” than the average age
size HEIs are defined as those within are considered as “new universities”.
one standard deviation of the number of When calculating the average age at
students enrolled in the country; those the national level, “historic” universities
below the medium size are defined as were not taken into account.
small; and those whose enrolment is • Type (general/specialised/religious/
higher than one standard deviation of open). The composition of the sample of
the mean are defined as large. HEIs is representative of general (multi-
• Location (urban/rural, peripheral). The disciplinary universities), specialised

2 As an inclusive term for full professor, associate professor, assistant professor, lecturer, assistant lecturer, if
relevant researcher, post-doc, fellowship.
3 If necessary, as in the case of Egypt and Palestine, an additional distinction in line with previous studies, will
be made for the categories: not for profit / private for profit.

12
 (focused universities), religious and open
universities (universities with an open-
door academic policy, with minimal or
no entry requirements). The difference
between research universities, teaching
universities and community colleges is
not taken into account for the purpose
of defining the sample, firstly because
the distinction between research
and teaching HEIs is not applied in
all the countries under analysis;
second, because not all countries have
community colleges.

For each country, the UNIMED network

is considered as the starting point of the
sample selection (to ensure data collection
in a short time) and complemented with
other HEIs, following the indications
provided by the focal points, the National
Erasmus Offices and the Ministries of higher
education. If a targeted university is not
available, another institution is contacted,
provided that it fulfils the above-mentioned
criteria. Each sample of universities is
validated by the Ministry of Education of the
target country, where possible and/or by the
director of the National Erasmus Office, in
order to provide institutional support to the
selection. Only recognised universities are
included in the sample. Once the sample for
each country is identified, a further check
is performed to ensure that the students’
gender distribution is similar to the national
one. The selected HEIs communicate their
internal data following a guideline and
then, data are processed to maintain the
representativeness of the sample. The
table below contains, for each country, the
reference points for the sample definition:
the total number of students enrolled, of
teachers and of administrative staff, and the
total number of universities in the country
(public and private).

13
 GENDER TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL
TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER
COUNTRY DISTRIBUTION ADMINISTRATIVE NUMBER
OF STUDENTS OF TEACHERS
OF STUDENTS STAFF HEIS

1.730.0004 60.0006
Algeria 62.5%5 women N/A 1067
(2017/2018) (2017/2018)

2.382.9218 53.3%9 women 111.90910

Egypt N/A 5011
(2017/2018) (2017/2018) (2018/2019)

187.50012 59%13 women 5.42614

Israel N/A 915
(2017/2018) (2017/2018) (2017/2018)

282.40316 54%17 women 10.92218 25.59819

Jordan 2920
(2018/2019) (2018/2019) (2017/2018) (2017-2018)

190.18621 56%22 women 19.18623 5.82624

Lebanon 3625
(2014/2015) (2014/2015) (2012/2013) (2009-2010)

4 Data from the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Algeria (Last access August 2020).
5 Ibidem
6 Ibidem
7 Data from the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Algeria. This network is composed
by fifty (50) universities, thirteen (13) university centres, twenty (20) national higher schools, ten (10) higher
schools, eleven (11) higher normal schools and two (02) annexes.
8 Educational report from the National centre for statistics: Egypt in Figures 2020.
9 Ibidem
10 Ibidem
11 Higher Education in Egypt in numbers between the years 2014-2017 (in Arabic).
12 This is the number of students enrolled in Israeli universities for the year 2017-2018. The total number
of students enrolled in higher education institutions are 306.440 students. Data from the Council for Higher
Education Report 2018/2019 (Last access August 2020).
13 Council for Higher Education Report 2018/2019 (Last access August 2020).
14 Ibidem
15 Ibidem
16 http://supporthere.org/page/higher-education-jordan (Last access August 2020).
17 Ibidem
18 Statistical report from the Minister of Higher Education for the year 2017-2018.
19 Ibidem
20 http://supporthere.org/page/higher-education-jordan (Last access August 2020).
21 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access August
2020)
22 Ibidem
23 https://www.bankmed.com.lb/BOMedia/subservices/categories/News/20150515170635891.pdf (Last
access August 2020)
24 http://www.tlqaa.org/?q=system/files/LHE_System_v1.1.pdf (Last access August 2020)
25 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf

14
 GENDER TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL
TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER
COUNTRY DISTRIBUTION ADMINISTRATIVE NUMBER
OF STUDENTS OF TEACHERS
OF STUDENTS STAFF HEIS

342.79526 54%27 women 13.50028 32.83029

Libya 3130
(2018/2019) (2018/2019) (2018/2019) (2017-2018)

Mauritania 13.42731 35.04%32 women 74033 1.19434 335

913.71336 50.33%37 women 13.95438 6.90539

Morocco 1240
(2019/2020) (2019/2020) (2019/2020) (2019-2020)

222.77441 60.28%42 women 8.69943 7.31744

Palestine 4845
(2017/2018) (2017/2018) (2017/2018) (2017-2018)

241.08446 65.43%47 women 22.84748 12.98149

Tunisia 1350
(2017/2018) (2017/2018) (2017/2018) (2017-2018)

26 Data provided by the National Erasmus Office in Libya

27 Ibidem
28 Ibidem
29 Data collected within the framework of Libya Restart initiative, covering 15 public universities over the 31
national universities.
30 Data provided by the National Erasmus Office in Libya
31 Data provided by the Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research in Mauritania (Last access August 2020)
32 Ibidem
33 Ibidem
34 Ibidem
35 Ministry of HE in Mauritania indicates a total of 16 HEIs. We took into consideration only 3 universities (1
public, 2 privates)
36 Statistical Report from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de la Formation professionnelle, de
l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique (2019-2020)
37 Ibidem
38 Ibidem
39 Ibidem
40 Ibidem
41 http://www.mohe.pna.ps/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ohk4UeLPuBw%3d&tabid=138&portalid=0&mid=924 (Last
access August 2020)
42 Ibidem
43 Obtained as results of the sum of different categories listed in the Ministerial report for the year 2017-2018
44 Sum of the categories listed in the Ministerial Report year 2017-2018.
45 Please consider that in this number also community and University colleges are included as per the peculiar
characterization of the higher education system in this country.
46 http://www.mes.tn/image.php?id=9499 (Last access August 2020)
47 Ibidem
48 Data provided by Olfa Kacem from the Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique
on January 2018.
49 http://www.mes.tn/image.php?id=9499 (Last access August 2020)
50 Data provided by Olfa Kacem. Please note that as per our studies we are only considering the recognized
Public Universities (13) since the private sector of HE does not consider the university type but the so called

15
The final sample of universities in the study easy-readable graphs and a number of
is composed of: observations, representing both national
• 26 HEIs in Algeria and regional trends. Special emphasis
• 9 HEIs in Egypt is placed on South-South mobility, both
• 0 universities from Israel51 incoming and/or outgoing, both for students
• 9 HEIs in Jordan and staff.
• 4 HEIs in Lebanon
• 6 HEIs in Libya Data collection is organised in a manner
• 2 HEIs in Mauritania that allows to analyse the mobility flows
• 7 HEIs in Morocco according to gender, type (credits or degree,
• 7 HEIs in Palestine research or teaching), direction of flows
• 6 HEIs in Tunisia (incoming/outgoing, North-South, South-
North, South-South), level of education
The full list of universities in the sample is (bachelor, master, PhD) or position (from
reported in Annex III. assistant lecturer to full professor), the
field of study or the working field, the
A quantitative methodology is defined in order mobility duration and the funding scheme.
to collect relevant data concerning mobility Data are requested for the last 5 academic
flows directly from higher education years (from 2014-2015 to 2018-2019) and
Institutions. Secondary sources such as the for tracking mobilities in the following
international student statistics by UNESCO, countries: Albania, Algeria, Austria, Belgium,
data from the OECD and the World Bank, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
data from the ministries of higher education Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt,
and the National Erasmus+ Offices (NEO) Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
are also used to assess and validate results Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Latvia,
on international mobility flows, as well as Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Malta,
EACEA reports for the activities undergone Mauritania, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco,
within the framework of European-funded Netherlands, Palestine, Poland, Portugal,
projects. Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom.
The study includes two levels of analysis:
• a macro-level in which data are collected Data are collected through an online survey.
at a national level mainly through The investigation was structured into
reports produced by ministries of higher separate smaller nested online surveys:
education, NEO and EACEA; • 41 surveys on students’ mobility (one for
• a micro-level in which a sample of higher each country in the study)
education institution provides detailed • 41 surveys on administrative staff
data. At the country level, the sample mobility (one for each country in the
is chosen to be statistically significant study)
in order to identify domestic national • 82 surveys on teachers’ mobility (two
trends. for each country, one for the incoming
Reliable aggregated statistics and trends mobility and one for the outgoing
data are presented through clear and mobility).

51 UNIMED contacted a number of universities in the country but none of them was available to participate in
the study.

16
In addition to the survey intended for the analysis, presenting an overview of the
universities, as the work was progressing, current regional situation in terms of higher
the research team decided to include education cooperation and mapping key
students’ voices and developed a specific features and patterns specific to the region.
survey in order to gather their experiences In this sense, the desk research allowed
and expectations regarding mobility. The the team to review previous findings and
survey was sent to the universities included gain a broader understanding of the current
in the sample and also shared with UNIMED state in the Euro-Mediterranean region. A
members in the countries targeted by the desk research has some limitations: among
study (except in Israel and Mauritania where all the available secondary sources, some
UNIMED does not have any associated are not accessible, some are excluded
universities). The survey was launched on because their existence is not known, and
December 30th, 2020, and ended on January some are available in other languages then
24th, 2021. All in all, more than 3,000 answers those spoken by the research team. The
from 8 countries in the region were collected desk research was therefore performed
(Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, following a round of consultations with the
Morocco, Palestine and Tunisia). Despite national focal points and selected members
the geographical distribution of answers of the UNIMED Board of Directors. The desk
being uneven, data collected represent the research was carried out to gain a better
perspectives, experiences and suggestions understanding of:
of the South-Mediterranean students’ • the internationalisation approach
community. The survey was structured with and the practices that constitute the
both open and closed questions and the background of the investigation;
main results are reported in the following • the national and regional environment in
sections of the Report. which mobilities and internationalisation
activities take place.
1.3 Qualitative data The desk research had a double goal: on the
collection one side it was important for the research
team to be on the same page in fully
Desk Research understanding the scope of the analysis; on
Concurrently with the collection and the other side, it was key to put quantitative
analysis of quantitative data on the mobility and qualitative data into a well-known
flows in the Euro-Mediterranean region, context.
a desk research was also carried out to
perform an analysis of the current situation of Secondary sources were identified by means
the Internationalisation of higher education. of:
This allowed us to consult secondary sources • web searches
and provided a more detailed definition of the • internal consultation
dimensions related to internationalisation. • suggestions by the National Erasmus+
Existing internationalisation practices, Offices
trends and policies at both the national • suggestions by the Steering Committee
and institutional level were taken into members
consideration. In addition, the desk research • identification of the ones available
laid the foundations for a critical analysis of among the resources produced by
the context, to complement the quantitative relevant regional stakeholders.

17
Interviews a focus on European funded projects
The UNIMED research team engaged • Virtual mobility, virtual collaborative
stakeholders primarily by performing semi- learning and online teaching
structured interviews, in order to collect • Challenges related to HEIs
meaningful qualitative data, explore the internationalisation strategies in the
perspectives of insiders and practitioners Euro-Med region
and gain knowledge over both processes • Main obstacles to cooperation between
and strategies. The interviews were Southern and Northern Mediterranean
conducted following a semi-structured HEIs as well as South-South cooperation
approach: the same set of questions • Regional synergies and good practices
was used for all respondents, with an • Short-, medium- and long-term trends
additional number of questions asked on and opportunities
the spot to clarify and/or further expand • Impact of international mobility on the
certain issues. Interviews were recorded employability of graduates.
and the interviewees were provided with
documentation of the results. The interviews The structured part of the semi-structured
were conducted in the interviewee’s mother- interview was based on the “Comprehensive
tongue, either Arabic, English or French as Internationalisation Framework” defined
long as this was beneficial for the results of by the Centre for Internationalisation and
the interview. The meetings were arranged Global Engagement (CIGE) of the American
virtually. Respondents were selected from Council on Education (ACE)52. Questions were
the list of stakeholders identified by the adapted for each category of stakeholders,
research team, depending on their specific maintaining consistency in the themes
competence and role. The main topics addresses. Guidelines were also developed
addressed during the interviews were: to inform respondents on the framework
• Strengths and weaknesses of within which the interview is conducted,
national and regional policies of the methodology to conduct the talk, the
internationalisation process of validation of answers, data
• Institutional approach to protection and privacy policy.
internationalisation
• Internationalisation of the education Focus Group
provided Focus groups discussions were also used
• Cross-border education trends, namely as a qualitative tool to gain an in-depth
dual and joint degree programmes, understanding of some dimensions of the
academic exchange and cooperation internationalisation of higher education.
programmes, virtual collaborative Due to the pandemic, the focus groups
learning discussions (which should have taken place
• Mobility in the presence of the people involved in
• Practices of internationalisation at home each country) took place online. For reasons
• Recognition and portability of credits, of feasibility and availability, instead of
accreditation and quality assurance two focus groups per country focusing
• Impact of cooperation programmes, with on academic and administrative staff and

52 ttps://www.acenet.edu/Research-Insights/Pages/Internationalization/CIGE-Model-for-Comprehensive-Inter-
nationalization.aspx (Last access February 2021)

18
students, only one national focus group was Ethical Assessment
organised (except for Algeria, for which two The research team conducted this study in
separate sessions were necessary due to compliance with ethical principles. Ethical
the high number of participants), addressing issues must be considered as a fundamental
both the strategic and operational part of the research process. An ethical
aspects. Guidelines were shared with the assessment was carried out and guiding
participants before the meeting in order to principles were defined in relation to data
inform them on the objective of the focus collection, interviews and focus groups.
group, introduce the topics of the discussion Researchers agreed on the following
and outline practical arrangements. The aim fundamental principles:
was to gain a better understanding of four • Reliability in ensuring the quality of the
specific aspects of the internationalisation research, as reflected in the design, the
of higher education at the national level: methodology, the analysis and the use of
1) internationalisation at home and resources.
digitalisation; 2) recognition of qualifications; • Honesty in developing, undertaking,
3) impact of international activities (both reviewing, reporting and communicating
in terms of impact on people and impact research in a transparent and fair way.
on the institutions) as perceived by • Respect for the colleagues, research
institutional actors; 4) impact of cooperation participants and organisations involved.
programmes. The participants were also • Accountability in the research from
asked to share insights and reflections on the original idea to the publication,
the internationalisation of higher education in its management and organisation,
in their national context, identify challenges implementation, reporting, and in
and provide inputs for the development relation to its wider impact.
of the recommendations. Invitations were
sent to the institutions and the universities The ethical assessment focused on
themselves appointed the participants in the following topics: 1) Issues related
the focus groups. The meetings took place to data collection and interviews; 2)
between the 12th and 25th of January 2021. Informed consent; 3) Gender perspective;
In order to help the group members to better 4) Multi-perspective analysis; 5)
interact with each other, a participatory Regular participatory assessments with
online tool was used to smoothly engage representatives of all target groups.
participants in the discussion, by sharing
questions, visualising real-time answers,
animating the discussion and providing
information on the subsequent analysis.
The higher education institutions involved in
the focus groups were selected among the
universities in the sample, including other
key institutions when their experience was
deemed relevant for the study. The full list of
institutions is reported in Annex III.

19
Internationalisation
of higher education
in the Southern
Mediterranean region:
common features and
peculiarities at the
national and regional
levels
2.1 Definition of the As a complementary perspective, the
internationalisation of approach followed for the collection of
higher education qualitative data and the analysis of various
international dimensions is based on
First of all, it is necessary to underline the “Comprehensive Internationalisation
that the internationalisation of higher framework” defined by the Centre
education (IoHE) should be understood in for Internationalisation and Global
a more comprehensive manner and not Engagement (CIGE) of the American
only in terms of data concerning academic Council on Education (ACE). ACE defines
mobility collected by quantitative means. comprehensive internationalisation as
Internationalisation should be considered a strategic, coordinated framework that
based on the approach of the International integrates policies, programmes, initiatives,
Association of Universities (IAU): and individuals to make colleges and
universities more globally oriented and
[Internationalisation of higher education internationally connected.54 In order to
is] the intentional process of integrating foster sustainable and global engagement,
an international, intercultural or global the comprehensive internationalisation
dimension into the purpose, functions and model embraces an organisational growth
delivery of post-secondary education, in mindset. It describes internationalisation
order to enhance the quality of education as an ongoing process, recognising that
and research for all students and staff, and to all levels of the educational community
make a meaningful contribution to society” (students, faculty and staff) are central to
(De Wit, H., Hunter F., Howard L., Egron- the institution’s internationalisation. This
Polak E. (Eds.) (2015) “Internationalisation process requires a clear commitment by
of higher education”, European Parliament. top-level institutional leaders, a meaningful
impact on the curriculum and a broad
This definition emphasises the fact that range of partnerships. The CIGE Model
internationalisation is a deliberate process, for Comprehensive Internationalisation
not a passive experience. It stresses that was initially split into six pillars outlining
internationalisation is not a goal in itself, key areas that formed all together a
but a means to enhance the quality and comprehensive approach. The model was
standards of higher education and research. recently redesigned to represent a wheel,
In addition, this definition points out that where all components are integrated and
internationalisation needs to meet society’ interrelated with each other, providing
needs. There is no “one size fits all” model continuity and consistency to the process of
or approach for internationalisation, institutional transformation.
rather, each HEI must find its own way of
internationalising. At the same time, all HEIs
can benefit from the best thinking and good
practices of other institutions around the
world.53

53 https://iau-aiu.net/Internationalization (last access February 2021)

54 https://www.acenet.edu/Research-Insights/Pages/Internationalization/CIGE-Model-for-Comprehensive-In-
ternationalization.aspx (Last access February 2021)

22
 55

The internationalisation dimensions of the community and alumni relations, as well as

CIGE model are: advancement.
1) Institutional Commitment & Policy 3) Curriculum & Co-curriculum
Internationalisation should be a priority in Being the core mission of higher education,
an institution’s strategic plan. Institutional student learning is a critical element of
leaders or -in the case of systems with a internationalisation. An internationalised
centralised governance-national higher curriculum ensures that all students are
education manager should explicitly commit exposed to international perspectives and
to it. that they can acquire global and intercultural
2) Leadership & Structure skills at home regardless of their study
The involvement of senior leaders and the focus. Workforce-ready global skills are
establishment of appropriate administrative included in institution or system-wide
and reporting structures are key for the learning outcomes and assessments.
internationalisation and institutional 4) Faculty & Staff Support
transformation. Such structures include Being the primary drivers of teaching and
the president and chief academic leaders; knowledge production, faculty members
offices that are designated to coordinate play a pivotal role in learning, research,
campus-wide global engagement and and service (to varying degrees depending
international student services, as well as on the institution’s unique mission). Their
units that are responsible for research, commitment is vital for the success of
institutional research, faculty development, internationalisation. Institutional policies
student support services (e.g., academic and support mechanisms ensure that
advisory, counselling, career exploration), faculty members have the opportunity to
enrolment management, finance, acquire intercultural skills themselves and

55 Image source:https://www.acenet.edu/Research-Insights/Pages/Internationalization/CIGE-Model-for-Com-
prehensive-Internationalization.aspx (last access February 2021)

23
are able to maximise the impact of these involved in the internationalisation of
experiences on student learning, research higher education institutions (in terms of
and services. geographical scope, role, function, position
5) Mobility in the institution, experience and skills).
Mobility refers both to the outward and Moreover, the EAIE Barometer guided the
inward physical movement of people analysis of the internal and external context
(students, faculty members and staff), affecting the internationalisation of higher
programmes, projects and policies to and education.
from off-campus communities and other
countries to engage in learning, research 2.2 Context analysis of
and collaboration. Technology has expanded the internationalisation of
the opportunity for mobility to include higher education
academic engagement of all learners
beyond their domestic borders. This might There is a vast body of literature on the
be accomplished through collaborative internationalisation of higher education,
online international learning (COIL) or as the subject is of primary interest for
virtual exchange; research cooperation; policy-makers, educators and leaders.
faculty and staff exchanges or expertise This is because economic performance
shared virtually; internships and service is affected by the growing cross-border
experiences; and virtual partnerships. flows of knowledge, workers and students;
6) Partnerships and Networks at the same time, it reflects nations’
Partnerships and networks, whether they willingness to internationalise. Although
are local or international, can generate universities have been international since
new ideas and programmes that involve all ancient times, globalisation has brought in
partners. These relationships bring together new environments for the universities to
different viewpoints, resources, activities, operate in, and increasingly, the universities
and agendas to shed light on global issues and worldwide are trying to internationalise
take concrete actions. Attention is directed their operations and connect to each other.57
to articulated institutional guidelines,
policies, and procedures for selecting One of the main references when it
partners, maintaining relationships over comes to the internationalisation of higher
time, keeping records and reviewing the education in the Mediterranean countries,
entire institutional partnership portfolio. considering the specific dimension of
mobility, is the UNESCO online database
As a last methodological reference, the Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students.58
approach followed by the European The UNESCO Institute for Statistics collects
Association for International Education data on the mobility of students in order
while drafting the EAIE Barometer56 was to shed light on the shifting demand
used to identify and select the respondents for higher education, particularly in the
in the study, which had to be the most developing world. International student
representative sample of all the actors mobility indicators are used to track the

56 EAIE Barometer: Internationalisation in Europe (second edition), 2018

57 J. Vardhan, Internationalisation and the Changing Paradigm of higher education in the GCC Countries, SAGE
Open. April 2015. DOI:10.1177/2158244015580377
58 It is possible to access the data here: http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow (Last access February 2021).

24
flows of tertiary students seeking higher At the European level, one of the most
education abroad. Data include figures interesting studies analysing the
and rates related to inbound and outbound internationalisation performances of the
students by regions and countries of origin, European higher education system was
as well as host countries.59 A report on conducted in 2015, commissioned by the
“Internationalization in Tertiary Education European Parliament’s Committee on
in the MENA Region” was published by the Culture and Education.61 The only European
CMI (Centre for Mediterranean Integration) system making a direct reference to the
in 2020.60 The Report focuses on the Middle- Mediterranean area is the French higher
East and North Africa and attempts to education system with its 2013 strategy
demonstrate that, being an important part “pinpointing the Mediterranean area as a
of the reforms needed in education and target for development”.62
training, the internationalisation of tertiary
education has a major role to play. French authorities (through a strong
and continuous diplomatic support)
This study builds on the numerous past have been very much in favour of the
experiences of internationalisation establishment of schools and universities
of researchers and practitioners, through bilateral agreements. These include
advancing progress in the development the École Supérieure de Beyrouth and the
of an integrated approach based on both École Supérieure Algérienne des Affaires,
quantitative mobility data and a thorough respectively in Lebanon and Algeria. In
context analysis. As a starting point for the addition, autonomous French-speaking
analysis of the current situation in the region, universities with varying national status
we wanted to understand the context of the have been established in other countries
internationalisation of higher education in such as the Galatasaray University (Istanbul,
each country. Thanks to a clear overview of Turkey) and the Université Française
the current situation and of the key features d’Egypte.63 Last but not least, the French
and patterns specific to each national higher education system established branch
higher education system, researchers could campuses abroad such as La Sorbonne Abu
move forward in the identification of the Dhabi, Institut Tunis-Paris Dauphine and the
main obstacles to the cooperation between National Institute of Applied Sciences (INSA)
Southern and Northern Mediterranean in Morocco.64 Apart from Germany, and its
higher education institutions, as well as the historical ties with Egypt, no other European
good practices and opportunities supporting country can count on the same level of
and facilitating the Internationalisation of cooperation in the region.
higher education.

59 https://undatacatalog.org/dataset/education-international-student-mobility-tertiary-education (Last access

February 2021)
60 Please note that this study is not considering Gulf countries that are, on the other side, widely included in
other studies and considered as an integral part of the MENA region.
61 https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/540370/IPOL_STU(2015)540370_EN.pdf (Last
access February 2021)
62 Ivi , p. 101. (Last access February 2021)
63 Ivi , p. 102. (Last access February 2021)
64 Ivi , p. 104. (Last access February 2021)

25
Interestingly enough, we can underline by European countries are encouraging
that non-European countries have been Mediterranean countries and consequently
working in recent years in sending and higher education institutions to look to other
receiving students to and from the MENA opportunities, with easier access.67
region, especially Malaysia, Turkey and
Saudi Arabia. An interesting trend, as shown Generally speaking, we cannot deny that (in
by growing numbers, and that was also the effort of evaluating this shift) the lack
confirmed in this study. Along with India, of reliable, updated and consolidated data
China, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, Malaysia constitutes a major barrier. Even the data
is one of the most active actors in the contained in the Global Flow of Tertiary-
Mediterranean area, constantly boosting its Level Students of UNESCO seems to be not
cooperation with Arabic Islamic countries fully updated for the Mediterranean area as
and higher education institutions. These in several cases there are only estimations,
countries are becoming very active actors data are not complete (especially for
in the region, gradually replacing historical 2014) or some countries are even lacking
countries that have always been the main information (e.g., Libya lacks information
partners in terms of internationalisation on the total inbound internationally mobile
and, more specifically, mobility. According students).
to a Report issued in 2011 by the World
Bank, there are clear differences in the It is also worth highlighting that the Global
destinations of students from Middle East Flow of Tertiary-Level Students of UNESCO
and North African countries. France used has a different focus than this study when
to host over two-thirds of North African it comes to tracking mobility flows. We
international students, but it was only the analysed short- and long-term mobility flows
fifth largest destination for students from of students, enrolled in higher education
the Middle East. At that time, North African institutions in ten target countries, as a
students were also concentrated in Canada result of cooperation activity with a number
and Germany (80% each), while students of representative institutions. Our approach
from the Middle East were more scattered, is methodologically different from the
studying in the U.S. (16.5%), Jordan (14%), definition of “international mobility student”
the U.K. (13%), Saudi Arabia (11%), and used by UNESCO, namely: “Students who
France (8%).65 have crossed a national or territorial border
for the purpose of education and are now
Data show that in 2008 over 220,000 enrolled outside their country of origin”.68
students moving around the world came Taking into account this specific point, the
from MENA countries, which in turn hosted Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students
over 134,000 international students.66 reports an extremely useful set of results
In this scenario, we noticed that visa
restriction policies applied in the last years

65 A. Jaramillo, A. Ruby, F. Henard, H. Zaafrane, Internationalization of higher education in MENA : Policy Issues
Associated with Skills Formation and Mobility, World Bank, Washington, DC. 2011, p. 3.
66 Ibidem
67 This clearly resulted from the interaction with different stakeholders when writing this report.
68 http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/international-or-internationally-mobile-students (Last access Fe-
bruary 2021)

26
 INDICATOR Net flow of internationally mobile students (inbound-outbound), both sexes (numbers)69
TIME 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
COUNTRY

Algeria (≠) -12766 -12531 -14757 -17194 (≠) -21215 .. ..

Egypt (≠) 23909 .. 19679 .. .. .. ..

Israel (≠) -3609 .. .. .. .. .. ..

Jordan .. 17979 22431 14734 (≠) 18318 .. ..

Lebanon (≠) 3553 6518 3432 1726 (≠) 3325 .. ..

Libya .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Mauritania .. -4309 -4217 -4279 .. .. ..

Morocco (≠) -28241 -29634 -30606 -31187 (≠) -32090 .. ..

Palestine (≠) -24505 -26372 -28111 -25013 (≠) -27384 .. ..

Tunisia .. -12431 -14440 -15975 (≠) -17695 .. ..

Interestingly enough, the Maghreb system flows, the HE systems in Maghreb (Algeria,
(Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia) Morocco and Tunisia in this case) are
sends more students for outcoming undergoing transformations, such as the
mobilities compared to incoming, while the profound national legislative reforms in
Mashreq area (Lebanon and Jordan) seems Algeria and Morocco, in order to become
to be able to attract students from other more attractive for African students, with
regions (especially from the rest of Asia and a focus on Sub-Saharan African countries.
some African countries); the same applies Having acknowledged the difficulties
to Egypt, which confirms its international related to bridge the attractiveness gap with
historical vocation and capability of being respect to Europe in the short-term, local
attractive for other countries. higher education institutions are shifting
The case of Palestine is an exception their attention towards less developed
due to the unique conditions in which the systems to play a bridging role between
local higher education system is forced these systems and Europe, as well as to
to work. No analysis is possible for both strengthen their ability to act as destination
Libya and Israel, due to an evident lack of countries. On the other side, the Jordanian
data. If we match these results with our and Lebanese HEIs have been capable of
quantitative and qualitative analysis, we can constantly being well above the average
comfortably say that trends are consistent. in terms of inbound student mobility. This
Results are presented in details in the next has been confirmed also by the report
paragraphs, but some interesting outcomes “Internationalisation of Tertiary Education in
are anticipated below. the Middle East and North Africa” published
Due to the negative net result in the mobility by the Centre for Mediterranean Integration:

69 Data extracted on February 2021 from UIS.Stat

27
“[...] north African countries attracting fewer internationalisation activities, fostered,
inbound students than the world average. in recent years, mainly by the Erasmus+
Nevertheless, inbound mobility is on the rise programme of the European Commission,
and, with the exception of Algeria and Saudi which, in many cases, has brought together
Arabia, foreign enrolment grew faster than South-Mediterranean institutions and
domestic enrolment over the last decade”.70 encouraged them to collaborate for the
The case of the two Levantine countries can first time. It is worth noting that the lack of
be explained by considering the historical data and the related difficulties in collecting
relations of Lebanon with several European reliable information is an additional factor
countries and as a consequence of the influencing this trend, as was also
Lebanese diaspora; and due to the Jordanian confirmed by our analysis and by our
HE system’s ability to be highly attractive daily experience as internationalisation
in the region. At the same time, it is self- practitioners in the MENA region.
evident that the Palestinian situation is the
result of the well-known difficulties related In the South-Eastern Mediterranean region,
to the possibility to grant long-term visas to there is a focus on national activities
inbound students. and bilateral cooperation, rather than on
a regional approach. This raises more
The CMI report, the Global Flow of Tertiary- than one question on how to define and
Level Students (on which the CMI report is redefine a “regional approach” promoted by
consistently built upon), and several other international stakeholders, on how to match
studies, confirm the extremely poor quantity this “regional approach” with the national
and quality of South-South mobility and focus of most European countries, and on

INDICATOR Inbound internationally mobile students from the Arab States, both sexes (number)
TIME 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
COUNTRY

Algeria .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Egypt 5796 .. 909 .. .. .. ..

Israel 196 .. .. .. .. .. ..

Jordan .. 34336 40940 32891 39964 .. ..

Lebanon .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Libya .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Mauritania .. 120 108 96 .. .. ..

Morocco 3334 3481 3182 3805 3904 3967 ..

Palestine .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Tunisia .. 2029 2105 2058 1916 .. ..

70 https://www.cmimarseille.org/knowledge-library/-tertiary-education-middle-east-and-north-africa, p. 14
(Last Access February 2021)

28
how to structure tailored approaches for the 2012 and 2015, as a consequence of the
benefit of the internationalisation processes refugee crisis. For instance, the number of
in the MENA countries. Rather than being Syrian students quadrupled between 2011
considered a region on the basis of a and 2016.71 Lebanon case is completely
presumed common culture and language, different: as shown by the data provided by
or on the basis of the ethnic notion of the Lebanese University in relation to the
“Arabs”, these countries should rely on past years, the pressure on the local higher
customised approaches, designed around education institutions clearly decreased
national priorities and peculiarities. Based after the Syrian crisis. While it is true that
on these national priorities and peculiarities, there is a huge social pressure and that the
we can later reflect on common actions, Lebanese education system (primary and
projects and shared initiatives to tackle secondary schools) is under tremendous
regional challenges. stress, the data provided by the main public
institution in Lebanon clearly demonstrates
Even the so-called “Arab springs” have that numbers of Syrian refugees in HE are
had a wide but diverse impact on these decreasing.
countries, allowing some of them (e.g.,
Jordan and Morocco) to benefit from the Furthermore, the media portray the
transitions (e.g., Tunisia) and instabilities Mediterranean region as unstable, in crisis
(e.g., Libya) of the others. Trying to provide and (in some cases) in a constant state
a unique interpretation of these events of war, widely contributing to depict a
might be misleading. If it is true that the negative image and consequently reduce
popularity of Egyptian tertiary education the attractiveness of the region. Obviously,
declined in the aftermath of the Arab Spring, the potential attractiveness of the region
it is also true that the population of foreign does not solely depend on this specific
students in Jordan rose by 43% between issue, but this negative image has decisively

Syrians enrolled in the Lebanese University (LU)

Source: Office of the Rector, Lebanese University, March 2014

7000 9.00%
Syrian Students
8.00% Enrolled
6000
7.00%
5000 % of Total
6.00% Enrollment
4000 5.00%

3000 4.00%
3.00%
2000
2.00%
1000
1.00%
0 0.00%
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

71 Ivi, p. 62 (Last Access February 2021)

29
contributed to strengthen a stereotyped
perception of the region, of its institutions R&D spending
and of its inhabitants.
as % of GDP
Almost all sources point to the low quality
of research as a concrete obstacle to
a comprehensive
strategy.
internationalisation 0,1% Algeria
0,6% Egypt
As stated by the World Bank in 2011, many
MENA countries do not have sufficient
researchers or tertiary level faculty, and
some lack the financial resources to
attract and retain the best academics or to
provide competitive teaching and research
facilities.72 As a consequence we can identify 4,2% Israel
three main risk factors: failure to attract
foreign researchers, failure to attract private
firms and companies and the loss of top
talents. In the latter case, the risk of brain
drain is an intrinsic side-effect related to
0,4% Jordan
mobility. Universities in the region perceive

0,7% Morocco
themselves as more teaching-oriented than
research-oriented, and the research sector
suffers from low budget allocations from
governments, with the incredible exception
of Israel, actually allocating 4.2% of its gross
domestic production to the research sector.
The tables on the right, based on the UNESCO
0,5% Palestine
Institute for Statistics system,73 support our
conclusions:

0,7% Tunisia

72 Jaramillo, Ruby, Henard, Zaafrane, op. cit.,p. 15

73 Please note that no data is available for Libya, Lebanon and Mauritania.

30
Internationalisation is on top of the agenda Having said that, the following
of higher education institutions in Africa and boxes present an overview of the
especially in the Middle East, as underlined internationalisation of higher education in
by the answers to the 5th IAU Global survey each target country of the study: Algeria,
conducted in 2018 (83% of respondents Egypt, Israel, Mauritania, Morocco, Lebanon,
stated that internationalisation is of ‘high’ Libya, Jordan, Palestine and Tunisia.
importance).74 Despite the answer rate
for the Middle East is lower compared to
other regions, confirming the difficulties
for international stakeholders to access
reliable and consistent data, answers show
a certain regional dynamism, which is
usually underestimated. The true question
is: what do we mean when we speak about
internationalisation in the Mediterranean
region? What is the perception about the
meaning of this process? In most cases,
there is a remarkable misunderstanding of
the concept of internationalisation, which
many local higher education institutions sic
et simpliciter equate with mobility. That is
why, even when we investigated practices
and digitalisation activities related to the
internationalisation at home, answers
from participants were mostly related to
the physical dimension of mobility. Most
likely – even though this should be further
investigated – more research needs to be
conducted in order to understand and assess
the knowledge of internationalisation and
its dimensions by the Mediterranean higher
education institutions. And a reflection
should be made on the long-term effects of
the rapid shift towards internationalisation
in the South-Mediterranean countries,
and whether this is truly contributing to
increased inclusion, equity and fairness in
higher education.

74 https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20190109100925536#:~:text=Statistics%20
show%20that%20internationalisation%20of,highly%20unequal%2C%20for%20two%20
reasons%3A&text=Only%20about%202%25%20of%20the,a%20period%20of%20study%20abroad. (Last access
February 2021)

31
32
 Algeria
When talking about higher education and students, Algeria has gradually developed
internationalisation in Algeria, it is important an important network of HEIs, nowadays
to always bear in mind that Algeria is the composed of: 54 universities, 9 university
largest African country, and around 80% of centres, 11 high normal schools, 35 high
its territory is covered by the Sahara Desert. schools.78 This dense system also includes
Algeria became independent in 1962, it has 1 university of continuing education, 55
a population of 43.9 million inhabitants, institutions depending on other ministries
of which 54% is under 30 years old.75 The (Health, Tourism, Culture…) and 14 private
University of Algiers, the first one in the institutions, whose creation was authorised
country, was created in 1909, and two by the 1999 law. The national strategy for
branches were created just before the higher education tries to cover the whole
independence, in Oran and Constantine, national territory, with the majority of
and were intended for the elites (only 2,000 HEIs located in the Northern regions.79 In
students and less than 200 teachers). 2019/2020, the total number of students
After the independence in 1962, a policy reached around 1.5 million (in order to better
for higher education was implemented understand such figures, consider that
focusing on the following dimensions: around 1.7 million students were enrolled
generalisation (or democratisation), in France in the same academic year), of
nationalisation, Arabisation and unification which more than 60% are women. 90% are
of education systems.76 Free education registered at universities, 65% enrolled in
is a right guaranteed to all Algerians undergraduate studies, largely in social
by the Constitution and basic education sciences and humanities, then in sciences
is compulsory until 16 years of age. In and technology and lastly in life sciences.80
order to grasp the massification process 61,277 teachers and 69,407 staff members
undergone by the country, consider that ensure the functioning of the university.81
the total number of students in higher Teaching in Algeria is bilingual: Arabic is
education grew fivefold from 1990 to used for social sciences and humanities and
2013.77 Algeria inherited the French higher French for sciences and technology.
education system with an open sector -
universities - and a selective sector made The Algerian higher education sector
up of “écoles supérieures”. In order to face includes the Ministry of Higher Education
the challenges posed by the massification of and Scientific Research (the MESRS, created

75 https://www.algerie360.com/54-de-la-population-est-agee-de-moins-de-30-ans-lalgerie-est-toujours-
jeune/% (Last access February 2021)
76 Ghouati, Professionalisation des formations supérieures et employabilité en Algérie, IREMAM-CNRS, Aix-en-
Provence, Rapport de recherche, 2015.
77 Ibidem
78 ‘Data from the MESRS: https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/96775/AGREGATS-Anglais.pdf/7a93b99a-
d5ae-4ebb-9cc8-92acbe477623 (Last access February 2021)
79 https://services.mesrs.dz/Maps/CarteEtablissements/carteParWilaya_fr.html (Last access February 2021)
80 Data from the MESRS: https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/96775/AGREGATS-Anglais.pdf/7a93b99a-
d5ae-4ebb-9cc8-92acbe477623 (Last access February 2021)
81 Ibidem

33
in 1970) and the advisory bodies: the for medicine and medical sciences) and
National University Conference - chaired complements another system, designed for
by the Minister - and 3 regional universities the so-called Écoles supérieures (2 years of
conferences - West, Centre and East - chaired preparatory classes, 3 years for the Master,
by one elected rector, whose mission for and 3 additional years for the doctorate).
internationalisation is developing pathways According to university staff members
for strengthening inter-university relations. interviewed during the focus group, after
Several reforms have been undertaken and a necessary adaptation period, credit
the current legislative framework for the recognition seems to be an operational
higher education and scientific research procedure, as the learning contents of
sector is defined by the higher education mobility are defined beforehand with the
Orientation Law 99-0582 on higher education approval of the head of department. The
of April 1999, which was completed by the lack of fluency in the foreign language can
law 08-06 of February 200883 (introducing represent a barrier and constant training
the LMD system, except for medicine and information are always welcomed,
studies). but through the learning agreement
mechanism, sending universities are able
Algerian investments in Education and to easily recognise the mobility abroad. In
higher education are among the top five of this sense, cooperation is facilitated beyond
the national budgets. The budget of the HE the bilateral scheme. At the level of the
sector in 2020 represents the 5th budget écoles supérieures, the recognition is based
of the country: a 2.3 billion euro budget on the average and not on modules, as the
of which more than 32% is dedicated to LMD is not operational, and in this case,
students’ life services. students can compensate for the missing
part in the institution.84 Difficulties were
Like many other countries in the region, mentioned in relation to the specific case of
in order to face globalisation and to tackle students in the second year of a Master who
the high unemployment rate, Algeria have a dissertation to prepare (difficulty in
introduced the Bologna process (started in converting modules into a dissertation).85
2004 and finalised in 2010). This reform was The LMD introduction was part of a more
introduced to favour a deep modernisation structural reform initiated within the
of programmes and new teaching practices, framework of the Support Programme for
promote the relationship between training the Sector Policy of higher education and
and employment, research and development Scientific Research (PAPS-ESRS, 2010-
and open higher education to the national 2016),86 cofounded by the European Union
and international environment. It also and Algeria and aimed at modernising
introduced and recognised the ECTS credit the sector, in terms of performance and
system. The LMD system is operational in quality of higher education. Several steps
universities and university centres (except have been taken, from the creation of

82 https://services.mesrs.dz/DEJA/fichiers_sommaire_des_textes/02%20fr.pdf (Last access February 2021)

83 Ivi, p. 8.
84 Example given by EPAU - École Polytechnique d’Architecture et d’Urbanisme during the focus group
85 http://erasmusplus.dz/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Ecosyst%C3%A8me-ICM-en-Alg%C3%A9rie-Ma-
lika-KEBRI.pdf (Last access February 2021)
86 https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/aap_algerie_2009_ad2.pdf (Last access
February 2021)

34
the CIAQES (National Commission for the recognition of foreign diploma are managed
Implementation of Quality Assurance in directly by the ministry. More than 80% of
higher education) to the establishment of them are enrolled in graduate courses. At a
Quality Assurance units in universities, the regional level and compared to other North
definition of a national quality benchmark, African countries, there is still much room
self-assessment. The reform is yet an for improvement.
ongoing process whose end point will
be the creation of a National Agency for The internationalisation of the higher
Quality Assurance and Accreditation, as an education strategy is based on both a top-
independent institution. down and bottom-up approach as it is
led at both ministry and university levels,
Internationalisation of HE in Algeria was according to their area of competence.
born historically in a bilateral way, since The Department of Cooperation and Inter-
its independence, and both northward and University Exchanges is responsible for
southward. After its independence and due ensuring the follow-up of the implementation
to a great shortage of university managers, of training and professional development
academic supervision was ensured by plans abroad and proposing mechanisms
technical and scientific cooperation (French to facilitate integration into the workplace;
“coopérants”). For historical and language implementing training plans for foreign
reasons, exchanges and mobility with students in Algerian higher education
France remain among the most significant. institutions, ensuring the implementation
In 2019-2020, 29,527 Algerian students of cooperative agreements in the
were registered in France – of whom 51% different areas of the sector and proposing
were women (+39% in the last 5 years). The mechanisms allowing the contribution
second destination country is Canada with of the Algerian scientific community
around 500 students.87 established abroad.89 The Department
is divided into four sub-directorates
Due to its regional vocation, Algeria has dedicated to the missions.90 University
always welcomed foreign students, mainly openness to its external and international
from Sub-Saharan countries, becoming environment is the driver in national efforts
a destination country for many African to tackle the employability issue and ensure
students. Since 1962, Algerian universities training for “useful professions”, with the
trained 57,000 foreign students in Medical support of research and innovation. The
Sciences and Technology. Today, around ministry recently recalled the priority
8,000 foreign students of 62 nationalities of internationalisation in its structural
are registered (of whom 48% come from roadmap: the university has “to contribute
Palestine, Mali, Mauritania and other to the technological management and
Sub-Saharan areas).88 In order to host sustainable economic development of the
international students, procedures for the country as well as the openness to the

87 https://www.campusfrance.org/fr/ressource/algerie-2019-2020 (Last access February 2021)

88 https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/96775/AGREGATS-Anglais.pdf/7a93b99a-d5ae-4ebb-9cc8-92ac-
be477623 (Last access February 2021)
89 https://www.mesrs.dz/en/dceiu (Last access February 2021)
90 Sub-directorates of: Training; Development Abroad and Insertion; Training of International Students; Bilateral
Cooperation; Multilateral Cooperation.

35
international (visibility; comparability)” scholarship holders to join laboratories of
and one of the strategical axes is that excellence in France.94 Another strength of
of “refocusing of the international the ministerial strategy is the existence of a
cooperation, in particular around the win- mobility programme for administrative staff,
win partnership and the strengthening of that shows the holistic approach of capacity
international mobility schemes for teacher- building, even if short-term mobilities
researchers”.91 are not taken into consideration in career
progression, or, they are taken into account
The Ministry is the main promoter of mobility informally.95
programmes defined to meet the needs of
the sector and it aims to increase the number At HEI level, whether they are universities or
of professor-rank teachers, currently 8,473 high schools, all organisation charts include
(the number almost tripled from 2009 to by decree96 a vice-rector or deputy director
2019), representing around 14% of the for external relations demonstrating the
overall academic staff;92 to strengthen importance attached to internationalisation
research activity; to improve the use of at the institutional level as well. The two
foreign languages, especially English. The main missions (and services) of the vice-
shortage of professor rank teachers led, rectorate in charge of the promotion of
for instance, to the definition of the National scientific research, external relations and
Exceptional Programme (PNE, funded by the cooperation are: follow-up and enhancement
Ministry) aimed at funding scholarships for of research activities and cooperation and
residential training programmes, dedicated inter-university exchanges. Universities,
to research professors and permanent mainly in the Northern cities, were used
researchers for the finalisation of their to implement international activities
doctoral thesis. For the academic year (mobility agreements, invitation of foreign
2019/2020, 883 scholarships were awarded. professors…) but as the strategy was not
In 2014, another PNE was designed clearly defined before the latest reform,
especially for English learning in the and no tools were designed for measuring
United Kingdom (378 beneficiaries from the the impact of internationalisation activities,
beginning). Another important programme these were not sufficiently visible nor fully
is the so-called PROFAS B+,93 issued from exploited. Instead, within the framework of
the Algerian-French cooperation (initiated in the current governance reform led by the
1987) dedicated to self-employed doctoral Ministry, the internationalisation strategy
students, either in joint supervision or has now to be fully integrated in the Strategic
in joint thesis supervision. Since 2014, plan with indicators and monitoring tools.
PROFAS B+ has enabled nearly 500 Algerian The composition of these services depends

91 https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/96775/AGREGATS-Anglais.pdf/7a93b99a-d5ae-4ebb-9cc8-92ac-
be477623 (Last access February 2021)
92 https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/96775/AGREGATS-Anglais.pdf/7a93b99a-d5ae-4ebb-9cc8-92ac-
be477623 (Last access February 2021)
93 https://www.if-algerie.com/actualites/appels-a-projet/programme-algero-francais-de-bourses-en-docto-
rat-profas-b (Last access February 2021)
94 Ibidem
95 Focus group results
96 Decree of the 26th of September 2004, available at: https://services.mesrs.dz/DEJA/fichiers_sommaire_
des_textes/55%20FR.PDF (Last access February 2021)

36
on the university policy. The lack of human degrees; signature of 25 new agreements
resources is often mentioned as a barrier for the year 2020-2021 and 141 agreements
to the implementation of the strategy, which of joint supervision of theses in progress;
can be overcome when the top management 131 cooperation agreements with more than
is ready to focus on and assume the 60 countries; the signing of a cooperation
responsibility for internationalisation agreement with the mixed network of
activities. Beyond the administrative French schools within the framework of
structure itself, a lack of interest and the authorisation of five vocational training
understanding by a great part of the courses involving professionals from
academic community is also identified as an the economic and social sector; and the
obstacle. In order to involve, rely on and get participation of the research sector in 6
support from more academic members in international programmes.99
the internationalisation process, info-days
and training courses are organised for the When it comes to the participation of
vice-deans who act as focal points for their Algerian institutions in Erasmus+ projects,
faculty.97 Regarding the cooperation and even if it has increased over the years and
management of the Erasmus+ programme, effects on HEI are positively perceived,
Erasmus units have been created, their some kind of frustration remains as the
staff has been trained and they are now budget dedicated to Algerian HEIs is tight.100
functioning in 43 universities98 with the For instance, as regards ICM, the number of
support of the Erasmus+ national office. students and staff moving to Europe and to
Being fluent in a foreign language is an Algeria has notably increased from 2015 to
asset but not a criterion for entering in the 2019 (from 307 to 664).101 For the academic
international relations office. However, year 2019/2020, Algeria benefited from a
language remains a barrier at an internal special allocation of 2.5 million euro102 but
level, even if administrative and academic the percentage of the South Med regional
staff can rely on the presence of the CEIL budget dedicated to Algeria is only 7% - equal
(intensive language teaching centre) in the to the Palestinian budget or half the Tunisian
universities in order to acquire language budget.103 Monitoring visits organised
skills. Some key 2020 results presented by the NEO revealed that the number of
here illustrate the momentum in the whole implemented mobilities is much less than
sector: twinning of Algerian and French the number of contracted mobilities, which
universities for the preparation of 105 joint might be due to the difficulty in obtaining

97 Interview with Professor Benoudnine, vice-rector of the University of Mostaganem and Professor Guedda,
vice-rector of El Oued University.
98 NEO presentation during the ICM Cluster meeting in Algiers in February 2020: http://erasmusplus.dz/
wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Ecosyst%C3%A8me-ICM-en-Alg%C3%A9rie-Malika-KEBRI.pdf (Last access Fe-
bruary 2021)
99 https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/99052/Bilan+activit%C3%A9s+2020.pdf/7a54f7ba-fc31-4535-a-
fe0-f3cc21743a55 (Last access February 2021)
100 Results of the focus group and interview with Arezki Saidani, Director of Cooperation and Inter-University
Exchanges at the MESRS
101 https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/erasmus-plus/factsheets/neighbourhood/algeria_erasmusplus_2019.pdf
(Last access February 2021)
102 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/whatsnew-icm-call-2020_1.pdf (Last access February
2021)
103 https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/erasmus-plus/factsheets/neighbourhood/algeria_erasmusplus_2019.pdf
(Last access February 2021)

37
the invitation letter from the hosting development, exchange of practices) while
university.104 The top 5 destination countries the Ministry programmes have a greater
are Spain, France, Portugal, Turkey and impact on research.110 Capacity-building
Italy. Even if the top 5 Algerian universities seems to be another tangible effect as
involved in ICM are from regional capital or 3 projects have been coordinated by an
major cities, the participation of universities Algerian partner.
from more peripheral or remote cities has
to be underlined.105 The 2020 ICM selection As for its intra-regional neighbours,
reveals also the participation for the first internationalisation in Algeria is mainly
time of 6 Algerian universities.106 driven by outgoing mobility, incoming
foreign scholarship programmes and
The ICM represents an opportunity for participation in international projects. There
undergraduate and masters students, when are also visiting professors’ programmes,
ministerial scholarship programmes focus 5,900 of which were recorded in 2018111.
on the PhD level.107 Algerian participation Due to the great number of universities, the
in Erasmus Mundus Joint Master’s Degree geographic dimension and historical factors,
is modest in terms of proposals (in 2019, Algerian universities have not reached yet
out of the 107 proposals received, only 6 the same level of international exposure.
involved Algerian partners), but success rate Membership in regional or international
is quite good as out of the said 6 proposals, networks is another dimension of the
5 were selected (never as full partners internationalisation strategy. It is worth
but as associated partners). In terms of mentioning internationalisation at home, by
scholarships, winners from Algeria are really means of two examples. The first example
few, 24 for the 2014-2019 period, on a total of shows the privileged relation between
9389.108 The participation of Algerian HEI in Algeria and France and the creation of the
CBHE projects is overall stable109 and always ESAA112 (Algerian High Business School),
with 4 projects selected involving Algerian born as an Algerian public institution thanks
partners. For the 2015-2019 period, 24 CBHE to an intergovernmental agreement signed
projects have seen the participation of 107 in 2004. French and Algerian institutions
partners. The effects of this participation participate in the consortium and support
are positively perceived, especially in for the ESAA by participating in educational
language reasons for all categories (student, engineering and by providing academic staff.
academic and administrative staff) and for A Master in Business Administration (MBA)
training and pedagogical reasons (curricula diploma is delivered by the pedagogical

104 Interview with Arezki Saidani and monitoring visit results by the NEO
105 http://erasmusplus.dz/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Ecosyst%C3%A8me-ICM-en-Alg%C3%A9rie-Ma-
lika-KEBRI.pdf (Last access February 2021)
106 http://erasmusplus.dz/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Newsletter-Septembre-D%C3%A9cembre-2020.pdf
(Last access February 2021)
107 Focus group results
108 https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/erasmus-plus/factsheets/neighbourhood/algeria_erasmusplus_2019.pdf
(Last access February 2021)
109 From 13 proposals received involving Algeria in 2015, to 16 in 2019
110 Focus group results
111 Interview with Arezki Saidani
112 https://www.esaa.dz/ (Last access February 2021)

38
scheme and signed by all the consortium the world. This diversification was favoured
members, like other diplomas that are by ministerial cooperation agreements,
delivered by the French universities. The university initiatives and participation in
second example of the regional African international projects. Today, there are
dimension of Algeria is the establishment scholarship programmes with several
of the Institute of water and Energy in the countries, such as Jordan, Tunisia,
University of Tlemcen, as part of the Pan China, Hungary and Ireland. Multilateral
African University113 (PAU) created by the cooperation has also been strengthened
African Union Commission. PAU’s strategy with the goal of contributing to the higher
aims at developing institutions of excellence education reform and today Algeria
in the fields of science, technology, participates in all international bodies and
innovation, social sciences and governance, conferences.
in order to “enhance the attractiveness and
global competitiveness of African higher According to all participants in the focus
education and research and establish the group, the major effects of mobility are
African University at the core of Africa’s the acquisition of new skills and the
development”.114 Since the first promotional development of an intercultural approach
initiative in 2014, over 200 students from and dialogue and significant life experience
31 countries across Africa have enrolled, in general. In terms of employability,
and 73 students have successfully mobility is recognised also to have a great
graduated from its programmes.115 Algeria impact on the specific case of the above-
is opened to the establishment of foreign mentioned scholarship programmes. The
universities and it has a legal framework recruitment of PhD students with a joint-
for that, as the amendment of the higher supervised thesis as assistant-lecturer is
education Law in 2008 opened the door in most cases automatic.118 Even if there is
to private higher education institutions, no systematic monitoring tool of graduates’
subject beforehand “to the ratification of insertion, feedback given by the students
a bilateral agreement”.116 In this sense, is encouraging and positive. In general, the
several possibilities exist: a foreign private sector seems more interested in an
university could award a foreign diploma, or experience abroad than the public one.
it could be a branch, or a mixed university.
The establishment of foreign structures is In terms of scientific benefits and impact of
perceived as a policy of emulation, also to studying abroad, the Ministry underlines a
improve Algerian universities standards.117 major impact on PhD thesis defence (87% for
PNE and 93% for PROFAS B+ programmes)119
Over the years, bilateral cooperation has and international publications, the
been diversified and opened to other development of new career sectors and
European countries and to other regions of the deepening of pedagogical and scientific

113 https://www.pauwes.dz/ (Last access February 2021)

114 https://pau-au.africa/ (Last access February 2021)
115 https://pau-au.africa/institutes/pauwes (Last access February 2021)
116 Art.43 bis 3 of the Law 08-06 of February 2008
117 Interview with Arezki Saidani
118 https://www.mesrs.dz/documents/21525/96775/AGREGATS-Anglais.pdf/7a93b99a-d5ae-4eb-
b-9cc8-92acbe477623 (Last access February 2021)
119 Ibidem

39
knowledge. The impact of international cooperation programme called Hubert
publications is also noticeable.120 Over the Curien Tassili partnership127 (PHC), which
2005-2020 period, France was by far the has been providing support to joint research
first country in terms of co-publications projects and the mobility of French and
with Algeria (22,614), the second country Algerian researchers since 1980. Over
being Saudi Arabia (2,665).121 As for the the period of 2015/2020, the 148 selected
rankings, in the 2020 edition of the Shanghai projects and the 5 Maghreb-PHC have
global ranking of Academic subjects,122 the allowed for the registration of 25 doctorates
University of Djillali Liabes University of Sidi in joint thesis supervision per year and128
Bel Abbès ranks between the 101st and the publication of 52 articles.
150th position in Civil Engineering. In the
Times higher education World University As regards digitalisation and the impact of
Rankings of 2021,123 the first Algerian ICT on the internationalisation of HE, before
university, the University of Sétif 1, ranks the COVID-19 crisis, e-learning was not
501st-600th in the global ranking.124 Even very developed despite the efforts of the
if the visibility of the institution is one of ministry (decree of April 2011 establishing
the objectives of the internationalisation the national commission for e-learning) and
strategy, institutional prestige and ranking the skills that the universities developed in
are perceived to be among the dimensions e-learning, as well as the effective use of
impacted the least by the international different existing platforms. COVID-19 has
activities performed at the university.125 generated unexpected skillsand capabilities
(800 online courses have been developed
Algeria is a partner in five H2020 projects for the 1st year of the Degree Course) even
defined as part of the Africa-Europe if conservatism and resistance to change
partnership and research mobility were very strong. From now on, within
actions. Algeria participates also in the the framework of teacher training, new
Partnership for Research and Innovation teachings regarding the management of
in the Mediterranean Area (PRIMA) on e-learning have been introduced. E-learning
priority themes related to food security, was not defined by the higher education Act
and since 2016 it has participated in 7 revised in 2008, but its current process of
projects dedicated to innovative projects amendment will integrate the e-learning as
and 27 projects related to research and a training mode. All the people interviewed
development.126 Algerian researchers agreed on the fact that in-presence training
participate also in the Algerian-French is irreplaceable (and in the current situation

120 Ibidem
121 Ibidem
122 http://www.shanghairanking.com/shanghairanking-subject-rankings/civil-engineering.html (last access
March 2021)
123 https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2021/world-ranking#!/page/0/len-
gth/25/locations/DZ/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats (Last access February 2021)
124 The second one, the University of Oran ranks 1 at 801-1000, and 8 in the top 1001 (Universities of Bejaia,
Biskra, Blida 1, Constantine 1, Boumerdès, USTHB, USTO and Tlemcen.
125 Focus group results
126 http://www.h2020.dz/participation_algerienne_h2020.php (Last access February 2021)
127 https://www.campusfrance.org/fr/tassili (Last access February 2021)
128 Same initiative including the participation of one partner from Tunisia and Morocco

40
suffers from external challenges such as As for the attractiveness, there is a lack of
the accessibility and connectivity, especially appropriate infrastructures (for hosting
in remote areas) but represents a viable students and allowing research); Algeria did
alternative and a portion of e-learning not invest in tourism as its neighbours
activities could be carried out even after the did and consequently the partial
pandemic. E-learning can also be a response knowledge of the country results into the
to massification. Thanks to this technology, underestimation of Algeria as a destination
Algerian universities were in a way able country for European universities; teaching
to meet mobility expectations, by offering only in French and Arabic is also perceived
online courses to students who should have as an obstacle.132 Competition at the
attended those same courses in person.129 national and international levels is also
Algeria’s geographical characteristics and a challenge perceived at the Ministry and
the lack of maturity of some universities HEIs level. On the basis of our relationship
(especially those that have been recently with the local HEI, it seems that some
created) contribute to an unequal exposure internal bureaucratic process and financial
to internationalisation activity. The visa issue regulations have a negative impact on the
remains a concrete and objective barrier decision-making process and involvement
to mobility, as well as rigid administrative in international activities. Algerian diaspora
procedures for obtaining the hosting is significant and has an important network
convention. of associations and part of them aim
to strengthen cooperation and promote
Language skills are perceived as both as an knowledge transfer. We can mention as
incentive (mostly for French speakers) and an example a network of researchers
a barrier at different levels. For instance, and senior leaders in the health sector
students in social sciences and humanities established by the Algerian American
studying in Arabic are less impacted by Foundation in the United States to ensure
mobilities; mobility actions tend to benefit training and technical assistance services
staff members with a technical background for new medical research centres in
because of the use of a foreign language Algeria.133 The MESRS launched a strategy
in the academic training courses; there to promote Algerian scientific talents
are weaknesses in the implementation of living abroad through initiatives such as
internationalisation activities at large as the participation in scientific councils of
foreign languages skills are necessary to research centres or the co-supervision of
manage cooperation, agreements, welcome doctoral theses. Incentives in this direction
foreign visitor. Capacity building was could also favour the internationalisation of
reported as necessary in writing proposals the HE system.
and project management.130 The brain-drain
effect131 is the dark side of the moon and it
has to be taken to take into consideration.

129 Example given by University of Tlemcen during the focus group

130 Interview of Professor Benoudnine and focus group results
131 Focus group results
132 Ibidem
133 http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/zh/931911491398316122/pdf/111806-FRENCH-53pg-Mobili-
ser-la-diaspora-MENA-Avril-2017.pdf (Last access February 2021)

41
 Egypt
Over the last 50 years the Egyptian higher are spread out in different cities and regions
education system has developed from one of the country, serving diverse groups of the
governmental university (Cairo University) population.140
and one private university134 (American From an institutional point of view, the higher
University in Cairo) to 11 additional education institutions, including universities
governmental universities up till the late and technical colleges, are governed
1980s. The number of universities in Egypt by the Ministry of higher education and
in 2018 reached 57, of whom 31 are private Scientific Research (MHESR) which is the
universities and 26 are public universities.135 main regulatory body for higher education
The number of students enrolled confirm in Egypt. The MHESR sets out policies,
that the Egyptian higher education system oversees their implementation, supervises
is one of the largest in the MENA region. and coordinates all tertiary education. The
Currently the students enrolled in public and Ministry of higher education and Scientific
private universities are about 2.4 million in Research is supported by three executive
total.136 bodies, headed directly by the Minister of
higher education, which are responsible
From a structural point of view, the Egyptian for the implementation of higher education
higher education system has different programmes by monitoring and verifying
types of institutions:137 public universities, the outcomes for each type of institutions:
private universities and universities with the Supreme Council of Universities, the
a mixed status, which are the national Supreme Council of Private Universities
non-profit universities,138 the universities and the Supreme Council of Technical
under special laws or agreements and Institutes. Public universities are regulated
the higher institutions. In parallel with by Law No. 49/1972141 and governed by
the public education system, there is the the Supreme Council of Universities (SCU).
religious education provided by the Al- Private universities are regulated by Law
Azhar University.139 The Al-Azhar institutes No. 101/1992142 and governed by the

134 Interview with Prof. Mayada Belal, Helwan University

135 https://wenr.wes.org/2019/02/education-in-egypt-2#:~:text=Today%2C%20Egypt%20has%20the%20large-
st,students%2C%20according%20to%20UIS%20data (Last access February 2021)
136 ‘https://www.arabdevelopmentportal.com/sites/default/files/publication/egypt_figures_education.pdf
(Last access February 2021)
137 On the basis of the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) country fiche for Egypt
(2017) here available: https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_egypt_2017.pdf Last
access February 2021)
138 Called Ahleya Universities
139 Founded in 970 CE
140 http://www.azhar.edu.eg/ (Last access February 2021)
141 ‘Arabic version available at: https://www.egypt.gov.eg/arabic/laws/download/newlaws/%D8%A7%-
D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86%20%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%85%2049%20%D9%84%-
D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9%201972.pdf (Last access February 2021)
142 https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/11831153_05.pdf (Last access February 2021)

42
Supreme Council for Private Universities As for the policies, the Egyptian higher
(SCPU).143 Technical colleges and institutes education system was amended several
are regulated by Law No 528/2003144 and times in the past years as a result of
are governed by the Supreme Council for the development that occurred in the
Technical Institutes (SCTI).145 SCU develops sector in order to preserve the quality
policies for university education and of higher education. With regard to
scientific research and enrols high school internationalisation, two recent measures
graduates to appropriate institutions.146 at national level are particularly important:
SCPU is formed by private university Egypt Vision 2030149 launched in February
presidents and representatives from public 2016, which reflects the state’s long-
organisations and the SCTC is formed by term strategic plan to achieve sustainable
the representatives of technical institutes development principles and objectives in
and civil society representatives. In addition all areas, including education, and the new
to these councils, there is the central education reform programme known as
administration of Al-Azhar Institutes. This Education 2.0150 (EDU 2.0, with the objective
structure shows that the public university of restructuring the higher education
system is highly centralised, especially when system in accordance with the targets
it comes to finance: the public educational outlined in Vision 2030), which was followed
institutions are primarily funded by the by the publication of Law No. 162/2018151
state budget, while private educational on the establishment and organisation of
institutions do not receive any public international branch campuses.
funding (direct or indirect).147 The financing
of private higher education institutions The objective of the strategy Egypt Vision
is indeed fully independent148 and that 2030 is to diversify the Egyptian economy,
constitutes an important difference in terms to boost the private sector employment
of strategy for the internationalisation and entrepreneurship, as well as to foster
to be implemented. Despite that, all the new knowledge industries. In this context,
higher education institutions, whether the seventh pillar152 of the strategy is
they are public private, are independent dedicated to the “education and training
in other aspects, like scientific research, system” and it has research and innovation
administrative regulations and community as its foundation. Hence, the three key
services. pillars of the 2030 education strategy have
been defined as equal access, quality and
competitiveness.153

143 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_egypt_2017.pdf Last access February 2021)

144 https://openspace.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2020-04/TRPreport_2020_Egypt_EN.pdf
145 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_egypt_2017.pdf Last access February 2021)
146 http://portal.mohesr.gov.eg/en-us/Pages/Council_Institutes.aspx (Last access February 2021)
147 Interview with Mayada Belal
148 Ibidem
149 https://mped.gov.eg/EgyptVision?lang=en (Last access February 2021)
150 https://www.rdp-egypt.com/en/home (Last access February 2021)
151 https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/International/Documents/Annexe%20A.PDF (Last access February 2021)
152 https://www.investinegypt.gov.eg/English/Pages/WhyEgypt.aspx (Last access February 2021)
153 https://www.arabdevelopmentportal.com/sites/default/files/publication/sds_egypt_vision_2030.pdf (Last
access February 2021)

43
In this context, the international dimension for the first time a separate standalone
has been confirmed as a priority for the initiative for internationalisation.155 The
entire higher education system, whereas aim of this strategic plan is to promote the
internationalisation has traditionally been a international presence of the university and
structural element of Egyptian HEIs. Being its faculties, through new partnerships with
international and being recognised at the foreign institutions and scientific research
international level has indeed been a priority centres.156 The above-mentioned University
for most of the HEIs in the country, with the Law No. 49/1972, and its following
overall purpose of becoming competitive and amendments, foresaw that all Egyptian
delivering high quality education in line with faculty members can travel for both short
international standards. Egypt has made and long-term exchanges, which can
efforts to enhance the country’s academic take the form of visiting professors, post-
programmes, institutions and its research doctoral missions or longer-term leaves, as
activity, by sending on the one hand students well as short-term participation in trainings,
and academic staff to different countries in conferences and other forms of capacity
order to obtain qualifications, and on the building activities. Initiatives such as those
other hand, by promoting a large number of the University of Helwan are fully part of
of collaborations with institutes all over the this regulatory framework, which therefore
world. leaves a certain autonomy to the HEIs
in carrying out their internationalisation
Even though it is clear for all the HEIs that activities.
being international and being recognised
at the international level is a priority In this context, a great contribution has been
and that international cooperation needs given by the work of the National Erasmus+
to be considered as an opportunity for Office that supports the internationalisation
advancement and modernisation of their process of the universities by facilitating
own institution, it emerges that not all exchanges with HEIs outside the country,157
the HEIs have a clearly defined strategy by implementing processes such as
for internationalisation.154 Most of them, students’ selection, by promoting mobility
including the largest universities in the follow-up actions and by explaining the
country, consider internationalisation importance to have a more internationalised
very important but not all of them have administrative staff and a more connected
a structured and formalised approach to office for international relations. As
advance in that respect. This is confirmed by underlined by Karim Hamdy, the main task
the fact that plans for internationalisation of the National Erasmus+ Office has been
have only recently become a formal therefore that of making universities aware
structuring part of the university’s of the importance of a well-structured
strategy. This is the case for example of office, which coordinates and promotes
the Helwan University, which released international relations and activities. This
in 2015 its new strategic plan including work is done through the organisation of

154 Interview with Karim Hamdy, Director of the National Erasmus+ office in Egypt
155 Interview with Mayada Belal
156 Ibidem
157 Interview with Karim Hamdy

44
information sessions and bilateral meetings and organisation of International Branch
with the Egyptian universities during Campuses (IBC). The Law includes provisions
which the NEO informs their management that enable international universities to
on opportunities.158 NEO’s support to the establish branch campuses by building their
universities provided consists also in own campus, like the German International
organising workshops or seminars whose University of Applied Sciences;160 by
objective is to transfer knowledge and skills, partnering with an Egyptian educational hub
such as the technique needed to write a that can host different branch campuses,
project proposal. The training is organised like the Knowledge Hub;161 and by allowing
based on a geographical scheme, as it is very 100% foreign and private ownership of the
difficult to provide training to each Egyptian schools and academic autonomy.162 The
university. In the words of the Director of the reason behind this measure is to encourage
National Erasmus Office: “The efficiency of Egyptian students not to pursue their
these training strategies is proved by the bachelor’s degree abroad, by providing
success rate of the people attending the all the service and quality needed directly
initiatives organised: it often happens that in Egypt, and to convert Egypt into an
the people attending the workshops are international hub for higher education.163
granted during the year or the following There are two main objectives behind this
year”.159 reform. Firstly, there is the objective of
ensuring that Egypt becomes a destination
Against this backdrop, two important country for incoming mobility. In this field,
elements emerged. On the one hand, the competition with the countries of the
Egyptian universities benefit from a certain Gulf has been growing and, at present, Egypt
degree of autonomy in the definition of their has a relatively low incoming mobility rate
strategies. The Egyptian HEIs can therefore compared to the Gulf countries. Secondly, the
make choices according to their training reform of branch campuses certainly aims
needs and pursue the objectives set in terms to contain the brain-drain effect and to make
of internationalisation. On the other hand, the Egyptian higher education system more
it is evident that the central government attractive in terms of quality of teaching.
wants to promote the general attractiveness
of the Egyptian higher education system The internationalisation initiatives
abroad. For this reason, in 2018 a new policy undertaken in Egypt in the framework of the
of internationalisation was adopted. The new strategy are developed on three distinct
policy has the double objective of retaining levels. First, the government develops and
more students in Egypt and, at the same finances its own initiatives, the objective
time, of trying to turn the country into an being to facilitate knowledge transfer
education hub. The measure in question is and to increase the attractiveness of the
Law No. 162/2018 on the establishment higher education institutions. Second, the

158 Ibidem
159 Ibidem
160 https://giu-uni.de/en/about-giu/ (Last access February 2021)
161 https://tkh.edu.eg/the-knowledge-hub-universities-about/ (Last access February 2021)
162 For a detailed analysis of the International Branch Campuses (IBC), please visit: https://www.universitiesuk.
ac.uk/International/Documents/2018%20iNote_Egypt%20IBC_final.pdf (Last access February 2021)
163 Interview with Mayada Belal

45
central government participates in a series in cooperation with International fund
of bilateral and multilateral development agencies, such as the German Academic
cooperation agreements that include Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Fulbright
aspects of tertiary education, research, Commission, have been launched.166 This
and/or skills development. And finally, is the case of German-Egyptian long-term
internationalisation initiatives are improved scholarships and German-Egyptian short-
through partnerships between Egyptian term scholarships,167 which are both co-
universities and counterparts in other financed by the Egyptian government and
countries. by the DAAD. For both the selection criterion
is always the competitive one:168 the best
With regard to the involvement of the proposals are selected by a joint committee
Egyptian government, it is possible to say based on the priorities and needs of the
that there is a direct implication, to a certain country set out every year. A similar scheme
extent, in all scholarship activities in which has been put in place with the British Council.
government employees are involved.164
When it comes to awards granted by foreign As a result of all the efforts made in
entities, several executive programmes order to foster and support international
have been established with foreign activities, Egyptian HEIs became important
countries. These scholarship programmes players in the framework of the programme
are implemented and executed bilaterally Erasmus+. In the 2015 call for International
between Egypt and the counterpart Credit Mobility by Erasmus+, Egypt ranked
governments abroad. In 2014, there were among the highest 20 countries benefiting
21 executive programmes, going from from these funds, with Alexandria and Cairo
multi-year doctoral programmes to short- Universities on the top of the list with a total
term language study opportunities.165 About of, respectively,13 mobility programmes for
half of the 21 countries involved in these Alexandria and 11 mobility programmes for
executive programmes were European Cairo.169 During the period between 2015
(Austria, Belgium-Flanders, Czech Republic, and 2019, the Egyptian HEIs took part in
Denmark, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Italy, 423 ICM projects, with 3,206 students and
Norway, Slovenia), and half of them were staff moving to Europe and 1,491 students
not European (in particular China, India, and staff moving to Egypt.170 With regards
Japan, UEA, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia). In to the Erasmus+ Capacity Building in higher
addition, a number of new programmes education (CBHE) projects, during the same

164 The rationale for sponsoring students to undertake international study: an assessment of national student
mobility scholarship programmes, DAAD – British Council 2014: https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/
files/e002_outward_mobility_study_final_v2_web.pdf (Last access February 2021)
165 The rationale for sponsoring students to undertake international study: an assessment of national student
mobility scholarship programmes, DAAD – British Council 2014: https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/
files/e002_outward_mobility_study_final_v2_web.pdf (Last access February 2021)
166 Interview with Mayada Belal
167 Interview with Karim Hamdy
168 Interview with Mayada Belal
169 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_egypt_2017.pdf (Last access February
2021)
170 https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/erasmus-plus/factsheets/neighbourhood/egypt_erasmusplus_2019.pdf
(Last access February 2021)

46
period (2015-2019), 38 CBHE projects In this situation, mobility of both students
were selected, of whom 8 were directly and academic staff has a prominent
coordinated by Egyptian Institutions.171 These position. In the past years, Egypt has moved
figures are even more significant if we think from an upper limit of no more than 10% of
that among all cooperation programmes and positions available for foreign students in
initiatives, Erasmus Plus has been indicated public universities, to placing recruitment of
by the focus group172 as the most impactful on international students as one of the major
the international activities in the country, in goals of its internationalisation efforts.
terms of funding (the European Commission This is particularly true with regards to the
is indicated as the main source of funding students and academic staff mobilities, even
for mobility), in terms of opportunities for if it is not yet the case of the administrative
international experiences (involving in staff mobility. In this regard, it has been
particular students, academic staff and pointed out that there are several barriers
sometimes administrative staff, especially that do not allow the administrative staff
those working at the international relations to participate in a mobility programme.
offices), and because it allowed to expand The first barrier is the lack of a training
their geographic dimension. scheme financed by the state because, in
general, the funds allocated by the state
From a geographical point of view, while are available only for the academic staff
historically Egypt had connections with the (including the assistant faculty staff).176 The
Gulf States (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, etc.) second and most relevant barrier is the lack
and with Malaysia,173 in recent years Europe of knowledge of foreign languages.177 So
has opened the doors to a wider range even if sometimes there is the opportunity
of possibilities through its programmes, for administrative staff to take part in a
increasing cooperation agreements with mobility programme, such as those offered
almost all European states, especially by Erasmus programmes, the administrative
with Germany. Second to Erasmus+, a staff wouldn’t be able to participate
past programme among those funded by because of the language. In this context,
the European Commission, the Erasmus the problem of the lack of knowledge of a
Mundus programme, has been pointed foreign language has been stressed by the
out, confirming Europe as one of the main participant to the focus group as a general
stakeholders in Egypt.174 Indeed, over 1,000 barrier that needs to be solved.178 Because
Egyptian students benefited from Erasmus of that, most of the universities now are
Mundus scholarships from the majority of making some reforms for changing their
Egyptian universities.175 academic programmes in order to include
new programmes delivered in English. They

171 Ibidem
172 Focus group results
173 Interview with Nadia Badrawi, President of the Arab Network for Quality Assurance in higher education
(ANQAHE)
174 Focus group results
175 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_egypt_2017.pdf (Last access February
2021)
176 Interview with Mayada Belal
177 Interview with Karim Hamdy
178 Focus group results

47
are trying to make curricular reforms in
order to raise the internal level of English
knowledge and at the same time to make
academic programmes more appealing for
international students.179

Within this context, HEIs in Egypt have

demonstrated that internationalisation is a
priority for institutional strategic planning, a
development opportunity for the members
of the educational community and a driving
force for modernisation. However, several
challenges still need to be addressed
in order to make the higher education
sector fully internationalised. Despite all
the efforts, it has been underlined that
the system needs more coordination with
various sectors and a more forward-looking
management at the level of the HEI. In
addition, Egypt needs more flexible laws and
regulations, with a particular attention to the
critical point of money transfer rules. In this
regard, universities are discouraged from
submitting projects, because of structural
problems which make it difficult for the
project to be practically carried out.

In addition to this, the need to foster

administrative staff training emerged,
in order to give the possibility to the
administrative staff to acquire language
skills, computer skills and other soft skills
also needed to organise activities with
international stakeholders. Through training
for administrative staff, it would be possible
to establish a virtuous circle that would
strengthen the internationalisation strategy
as well as the quality of services provided
by universities. From a national point of
view, the need for stronger international
cooperation in the fields of renewable
energy, health and climate change has been
underlined.

179 Ibidem

48
 Israel
The sector of higher education in Israel plays colleges, which are institutions established
a key role in the strategy through which the by the Ministry of Education and offer
country achieves its objectives. The strategy undergraduate and Master programmes in
for the higher education system in Israel education. In addition, the Israeli system has
aims to give full access to higher education, an additional category, which is composed
to train a qualified academic workforce, to only by the Open University,182 whose
achieve excellence in teaching and research, specific features consist in offering an
to be at the forefront of global sciences, in educational path through distance teaching
response to the needs of society and of the methods such as online teaching, distance
economy.180 learning and others.183 All HEIs included
in these categories can offer Bachelor’s
The Israeli higher education system is and Master’s degree programmes but only
currently composed of 61 institutions of research universities can offer PhDs.
higher education operating throughout the
country. Among these, 9 are universities, From an institutional point of view, all
more than 31 are academic colleges and the HEIs are subject to the full academic
21 are academic colleges of education.181 supervision of the Council for higher
From a structural point of view the higher education (CHE),184 while their financial
education system consists of five different stability is monitored by the Planning and
types of institutions. First of all, there are Budgeting Committee (PBC). The framework
the universities, engaged in teaching and of higher education System is defined by
advanced research for undergraduate the Council for higher education Law No.
programmes; secondly, there are the 5718/1958,185 which established the CHE
budgeted academic colleges, which offer and the procedures for the accreditation of
undergraduate and Master’s degree the institutions within the Israeli system.
programmes, the majority of which are According to the law and its subsequent
financed by the Ministry of Education; then, amendments, the CHE is composed of twenty-
there are the non-budgeted academic five members, one of whom is the Minister of
colleges, which are private institutions that higher education who acts as Chairman.186
are not funded by the state; and finally, The members of the CHE are persons
there are the academic teacher training operating in the field of higher education,

180 https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/background-and-overview-of-higher-education-in-israel (Last ac-

cess February 2021)
181 https://studyisrael.org.il/study-in-israel/#higher-education-in-a-glance (Last access February 2021)
182 Interview with Marissa Gross Yarm, Head of International Student Affairs at the Council for higher education
in Israel
183 Interview with Kathrin Theurillat, Director National Erasmus+ Office in Israel
184 https://che.org.il/en/about-us/ (Last access February 2021)
185 Council for higher education Law 5718/1958. English version available here: http://www.knesset.gov.il/
review/data/eng/law/kns3_highereducation_eng.pdf (Last access February 2021)
186 Interview with Marissa Gross Yarm

49
who have been recommended by the institutions. In the 1990s, the system was
Minister of Education after consulting with characterised by a rapid and significant
recognised institutions of higher education. growth in the number of students. The
The vice-chair is an academic, and, by virtue high demand for academic studies has
of their positions, there are also members contributed to the opening of new higher
of the Council, the Chairman of the Planning education institutions and to the planning
and Budgeting Committee and the Chairman of a larger educational offer. In the 1990s
of the National Association of Students. The an important legislative act188 enabled the
composition of the Council makes it possible opening of academic colleges (general,
to have adequate representation of all types technical, and professional), determining
of accredited higher education institutions, the transition to a new academic landscape
in accordance with article 4 of the Law No. based on three pillars:189 diversification
5718/1958. of the higher education institutions,
privatisation and internationalisation.
The other main national institution in the In contrast to the growth of the 1990s,
field of higher education is the PBC, which the first decade of the 21st century was
monitors the financial stability of the HEIs. characterised by a decline in the student
Established by a government decision in growth rate, primarily due to demographic
June 1977 to serve as an independent reasons.190 This has led to a further change
body between the government and higher in the governance system of the Israeli
education institutions in all matters relating higher education sector, which moved from a
to the budget for the higher education general policy of expansion to one aimed at
system, the PBC is a sub-committee of the strengthening and consolidating the existing
Council for higher education composed of institutions. Nevertheless, the centrality
seven members (including the Chairman): of colleges in the higher education system
four are professors (two from the social remained: in 2016, out of 190,400 bachelor’s
sciences and humanities and two from students (excluding those enrolled in the
the exact and engineering sciences); two Open University), 66% were enrolled in
are representatives of the public; and one colleges.191
is a senior faculty member of a budgeted
college.187 In recent years, policy-makers have put
emphasis on new initiatives to reform the
Over the past two decades, the higher internationalisation of the entire higher
education system has undergone some education system in Israel in the sense
relevant changes, the most important of of greater internationalisation and social
which was the increase in the number inclusion. In this context, the multi-year plan
of students attending higher education for higher education launched in 2016 is

187 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_israel_2017.pdf (Last access February

2021)
188 The resolution 3964 released on September 28, 1994.
189 G. Menahem, The Transformation of higher education in Israel since the 1990s: The Role of Ideas and Policy
Paradigms, Governance Journal, September 2008, pp. 509-510
190 https://che.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Press-Release-Collection-of-Data-for-Start-of-Year.pdf
(Last access February 2021)
191 A. Marantz-Gal, Internationalization of the Curriculum in Israeli Colleges, International higher education, n.
87, Fall 2016, pp. 15-17

50
of great importance because it redesigned In the beginning of 2019, the
the regulation framework for promoting internationalisation strategy for HEIs
and funding the internationalisation in HE. received a boost through the launch of
The general objective is to make Israel an a further initiative called “New Campus
international higher education hub through Programme for Entrepreneurship and
four different initiatives covering four Innovation” aimed at supporting the
relevant areas for internationalisation: 1) establishment of entrepreneurship and
attracting more international students to innovation centres within the higher
Israel,192 2) developing international skills education institutions.197
for Israeli students, 3) improving capacity
building actions between the Israeli higher All this contributes to enhancing the
education institutions, and 4) strengthening general attractiveness of the country.
international research linkages. In this Governmental efforts to reduce the barriers
context, funds have been allocated to to the attractiveness of the Israeli higher
support the development of institutional education system have also included
strategies and to build new institutional a series of more detailed and incisive
capacity and infrastructures. The HE budget measures. First of all, part of the council
in 2016 stood at 2.5 billion euro.193 During of higher education action is aimed at
the six-years implementation of the plan, streamlining academic regulations and
the budget should be increased to a total of removing obstacles facing international
3 billion euro in 2022. students and researchers coming to
Israel (such as visas, work permits, etc.).
In this context, International students, Secondly, part of the internationalisation
in particular those pursuing advanced policy of the council of higher education
degrees, are considered as one of the most includes provisions to make English courses
important programme’s beneficiaries. In the compulsory. In this direction, the entire
additional investment of 2 billion foreseen concept behind the internationalisation
by the Multi-Year Plan, a sum of around 75 strategy is to bring international and local
million euro194 should be allocated in order students together and not to have separate
to increase the number of international English programmes for foreign students
students from 11,000 in 2017 to 25,000 alone. In December 2019, the council for
in 2022. That is, more than doubling195 the higher education approved the new reform
number of foreign students enrolled in the based on the Common European Framework
higher education institution in 2017, which of Reference for Languages and over the
were, according to the data provided by following five years, academic institutions
the OECD, particularly low compared to the have to adopt a study programme in order
average of the other countries (6%).196 to ensure that the students can have at

192 L. Maoz, Principles for International Student Policy, Council for higher education, Planning and Budgeting
Committee, July 2016.
193 https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/new-multi-year-plan-for-higher-education-investment-internationali-
zation-467714 (Last access February 2021)
194 Ibidem
195 https://www.eaie.org/blog/internationalisation-israel.html (Last access February 2021)
196 https://che.org.il/en/strengthening-internationalism-higher-education/ (Last access February 2021)
197 https://supporthere.org/page/higher-education-israel (Last access February 2021)

51
least a proficiency in English language for the International Credit Mobility in the
skills.198 According to the CHE’s guidelines, Mediterranean area which have involved a
all students starting undergraduate studies total of 6,612 students and staff moving to
in the 2021/22 school year have to follow at Europe and 4,911 students and staff moving
least two courses in the English language, to Israel. This figure is confirmed by the
determined according to their level of wide participation of the institutions: 84%
English. This policy was been designed of Israeli HEI are active in ICM.201 Over the
as a complement of the “Study in Israel” same period, 20 Capacity Building projects
programme and should enable academic involving Israel were selected for funding,
institutions to open English-taught 11 of which are coordinated by Israeli
programmes in order to attract more foreign Institutions. In the Erasmus Mundus Joint
students.199 Master’s Degrees, 11 joint master’s degrees
have been selected with more than 16 Israeli
Internationalisation is a structural element institutions involved.202
for Israeli HEIs. Being recognised at
international level is a priority for most As regards the internationalisation strategy
of the HEIs, with the overall purpose for research, it is worth mentioning that
of becoming competitive with the most Israel is an associated partner country of
important universities in the world and the H2020 programme since its launch.
delivering high quality education in line Data concerning the Israeli results in this
with international standards. In terms of programme showed that Israel has a
structure, it is possible to state that most strong and competitive research system
HEIs in Israel have an office dedicated to considering that, during the 20 years of
international affairs and well-trained staff partnership in the programme, the overall
to coordinate activities. As a result of all Israeli investment reached 1.21 billion
the efforts puts in place in order to foster euro. Over the years, Israeli HEIs submitted
international activities, the programme more than 11,000 proposals, of which 1,479
Erasmus+ constitutes an influential projects203 were approved, presenting a
driving force for the internationalisation 13% success rate in the programme, which
process held in the country. In Israel, the makes it the third out of 16 associated
Erasmus+ programme is indeed the main countries in terms of success rate.204 With
ongoing programme at the national level regard to Israel competitiveness, in the
that provides funding for students to study H2020 programme the country is especially
overseas.200 In the period 2015-2019, remarkable in the European Research
Israel received 25% of the funds allocated Council grants for innovative researchers,205

198 Interview with Kathrin Theurillat

199 Interview with Prof. Miri Yemini, Tel Aviv University
200 Interview with Kathrin Theurillat
201 Fact sheet January 2020 – Erasmus+ Israel: Student and Staff Mobility 2015-2019
202 https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/erasmus-plus/factsheets/neighbourhood/israel_erasmusplus_2019.pdf
(Last access February 2021)
203 https://www.innovationisrael.org.il/ISERD/sites/default/files/IL_Statistics_20200921.pdf (Last access
February 2021)
204 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/dashboard/extensions/CountryProfile/CountryProfile.html?Country=Israel
(Last access February 2021)
205 https://erc.europa.eu/projects-figures/statistics (Last access February 2021)

52
grants in the ICT and health sectors, and also approach is the fact that there are no priority
in the participation in the SME Instrument, a themes or priority geographical areas with
funding tool intended to support small and which to develop scientific cooperation. The
medium-sized businesses with quick growth generally recognised goal is to cooperate
and global ambitions.206 At the national level, with the best institutions in terms of quality
the major body funding basic research in recognition and to attract the best students
Israel, especially for scientific research, is and academic staff from all over the world.209
the Israel Science Foundation (ISF),207 which This was confirmed by Marissa Gross Yarm
has several agreements for cooperation who pointed out that all the agreements
with similar international organisations.208 are made and concluded at the institutional
All these agreements are based on the level among universities, and that there
model of a collaborative research proposal, are no joint agreements at the national
shared by an Israeli researcher and a level. Similarly, a lack of centralisation in
foreign researcher, jointly reviewed by both favour of a complete institutional freedom is
foundations and an additional grant that reflected in the fact that there is no national
allows mobilities. policy about credit recognition: it is up to the
institutions to define their own recognition
Article 15 of the Law No. 5718/1958 rules and process by means of the learning
guarantees that higher education agreement to be concluded each time with
institutions are autonomous in conducting foreign institutions.210
their academic and administrative affairs,
within the framework of their budgets and As regards the geographical reference areas,
the terms of accreditation. This includes although no national priorities have been set,
that in Israel higher education institutions there is a focus on cooperation with North
have in general very strong academic America, India and China, both because these
freedom which allows them to determine are also the countries sending students to
their own teaching programmes, to develop Israel and because India and China are in
and promote research according to their general the top destinations in the world.
own academic needs, to conclude bilateral As mentioned before, Europe is obviously a
agreements with international institutions very strong partner thanks to the Erasmus+
and substantially to develop a tailor- programme and collaboration through the
made internationalisation strategy. In this European Research frameworks. On the
framework, HE institutions have developed other hand, it emerged that cooperation with
an interdisciplinary approach that allows the Mediterranean area is not particularly
them to cooperate in different fields with developed.
different stakeholders, such as the National
Natural Sciences Foundation of China The strategy of internationalisation of the
and the National Research Foundation in Council of higher education goes in the
Singapore. The natural consequence of this same direction. It signed a series of bilateral

206 https://innovationisrael.org.il/ISERD/sites/default/files/inline-files/SME%20Instrument%20-%20introduc-
tory%20presentation%20-%20updated%202019.pdf (Last access February 2021)
207 https://www.isf.org.il/#/specialPrograms (Last access February 2021)
208 Interview with Miri Yemini
209 Interview with Marissa Gross Yarm
210 Ibidem

53
agreements with the objective to provide governments of the United States and
scholarships for foreign students and post- Israel established The United States–
doctoral researchers. Among these, it is Israel Educational Foundation (USIEF),215
worth mentioning an agreement211 with the which is responsible for the administration
China Scholarship Council signed in 2015 of Israel participation in the American
and renewed in 2017.212 The agreement Fulbright Academic Programme. Within
has the objective to provide scholarships the framework of this programme, more
for Chinese students to attend Master’s than 1,200 U.S. citizens and more than
Degree Courses or short-term summer 1,500 Israeli citizens have taken part in the
programmes in Israel. Another agreement planned exchange programmes.
worth mentioning is the one signed in 2015
by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
the Italian Ministry of Education aimed at
providing scholarships for Israeli and Italian
researchers to undertake specific research
projects (in particular Artificial intelligence
and High Tech technology).213 In addition,
the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs has
entered cultural agreements with a number
of countries through which scholarships
are provided for foreign students and post-
doctoral researchers to study in Israel.214
Cultural agreements have been signed
with countries from different geographical
areas such as Central Europe, the Balkans,
Central and South America. The Ministry of
Foreign Affairs has also reached specific
scholarship arrangements offering the
possibility to spend one academic year for
Master’s degree, Post-Doctoral or research
studies and to attend summer language
courses. The following countries have
already signed scholarship arrangements:
Belgium, Denmark, Germany, India, Great
Britain, Finland, France, Luxembourg, Japan,
Norway, the Netherlands, Switzerland,
and Russia. Last but not least, in 1956 the

211 https://che.org.il/en/china-and-israel-promote-cooperation-in-higher-education/ (Last access February

2021)
212 http://il.china-embassy.org/eng/sgxw/t1430945.htm (Last access February 2021)
213 On the Israeli side, the agreement is implemented within the framework of the Israeli Centres of Research
Excellence (I-CORE) programme, and on the Italian side it is implemented by Italian universities and research
centres.
214 http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFA-Archive/2003/Pages/Scholarships%20offered%20by%20the%20Israeli%20go­
vernment%20to.aspx
215 http://www.usief.org.in/About-USIEF.aspx (Last access February 2021)

54
 Jordan
Higher education in Jordan plays a key the country. The total number of students in
role in the process of a comprehensive the higher education sector is over 280,000,
development of the country. During the 54% of which are women.219 The number of
last two decades, the sector in Jordan has women (between 20 and 39 years of age)
witnessed a significant development and graduating from university almost tripled
progress, as shown by the increasing from 2000 to 2017, surpassing the number
number of higher education institutions, of male graduates in the same period.220
enrolled students, faculty members,
administrative and academic staff members, Both public and private universities in Jordan
as well as the size of the expenditure. In must meet the requirements for institutional
spite of the limited financial resources in accreditation, and their programmes,
the kingdom, higher education is among the curricula, and study plans must comply with
priorities of the country because of the role the prevailing regulations enforced by the
it plays in promoting the economic, social higher education Accreditation and Quality
and cultural level of Jordanian citizens.216 Assurance Commission (HEAC) as well as
with national legislations set out by the
University education in Jordan began with Ministry of higher education and Scientific
the establishment of the University of Jordan Research. The Ministry of Higher Education
in 1962, followed by the establishment of and Scientific Research (MOHESR) is
Al-Ahliyya Amman University in 1989 as the responsible for implementing the higher
first private university in Jordan.217 In 1991, education policy developed by the Council of
Princess Sumaya University for Technology higher education, ensuring the coordination
(PSUT) was founded as the first and only among HEIs, conducting agreements
private and non-profit university in Jordan. with other countries, recognising the
Now, there are four types of HEIs in Jordan, universities and the degrees from other
for a total of 31 universities in the country, countries, assisting the Council of higher
of whom 10 are public, 19 are private, education in the process of approval for
and 2 are regional institutions (The World the establishment of higher education
Islamic Science & Education University institutions in Jordan, in the allocation of
and the Arab Open University) and 44 are funding and in supervising universities to
Community colleges.218 Among these, private ensure the achievement of their objectives
universities in the kingdom accommodate and the fulfilment of their duties.221
about one-fourth of the student population in

216 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_jordan_2017.pdf (Last access February

2021)
217 http://www.mohe.gov.jo/en/pages/BriefMohe1.aspx (Last access February 2021)
218 http://rce.mohe.gov.jo/StudyInJordan/en/#hei (Last access February 2021)
219 www.supporthere.org/page/higher-education-jordan (Last access February 2021)
220 http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---arabstates/---ro-beirut/documents/publication/
wcms_542358.pdf (Last access February 2021)
221 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_jordan_2017.pdf (Last access February 2021)

55
The laws that govern the higher education of universities was confirmed as a priority
system have been revised several times of the sector also by the most recently
in the past years as a result of the appointed Head of internationalisation at the
development that occurred in the sector Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
and in order to maintain the quality of Research, Ahmad Y. Majdoubeh, by the Vice-
higher education, starting with the new laws President at the University of Jordan227 and
issued in 2009, the Law No. 23/2009222 and written in the recently developed National
Law No. 20/2009223 until the most recent Strategy for Human Resource Development
amendment to the legislation (Law No. 17) of 2016-2025,228 where a chapter is dedicated
2018.224 Due to the changes in the regulatory to the higher education sector, in order to
framework, Jordanian universities have advance in meeting the highest international
become more and more autonomous in standards and implementing the best
their institutional management, in terms of practices.229
administrative as well as financial matters.
The main goal behind the last reform is Universities in Jordan aim to be among
instead to highlight the role of governance the world-class universities, providing
in higher education and the importance of students with quality education and
quality in education, as well as enhancing learning experience, adopting research
the international competitiveness of programmes, producing and disseminating
higher education institutions through the knowledge and integrating a lifelong
development of capacities of their academic learning approach to contribute to the
and administrative staff members. In terms quality of local, regional and international
of national legislations, Jordan has been communities.230 Being international and
always encouraging internationalisation: being recognised at the international level
there are several clauses in the law has indeed been a priority for most of the
that encourage internationalisation and HEIs in the country, with the overall purpose
international recognition, as well as joint of becoming competitive and delivering high
degrees between Jordanian universities quality education in line with international
and universities in other countries.225 As standards. Jordanian universities have
for the policy, there is a strong support to increased their attractiveness in the
internationalisation, the government follows region, due to the process of modernisation
up closely the advancements of the higher undergone in the last years. They have also
education sector to see where universities improved their reputation in Europe, in
stand in this respect and in international Africa and Asia. Doubts arise on whether
rankings.226 The international dimension international rankings are perceived as a

222 http://mohe.gov.jo/en/GovPapers/law%20of%20higher%20education%20and%20scientific%20
research%201.pdf (Last access February 2021)
223 http://mohe.gov.jo/en/GovPapers/the%20jordanian%20universities%20law%20no%2020.pdf (Last access
February 2021)
224 http://mohe.gov.jo/ar/GovPapers/17-2018.pdf (Last access February 2021)
225 Interview with Prof. Ahmad Abu-El-Haija, Director of the National Erasmus+ Office in Jordan
226 Ibidem
227 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen, University of Jordan
228 www.mohe.gov.jo/en/Documents/National-HRD-Strategy.pdf (Last access February 2021)
229 Ibidem
230 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen

56
goal per se or as a means to increase the factors: first, most of the professors have
quality of higher education. After more been graduates of Western universities in
than a decade of cooperation projects and Europe and the United States, so basically,
capacity building actions, Jordanian higher the higher education sector in Jordan is
education institutions are now considered internationalised by nature because of its
as well-experienced and reliable actors. professors (a feature common to many
It is not by chance that the University of Arab countries); second, the language.
Jordan and the Jordan University of Science Although the Constitution of Jordan states
and Technology are considered among the that Arabic is the official language of
best institutions in the Arab world.231 In the teaching and learning, in reality in most
South-Mediterranean region, Jordan is now universities teaching happens in English
a preferred destination, due to the quality and universities follow the American
and attractiveness of the higher education system of education.233 In this regard, it is
sector but also thanks to the stability of worth saying that, if most universities in
the country over the years compared to Jordan offer many programmes in English,
other MENA countries. A special focus has these are mostly in the domain of the
been given now to the internationalisation hard sciences, while more programmes in
of research, which might provide a English for social sciences should be made
new window for Jordanian universities, available, giving relevance to humanities in
through the development of joint research international cooperation. Another limit to
programmes and joint degrees with the internationalisation of higher education
international counterparts, as well as more in Jordan is represented by the dependence
doctoral programmes. It is not by chance on external funding (funds mostly come
that the European Commission recognises from the European Commission). In a
Jordan as one of the most promising actors context where funds are limited but the
in the Arab countries for research, and that national policy has always been supporting,
Jordanian institutions are recently engaging the commitment of universities has been
in cooperation with India, China, Malaysia, the real driving factor. Universities have
up-and-coming countries in the global shown a great commitment to establishing
scenario. international relations, to collaborating
more with institutes all over the world, to
Internationalisation is a basic pillar of sending and receiving students and staff, to
the mission and strategic planning of engaging in cooperation projects and so on.
Jordanian HEIs, as it is also reflected in In the words of the Director of the National
the number of foreign students at the Erasmus+ Office: “In Jordan we have real
Jordanian universities, which rose to more enthusiasm and interest from both sides,
than 40,000 students from around the the government on one side, and the
world, including students from 22 Arab universities themselves on the other
countries.232 This is the intrinsic result of two side”.234

231 https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/arab-region-university-rankings/2019 (Last access

February 2021)
232 http://rce.mohe.gov.jo/StudyInJordan/en/#hei (Last access February 2021)
233 Interview with Prof. Abdullah Al-Zoubi, Princess Sumaya University for Technology
234 Interview with Ahmad Abu-El-Haija

57
A great contribution in this sense has been worldwide, to establish exchange
given by the ongoing work of the Jordan programmes and joint master’s degree
National Erasmus+ Office in supporting the programmes in specific strategic fields,
internationalisation process: universities and to develop research partnerships.237
needed to establish very good offices The office looks after the signing of the
of international relations, to facilitate Memorandum of Understanding (MoU),
exchanges with HEIs outside the country, exchange mobilities and cooperation
implementing processes such as students’ projects. The International Affairs Unit has
selection, follow-up of the mobilities, three departments: one for International
recognition of courses, management Relations, which manages university
of cooperation projects, etc. The main agreements and endowments, academic
task of the Office has therefore been to exchange, study-abroad programmes,
encourage universities, convincing the scholarships and international students,
administrators of the importance of a well- and scholars’ services. It also organises
structured office to coordinate and manage international events. The second department
international relations, helping such offices is called the Externally-Funded Projects
to establish all the necessary elements for department, it manages non-research
internationalisation (procedures, guidelines, projects, such as the Erasmus+ Capacity
communications).235 “When we started five, Building project. Its mission is to manage
six years ago, there was only one good the project lifecycle, as well as provide
office at the University of Jordan, that we financial reports, help in the preparation
visited at that time. Now, we can comfortably of proposals, reporting, administrative
state that there are offices at almost all issues and the submission. The third
public universities, and many of the private, department is the Sponsored-Students and
even the smaller private universities in Staff department, which supports students
Jordan. And the staff of these offices and staff while in mobility and manages
have received very good training through mobilities financed by the University of
Erasmus+, through our office, and so forth. Jordan itself.238 Along with having a strong
And finally, they were helping each other, and reliable office to manage international
learning from each other’s experiences, relations and appointing a Vice-President
sharing experiences with their European for internationalisation, universities were
colleagues”.236 As a good practice for the also recommended to have their university
country, and as an example for the purpose website available in English, with a section
of the current analysis, the experience of dedicated to international affairs (acting
the University of Jordan is described in as a sort of “Virtual International Office”,
relation to the management of international providing all relevant information and
activities by the so-called International instructions to students and staff interested
Affairs Unit. The main function of the in or involved in international activities), and
International Affairs Unit is to expand and to allocate part of the university budget to the
to strengthen ties with leading universities international dimension of the university’s

235 Ibidem
236 Ibidem
237 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen
238 Ibidem

58
core mission.239 However, attention must activities in the country242 in terms of:
still be paid to improving the ability of the a) funding, the European Commission is
leaders of HEIs to translate their vision indicated as the main source of funding for
of internationalisation into an efficient mobility;243 b) opportunities for international
management structure, complemented exposure, involving students, academic staff
by tailored services, capable and trained but also administrative staff, especially
human resources and a distribution of funds those working at the international relations
covering the costs of international activities offices;244 c) because it allowed to expand
in all possible forms (not only mobility and the geographic scope of international
Erasmus+ cooperation projects, but also cooperation, as it also emerged from the data
joint degrees, transnational education and on the mobility flows collected and reported
COIL, international campuses, engagement in the following section of this Report.
of international students, etc.). While historically Jordan had connections
mainly with the United States and with the
As a result of the efforts made for a reliable United Kingdom, in recent years Europe
and structured framework to support has opened the doors to a wider range
international activities, Jordanian HEIs took of possibilities through its programmes,
part in 53 projects funded by the Erasmus+ increasing cooperation agreements with
programme of the European Commission, almost all European states,245 especially with
from 2015 to 2020, compared to the 210 Germany, Spain and Italy.246 Interestingly
projects funded for the whole South- enough, the EU-funded projects have also
Mediterranean region.240 Jordan is the allowed Jordanian HEIs to engage with
coordinator of 16 out 53 projects of this type, each other and with their counterparts
which is an outstanding outcome compared in North-Africa and in the Middle-East,
to the neighbouring countries. Indeed, in in particular with Palestine, Egypt and
2020, Jordan was the partner country taking Lebanon (where the use of the English
part in the highest number of submissions language facilitates cooperation, compared
in the last call for proposal of the E+ to French-speaking countries such as in the
programme (98 proposals, of which 28 as an Maghreb).247 Turkey is a special case, since it
applicant, 8 were approved projects, 3 were finances a dedicated exchange programme
coordinated by Jordanian HEIs).241 These called MEVLANA,248 making Turkey the top
figures are even more significant if we think destination for outgoing mobility of students
that among all cooperation programmes and academic staff. Second to Erasmus+, a
and initiatives, Erasmus+ has been indicated past programme among those funded by the
as the most impactful on the international European Commission has been pointed out,

239 A. Al-Zoubi, Elaboration of Internationalisation Strategy in Jordanian Universities, Journal of Education and
Human Development, September 2019, Vol. 8, n. 3, pp. 143-154
240 Interview with Ahmad Abu-El-Haija
241 Ibidem
242 Focus group results
243 Based on primary data on the mobility flows collected for the purpose of the current study
244 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen
245 Interview with Abdullah Al-Zoubi
246 Based on primary data on the mobility flows collected for the purpose of the current study
247 Interview with Ahmad Abu-El-Haija
248 https://mevlana.yok.gov.tr/en/general-information (Last access February 2021)

59
confirming Europe as the main stakeholder and less prepared ones, when it comes to
in the Jordan: Erasmus Mundus is mentioned virtual collaborations and the capacity of
as the one with the most positive impact. In institutions to cope with recent challenges
the words of a participant “It was a fantastic (above all COVID-19).
programme because it allowed not only for
a short mobility but also for degree mobility, Among the main motivations to further
it was the most tailored programme for the boost internationalisation, it is worth
staff”.249 A challenge for the future of the mentioning the need to strengthen the
Jordanian higher education system is now relations with higher education institutions
to make sure all institutions benefit from all over the world, and to promote an
the opportunities to internationalise: despite institutional culture that values diversity by
the high number of cooperation projects, making significant efforts to fully integrate
smaller and younger universities are still international staff and students in the life
less involved (and less skilled). For example, of the campus.252 However, it seems that
it was only in 2020 that, for the first time, no clear policies are being developed by
the Irbid National University participated in institutions to hire foreign staff, leaving the
a project and the Hashemite University led a process in the hands of local professors
capacity building project. inviting foreign teachers based on personal
connections.253 On the other hand, Jordanian
Jordan has also been among the top HEIs also host a considerable number of
countries that favoured the Erasmus+ foreign students, among which a major part
Virtual Mobility, with 955 active participants is made up of Syrian and Iraqi refugees.
in the Erasmus+ Virtual Exchange platform The issue of inclusion deserves attention,
in 2018-2019.250 Jordan achieved very good in order to release the pressure on local
figures compared to other Arab countries, communities as well as to include the
and the NEO also encouraged universities to several underprivileged areas in Jordan.
continue with some forms of hybrid mobility, More funds need to be made available
meaning implementing virtual mobility as for vulnerable students and scholars
a preparation activity for physical mobility. to allow them to join higher education
This is reflected in the recent attempts made properly, raising the standards for the more
by the government to provide clear guidance vulnerable and allow them to participate
to e-learning in the country and to support and to compete for opportunities, and allow
virtual collaborative learning with foreign Jordan to benefit from the richness related
institutions.251 However, virtual mobility is to refugees’ inclusion. In a different but
still suffering from a cultural resistance, complementary direction, efforts have been
and the disparity over the national territory made to provide universities with welcoming
in terms of infrastructures and digital skills, and guidance services to host international
is likely to generate a gap between more students and internationalise the campuses.
experienced and prepared universities For example, some universities have

249 Focus group results

250 Interview with Ahmad Abu-El-Haija
251 http://erasmus-plus.org.jo/Portals/0/%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20
2020_1.pdf (Last access February 2021)
252 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen
253 Ibidem

60
students’ organisations or alumni clubs University has two joint programmes,
that greatly support incoming and outgoing with the University of Sunderland and
students (sharing mutual experiences).254 the University of Dublin; Al-Balqa Applied
It is worth mentioning the JUST ISN255 is University has two joint programmes with
the first International Student Network in the University of Huddersfield and DePaul
Jordan. However, resources are still limited University; the University of Jordan has two
and no strategic planning is dedicated to joint programmes, with the University of
the so-called internationalisation at home, Ohio and with Hamburg University.260
which is not perceived as a priority.256 A
gender gap is also evident when it comes On the other hand, the Jordan’s Ministry
to mobilities, more severe for academic and of higher education is hesitant to give
administrative staff while for students the accreditation to international universities
distribution is quite equal both for incoming to operate in the country, especially those
and outgoing flows.257 This may be due to the which are completely foreign-funded and
conservative nature of the Jordanian society. supported. Overseas universities have the
right to operate in Jordan only if they do so
On the other hand, universities are used in partnership with a Jordanian university,
to include international contents in the and are subject to an agreement made with
education provided, using textbooks in line the higher education Council.261 This is the
with the most prestigious international case of the well-known German Jordanian
universities.258 In that regard, it has been University or of the recently established
of great importance the establishment in American University of Madaba. Jordan
Jordan of the higher education Accreditation capital also hosts the Association of Arab
Commission, a national agency for Quality Universities.
Assurance (the first among the South-
Mediterranean countries) working to At the turn of the century and with rising
make sure programmes and courses figures related to international mobility
are modernised and up-to-date with to and from Jordan, the issue of credit
international standards, and supporting recognition also arose as a sensitive
the process of international accreditation element affecting international cooperation.
for Jordanian HEIs – which in turn greatly Indeed, most of the Jordanian universities
facilitated the establishment of agreements use the American system of credits, instead
and exchanges.259 As for joint degrees, to of the ECTS system used in European
date, only few programmes are available, universities through the practices of the
involving 3 over the many higher education Bologna process. This had in turn a quite
institutions in the country: Yarmouk relevant impact on the establishment

254 Interview with Ahmad Abu-El-Haija

255 https://www.facebook.com/JUSTIRO/posts/just-isn-the-first-international-student-network-in-jordan-
started-from-just-and/2351965401743250/ (Last access February 2021)
256 Focus group held online on 12/02/2021
257 Based on primary data on the mobility flows collected for the purpose of the current study
258 Interview with Abdullah Al-Zoubi
259 Ibidem
260 http://rce.mohe.gov.jo/StudyInJordan/en/#hei (Last access February 2021)
261 https://www.mei.edu/publications/internationalization-higher-education-jordan (Last access February
2021)

61
of joint degrees between Jordanian and responsible for the recognition process and
international universities, which are providing both national and international
facilitated with Anglo-Saxon institutions universities with a clear guidance when
and somehow hindered with European engaging in exchanges.
institutions. Exchanges with universities
in Europe are regulated by a bilateral It goes with out saying that
agreement among the sending and the internationalisation has a great impact
hosting institution, which sets out guidelines on higher education. However, despite
for the equivalence and the recognition an international experience is highly
of the skills acquired during the mobility appreciated, it is not directly affecting
abroad.262 It is not by chance that Jordanian the career advancements of the staff
universities tend to engage in exchanges at Jordanian universities, both for
of students only with international HEIs academic and administrative staff. It is
accredited and recognised by the Ministry considered a strength when a candidate
of higher education and Scientific Research has an international experience, but it is
(the full list of institutions is available on the not a formal criterion when it comes to
Ministry’s website),263 because mobility is professional development.266 In addition,
regulated.264 The purpose of the list is to make there is a need to strengthen the language
sure international cooperation happens only skills of administrative staff to strengthen
with quality institutions around the world, the institutional capacity. When asked to
which are accredited and internationally indicate which aspects of the institutional
recognised, so that recognition of students’ life are more influenced by the international
qualifications is easier. In fact, even when activities performed, career advancement
universities have more freedom to engage was not an option. Jordanian participants in
with non-accredited institutions, as in the the focus group pointed to the intercultural
case of academic mobility based on specific dimension of the university (providing
collaborations, this is in truth very unlikely a new set of opportunities for students
to happen. Respondents in the focus group on campus, generating a wide impact
also highlighted that in most cases the staff especially for those who cannot participate
at the university is not sufficiently prepared in mobility programmes), to the institutional
to cope with the different practices of the prestige and ranking, which in turn
different systems and with the complexity strengthen the institution’s reputation, and
related to credit recognition, neither to the acquisition of new skills improving
entitled to assess their validity.265 A national graduates’ employability and ability to adapt
qualification framework is still being to the job market.267 According to an OECD
developed. In the future, this may facilitate report of 2018, Jordan has a well-qualified
the cooperation between Jordan and foreign young population connected to the global
institutions, reducing the load on the staff community, however innovation performance

262 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen

263 http://rce.mohe.gov.jo/en/RecognizedUniversities (Last access February 2021)
264 A specific regulation was adopted for this purpose (Regulation of Scholarships and Grants for Delegates
61/2010, as quoted in https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_jordan_2017.pdf (Last
access February 2021)
265 Focus group results
266 Interview with Hadeel Yaseen
267 Focus group results

62
has not been up to its potential and the
unemployment rate among university
graduates is around 21%.268 Universities
need to leverage on the partnership and
collaboration with the private sector, to
increase the possibilities for graduates in
the local economy and reduce the number of
bright minds that leave the country (and are
attracted by the new opportunities offered
by the rich Gulf). Good practices in this sense
can be identified in the German Jordan
University, which has developed a dedicated
strategy and a full set of services to link the
university with the industry; and the Queen
Rania Centre for Entrepreneurship which is
part of the Princess Sumaya University for
Technology and plays the role of a national
Centre of excellence for entrepreneurship.

268 https://www.oecd.org/mena/competitiveness/Compact-for-Governance-Stocktaking-Report-Jordan-2018-
EN.pdf (Last access February 2021)

63
 Lebanon
The Lebanese higher education sector for licencing and validating the degrees and
is probably among the most diversified disciplines offered by the institutions,271
in the Middle-East with an international and private HEIs do not receive any direct
openness from the very beginning: the support from the state. The main source of
first two higher education providers in the funding for the private sector comes from
country date back to 1866, when foreign tuition fees and different types of resources
missionaries established the American and donations which for the most part come
University of Beirut, and 1875, when the from foreign governments and/or religious
Jesuits established the University of Saint foundations. It is not by chance that private
Joseph. It was not until the 1950s that the HEIs are financially autonomous and they
Lebanese government established the only are only accountable to their respective
national public university in the country, founding bodies and organisations.272 Still,
the Lebanese University,269 governed by higher education in Lebanon is relatively
its own law, decrees and bylaws under expensive and funding raises a crucial issue
the tutorship of the Ministry of Education for higher education, especially in the recent
and higher education.270 The remaining economic and banking crisis. Lebanon is
HEIs in the country are private, in the form the only Middle Eastern country where the
of technical and vocational institutes, students enrolled in the private sector are
university colleges, and full universities. more numerous than those enrolled in the
Nowadays, Lebanon has 42 higher education public sector (more than 60% of the total
institutions, most of which were legalised in students enrolled in HE).273 This is due to
the 1990s, when the education system in the fact that all education institutions had
the country rapidly expanded following 15 been established by either local religious
years of civil war (1975-1990). Lebanon’s orders or foreign religious missions and the
higher education system’s freedom government was a latecomer in providing
and independence are enshrined in the public education.274 The private sector had
constitution, every religious community been governed by a law which dated back to
has the right to have its own schools or the 60s, and recently a new law was issued
universities. The system operates under (Law 285/2014) for private higher education
the supervision of the Directorate General and it is now in the implementation phase.275
for higher education, which is responsible

269 A. N. Bou Diab, T. Abir Riad, The influence of globalization on Higher Education and the potentials of
Lebanon, RUDN Journal of Economics, TOM25, n.2, 2017, pp. 178-188
270 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access February
2021)
271 https://www.bankmed.com.lb/BOMedia/subservices/categories/News/20150515170635891.pdf (Last
access February 2021)
272 Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) country fiche Lebanon (2017)
273 http://www.cas.gov.lb/images/PDFs/SIF/CAS_Education_In_Lebanon_SIF3.pdf (Last access February 2021)
274 M. Maroun, Internationalisation in Lebanese Universities; Rationales, Indicators, and Strategies, 2012,
Unpublished
275 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access February 2021)

64
The Strategic Framework for higher sector. Even the proposal to restructure the
education in Lebanon dates back to 2007: a Directorate General for higher education
number of national priorities were defined, (which includes the creation of a dedicated
including internationalisation, ensuring unit for internationalisation) has not been
quality standards in higher education, and implemented yet, posing an additional
the development of new missions for HEIs challenge to the system.278 The Lebanese
to promote both scientific research and state mostly played a passive role in the
adequacy to the knowledge economy.276 process of development of HE: starting
After 10 years from the formulation of the with the principles of non-interference,
plan, and no major changes implemented, decentralisation and autonomy, it lately
a number of consultations were conducted resulted in a weak legislation, the lack of
in the country to rethink the higher guidance and strategic planning for the
education sector and benefit from the sector.279 Freedom in Lebanon has two
collaboration and dialogue with various faces: on the one side, universities have
national stakeholders (social parties, the full autonomy to design their programmes,
higher education Reform Experts working choose the language of instruction and
group, the National Erasmus+ Office) and engage in international partnerships; on
international organisations operating the other side, the HE sector is left without
in Lebanon (Agence Universitaire de la guidelines, the national strategy for higher
Francophonie-AUF, World Bank, the United education stays on paper and universities
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural are working within a fragmented and highly
Organisation-UNESCO, the United Nations disconnected national framework.280
Economic and Social Commission for
Western Asia-ESCWA, the German Academic Internationalisation of HE in Lebanon is a
Exchange Service-DAAD, just to mention historical process and a natural evolution,281
some). Consultations took place in 2017 and has been mostly the result of initiatives
(“Rethinking Lebanese higher education of individual higher education institutions,
reform agenda: towards strategic needs and together with the support of foreign
priorities”), in 2018 (“National consultation governments, supranational organisations
on relating skills to education in Lebanon”) and international policies, rather than the
and a conference on internationalisation consequence of national legislation (such as
of HE was planned for 2019 but it could it happened in other South-Mediterranean
not take place due to the beginning of the countries). Furthermore, the Lebanese
social unrests in the country.277 However, diaspora has resulted in a multinational
despite the consultations, the recent composition of the Lebanese people at home
institutional crisis and the paralysis in and abroad, and international cooperation
the institutional process have stalled the has been regarded as a means to bring
process of reform of the higher education Lebanese emigrants back to their roots.282

276 Interview with Ahmad Jammal, Former General Director for Higher Education at the MEHE
277 Ibidem
278 Interview with Prof. Sobhi Abou Chahine, Dean of Students affairs, Beirut Arab University
279 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi, Director of the National Erasmus+ Office in Lebanon
280 Ibidem
281 Ibidem
282 E. Verdeil, B. Dewailly, International Migration and the Lebanese Diaspora, Presses de l’Ifpo, 2019. Available
at: https://books.openedition.org/ifpo/13224?lang=en (Last access February 2021)

65
The diverse and open cultural background a fundamental academic value (Antonine
and the high degree of autonomy that University), to develop an international
universities in Lebanon enjoy have attracted environment and to promote diversity on
over the decades many foreign providers campus (Holy Spirit University of Kaslik), to
and many foreign students.283 Foreign exchange expertise and cultures in various
countries have been increasingly interested fields of higher education with local, Arab
in establishing universities in Lebanon for and international universities (Lebanese
three main reasons: they had the freedom to University) and to allow students to gain a
spread their culture, language and education global perspective (American University of
in the Middle-East, it was a convenient and Beirut).285
profitable opportunity, and at the same time
they could strengthen their relations with The strategic commitment is translated
the Arab world. On the downside, such a in most cases into the appointment of
highly diversified development process, a Vice-Rector for international affairs,
together with the Lebanese state playing the creation of an International Relation
a minor passive role, have generated a HE Office (IRO) to coordinate institutional
sector that appears fragmented, somehow activities and eventually the involvement
muddled, influenced by foreign countries of different academic and administrative
and supranational organisations, strongly staff in each faculty in one or another
depending on the individual strategy of each initiative and as an additional reference for
HEIs.284 Being so dependent on historical ties internationalisation.286 The staff working at
and foreign funding, Lebanese universities the IROs is usually very well-trained, thanks
suffer from the changes of policies and to the participation in capacity building
regional preferences of foreign actors. projects (at least 5 projects have been
implemented in Lebanon with a focus on
In this context, HEIs play a major role internationalisation in the framework of the
in reinforcing and strengthening their past TEMPUS programme and the recent
international dimension to become regional Erasmus+ programme) and because they
players. The majority of universities in are often involved in information sessions
Lebanon have a strategic plan, which organised by the National Erasmus+ Office.
includes internationalisation as a core Moreover, almost all administrative staff
element: universities aim to open to members involved in international activities
the world (University of Saint Joseph), to have engaged in a mobility experience,
strengthen academic cooperation with within the framework of the International
international organisations, enhancing Credit Mobility action or cooperation
networking and international mobility projects.287 Having a reliable and efficient
(Beirut Arab University), to integrate office coordinating international activities
internationalisation into all activities in the is generally recognised as an added value
broader sense and recognising diversity as for the institution (indeed, a number of IROs

283 Maroun, op. cit.

284 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access February
2021)
285 Quotes from the strategic plans available on institutions’ websites (Last access February 2021)
286 Interview with Carla Edde, Director of the International Relation Office, University of Saint-Joseph
287 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi

66
have been established in Lebanon through the internationalisation of the curriculum,
European funded project, as it is the case it is worth mentioning the agreement
of the Beirut Arab University, and a guide between University of Saint-Joseph (USJ, a
of good practices for the management of francophone institutions) and an American
International Relations Office has been University for an assessment of the English
elaborated through European funding and in proficiency of BA undergraduate students,
collaboration with European universities).288 which cannot obtain their diploma without
However, attention should be paid to the English certificate.291 Another good
increasing the participation of students practice has been implemented by the
and faculty members in cooperation Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, “being the
initiatives: it is important to share the first private higher education institution
ownership of projects well beyond the IRO, in Lebanon to commit itself to staff
to engage students and academics in the professional development initiatives and
implementation of activities, increasing faculty development programmes, mostly
the impact of scientific collaborations and in cooperation with UK and US universities,
exchanges, leaving to the office the task of thus playing a key role in training highly-
managing institutional participation and qualified academic staff in a trans-national
monitoring proper execution.289 environment”.292 As for the research,
Lebanese universities have participated in
When it comes to the internationalisation of different European FP6 and FP7 projects293
the education promoted by Lebanese HEIs, and also to some H2020 projects, as well
many factors must be considered. First as numerous USAID projects.294 However,
and foremost, the curriculum of Lebanese participation was limited, research
universities has two very international programmes are considered too competitive
features: a) the language of teaching, which for less experienced institutions295 and
is in 90% of the cases English or French, most PhD holders go abroad to conclude
other than Arabic,290 and sometimes (as in the studies. The Lebanese-French CEDRE
the case of the Lebanese University) both programme is the most famous programme
languages are used to deliver courses, so for mobility of researchers, operating since
that the HE system basically works in 3 1996 and supporting research cooperation
languages; b) the studies structure, which between Lebanon and France.296
follows global development and reforms due
to the affiliation of most universities with Most universities receive professors
foreign counterparts. As a good practice for and teaching material from their sister

288 Interview with Sobhi Abou Chahine.

289 Interview with Prof. Georges Yahchouchy, President, American University of the Middle East
290 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi
291 Interview with Carla Edde
292 http://www.meric-net.eu/files/fileusers/3760_Lebanon_National%20Report_MERIC-Net.pdf (Last access
February 2021)
293 Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development, respectively 6th and 7th edition
294 http://www.meric-net.eu/files/fileusers/3760_Lebanon_National%20Report_MERIC-Net.pdf (Last access
February 2021)
295 Focus group results
296 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access Febrary
2021)

67
institutions in foreign countries, and many which are often related to mobility) has
faculty members have double nationalities become an incentive, making it easier
since they completed either graduate or to get a promotion or a higher salary.
post graduate studies abroad, and this In this sense, internationalisation is an
in turn supports the implementation of opportunity despite the limited support (in
joint programmes (this is particularly terms of funding) offered by institutions to
the case with France)297 enhancing the administrative staff compared to academic
international dimension of the sector. staff.301
However, universities do not actively seek
international personnel in their recruitment Most exchanges are carried out within the
process. This may be due to the lack of framework of bilateral agreements signed
serious incentives to motivate international at each institution level.302 In general,
faculty members to engage in Lebanon universities are very proactive in signing
over the long-term.298 It seems that in most agreements with foreign partners, which
cases no specific procedures have been set offer assistance in the development of
out for hiring foreign staff, even though no curricula and in the establishment of
clear obstacles have been identified either. joint programmes:303 joint degrees are
Foreign academics are invited to deliver quite common with European Institutions
workshops or courses, and possibly share (especially with France and the United
best practices, but on an occasional basis Kingdom), both for the Lebanese University
(except in the case of double diplomas or and for private universities, especially at the
joint programmes).299 This is the case of Master and post-doctoral levels.304 Bilateral
the Lebanese University where procedures cooperation plays a major role in the
to hire foreign staff are quite complex and country and provides valuable resources
international staff is in mobility rather than to universities, even though doubts arise
under contact, within the framework of on the quality of the relations and on the
short-term agreements or exchanges.300 sustainability of the numerous partnerships,
which risk to merely stay on paper. Bilateral
On the other hand, Lebanese academic cooperation involves foreign universities
staff often travels abroad, be it for as well as a wide range of international
research or teaching activities, even organisations, with a great diversification
though international experience is not of funds and cooperation arrangements in
always formally considered a plus in the country.305 It is not by chance that the
terms of career advancement. The same majority of the mobilities performed by both
applies to administrative staff, for which students, academic and administrative staff
mobility (and the training opportunities is financed in the framework of bilateral

297 Ibidem
298 Maroun, op. cit.
299 Interview with Sobhi Abou Chahine.
300 Interview with Naim Ouaini, Advisor to the Minister of Education and Higher Education
301 Interview with Carla Edde
302 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access Febrary
2021)
303 Maroun, op. cit.
304 Interview with Ahmad Jammal
305 Focus group results

68
agreements with the private sector and for internationalisation should be
with international actors,306 such as the developed within each institution, meaning
Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie that universities should not only focus
or the World Bank. In this sense, the ICM on mobility and agreements, but also to
programme of the European Union had a internationalisation at home (for example,
different impact depending on the cases: ICM for those students who cannot afford to
is a significant resource for undergraduate travel abroad), inclusion of vulnerable
mobility, while it has a more limited impact students, cultural integration, language
on staff mobility; some universities are policy, international community engagement
more dependent on the ICM and Erasmus+ and a more balanced distribution of
for funds and opportunities, others (such as opportunities.310 A reflection should be made
USJ or AUB, for example) have many other on the link between internationalisation and
resources and a long history of cooperation the universities’ social responsibility, in
with international partners, leaving ICM Lebanon as well as in the other countries
to represent not more than 40% of their with which Lebanon engages in relations,
mobility programmes.307 especially because the high fragmentation
of the HE system may undermine the ability
When it comes to student’s mobility, it is of universities to generate a tangible impact
worth mentioning that Lebanon used to be in the country. For example, most of the
a more popular destination for students in universities have information available in
the past, while recently the numbers have English or French in their websites but only
considerably decreased due to the civil few specifically address foreign students.
war and the recent country instability.308 Again, this may depend on the fact that most
Historically a considerable portion of institutions are international by nature,
foreign students was composed by Syrian having multicultural and global campuses,
that were (and are) enrolled in universities even without making additional efforts in
as international students. Because of the this sense. A challenge for the future will
war in the country and due to the difficulties be to attract international students and
in the recognition process related to the scholars, competing with neighbouring
refugee status,309 after 2011 this number countries guided by an increasing interest
has significantly decreased, reducing the and attention towards internationalisation
pressure on the higher education system, against the relatively stagnant position of
and resulting in a decreased number Lebanon. Lebanon should benefit from its
of foreign students in Lebanese higher long experience of internationalisation at
education institutions. home, student mobility and cultural diversity
to become a provider of education across the
When it comes to the role of HEIs in the borders, serving the near regions.311 In this
country, a more comprehensive strategy direction, some Lebanese institutions are

306 Focus group results

307 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi
308 Bou Diab, Abir Riad, op. cit.
309 https://www.unhcr.org/lb/protection (Last access February 2021)
310 Interview with Carla Edde
311 Bou Diab, Abir Riad, op. cit.

69
opening branches in the Gulf312 or in other and even Lebanese universities started
African countries, such as the Lebanese working with each other. For the first time,
International University in Mauritania. there were projects involving the American
University of Beirut and USJ, where one is
On the other hand, outgoing mobility figures anglophone and the other is francophone,
are growing with time, facilitated by the or the American University of Beirut and the
language skills of Lebanese students and Lebanese American University, which was
the Lebanese presence all over the world quite a novelty in the cooperation field.317
(granting support to the Lebanese abroad).313 There are also ongoing exchanges with
No gender gap is evident in the mobilities Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and the United Arab
tracked, with a slightly higher number of Emirates.318 When it comes to cooperation in
female students over the past 5 academic the region, two sensitive elements emerge:
years and a slightly higher number of male on the one side, cooperation in the South is
teachers over the same period.314 Mobilities deeply affected by the political dimension of
are mostly directed towards Europe and the region, and by the availability of funds;319
the United States, renewing the historical on the other side, cooperation with the North
relations that the country has developed is mostly seen as an opportunity to advance
over the centuries. In addition, the Lebanese in a number of scientific fields for which
diaspora has a quite relevant role in more experienced academics, labs and
reinforcing the relations of the country also PhD programmes are available, in Europe
with Sub-Saharan countries. Looking at the rather than in the neighbouring countries.
mobility data collected in the framework of An opportunity for South-South cooperation
the present study, the preferred destinations may be provided by the collaboration in
are confirmed to be France, Italy, Belgium, Humanities (in fields such as archaeology,
Germany and the United Kingdom.315 history, arts, etc).320
However, it is also very clear that the
Erasmus+ programme has played an Regarding virtual mobility and online
important role in diversifying the destination teaching (including virtual collaborative
of the mobilities and partnerships, including learning and the use of foreign online
cooperation with Sweden, Austria, Romania, contents), Lebanese universities face
Greece, Poland, Spain and Portugal.316 It is two main challenges: there is a sort of
also worth mentioning another side-effect resistance and dislike to perform virtual
of the programme. For the first time, there activities, which are not valued as relevant
were many projects involving Lebanese opportunities; on the other hand, there is
universities and universities from Tunisia, no legislation regulating e-learning and
Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, virtual activities, leaving these to a very

312 http://www.meric-net.eu/files/fileusers/3760_Lebanon_National%20Report_MERIC-Net.pdf (Last access

February 2021)
313 Maroun, op. cit.
314 Based on primary data on the mobility flows collected for the purpose of the current study
315 Ibidem
316 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi
317 Ibidem
318 Interview with Ahmad Jammal
319 Interview with Carla Edde
320 Interview with Georges Yahchouchy

70
marginal role in HE. A temporary decree quality process, in most cases with the help
was approved in 2020 about online learning, of EU Tempus and Erasmus+ projects. The
because of the COVID-19 emergency, but rationale was to develop institutional skills
apparently it does not apply to the following and create a pool of expertise to support the
years,321 leaving HEIs in Lebanon with no subsequent developments at the national
clear guidance. Universities are promoting level. However, the law for the creation
virtual exchanges as a complementary of a National Agency has been stuck in
activity for the physical mobility, they are Parliament for ratification since 2012,325 and
implementing forms of hybrid and blended that is why universities address European
learning, using open educational resources agencies or American agencies for
and inviting foreign professors to give online international accreditation. Another element
courses to comply with their institutional deeply affecting international cooperation
internationalisation goals,322 but all efforts is the recognition of qualifications. The
risk to generate very little impact until need to establish a national qualifications
further regulations are issued at the national framework in Lebanon has been felt by
level. Additionally, universities have pointed many stakeholders since 2008, mainly
out a number of limits to the digitalisation among those participating in the process of
in the country: the lack of infrastructures, reforming the HE.326 Again, many Tempus
especially for students; the poor internet projects helped to raise awareness about
connection (which is anyway quite costly) this issue and a recent Erasmus+ project,
and unfortunately strictly interrelated with MERIC-NET, has attempted to generate a
the frequent power cuts; the lack of training change. However, a decision by the Ministry
on digitalisation and how to exploit the to start the process of establishing a
possibilities offered by ICT in learning.323 Lebanese National Qualification Framework
(LNQF) was taken in 2010 only and has not
Accreditation is now emerging as an been ratified yet, despite the creation at the
additional driving factor for Lebanese Ministry of a Recognition and Equivalence
HEIs, which increasingly look abroad committee.327 There are a lot of differences
for international accreditation (for both in the Lebanese HE systems, with two main
institutions and programmes) to increase systems, i.e., the American Credit system and
their visibility, to provide education at the the ECTS, depending on whether universities
highest international standards and to are affiliated with European or Anglo-
cope with the absence of a National Agency Saxons sister institutions. For example,
dealing with accreditation and quality most of the faculties at the Lebanese
assurance.324 Many Lebanese universities University are now applying the LMD
have already established their internal 3-cycle system together with the ECTS.328

321 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi

322 Interview with Sobhi Abou Chahine
323 Focus group results
324 Interview with Aref Al-Soufi
325 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access Febrary
2021)
326 Ibidem
327 Focus group results
328 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_lebanon_2017.pdf (Last access Febrary
2021)

71
However, exchanges are regulated in most
cases through bilateral agreements. All
recognition, monitoring and compensation
issues related to mobilities are regulated
by the conventions through which these
exchanges are implemented.329 The credit
recognition system in Lebanon generates
a number of obstacles to international
cooperation: finding an agreement when
it comes to multilateral collaboration is
difficult; recognition requires transparency
and coherence between courses and
between different systems; the lack of the
Ministry’s commitment and accountability in
the matter; the lack of skills and capabilities
among the university staff in managing
recognition procedures and assessing
foreign qualifications.330

329 Ibidem
330 Focus group results

72
 Libya
The higher education system in Libya is referred to the Disciplinary Council by a
composed of 24 public universities located decision of the Secretary of the University
all over the country and 8 accredited private People’s Committee, and if this is proven, he
universities, as well as technical and is punished by terminating the contract” and
vocational schools, which are also managed also in the comma G of article 109, where
by the Ministry of Education through a it is clearly stated that one of the objectives
dedicated board. In the years 2016-2018, of postgraduate studies is: “consolidating
the number of universities consistently cooperation and communication with
increased, causing a serious problem of scientific and research institutions on a
quality in the education provided due to domestic and international level”. Decision
a risk of massification in the teaching. In 501 needs to be reviewed and updated, as
many cases, the new universities were well as a national strategy for reforming
branches of already existing ones that higher education should be put in place. Only
became autonomous. Higher education in when a reform process will be in place “then
Libya is free for Libyan students, except for the EU will be able to step in and support
private institutions and for some specific further the internationalisation of Libyan
Master’s Degrees in public universities institutions through bilateral assistance”.332
where (affordable) fees are required. In
accordance with the Ministry of Education’s Among the most significant experiences in
regulations, foreign students have to pay Libya, it is worth mentioning the cooperation
fees for studying in Libya. within the framework of existing EU funded
programmes such as the past TEMPUS
The law regulating the higher education programme and especially Erasmus+
system in Libya is decision 501.331 The KA2 Capacity Building. In the past 5 years,
international dimension of the system is starting with the experience of the several
mainly related and referred to postgraduate funded projects, there has been a tangible
studies and it is, in all its dimensions, improvement in the management of
strictly posed under the control of the Erasmus+ tools and rules by the Libyan
state. This centralised control is clearly universities and staff, with a constant
evident in article 215: “It is not permissible advancement in their performance in
for a teaching staff member to accept any the programme. The positive impact and
scholarship from any university, body, role played by EU programmes has been
institution, government, or any foreign body clearly recognised by the EU Delegation
without the approval of the Secretary of the in Libya: “as European Union, within the
General People’s Committee for Education neighbourhood area, we see very positively
and Scientific Research, in the event of this prospect of cooperation and we
a violation, the teaching staff member is very much encourage the Libyan higher

331 Al-Jamahiriyya al-’Arabiyya al- Libiyya al-Sha’biyya al-Ishtirakiyya al-’Athma, Qarar al-Lajna
al-Sha’biyya al-’Amma - Raqm 501 li-l-sana 1378 (2010 masihi)
332 Interview with Antonis Tsamoulis, Cooperation Officer at the European Union Delegation to Libya

73
education institutions to actually participate In any case, all of the stakeholders
in EU programmes that encourage mobility interviewed during the focus group, recognise
and exchange of expertise. I think this has that there is still huge room for further
been reflected by last year’s decision to improvement in terms of: guaranteeing
support the appointment of NEO in Libya, as access to funds to rural, smaller and
well as the recent successful results in the more peripheral universities, specifically
capacity building programme Erasmus+. So equipping universities with the aim of
practically speaking, we are very supportive raising the quality of teaching, carrying
of this prospect”.333 Not only for the purpose out specific activities aimed at raising
of capacity building, but also within the the quality of research and consequently
framework of the Erasmus+ International raising their attractiveness, and enhancing
Credit Mobility (KA107) programme, the the (rare) international exposure of teaching
universities of Misurata and Zawia signed an staff by reducing constraints to mobility
agreement for student’s mobility towards opportunities for academics and students.
Spain and Turkey, as well as agreements
with Germany and the United Kingdom Last but not least, the current political
to develop bilateral mobility schemes for instability, conflicts and war-like situation
academics. in recent years, deeply affected universities’
performance and the society at large. It is
Libyan universities mentioned during worth mentioning that mobility development
several meetings with UNIMED and is highly affected by restrictions imposed by
reiterated on different occasions that the the country’s reality and regulations. This is
universities participating in Erasmus+ had particularly true when we look at the (few)
significantly improved their skills and that Embassies operative in Tripoli accepting
the programme activities had provided a visa applications for Libyan citizens,335 if
decisive boost to internationalisation. They we consider the financial requirements
also underlined that Erasmus+ must be which are demanded for visa applications,
considered as a turning point with regard to as well as the actual facilities available for
the previous programmes. This is mainly due travellers.
to the exposure to international experiences
for their staff (in terms of short mobilities, Apart from Erasmus+, Libyan universities
such as field visits and training activities) as and other higher education institutions
well as in terms of the equipment provided: have contacts and cooperate with many
“The equipment provided within the Arab, African and Western institutions. In
framework of European funded projects is addition, the Ministry of Education regularly
certainly useful for the institution, especially sends the best students to study abroad
if well integrated in the structure of the with full scholarships to obtain Master and
requesting institution”.334 PhD degrees. According to the last report
published in September 2016, more than
15 246 students are studying abroad in more

333 Ibidem
334 Focus group results
335 At this very moment (February 2021) the only fully operating embassy in Tripoli is the Italian Foreign
Diplomatic Mission

74
than 30 countries, in fields, such as medicine, level may have an impact on research
engineering, basic sciences, social sciences, activities as well as on graduates’
economics and many other specialisations.336 employability, enhancing the capacity of
Despite those efforts, Libyan universities universities to produce a change in society.
recently raised concerns regarding the This is a tremendous strength in the Libyan
effectiveness of the programme. In fact, scenario especially if regionally compared.
regarding national programmes, focus Universities (both in the east and west part
group participants pointed out that currently of the country) are considered by citizens
these programmes are not working as well as one of the most (if not the most) reliable
as they worked in the past as they need to institutions in the country. As recognised
be reviewed. Most recent data provided by by UNIMED: “University may become the
the Ministry of Education, indicated that a starting point for reconstructing the country,
total of 6 204 students enrolled in public through the definition of a cooperation
universities are currently studying abroad scheme between national authorities,
(in the form of internships, traineeships, HEIs and socio-economic stakeholders for
etc.). Numbers vary from 2 to 1,591 units sustainable development, a fruitful use
per institution.337 According to article 17 of resources and to avoid duplication of
of decision No. 43/2005, students who efforts”.338
benefit from a national scholarship have to
work, once back home, at least double the In any case, it is worth mentioning that there
time spent abroad studying, in order to pay are still universities that have very little
back for their experience, thus benefiting international exposure, intrinsic cultural
the local system. This is a clear strategy barriers (especially in terms of conservative
theoretically aimed at avoiding brain-drain agendas), limiting their possibilities of
and also allows the system to benefit from improving through cooperation. According to
the internationalisation experience. Antonis Tsamoulis, from the EU Delegation
for Libya, “in this case there is very little
Despite all the challenges and difficulties, knowledge of international opportunities,
the university is considered as a hub for because of the heritage of the previous
social and economic reconstruction, and regime. In addition to that the 10 year conflict
international cooperation and mobility excluded the universities and they didn’t
are key points for the country’s developing really know how and where to search for
process, allowing for knowledge transfer, opportunities: there’s no systematic way”.339
skills improvement, exchange of good In addition to the lack of a systematic way
practices and human resources to cooperate, it is worth mentioning the lack
development (both for academics and of English-language skills and the related
administrative staff). Consequently, cultural resistance by universities: this
universities’ exposure at the international is leading towards a limitation of access

336 Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA), International Project Management Office -
OGPI - University of Alicante , Higher Education in Libya, September, 2016, p. 7
337 Please have a look at the data contained in the Libya Restart study performed in 2019-2020: https://www.
uni-med.net/libya-restart-a-journey-analysis/ (Last access February 2021)
338 This is a quote from the UNIMED speech during the December 2020 Ministerial Higher Education conference
hosted, online, by Sebha University.
339 Interview with Antonis Tsamoulis

75
for less skilled people when it comes stakeholders, these dimensions are
to internationalisation opportunities, as widely recognised as internal problems
well as towards a centralisation of the by the Libyan system. As an example, the
internationalisation process always in the improvement of the research capacities of
same hands. Libyan research centres has been clearly
expressed as a priority during several
The above-mentioned barriers must be meetings with Libyan universities and can
taken into account together with other be considered as a “natural development”
three dimensions that are considerably of the training that Libyan universities are
affecting the international attractiveness receiving in the framework of EU funded
of the Libyan higher education system: the projects, by providing them with new
scarce autonomy of the system, the complex skills and capacities. Having considered
financial scheme and the low quality of that, strengthening scientific research in
research performances.340 There are no higher education institutions is one of the
Libyan universities listed in the QS world key priorities even in terms of access to
university ranking in 2018, nor among research international funds. Furthermore,
the first 4,000 universities within other to our knowledge and through our contacts
international superior rankings. This issue with the Libyan universities, we are aware
has been clearly stated and recognised in of only one H2020 research project that has
recent studies, such as Science, Technology, been carried out in Libya since the opening
Innovation, and Development in the Arab up of the programme to MENA countries.
Countries by Omar Bizri,341 recognising In general, research is government
that the level of research output in Libya funded by a very high percentage. The
is relatively low, mainly because of four National Authority for Scientific Research
reasons: (NASR) through various research centres,
1 – Limited funding for research activities supervises scientific research in Libya.
2 – Lack of research infrastructures and Despite that, some activities suffer from
technical inadequacies of administrative a lack of management and some research
staff centres are not properly activated.
3 – Limited amount of time and limited skills
of academic staff to perform and supervise EU Member States are considered key
research activities players for Libyan universities and the
4 – Brain drain effect support of the European Union in the
Research and innovation actions can short and medium term seems to be vital,
be defined, as Bizri said, as embryonic, allowing to take capacity building actions
and several international organisations and increasing the possibilities for Libyan
recognised, in the Libya Restart study, institutions to network at the regional
the need to move forward towards a and international levels and to learn from
more mature phase for the research and the exchange with more experienced
innovation environment in the country. Apart institutions. In this sense, and according to
from being identified from international responses collected by Libyans, HEIs staff

340 Ibidem
341 O. Bizri, Science, technology, innovation, and development in the Arab countries, Amsterdam, Academic
Press, 2018.

76
often point out the difficulties faced in the permanent group of IROs (including both
management and access to international Eastern and Western universities) and meet
projects opportunities as well as accessing every 2 or 3 months to share experiences
information on funding opportunities, due to and information. This is additional proof that
the lack of expertise and qualified human cooperation in the country continues despite
resources on both levels: academic and political instability and that academic
administrative staff. cooperation is not fully involved in the
country tensions.344
Moreover, Libyan universities underlined the
general problem related to the recognition In widening the outreach of Libyan
of qualifications at all levels, again due to universities, one crucial dimension that is
different interrelated reasons: the lack of hugely affecting universities’ performances
expertise and qualified human resources, is the country infrastructure, which has not
the presence of different systems, the been renovated, in particular with regards to
lack of a clear regulation. Recognition of the internet service. There is only one source
qualification is governed by the National of the internet and that creates a critical
agency for Quality Assurance, but the process situation. In addition, there is a general lack
is considered long and complex, despite no of expertise in the field of digitalisation and
objections arising on its importance. Efforts a lack of technology experts. This caused a
should be directed towards the definition slow and contradictory answer to the 2020
of a set of guidelines to ease the process, pandemic crisis by basically forcing the
complemented by increasing the capacity Ministry to stop all the teaching activities due
of the staff entitled to recognise foreign to the impossibility to offer online courses.
qualifications and credit both at national and In addition to the lack of infrastructure and
institutional levels.342 human skills, lack of clear legislation is one
of the main barriers preventing this process
International Relation Offices are the to become structural at both institutional and
main actors inside the university for the national level. All the involved universities,
promotion, planning, management and clearly expressed the need to reform the
follow-up of all kinds of international regulation. As a matter of fact, despite the
activities. All have an International Relation fact that article 9 of Decision 501, recognises
Office that, as previously mentioned, the possibility to enrol “distance students,
depends on the Vice-president for Academic who are students that participate in open
Affairs. The director is appointed by the e-learning programmes”, it also states
University President based on criteria that “procedures and requirements of this
like experience, competences and English system are defined by a special regulation
language skills. The composition of these issued by a decree of the General People’s
offices depends on the university: it can be Committee for Education and Scientific
made up of a director, a vice-director and Research”. As a consequence, Libyan
several agents, or by only one director and universities perceive laws and legislation in
one assistant.343 IROs directors created a Libya as restrictive with regard to the use

342 Focus group results

343 Please have a look at the data contained in the Libya Restart study performed in 2019-2020: https://www.
uni-med.net/libya-restart-a-journey-analysis/ (Last access February 2021)
344 Ibidem

77
of e-learning in addition to the limitation of special window within the E+ programme
financial and technical capabilities. for mobility, as it was done for Tunisia and
Algeria).346
Despite all the above-mentioned problems,
barriers and challenges, the dynamism
of the country and of the region remains
a strength: “it is a very young region with
a young population, much more than the
EU. So really, there is thirst for training,
for education”.345 In this sense, improving
internationalisation capacities and
performances will need the support of
EU top institutions as the ones involved in
order to break the isolation of which Libyan
Institutions are suffering nowadays due to
the perceived unsafety and instability of the
country and to promote the international
dimension. Mutual cooperation between
the EU and this country will help in defining
better infrastructures and develop new
markets providing benefit to the society at
large.

This is the reason why UNIMED already

included in its Libya Restart study specific
recommendations aimed at strengthening
universities’ exposure and performance at the
international level. Allowing Libya to lift the
cultural siege and enforce both international
cooperation and mobility are key steps in
the country’s developing process, allowing
for knowledge transfer, skills improvement,
exchange of good practices and human
resources development (both for academics
and administrative staff). In this regard, it
was concluded that it would be beneficial
for Libya to engage in mobility programmes
and/or dedicated funds for Libya (i.e., a

345 Interview with German Bernal Rios, Policy Officer - Southern Mediterranean countries, Directorate-General
for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture
346 Refer to the data contained in the Libya Restart study of 2019-2020: https://www.uni-med.net/libya-
restart-a-journey-analysis/ (Last access February 2021)

78
 Mauritania
Because of its geographical position, the
country constitutes a contact area between From 2014, several deep structural reforms
North and Sub-Saharan Africa. The country is have been implemented to modernise and
mostly covered by the desert and according improve the quality of higher education
to the UN classification, it is considered as and make it one of the main levers of
one of the least developed countries.347 the country’s development. This was
Although its territory is mainly classified accomplished based on four structural
as part of the Sahel region by international axes: 1) strengthening the institutional
stakeholders, Mauritania participates in the management and governance of the system;
5+5 dialogue.348 2) improving the relevance, quality of
training and the employability of diplomas;
Mauritania became independent in 1960 and 3) improving access to higher education
the Mauritanian education system has seen training; 4) promoting scientific research
different sectoral reforms from 1959 to based on major development issues of
2006. The 3 latest reforms (1973, 1999 and the country. Teaching is held in a bilingual
2006) are the ones that most impacted the fashion, both in Arabic and French, although
HE sector. Higher education in Mauritania is the use of dialect is spreading more and
relatively young as the first public university more and the attractiveness of the French
was created on the basis of a decree issued language has considerably decreased
in 1981. To date, the network of HEIs includes lately.349 Among the main achievements it
14 institutions (of which only one is a public is worth mentioning the establishment of
university) offering LMD diplomas, high the National Ministry of higher education
schools and institutes (including 5 private and Scientific Research and the definition
ones). The Ministry dedicated to higher of monitoring parameters and indicators
education and Scientific Research (MHESR) for higher education and scientific research;
was established in 2014. Mauritania the establishment of the Preparatory High
inherited the French system organised Schools for Engineers; the creation of a unit
around the university and around selective responsible for education and Scientific
classes, especially for engineering schools. Research evaluation; the definition of a
It is also worth mentioning that there are general framework for education and
highly-successful specific preparatory of standardised conditions for obtaining
institutes for foreign High Schools (mainly in national diplomas in the LMD as well as the
France, e.g., Polytechnique), access to which establishment of employment prerequisites
is granted to 25 students per year in order to and parameters for teachers.350
train high-level executives.

347 https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category-mauritania.html (Last

access February 2021)
348 A sub-regional forum for dialogue between ten Western Mediterranean countries and it promotes cooperation
in science, technology and higher education: http://www.fiveplusfiverihe.org/about-us
349 Interview with Sidi Ould Salem, Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research and Focus group results
350 https://www.mesrstic.gov.mr/fr/bilan-des-realisations-du-mesrstic/ (Last access February 2021)

79
Those decisions illustrate all efforts 600 students per 100,000 inhabitants,
made for the modernisation of the higher Mauritania is the country least covered by
education system with the aim to better higher education in the sub-region.355 The
tackle the challenges meet by the country. transition rate from secondary to higher
In 2018, the MHESR, together with the United education is 30%. The distribution among
Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural the different fields is the following: 37% of
Organisation (UNESCO) and International students were enrolled in social sciences,
Institute for Educational Planning (IIPE Pole commerce, and law, followed by 24.5%
de Dakar) made an important diagnosis351 enrolled in Letter and arts. For the academic
of the sector and give a clear picture of the year 2017/2018, 740 permanent teachers
evolution of HEIs in the country. including 51 women were responsible of the
teachings in the public institutions. Associate
The Lebanese international University professors represent more than 40% of the
(LIU) is an interesting example of private teachers. The teachers/students ratio in the
HEIs in the country. It has been operating public sector reaches 25.6% which is very
since 2008 as a branch of the Lebanese close to the UNESCO norm of 25 students
International University of Beirut for per teacher. Furthermore, higher education
engineering, business, arts and sciences.352 is characterised by almost free access
A peculiarity of the LIU is that of including to studies and a significant allocation of
some compulsory courses in English. scholarships to students.356

Higher education in Mauritania is Bilateral, long-standing cooperation

characterised by a very small number relationships have been formed with
of students, only 19 844 students were Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria and Senegal,
enrolled in 2017-2018 in the whole public particularly in the field of Medical Sciences,
and private higher education institutions both for outgoing and incoming students.
(some of which under the authority of the For historical reasons, mobility and
MHESR). By way of comparison, the total cooperation with France remains significant.
population was estimated at 4.4 million For the Mauritanian interlocutors who met
in 2018.353 Women represent around 35% within the focus group, bilateral cooperation
of the total number and students under is much more effective than any other
27 years of age represent 74% of the total cooperation programme, both at the
number of students (with an increase governance level and in terms of training
of 8% compared to the academic year skills, as the former can better assess
2015/2016). 65% of students are enrolled and address the needs of the institutions
in the University of Nouakchott Alasriya,354 assessed.
the only public university. With a ratio of

351 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265448/PDF/265448fre.pdf.multi (Last access February

2021)
352 http://mr.liu.edu.lb/MauritaniaFrench/universite/introduction.php (Last access February 2021)
353 https://databank.worldbank.org/views/reports/reportwidget.aspx?Report_
Name=CountryProfile&Id=b450fd57&tbar=y&dd=y&inf=n&zm=n&country=MRT (Last access February 2021)
354 http://www.una.mr/ (Last access February 2021)
355 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265448/PDF/265448fre.pdf.multi (Last access February
2021)
356 https://www.mesrstic.gov.mr/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/TB-EN-18.pdf (Last access February 2021)

80
Internationalisation is a priority for the top five destinations for Mauritanian
the ministry, which underlines a lack students are Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal,
of resources, because the majority of Algeria and France. It is worth mentioning
international donors invest mainly in that Mauritania received medicine students
basic education and because national from Tunisia and Morocco as the access
resources do not cover all needs. At the in their own country is very selective and
ministerial level, the first step is to define limited by a restricted admission policy. The
an internationalisation strategy and a MHESR also finances incoming mobilities
dedicated budget, and to encourage the for the benefit of Yemenis. Mauritania
ownership of internationalisation by the welcomes regular short-term teaching
whole community. Long term planning is missions and, in the framework of the
not so evident in Mauritania but important preparatory class,358 15 permanent Tunisian
efforts have been made for the accreditation teachers are on-site to train local associate
of courses at international level, for foreign professors. There are also 17 permanent
languages training and development of co- English teachers as in 2016 Mauritania
diplomas, to improve the attractiveness of created an English Institute359 in order to
the HE system in specific fields. tackle the English skills issue. Outgoing and
incoming mobilities are well perceived and
The MHESR is a great promoter of long- appreciated since they ensure acquisition
term mobility (in the Mauritanian case this of new competences at the personal and
term mainly refers to the international institutional level and since they allow
funded mobility of Mauritanian students) to enrich and update programmes and
as it finances a major outgoing scholarship curricula.360 The lack of English skills is still
programme for students of medicine a barrier. Mobility is not considered an asset
and engineering in Morocco (around 300 for career advancement but the value of
students), Tunisia (around 200) and in such an experience is tangible at publication
Senegal. Mauritania developed also short and research level.
term mobilities, e.g., for doctoral students
in joint supervision, with France, Spain and E-learning has not been regulated yet and
Morocco and also for students in the last curricula are defined by classic pedagogical
year of the High Polytechnic School. As no standards. Even more than in other countries,
credit system has been adopted yet, rules COVID-19 has highlighted the digital divide
for recognition of all short term mobilities (but also revealed some strengths). The case
(very limited number) are set out in specific of the Lebanese International University is
cooperation agreements. In 2017/2018, interesting because at LIU, in Nouakchott,
Mauritania financed around 1,200 being a branch of LIU in Beirut, some courses
scholarships for students (mainly in sciences, were held online using an e-learning
medicine and social safety) and hosted regime, with courses held by teachers
around 250 foreign students (mainly from from Lebanon and others countries. At the
Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal, Mali and Gambia). government level, the ICT portfolio is also
According to the Ministry dashboard,357 managed by the MHESR which is embodied

357 http://uis.unesco.org/fr/uis-student-flow (Last access February 2021)

358 Classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles
359 Interview with Sidi Ould Salem
360 Focus group results

81
by a designated director at the ministry members of the diaspora who would be
office. E-learning implementation presents interested in participating in national efforts
several challenges, such as: the resistance but were not able to do so due to age limits
to change, both from teachers and students; or access regulation restrictions.363
connectivity issues (the university is now
directly connected on European networks); Education and higher education in general
access to the internet (internet is free at the still face challenges on the specific
University of Nouakchott Alasriya campus dimension of internationalisation, this area
but it still remains difficult to access from is not well established and, consequently,
home) and its the affordability (the Arab cannot fully grasp and welcome many of
League for Education, Culture and Science the opportunities for internationalisation
[ALESCO] distributed 2 000 iPads and available. Skills need to be strengthened and
laptops to students), and the need for trained effective governance is needed in the field of
staff (and need to overcome the resistance scientific research and so is funding (from
to change mentality). As regards the specific national and international stakeholders).
issue of training, even if there is still a In addition, there is a need for raising
long way to go, it is worth mentioning the awareness on internationalisation at the
previous experience gained thanks to the national level as the education system is not
African Virtual University and the existence mature enough and there are dysfunctions
of a distance training and exchange centre that can create blockages. On top of this,
(CFED). Both at the ministerial and university linguistic issues and patchy, uneven internet
level, e-learning is perceived as a tool for access create further problems. Student
the future,361 a means to boost the national and staff mobility needs to be strengthened
economy - if the equipment is adequate in and structured, since those two categories
terms of quantity- and quality. It represents can greatly contribute to HE development.
also an alternative ablet to overcome some Despite all those constraints, structural
geographical obstacles for students from reforms have been made and the willingness
the innermost part of the country and some to modernise and internationalise the HE
societal biases (a preconceived resistance system was declared by the Ministry and
towards girls attending HEIs). by the two universities contacted for this
study. The strong bilateral cooperation
A very interesting platform has been funded relationship Mauritania has formed with
by the European Union and operated by the some European, African and Maghreb
International Organisation for Migrations partner countries should be further
since 2017. Such platform aims at developed and leveraged to upscale mobility
identifying high-level qualified Mauritanians and cooperation schemes towards the
living abroad in order to engage them in cross-regional dimension.
activities that are beneficial for the country
and its development.362 As an additional
incentive, the ministry also reformed the
public administration in order to welcome

361 Interview with Sidi Ould Salem and result of the Focus group
362 https://www.diaspora.mr/ (Last access February 2021)
363 Interview with Sidi Ould Salem

82
 Morocco
The higher education system in Morocco The higher education system in Morocco
has experienced different phases of has different types of higher education
development over the course of its history, establishments according to the nature of
closely linked to its different economic and the course, academic or professional. Since
sociocultural environments. Prior to the 2003, Morocco has adopted the LMD system
20th century, the higher education system (Bachelor’s, Master’s, Doctorate), organised
was primarily religious.364 During its process in semesters made up of disciplinary and
of development, university education compulsory course units.
focused on the national and regional socio-
economic needs with the establishment The Moroccan higher education system is
of institutes aiming at tackling Morocco’s made up of three main sectors:367 public
development challenges. For this reason, higher education, higher education as
Moroccan higher education, which operates part of partnership, and private higher
as a public domain under the responsibility education. Public higher education
of the state, in 1975 passed a law on higher includes universities. These are public
education, governed directly by the Ministry establishments under the supervision
of higher education.365 This law spells of the Ministry of National Education,
out the purpose of public universities, Vocational Training, higher education and
establishment procedures, their history Scientific Research. The Kingdom of
in Morocco, as well as the procedures for Morocco currently has 12 public universities
recruiting professors and staff. It also (with 126 establishments) and a public
stipulates procedures for curriculum university with private management
development and student evaluation. spread over the different regions of the
country. As part of the partnership368
During the first decade of the 21st century, there are other public higher education
Moroccan education system reached institutions not affiliated to universities
a turning point thanks to the National and they are specialised higher-education
Education and Training Charter, which set establishments. EENSPU currently has 71
out a series of reforms that transformed establishments. Finally, private higher
and contributed to the development of the education, namely universities and
Moroccan education system at the regional institutions created within the framework
and national level and which aimed to of a public-private partnership (PPP), are
establish the educational, administrative non-profit foundations created with the
and financial autonomy of higher education objective of internationalising Moroccan
centres.366 higher education. They benefit from different

364 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_morocco_2017.pdf (Last access 2021)

365 Ibidem
366 Ibidem
367 https://www.enssup.gov.ma/fr.html (Last access February 2021)
368 Etablissements d’Enseignement Supérieur ne Relevant pas des Universités (EENSNPU)

83
sources of funding, yet they remain under Moroccan Higher Council for Education,
the academic authority of the Ministry of Training and Scientific Research, expressly
higher education. states that “school should be the object
of the greatest attention as a national
In the 2018/2019 academic year there priority, of the state and local authorities,
were 876,000 students attending public education, training and scientific research,
universities (corresponding to 95%), trade unions, the private sector, families,
49,280 enrolled in private institutions and civil society, intellectuals, artists and the
35,450 attending management-training media”.372
organisations.369 Among those students
attending public universities, around As regards policies, there is a strong support
424,260 were studying law, economics and to internationalisation and the international
social sciences, which remain the most dimension of universities, with the passage
popular fields. Remarkably, around 180,570 of time, has become a pillar of the mission
students study subjects related to science, and strategic planning of the Ministry and of
technology, engineering and mathematics.370 Moroccan HEIs as it is perceived as a mean
for improving the quality of education and as
Higher education in Morocco is regulated by an opening to be more attractive. Within the
Law No. 01/2000,371 under the responsibility Ministry, a Directorate of Cooperation and
of the state. This law provides for the Partnership was created. It is responsible
planning, organisation, development, for promoting, strengthening, monitoring
regulation and guidance of the system and and evaluating, in coordination with ministry
reinforces the educational, administrative structures and institutions, bilateral and
and financial autonomy of universities. multilateral cooperation programmes in
Moreover, Law No. 01/2000 established all areas relating to responsibilities of the
a National Coordination Committee for ministry.373 Currently, the Ministry Plan aims
higher education and a National Evaluation at developing international cooperation
Authority responsible of evaluating the strategies aimed at strengthening current
higher education system, ensuring the cooperation programmes with foreign
quality, competitiveness and diversity of countries, establishing new partnerships in
training programmes, as well as promoting the fields of higher education and scientific
scientific research and for adapting training research, consolidating the cooperation
to market requirements. with other entities in the region within the
framework of South-South cooperation
Moreover, the National strategic vision as well as strengthening the mobility of
2015-2030 for education, training and Moroccan students and professors.
scientific research reform initiated by the

369 https://www.enssup.gov.ma/sites/default/files/STATISTIQUES/5341/brochure_2018-2019.pdf (Last

access February 2021)
370 https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/steady-progress-demand-private-schooling-continues-grow-
parliament-approves-highly-anticipated-new (Last access February 2021)
371 http://www.umi.ac.ma/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/loi-n-01-00-portant-organisation-de-lenseignement-
sup%C3%A9rieur.pdf (Last access February 2021)
372 https://www.men.gov.ma/Fr/Documents/Vision_strateg_CSEF16004fr.pdf (Last access February 2021)
373 Moroccan Decree 2-14-280 of June 18, 201, available at: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/
SERIAL/98090/116577/F-1402084207/MAR-98090.pdf (Last access February 2021)

84
Attractiveness is a key factor for lack of a dedicated structure within the
internationalisation and, for this reason, institution represents an obstacle because
according to Morocco’s Minister of National it is not easy to know, both internally and
Education Saaid Amzazi,374 Moroccan externally, which person to contact.377
universities are set to implement the Thanks to our experience on the field, we
Bachelor Anglophone system in September identified, the main reasons for this issue,
2021 introducing, based on this system, a which are mainly linked to a lack of human
fourth year to strengthen skills and abilities resources, funds and training for staff.378
needed to access the labour market more
easily. This will facilitate the international Even if there is not a consolidated and
mobility of Moroccan students and will common supportive structure yet, the need
make Moroccan universities more attractive for an international strategy is strongly
to foreign students. This shift is perceived perceived by universities. For this reason,
as a great opportunity to improve the the strategic axis379 higher education in
employability of Moroccan students by its regional, national and international
focusing on foreign languages, soft skills, environment plans to increase the number of
civic and professional development and as courses in English and Spanish, particularly
an opening for Moroccan higher education at the level of Master’s degrees, with a
institutions to international opportunities. view to strengthen the attractiveness of the
degree courses for foreign students and to
As for internationalisation, all organisation increase the incoming mobility. Objectives,
charts include a vice-rector or deputy include the facilitation of mobility for
director for external relations and students at international level, ensuring
cooperation activities. Even when there is no the mobility of Moroccan researchers
structure dedicated to internationalisation internationally, a call for familiarisation with
within the institutions, there is still a good practices, successful international
person who takes care of these aspects.375 experiences and international standards,
As far as structure is concerned, there the development of partnerships and
should be more internationalisation offices. international cooperation and strengthening
For example, in smaller institutions, the Morocco’s positioning in the international
research and development department or system. The internationalisation dimension
the career centre have to manage Erasmus+ is also included in the development plan that
and internationalisation programmes, due a dean, running for head of the university,
to a lack of units specifically dedicated needs to prepare. The development plan
to internationalisation.376 As a result, the should include the university activities, on

374 During the conference held in Casablanca, on February 29, 2020, on the theme «Les Soft Skills: Un Levier
Novateur du BACHELOR et des Compétences Incontournables pour l’Employabilité des Etudiants»
375 As underlined by Sanaa Zebakh (Deputy Director in charge of cooperation at the Agronomic and Veterinary
Institute Hassan II) they have established a Deputy Directorate for Cooperation, Partnership and Development in
order to deal with aspects related to international cooperation.
376 Such is the case of ESITH- Ecole Supérieure des Industries du Textile et de l’Habillement.
377 Interview with Latifa Daadaoui National Coordinator, National Erasmus+ Office in Morocco
378 Focus group results
379 http://www.um5.ac.ma/um5/sites/default/files/Resume_Projet_Etab-UM5R.pdf (Last access February 2021)

85
all levels, for at least four years, including should enhance the coordination and
internationalisation, cooperation and synergies between the actions taken by
partnerships initiatives. 380
institutions in the area of international
cooperation.383
As for research, the National Research However, internationalisation has to meet
System is the coordinated set of bodies some challenges. Firstly, it is vital to develop
and structures belonging to the public national standards, official procedures
and private sector whose actions and that will allow universities to facilitate
interactions make it possible to design mobility actions. Secondly, among the main
and implement national research policies. challenges to be faced, particular attention
Morocco has defined an ambitious strategy is paid to the language of instruction and
aimed at promoting science and technology research, the evaluation system, the non-
with a view to ensuring its economic and internationalisation of the curricula (an
social development. In this context, the internship abroad or studies abroad are not
promotion of international bilateral and included in the curriculum-despite the fact
multilateral cooperation allows Moroccan that they are allowed),384 the absence of
research teams to share their experiences infrastructure and the financial management
with other partners, to access scientific of funds.385
centres of excellence at the international
level and to benefit from international Even though international experience
funding of research.381 Morocco co-signs is valued and appreciated in Moroccan
nearly 50% of its indexed publications HEIs,386 it does not have a direct impact on
with foreign researchers, compared to career advancements of the staff, both for
30% at the start of the 90s. The country is academic and administrative staff members.
trying today to stimulate and support the A candidate’s international experience is
evolution towards internationalisation both considered as a strength, but it is not a formal
at the level of institutions and research criterion when it comes to professional
agendas, and it seeks to articulate such advancement.387 Classes are conducted in
internationalisation around regional or Arabic and/or French and the nature of the
global issues.382 Moreover, the establishment curricula, represent a real difficulty for the
of ad hoc committees by the Permanent approach to internationalisation, as well as
Inter-ministerial Committee for Scientific the low number of training programmes in
Research and Technological Development English.388

380 Interview with Anass Bennani, Director of Cooperation and Partnership of the Moroccan Ministry of National
Education, Vocational Training, Higher Education & Scientific Research
381 https://www.enssup.gov.ma/fr.html (Last access February 2021)
382 R. Chroqui, C. Okar, K. Saoudi, Internationalisation de l’Enseignement Supérieur au Maroc : vers une
marchandisation, 2017, Unpublished.
383 Interview with Sanaa Zebakh.
384 Interview with Najib Hamouti, Head Career Center, Erasmus+ Coordinator at ESITH- Ecole Supérieure des
Industries du Textile et de l’Habillement
385 Focus group results
386 Ibidem
387 Interview with Najib Hamouti
388 For example, at the University of Mohamed V de Rabat, out of 263 training programs, only 11 are in English,
about 60 in Arabic and all the rest in French.

86
Nevertheless, the Ministry has met this need European credit system (ECTS) and therefore
by passing a new framework law389 that it is hard to harmonise international
authorises the use of foreign languages in mobility391 towards Europe and to apply the
training programmes, with a new orientation transfer of credits. It was mentioned that the
and a focus on alternating languages, with establishments engaging more in outgoing
an investment in plurilingualism education mobility are engineering schools, which
and with a view to diversifying the languages are very well integrated with engineering
of education, in addition to the two official schools all over the world and therefore
languages of the State by teaching certain they have understood very quickly the
subjects, in particular scientific and problem of credits and adapted to a system
technical subjects, or certain contents or of international recognition in order to
modules, in one or more foreign languages; facilitate mobility.392 With the aim of fixing
by diversifying language choices in the this problem, in the learning agreement,
fields, specialties, training and research of Moroccan universities ask foreign students
higher education, as well as by opening new which modules they will follow and these
pathways allowing the pursuit of studies in modules are validated by the head of the
Arabic, French, English and Spanish, within department and therefore, once they go
the limits of universities’ autonomy and back, the students will have no problem
according to their training and research obtaining their diploma.393
needs, as well as taking into account the
resources available. Although Morocco has made progress in
the field of e-learning, also thanks to its
Teaching methods and the partial use of the participation in some CBHE projects and the
new technologies, methods of assessment launch of key MOOCs,394 distance learning
and evaluation do not support effectively has posed a problem during the COVID-19
international students. This adds up to a lack pandemic crisis.
of infrastructure, especially of university
dormitories and offices for the management Indeed, some teachers have never had the
incoming mobility. Indeed, it could be useful opportunity to be trained to teach remotely
to improve the management of the arrival of and in some regions of Morocco there is no
foreign students in terms of infrastructures internet connectivity, so students cannot
and also in their involvement, making them download lessons or participate in online
active actors in the life of the institutions. classes. Thanks to the actions taken by the
Getting in touch with students even before Ministry and the ANRT (Agence National de
they arrive in Morocco is a key factor to put Réglementation de Télécommunication),
students at ease.390 universities can offer free online courses to
In addition, Morocco has not yet adopted the the students. However, this system cannot

389 Law 51/17 Available at: http://www.sgg.gov.ma/Portals/0/BO/2020/BO_6944_

Fr.pdf?ver=2020-12-24-133647-943 (Last access February 2021)
390 Interview with Wail Benjelloun, former President of Mohammed V University and UNIMED Honorary
President
391 Interview with Najib Hamouti
392 Focus group results
393 Ibidem
394 https://openmedproject.eu/oer-morocco-declaration/ (Last access February 2021)

87
work for a large number of students at the among the technical departments and the
same time, thus compromising the success ministry responsible for higher education
of those classes and forcing teachers to and research.
upload lessons in platforms like YouTube.
This is a difficulty that does not encourage All Moroccan universities work within a
students to participate in all the courses. As context of networking and partnerships.397
for the documents, students can download Morocco’s cooperation efforts in the field of
them for free. In order to solve the connection higher education and scientific research are
problem, over 20 000 educational resources historically and largely focused on Europe.
have been developed and it is possible to Due to the historical link between the two
download them even if students do not have areas, many collaboration projects have
a stable internet connection. The ministry been implemented by Moroccan and French
is working with each university to develop universities, within the context of several
their own course and all types of modalities programmes. France supported the training
are considered. However, it is necessary to and mobility of Moroccan students and
make investments to improve access to the staff. More than half of Morocco’s bilateral
Internet.395 cooperation programmes have been
concluded with France. Its second partner
Like in many other countries, in Morocco, at is Spain, followed by Italy. Nonetheless,
the moment, teaching is hybrid. However, Morocco has established cooperation
in Morocco there is not yet a regulation for relationships with other countries,
distance learning but it is allowed to give implementing cooperation actions involving
a part of module online. A new learning Germany, Belgium and Portugal. There
reform, which is being drafted, should allow is also a gradual opening towards other
to teach entire modules online. Based on the geographical areas, such as Scandinavia,
experience gained in this pandemic period, the United Kingdom, Asia and Latin America.
the best solution could be that of mixing Several bilateral cooperation agreements
distance learning and face-to-face teaching. have been made with countries across the
For example, it has been specifically asked five continents in relation to higher education
by students with reduced mobility to and student exchanges.
maintain online courses once the pandemic
crisis will be over, in order to tackle travel For a long time, Morocco has also been a
difficulties.396 destination country for students. Morocco
has hosted around 20,000 students from
The obstacles encountered by the Sub-Saharan Africa and the Moroccan
internationalisation strategy could be Ministry has created scholarships to
attributed to the difficulty of taking some support these students. As for Moroccan
actions due to a lack of funding, coordination students, around 70,000 of them are
or qualified human resources and, at the currently abroad and the Ministry has made
national level, some encouragement is available about 40 programme grants,
needed in order to boost joint coordination bilateral and multilateral, for students

395 Focus group results

396 Ibidem
397 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_morocco_2017.pdf (Last access 2021)
398 Interview with Wail Benjelloun

88
abroad.398 As regards the percentages, 70% operating very important dynamic actions
of foreign students come from Africa, 21% for European programmes. The Erasmus+
from the Middle East and only 3% from programme has helped to take dynamic
Europe.399 actions for the internationalisation of
cooperation and allowed to have greater
Furthermore, South-South cooperation visibility and attractiveness. It has also
with other MENA countries also supports allowed to promote exchanges between
mobility between Morocco and all the Moroccan universities and towards
Mediterranean countries involved in Moroccan universities. Data concerning
international exchanges, mainly at the the Erasmus+ programme for the period
master’s and doctoral level, especially the 2014-2020 show that Morocco registered
countries that are particularly active in or approved 7,404 mobilities, including
the exchanges involving Morocco. Morocco 2,809 outgoing mobilities and 1,951
has graduated exactly 343 students from incoming mobilities. More than 800 mobility
10 Mediterranean countries;400 therefore agreements were concluded, 47 merit
343 students from those countries are scholarships awarded under the Erasmus+
enrolled in the 2019-2020 academic year Joint Masters, and 37 Erasmus+ capacity
in public higher education institutions in building projects were established. In
Morocco. In addition, between 2015 and addition, 6 Jean Monnet projects were
2020, almost 1,600 Mediterranean students developed during this period. With the
were enrolled in universities, especially new Erasmus + 2021-2027 programme,
in public universities. In the years 2019- the aim of Morocco is to strengthen its
2020, exchanges were in place with 8 participation in mobility programmes in the
Mediterranean countries.401 Between 2015 future, through the acquisition of the status
and 2019, the number of agreements of Programme Country, which will also
increased from 100 mobility agreements to allow to receive additional funding for the
more than 850 and the number of exchanges implementation of international activities.
with European partners increased from 80 Finally, the Director of Cooperation and
to 300.402 Partnership of the Moroccan Ministry of
National Education, Vocational Training,
Morocco has made considerable efforts in Higher Education & Scientific Research pays
terms of organisation and investment to particular attention to student mobility in all
improve cooperation with international its forms and to the main challenge linked to
bodies and Moroccan universities are its development action.403
particularly active in the European Tempus
and Erasmus Mundus higher education Moreover, Morocco is the 1st partner of the
programmes and, more recently, the ICM mobility programme in Africa, the 2nd
Erasmus+ programme. Indeed, the in the South Mediterranean region and the
Erasmus+ office has a great impact in 8th worldwide, out of a total of 135 partner
Morocco’s internationalisation process, countries from the five continents.404

399 Focus group results

400 Algeria, Egypt, France, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Palestine, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey
401 Egypt, France, Spain, Greece, Italy, Jordan, Tunisia and Turkey
402 Intervention of Anass Bennani during the Dire-Med project Final Conference held on October 13th 2020
403 Ibidem
404 https://erasmusplus.ma/icm/ (Last access February 2021)

89
Morocco is also highly involved in CBHE
projects, building on the success of previous
programmes (Tempus in particular).
Nevertheless, Morocco’s participation in
CBHE has decreased. Today, Morocco is
the second partner on CBHE projects in
the south Mediterranean region with 37
projects covering a wide range of themes.
33 Moroccan HEIs are involved in 37 (CBHE)
projects with 11 non-academic partners.
During the implementation period, these
projects enabled the exchange of expertise
between 33 Moroccan institutions and 142
institutions in 23 European countries, 85
institutions in 8 countries in the Southern
Mediterranean region405 and 10 institutions
from 4 countries406 in sub-Saharan Africa.407

405 Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Libya, Syria, Palestine

406 Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina-Faso, Democratic Republic of the Congo
407 https://erasmusplus.ma/erasmus-uploads/2019/10/Dossier-VF-Erasmus.pdf (Last access January 2021)

90
 Palestine
As recognised by the SPHERE project408 authorities, as consequence of the crisis, are
and by several reports, higher education in prioritising sectors like health and primary
Palestine409 is divided into two sectors: or secondary education. So higher education
• Education in Community and Technical has been gravely affected, especially in the
Colleges: students study for a period Gaza Strip.
of two years, and receive a diploma
certificate. The topic of internationalisation has been
• University education: students study firstly introduced in a systematic way
for 4 to 6 years to receive a bachelor’s and consequently consolidated into the
degree in science, education, humanities, Palestinian HE system through the Tempus
engineering, and medicine. Programme and currently through the
The majority of higher education institutions Erasmus+ programme of the European
(HEIs) in Palestine are public and the whole Commission. As recognised by the National
system is regulated by law 11/1998,410 that Erasmus+ Officer, “Erasmus+ programme
recognises different types of institutions: has a high profile in Palestine as it is
governmental, public, established by non- playing an important and leading role in
governmental organisations and private the development and internationalisation
institutions. The council on higher education of the Palestinian higher education Sector
is responsible for drafting and enacting the [...] and has remarkably contributed on
rules that all HEIs must adopt. The Ministry staff development through the mobility
also provides partial support and funding programme and internationalisation of
to the non-governmental HEIs. The HEIs education [...] with a strong effect on the
are mostly independent but they have to internationalisation of faculties”.411
comply with the above-mentioned law and
regulations issued by the ministry and the The Palestinian HEIs have been involved
council on higher education. in Erasmus+ International Credit Mobility
projects since 2015 with mobilities
Currently, the local education system (outgoing and incoming) for students
(particularly higher education) is suffering and staff, indeed almost all Palestinian
from the recent massive fiscal crisis, HEIs have ICM exchange agreements
started in 2019. As a result, there has been with different EU countries based on
a massive shortage of fiscal instruments. their teaching programmes. Arabic is the
Clearly this affected higher education, official language of Palestine, and English
like any other sector. In addition, local is clearly the second language in status.

408 https://supporthere.org/page/higher-education-palestine (Last access January 2021)

409 To be intended in line with the European Union definition: Occupied Palestinian Territory, West Bank and
Gaza Strip and in any case not as a political recognition of the State of Palestine
410 Arabic version here available: http://www.mohe.pna.ps/Resources/Docs/HELaw.pdf (Last access January
2021)
411 Sentences contained in a PowerPoint presentation provided by the National Erasmus+ office in Palestine
and provided by Nedal Jayyousi

91
As recognised by Muhamad Hasan Amara National Erasmus+ Office as a coordination
based on Tushyeh studies, “English is taught role: “We do have a good relationship with
at the Palestinian universities for several university’s leaders. Rectors are indeed
reasons. English is a required subject for involved in key activities for decisions,
all first-year university students. English such as information days, institutional
is also a Faculty of Arts requirement at evaluation, etc. We do also contact directly
these universities when students take a professor/dean/vice-rector and do
courses in English language and literature. have a direct relationship with students’
Furthermore, English is the medium of networks. Finally, we can also affirm that
instruction in the sciences and mathematics we have a good relationship with the EU
at all universities and in some disciplines, and with the Ministry of higher education.
such as nursing, business, political sciences So, we have good relations with all levels
and cultural studies, at some Palestinian from the President to the Grant’s office,
universities”.412 from the professors to the students”.414 This
last point is of specific interest, as it seems
Currently Palestine has a high number that cooperation with students represents
of Capacity building projects directly a crucial aspect for the National Erasmus
coordinated by Palestinian universities. office internationalisation activities: Our
At the moment, they lead 24 projects NEO office organises regular meetings (as
as a coordinator in cooperation with an example, 6 meetings were arranged in
European and Arab partners. According 2020) among students outgoing and those
to the National Erasmus Office: “The main who came back to Palestine after their
strengths of our internationalisation mobility period abroad. In these meetings
strategy are in particular the highest we focus on bottlenecks such as visas,
number of coordinated CBHE projects and especially for the Gaza Strip, cultural issues
the fact that all the university staff know in relationship with gender, accreditation
about Erasmus+, as well a high level of problem and recognition, issue of language,
participation by university institutions and etc. Our office tries to involve students
by the Ministry of higher education and by also in other important occasions such as
the Prime Minister office”.413 In this sense, a in the information days and in project field
strong institutional support, not perceived monitoring”.415
as invasive by the higher education
practitioners, is provided by local The Ministry of Education and higher
institutions to the local higher education education416 has not defined yet a proper
system. In addition to that, a multilevel national strategy on internationalisation.
approach seems to involve different According to confidential sources, the new
and various levels of the educational 2020-2023 strategic plan should include
community of the higher education system (even if not directly mentioned) a concrete
in internationalisation, recognising the internationalisation dimension. In this

412 M. Amara, Recent foreign language education policies in Palestine, Language Problems & Language
Planningm, Vol. 27, n.3, October 2003, pp. 217-232, p. 221
413 Interview with Nedal Jayyousi, National Erasmus+ Coordinator in Palestine
414 Ibidem
415 Ibidem
416 http://www.moehe.gov.ps/ (Last access January 2021).

92
regard, it seems that the initiative is in in Palestine and at Swedish, German and
the first place in the hands of the single Slovenian universities. Another example
universities and then eventually supported is a master programme in Electrical
by state institutions. This has been also Engineering jointly by Birzeit, Hebron
indirectly confirmed by Kherieh Rassas, Polytechnic and Kadoorie Universities
when the process of establishing the in Palestine and universities in the UK,
International Relations Office at An-Najah France, Romania and Bulgaria. At the
University: “When in 2005 I was Dean of the undergraduate level, the Computer Science
Faculty of Optometry at An-Najah University, Department offers a minor in “serious
I found out that there was no International games” in collaboration with universities in
Relations Office at our premises. We were Palestine, Tunisia, Germany and Sweden.419
the largest university in Palestine and we One of the most effective programmes
were without that office. So then, I discussed in attracting international students is the
it with our university leadership and PAS programme from Birzeit University.
administration and we started the process PAS is a comprehensive programme that not
for establishing it. When I established the only teaches Arabic, but it also comprises
international office, I was appointed as Vice social science courses. PAS is a cultural
President for international affairs in order to transmitter that aspires to educate and
properly follow up its activities”.417 empower students of various nationalities
and backgrounds through learning the
Generally speaking, 16 universities in Arabic language and the Palestinian culture
Palestine currently have joint agreements at home.420
for partnerships and cooperation with
universities in the Arab world, Europe, USA, The fact that the system is relatively
Australia, China, Japan, Canada and other young is probably one of the main reasons
countries in the region. Large numbers behind the absence of a proper regulatory
of students are benefiting from this framework regarding internationalisation.
cooperation. In fact, most of the university Recently, the MoEHE has been working on
staff have benefited from this cooperation. developing regulations trying to overcome
This has a positive impact on education barriers within the framework of joint
standards and has increased the number master programmes and credits mobility
of PhD holders in Palestine.418 A paper in Europe and elsewhere. This said, the
published by Birzeit University reports that variety of system and practices (e.g., the
several programmes have been established starting of the semester is different in
as joint efforts by local universities and respect to the European institutions, the
several international universities within adaptation of the Bologna process in the
the framework of EU projects. Examples European institutions and the use of the US
are a master programme in Sustainable system in Palestine etc.) is perceived as the
Engineering at Birzeit and Najah University main obstacles affecting the recognition of

417 UNIMED interview with Prof. Kherieh Rassas, Deputy President for. International Development and External
Affairs at An-Najah National University
418 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_palestine_2017.pdf (Last access January
2021)
419 A. H. Yahya, Tools for Internationalizing Higher Education in Developing Countries, available at https://fada.
birzeit.edu/bitstream/20.500.11889/4379/1/QSPaperFinalAsSubmitted.pdf
420 https://pas.birzeit.edu/news-events/why-pas-program (Last access January 2021)

93
qualification and, consequently, mobility. students and staff perceived concerns about
Despite all these difficulties, there still is a safety conditions in the country. In addition,
high interest in mobility amongst students, and even if it considered only as a minor
who spend a long time (over one year in issue, one of the main challenges in terms
some cases) just waiting to get access to of internationalisation is related to cultural
travel to Europe as the EU area and member local traditions, because some Palestinian
states are perceived as strong, reliable and parents are very conservative and they are
less politicised partners with respect to afraid of the different culture in a foreign
others. country especially for girls.423

Apart from these regulatory issues, the As for restrictions to movement, visa
peculiar situation in Palestinian territories refusals and the problems related, it is
is widely affecting students, teachers and worth noting that the COVID-19 pandemic
administrative staff mobility, both incoming crisis represented (also, but obviously not
and outgoing: all of them are experiencing only) an opportunity. According to Kherieih
serious obstacles that prevent them from Rassas, “joint academic programmes
studying abroad, like the long process of proved to be a very successful initiative and
getting visas.421 With specific regard to COVID-19 has posed a new challenge, with
the Gaza Strip, local universities reported restrictions to travels and to the freedom
economic barriers and additional problems of movement, exchanges, mobilities, and so
in terms of freedom of movement. As forth. On the other hand, it has also provided
widely recognised, Palestinian students are an opportunity to be more connected by
hampered to go studying abroad, especially forcing us to develop our digital skills. This
students from Gaza Strip, as they have to reasoning can also be applied to research
undergo hard and complex procedures that and especially to joint research (through
don’t always achieve a positive outcome, online labs). As you can imagine, there
rather the opposite. This problem also has been a brain drain issue and we lack
concerns incoming international students faculty members and expertise. With online
and coming from all over the world. education, we could probably cooperate
According to Adnan Yahya from Birzeit more by exchanging faculty members in
University, “Student diversity is minimal: certain disciplines where we lack expertise
there are practically no foreign students, not and where we lack academics.”424 This is
even Palestinian expats despite the fact that the reason why Palestinian universities
the majority (8 million) of Palestinians live generally agreed that, in this specific sense,
in the diaspora”.422 It is worth mentioning it is necessary to take advantage of the
that restriction of movement is affecting COVID-19 crisis and to continue developing
not only Palestinians’ mobilities towards online courses even after the pandemic.
Europe, but also the opposite. In this last
case, we cannot underestimate European

421 See as title of example: C. Harker, Student im/mobility in Birzeit, Palestine, Mobilities, Vol. 4, n.1, 2009,
pp. 11-35 as well as the contents of the Overview of the Higher Education System produced in 2017 by the
European Commission: https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_palestine_2017.pdf
(Last access January 2021)
422 Yahya, op. cit., p. 4
423 Interview with Nedal Jayyousi
424 Interview with Khereieh Rassas

94
According to Naim Daour, Hebron University suffering from increasing unemployability
will keep offering 30% of its courses online rates and in this regard, it seems that
as “only’’ 63% students asked to return to internationalisation through Erasmus
face to face activities.425 Similarly, some Capacity Building projects, positively
universities (such as the Arab American contributed in creating meaningful
University) are working to introduce new dynamics. As recognised by Nedal Jayyousi,
tools such as the Collaborative Online the capacity building action strengthened
International Learning (COIL) model and national and international relations
it seems that the absolute majority of amongst HEIs and also fostered industry-
them agreed to adopt in the near future specific qualifications frameworks. In
blended programmes that represent a particular, Palestinian institutions (namely
good compromise. This approach clearly Ministries and universities) found of benefit
demonstrates the maturity of the higher the introduction of the so-called “knowledge
education system in Palestine. In any case, triangle” for innovation especially because
according to the selected universities in the it aimed at reinforcing links between
sample, virtual mobility still lacks regulation education, research and business. In this
while the MoEHE has only recently begun sense, it can be affirmed that a concrete
working on the qualification of online and continuous exposure of the local
courses. higher education system to international
dynamics (such as those represented by the
It is worth mentioning that Palestinian Erasmus+ Capacity Building action) seems
institutions are focusing on Social and to positively affect the labour market. This
Cooperation Sciences as a consequence is a vital challenge (and at the same time
of institutional commitment and clear an opportunity) for the whole system. As
indications coming from universities’ recognised by the European Commission
leadership: “Society must realise that it in 2017: “The unemployment rate amongst
is not a “waste” of valuable time to study recently graduated students exceeds 75%.
philosophy, politics, and engage with It is a very high rate and it is mainly due to
literary, artistic, or social issues. I may the fact that universities teach and present
add that we should also sensitise the courses without taking into consideration
academic staff who teach IT, medicine, and the real market needs. The graduates do not
engineering to the value and importance meet the labour-market requirements with
of the humanities in addressing the major their newly-acquired skills’’.427
ethical, social, and political issues of our
day”.426 This specific approach is also According to the Palestinian universities
reflected in the results of the mobility data involved, the impact of ongoing
collected for the current study. internationalisation strategies on
employability is still perceived to be low
Despite the good quality of the higher but, on the other hand, they all agreed on
education system, Palestinian graduates are the need for students to acquire new skills

425 Focus group results

426 Prof. Dr. Abdullatif Abuhijleh Palestine, President of Birzeit University. Quote from his speech at the UNIMED
General Assembly 2019
427 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_palestine_2017.pdf (Last access January
2021)

95
during an international experience in technological capacities of institutions
order to be more ready for the job market in the Gaza Strip has recently grown
needs. According to respondents, acquiring faster “thanks” to the pandemic. This is
new language skills means having more particularly true for two aspects: the first
job opportunities and should increase one being a pedagogical approach for
employability but then the issue seems to developing online teaching, and the second
be two-faced. “virtual mobility”. Past studies already
demonstrated that ongoing activities in both
If this statement is indisputably true, it is fields429 and international organisations
also true that in the majority of the cases (such as the World Bank)430 have been
the local labour market seems not to constantly supporting in the past years the
be ready to recognise these skills as IT sector with the aim of fostering IT service
added values: business owners are highly firms in the West Bank and Gaza. With
critical of the extent to which academic specific regards to both issues, Palestinian
programmes are preparing students to universities (both in West Bank and Gaza)
enter the job market.428 Therefore, action have clearly identified their priorities:
is probably required on several levels: • This is the right time to assess the online
continuing to guarantee access to new teaching experience by implementing
skills through international experiences different models such as technology
(e.g., mobilities), guaranteeing universities’ acceptance models and or other
exposure to education, research and models, with a peculiar attention to
business triangle international experiences, both students (encouraging them to use
but also contributing to determine a cultural the online learning and teaching) and,
shift in the local labour market to ensure at the same time, to lectures and their
that graduates can access the jobs that are challenges. There is a huge willingness
created. Moreover, specific requests for to pedagogically adapt courses in
improving students’ performances were different sectors in order to enable the
also directed towards the possibilities Palestinian higher education system
(as universities) to share international to be ready to develop a reliable online
experiences on how to obtain more system, especially when it comes to the
“competences” instead of “skills”, in order to teaching quality.
be more successful when looking for a job • Virtual mobility should work alongside
and generate a cultural shift. and support physical mobility and in no
case should it replace physical mobility.
Interestingly, the COVID-19 crisis is Only physical mobility will provide
perceived as an opportunity, since it the students with a real international
positively affects both youth employability experience, especially when it comes
and international exposure. The growing to travelling, dealing with others and

428 http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---arabstates/---ro-beirut/documents/publication/
wcms_624855.pdf (Last access January 2021)
429 Cf. G. Fassetta, M. G. Imperiale, K. Frimberger, M. Attia & N. Al-Masri, Online Teacher Training in a Context
of Forced Immobility: The Case of Gaza, Palestine, European Education, Vol. 49, n. 2-3, 2017 pp. 133-150, DOI:
10.1080/10564934.2017.1315538 and also the recently published Multilingual Online Academic Collaborations
as Resistance edited in 2020 by Giovanna Fassetta, Nazmi Al-Masri and Alison Phipps
430 https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/loans-credits/2020/06/12/west-bank-and-gaza-technology-for-
youth-and-jobs-project (Last access February 2021)

96
 interacting with international cultures.
In this sense, Palestinian universities
(both in the West Bank and Gaza)
consider virtual mobility a useful tool for
intercultural exchange.

Both online teaching and virtual mobility

are considered two main elements to
encourage internationalisation at home
and digitalisation that become in this way
structural processes in the HE system and
in the country.

With regards to this issue, the main barriers

identified by Palestinian universities are
physical ones (e.g., “Israeli occupation”
and “visa restrictions”).431 These are still
perceived as the main barriers to be
overcome, even when discussing virtual
mobility or digitalisation at home as tools
and instruments to mitigate difficulties
and barriers to full internationalisation.
Interestingly enough, problems of the
physical dimension, such as restrictions to
movement, also seem to generally affect
virtual processes and appear to be strictly
interrelated.

431 These keywords have been directly written by participants to the Focus groups

97
 Tunisia
The higher education sector in Tunisia has Process in 2006, followed by the adoption
played a crucial role in developing human of the new Law on higher education in
capital able to meet to the changing needs 2008.436 This law formally introduced the
of a developing nation, especially after the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS),
independence of the country. In 1956, the the three-cycle system of study and the
higher education system was limited, there diploma supplement. The 2008 law also
were only three institutions: The Agronomic paved the way for greater autonomy for
Institute of Tunis (1913), the Pasteur universities improving financial resources,
Institute of Tunis (1893) and the University through the establishment of public-
of Ez-Zitouna.432 As a direct consequence, private partnerships. The public higher
during the ‘60s and ‘70s, many faculties education system in Tunisia nowadays
were founded in the capital.433 University remains open to all students regularly
institutions were thus created later holding a Baccalaureate437 and it is very
than these schools and faculties, by the affordable in terms of fees. It even widely
introduction of law 86-60 of August 9th caters for deprived students’ needs through
1986.434 The Universities of Tunis, Sfax and scholarships, grants, meals- and rents-
Monastir have been founded by the same subsidies (1/3 of the enrolled students are
law, followed by the Universities of Gabès net beneficiaries of subsidies of any sort).
and Jendouba in 2003/2004.435 A national orientation system regulates
the number of students oriented in the 1st
Recently (since the year 2000), universities year according to performance criteria.
in Tunisia have experienced a strengthening University enrolment rates have boomed
of their educational, administrative and over the last two decades (passing from
financial prerogatives thanks to a gradual 8% of the late ‘90s to 32% nowadays), along
decentralisation. Tunisia started the reform with employment rates of university staff,
process of its higher education system by which reached a total of 22,561 teaching
adopting and implementing the Bologna staff, 54% of which hold a PhD,438 even if the

432 Ez-Zitouna University was first established in 737 CE as a madrasa and subsequently as university in 1956
433 The Faculty of Medicine of Tunis (1960), the Faculty of Sciences of Tunis (1964), the Faculty of Economic
Sciences (1964), the Faculty of Human Sciences and Social (1963), the Faculty of Law and Political Sciences
(1964) and the National School of Engineers of Tunis (1968)
434 Avalable at Journal Officiel de la République Tunisienne, 129° année n. 44, vendredi 8-mardi 12 aout 1986
435 The public sector of higher education includes today 13 universities (including the Virtual University) and
a network of 25 higher institutes of technological studies under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Higher
Education (General Direction of Technological Studies DGET). Each university is organised in faculties, schools
and higher institutes. All universities award, through their components (faculties, schools or higher institutes),
academic diplomas as well as applied diplomas. The higher technological studies institutes deliver only applied
and professional diplomas.
436 http://www.meric-net.eu/files/fileusers/National_Report_template_MERIC-NET_Tunisia_French.pdf (Last
access February 2021)
437 In Arabic, al-Bakaluria, translated as high school certificate
438 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_tunisia_2017.pdf (Last access February 2021)

98
number of teachers in corps A is still low. the high decrease443 in the number of
students led to a change in the strategy of
Tunisia has been among the forerunners policy makers. The focus has been shifted to
in the introduction and full implementation quality and competitiveness at the national
of the LMD system in higher education, and international levels. The most recent
together with the adoption of the EU-inspired national reform project considers students
LLL and ECTS frameworks since 2008, at the centre of the higher education system
a strong bet on the internationalisation which has been prioritising accreditation
process439 and an engagement in boosting and internationalisation. In this context,
quality assurance procedures, thanks to the the consolidation of students’ mobility
establishment of the first national agency – is one of the specific objectives of the
the National Evaluation, Quality Assurance national university strategy. Different
and Accreditation Authority – NEQAA440 in schemes provide international mobility
2009.441 Based on decree 1719/2012,442 the opportunities for students and staff be it
NEQAA is in charge of ensuring the quality the national fund of the Ministry of higher
of higher education and research as well as education or the international support
the compliance of the education system with offered by European and bilateral projects.
internationally recognised standards. The As recognised by the results of SPHERE444
2014 Constitution reinstated the principle of project and underlined by Malek Kochlef,445
the fundamental importance of compulsory international cooperation is one of the
national education up to 16 years old but also main priorities of higher education policy
gave a great emphasis on the introduction in Tunisia. The international activities are
of higher standards in the third cycle of at the heart of the activities of the Minister
education. Tunisian universities are now of higher education and scientific research
adopting a standard LMD cycle structure in Tunisia.446 The priorities mentioned in its
(3+2+3 years), except for a few faculties last National Strategic Plan447 are improving
self-ruled by their own rules, mostly in the the quality of university training and the
medical domain. employability of graduates; the promotion
of Research and Innovation; promotion of
Before 2010, the government had mainly good governance and optimisation of the
focused on integrating a high number of management of resources; the revision
students in higher education. Since 2010, of the university distribution within the

439 44 bilateral agreements with partner universities of 4 continents

440 https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/eacea-site/files/countryfiches_tunisia_2017.pdf (Last access February
2021)
441 L’internationalisation de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique, Tunisian Ministry of
Higher Education and Scientific Research
442 As reported by the consortium SPHERE, on the basis of the decree 1719-2012.
443 Among the causes, the low-effect employability policy, the lack pf perspectives after the graduation and the
strong emigration of Tunisian students abroad through the many scholarship offers.
444 https://supporthere.org/page/higher-education-tunisia (Last access January 2021)
445 Interview with Malek Kochlef, General Director of the International Cooperation of the Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research
446 Ibidem
447 Plan stratégique de la réforme de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique 2015-2025.
Version du 05/01/2015, available at http://www.utm.rnu.tn/utm/documents/plan_strategique.pdf (Last access
January 2021)

99
Country to ensure a better regional balance approach instead of the qualitative one.451
and the promotion of pedagogical training of
teachers.448 In particular,449 it is stated very Geographically speaking, the closest
clearly that one of the specific objectives cooperation partners in mobility projects
is to build the capacity of Tunisian HEIs in are Maghreb countries, especially involving
project management and to reinforce the Morocco, with which Tunisia has a well-
participation of universities in international grounded students’ exchange programme.452
projects, as well as the visibility of Starting from the year 2002, Tunisia has
universities at the international level. officially joined the “Tempus programme”
Indeed, the national internationalisation and took part in the former Erasmus
strategy mainly focuses on three main Mundus programme. From 2007 to 2013,
pillars: ensuring a harmonisation with Tunisia benefited from 17 Erasmus Mundus
international standards criteria, increasing projects and about 1 026 scholarships were
visibility and attractiveness of Tunisian granted to the Tunisian students and staff.
curricula, and improving networking and Following the results of the 2019-2020
partnership.450 Erasmus+ calls for proposals, the number of
capacity building projects in which Tunisia
Another element in the national strategic participates is 15 (5 Structural Measures
plan 2015-2025 concerns the digitalisation projects and 10 Joint projects)453 with a
of the educational system. Tunisia total budget of almost 13 million euro. A
committed to the institutionalisation of total of 94 “International Credit Mobility”454
ICT in all aspects of the economy and has projects were selected, leading to the
played a leading role in this area. In order to implementation of a total of 1,311 mobilities.
introduce and sustain the integration of ICT in With regards to the ICM projects in the
higher education, Tunisia has implemented period 2015-2019, Tunisia was involved in
a multi-dimensional strategy based on 6,048 mobilities, mainly carried out by the
modernising its infrastructure. Thanks to Universities of Carthage, Sfax and Tunis El
huge investments of the World Bank and Manar.455 As far as the mobility of students
the commitment of other international is concerned, which represented within the
stakeholders such as UNICEF, Tunisia is same period 63% of all mobilities,456 some
developing professional training of teachers Universities stated that among the problems
and administrators to reform the education met during the mobility period, students
system in the country, still considered to reported being unable to pass the exams
be too much focused on the quantitative included in the Learning Agreement.457 As far

448 Ibidem
449 Ibidem
450 Ibidem
451 Interview with Laurent Le Danois, Attaché de Coopération Santé, Education, Enseignement supérieur,
Delegation of the European Union to Tunisia - European External Action Service (EEAS)
452 The so-called “Ibn Khaldun” programme
453 Structural projects provide tailor-made technical support for institutional, administrative and growth-
enhancing reforms process at national level, from preparation and design to their implementation. Joint
projects consist of activities performed within a consortium by members coming from different countries.
454 As acronym, ICM KA107 Programme
455 https://ue-tunisie.org/projet-192-7-241_erasmus-creating-opportunities-for-tunisia-across-europe.html
(Last access February 2021)
456 Ibidem
457 Focus groups results

100
as the gender gap in mobility is concerned, in between the Ministry and the universities is
Tunisia there is a downtrend. Indeed, around a concrete demonstration of the presence of
2 out of 3 students are female. The same both top-down and bottom-up approaches.
tendency is registered in the participation Despite this commitment at national
of ICM projects.458 However, despite the level to increase the attractiveness of the
enrolment rate of Tunisian women in higher system at the international level, these
education is higher than that of men, their actions do not translate into a real formal
unemployment rate is more than twice.459 recognition460 for the local staff that took
part in an international project abroad or
Universities in Tunisia enjoy partial financial a mobility in the framework of the ICM.461
autonomy about the management of their At the academic level, the staff involved in
own expenses and about donors and international activities can at least benefit
external grants’ funding. They support from a professional reward in terms of
themselves mainly by State transfers, fees prestigious publications and attendance to
and research grants, and enjoy a wide international projects.
freedom of choice in the design of new
curricula upon preliminary authorisation Tunisia is a key partner of the Erasmus+
by the Ministry of higher education and programme (especially within the
the approval of the Council of Universities. framework of Capacity Building actions)
Universities have indeed the opportunity to also due to the 20 million euro of extra
choose their key partners under the legal budget462 guaranteed between the years
supervision of the Ministry thanks to the 2017 and 2020 in order to further boost
collaboration of the Directorate General cooperation with the country.463 In addition
of International Cooperation. For instance, to Erasmus, one of the best practices
the Ministry supports the universities in performed so far and worth mentioning, is
legal issues related to the drafting of Inter- the initiative called “MobiDoc”,464 which is
Institutional Agreements. At the same one of the flagship activities of the PASRI
time, the Ministry boosts the mobilities programme (Project to Support the
at university level by designing the Research and Innovation System) and
relevant programmes, by disseminating managed by the Tunisian public organisation
them and making them reaching out to ANPR (National Agency for Promoting
other institutions. This active collaboration Scientific Research) under the supervision

458 Interview with Prof. Hedi Belhadjsalah, President of the University of Monastir
459 https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20201201123459402#:~:text=The%20
participation%20rate%20of%20Tunisian,high%2C%20according%20to%20official%20figures.&text=In%20
Tunisia%2C%20two%20out%20of,girls%2C%E2%80%9D%20Khalbous%20pointed%20out (Last access February
2021)
460 Focus groups results
461 Although there is a document certifying the activities carried out abroad, this does not lead to direct
benefits for the staff who have carried out a mobility abroad, for example there is no career advancement
involved for the staff who took part in an international project in the EU
462 This extra amount of funds originates from the need to support Tunisia in the Research and Innovation
sector.
463 Interview with Laurent Le Danois
464 This program is financed by the EU in order to improve the economic performance in Tunisia, which is partly
doomed by the structural weak partnership between the industry and the university, in Research and Innovation.

101
of the Ministry of higher education and Geographically speaking, even if the first
Scientific Research.465 The main aim of destination country for Tunisian students
“MobiDoc” is to set up a mobility mechanism going abroad is still France (there are around
for medical researchers likely to conduct 15,000 yearly registered students), lately
research in pharmaceutical labs and it has been followed by new destinations
companies.466 Thanks to the involvement of such as Canada (3,000 students), Germany
private enterprises, students get the chance (4,000 students), the United States (for
to face the needs of the job market and example with the Fulbright programme),
to find solutions to industrial challenges. Japan and China that are recently boosting
Therefore, the European Union’s strategy is their bilateral cooperation with Tunisia.471
focused on boosting the Tunisian job market: This shows the Tunisian HE Ministry’s will
by investing more funds on academic to diversify its connections in terms of
activities, mobilities and staff training, the partnerships for University Cooperation, but
EU seeks to reinforce the flexibility of the also to widen up Tunisian students’ linguistic
Tunisian system in this domain. Despite skills to new scenarios.472
the progress made so far, however, in the
last decade the results achieved are still An additional core asset for Tunisian
insufficient in terms of employability rates development is the African continent. Tunisia
of graduates because of the rigidity of the is becoming a “destination country” in the
job market,467 more precisely the mismatch North African region for the Sub-Saharan
between university education and the continent despite the fact that the country
job market. Improving the quality of the has been facing various challenges in the last
educational system, and the performance of decade. In recent years, Tunisian authorities
the Research and Innovation sector are key are supporting cooperation in the higher
elements to meet this challenge. It is within education sector with Africa in order to
this framework that the priority axes of a export Tunisian experience and expertise.473
new EU support programme for education, Specifically, with African partners, Tunisia
mobility, research and innovation (EMORI)468 is enhancing mobility opportunities for
were established.469 Even though Tunisia is students, teachers and administrative staff
committed on Research and Innovation to both incoming and outgoing, in order to
trigger its economic system,470 the latter is become a hub for higher education in the
facing a huge unprecedented crisis, nowhere African Continent.474 Nowadays, around 40
to be found in the history of the country. African countries benefit from scholarships
to come and study in Tunisia and around

465 Interview with Laurent Le Danois

466 Ibidem
467 Ibidem
468 This program aims at curbing poverty by improving access to a quality education system and
socioeconomic integration, the performance of the educational sector, by stimulating youth employability and
entrepreneurship through the promotion of mobility and the evaluation of applied Research and Innovation.
469 Interview with Laurent Le Danois
470 Ibidem
471 Interview with Malek Kochlef
472 Ibidem
473 https://www.businessnews.com.tn/article,520,74350,3 (Last access February 2021)
474 Interview with Malek Kochlef

102
1,300 incoming international students every Gulf universities and important exchanges
year go to study in Tunisia.475 Tunisia aims of PhD students480 take place regularly from
to become the first destination for incoming Tunisia to the Gulf, with a concrete risk
students in the African continent and to of “brain drain”.481 In terms of challenges
reach this goal, a new Agency named Agence and perspectives, the interviewed
D’Accompagnement des Étudiants vers la universities have expressed interest in
Tunisie (AAET)476 has been set up with the developing mobility projects resulting in
objective to support international students Double-Degrees with other international
for the visa process, logistics but also universities. However, their constant need
with the mission of promoting the country to have more financial and human resources
abroad. Among the initiatives put in place by to carry out more mobility activities
Tunisia in this regard, there is the recently477 abroad is also regularly highlighted. Indeed,
established Franco-Tunisian University for except for the Erasmus+ programme and
Africa and the Mediterranean (UFTAM),478 some ministerial programmes, which
that aim to design a regional higher mostly concern engineering schools, there
education hub to train future generations are not many instruments of this kind. As
of entrepreneurs and senior managers for the impact of the EU cooperation with
from Africa and the Mediterranean. The Tunisia, H2020 and Erasmus+ remain key
high attractiveness of the initiative comes pillars and the new generations seem to be
from the fact that at the end of their course, more aware of and open to the benefits of
students will be able to obtain 3 diplomas, these new international opportunities.
a Tunisian diploma, a French diploma
and a Franco-Tunisian diploma labelled As regards Research and Innovation, Tunisia
UFTAM. Furthermore, the diplomas issued has been the first country in the Southern
by UFTAM have international recognition. Mediterranean to sign a Scientific and
In this policy frame enlargement, the Technological agreement with the EU.482
collaboration with Gulf countries is also Currently, since 2016, it is the only African
included. Tunisia and Qatar moved closer and the only Arab country associated with
together after 2011, and between 2011 H2020.483 Tunisia benefited also from
and 2013, cooperation between these two the Policy Support Facility (PSF) Specific
countries increased in several sectors: Support484 under H2020. Tunisia also plays
economy, social and political development, an active role in the two Euro-Mediterranean
military, and security.479 Several teachers initiatives, the Partnership for Research
and professors from Tunisia are hosted by and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area

475 Ibidem. The number used to be higher (around 1 500 students) before the pandemic.
476 Ibidem
477 This University was set up in 2019; it is a consortium of 4 French universities, Aix Marseille University,
Côte d’Azur University, Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne University and Paris Saclay University as well as 3 Tunisian
universities namely the University of Tunis, the University of Carthage and the University of Tunis El Manar.
478 More info at: https://uftam.net (Last access February 2021)
479 https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/67703 (Last access February 2021)
480 https://m.gulf-times.com/content/pdf/Dailynewspaper/Main2020_11_16425031.PDF (Last access
February 2021)
481 Interview with Malek Kochlef
482 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:L:2004:037:TOC (Last access February 2021)
483 https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/strategy/international-cooperation/tunisia_en (Last
access February 2021)
484 https://rio.jrc.ec.europa.eu/policy-support-facility/specific-support-tunisia (Last access February 2021)

103
(PRIMA)485 and Research and Innovation for focused on improving attractiveness and
blue jobs and growth in the Mediterranean employment skills, governance and the
Area (BLUEMED)486. With regards to H2020, quality of the university system. This same
the country can rely on an outstanding effort was also made by the Ministry of
group of Tunisian researchers with first-rate Education and Scientific Research through
know-how to manage the scientific projects recent funding from the World Bank, which
already financed by this programme.487 appears to be a key stakeholder for the
country.494 Despite this, an imbalance in
However, H2020 seems to be inaccessible incoming and outgoing mobility flows
for the majority of Tunisian universities persists to the detriment of Tunisian
because of the low success rate and the high universities,495 especially for exchanges for
competitiveness.488 study purposes. There is still a long way
to go in order to meet the International
Despite new competing universities in the standards for HE Tunisian Institutions.
cooperation sector and despite the visa However, the strong commitment of the
restrictions489 that discourages exchanges Ministry of higher education and Scientific
and mobility in South-North cooperation, Research in improving recognition and
European universities remain the priority international standards in the field, as
destination for Tunisian universities. proven by its Strategic Plan’s priorities,
Furthermore, today we are witnessing by the adoption of the Bologna Process
an enlargement of the participation of since the 2008, and the establishment of
small Tunisian universities in European National Evaluation, Quality Assurance &
programmes, such as the Universities Accreditation Authority, seemed to boost
of Gabès, Gafsa and Ezzitouna.490 The the internationalisation process in the last
Erasmus+ programme remains the priority decade. Furthermore, because of the visa
and most accessible instrument for constraints, the current economic crisis
cooperation, not only at international but and the political situation characterised by
also at national level among the universities frequent changes in the government and
of the country.491 Through Erasmus+ projects affecting long term strategies, academics
a large number of Tunisian universities,492 are pushed to move abroad and not to come
and in some cases even all Tunisian back and the international attractiveness of
universities,493 have been involved in solving the country also seems to be suffering from
structural problems through ad hoc actions the recent events.

485 https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/research-area/environment/prima_en (Last access

February 2021)
486 www.bluemed-initiative.eu (Last access February 2021)
487 Interview with Laurent Le Danois
488 Focus groups results
489 Ibidem
490 Interviews with Hmaid Ben Aziza, Former President of the University of Tunis and UNIMED Secretary
General and with Hedi Belhadjsalah
491 Interview with Hedi Belhadjsalah
492 http://www.tuned-project.eu/ (Last access February 2021)
493 SAGESSE project coordinated by UNIMED and involving all Tunisian Universities http://www.sagesseproject.
eu/en (Last access February 2021)
494 http://www.anpr.tn/projet-de-modernisation-de-lenseignement-superieur-en-soutien-a-lemployabilite-
promesse-tn-programme-dappui-a-la-qualite/ (Last access February 2021)
495 Focus group results

104
 2.3 Mobility flows in the Mediterranean region
In order to investigate mobility flows, data were collected and mobility flows were analysed
focusing on gender, type (credit or degree, research or teaching), direction of flows
(incoming/outgoing, North-South, South-North, South-South), level of education (bachelor,
master, PhD) or academic position (from assistant lecturer to full professor), the field of
study or the working field, the duration of the mobility and the funding schemes. Data were
collected for the last 5 academic years (from 2014-2015 to 2018-2019) and among 42
countries of the region. Data are presented for each country, highlighting the main national
trends and the most interesting results on how mobility flows relate to each national
context. In the framework of the current study, it was not possible to collect mobility data
on Israel.

Algeria
Despite the COVID-19 pandemic and the related constraints, data collection for mobility
flows in Algeria has been particularly valuable thanks to the high commitment of all
participating universities and their previous experience in mobility data collection. The
universities involved in the sample filled out the survey, with the information available at
the time of the collection. Some common trends for the 3 categories have been identified
in the following areas: the main source of mobility funding is by far the Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research (MESRS); France remains the main destination country
but it no longer holds the monopoly; the number of people involved in mobility (in both
directions) increased over the 5 academic years but incoming flows are significantly lower
than outgoing flows.

Students’ mobility flows

Outgoing students’ mobility has recorded a doubling of numbers between 2014/2015 and
2016/2017. Even though mainly focused on France (although data remain stable along the
5 academic years concerned), mobility to other European countries, such as Spain and
Italy, increased and shows a punctual strategy for geographical diversification. Outgoing
mobility is mostly female mobility and for credits, while incoming mobility is mostly male
mobility and almost entirely for a degree.
Students’ outgoing mobility

The scientific field is a common trend between incoming and outgoing mobility: students
are mostly involved in science, engineering and manufacturing. PhD students are by far the
most engaged in outgoing mobility, due to the existence of specific scholarship programmes
for thesis finalisation in many Algerian HEIs.

105
 Incoming and outgoing students mobility common trends

Teachers’ mobility flows

The main destination country for teachers is still France, but South-South mobility is raising
and reflects a national trend, boosted bilateral scholarships programmes with Tunisia and
Jordan, among others. It is worth noting that, over the five years, mobility towards Turkey
has tripled. This evolution was confirmed by the qualitative analysis, as the visa issue was
mentioned as an interpretation key (visa is not needed to enter Turkey). Outgoing mobility
is almost exclusively for research activities, including thesis finalisation support for lower
academic positions through specific scholarship programmes and concerns all teachers’
categories.
Teachers’ outgoing mobility

When it comes to the teaching area, trends between incoming and outgoing mobility are
common as shown by the following graphs. However, differences are detected in relation
to destinations: while science represents the main scientific field for the mobility to France,
social sciences are the main scientific fields for the exchanges with Turkey. The number of
females is always lower than that of males, but it has increased over the last years.

Incoming and outgoing teachers’ mobility common trends

106
Administrative staff mobility flows
Administrative outgoing mobility has particularly increased over the years. The male/
female ratio remains almost constant and outgoing mobility is very well balanced. The
exchanges mainly last less than two weeks and are mostly financed by the Ministry of
higher education and Scientific Research.

Administrative’ outgoing mobility

For both incoming and outgoing mobility, the working area is linked to the financial and
administration area. The outgoing mobility of administrative staff is towards France and
the Southern Mediterranean countries such as Tunisia, Turkey, and Morocco. On the other
hand, the country of origin of almost all incoming administrative staff is France.

Incoming and outgoing administrative mobility common trends

Egypt
Data collection in Egypt allowed us to have a general and comprehensive overview of
the mobility flows involving Egyptian HEIs. Despite the fact that not all the universities
included in the sample have been able to provide data on mobility flows, mainly because
of the lack of authorisation from the Ministry of higher education, the information collected
confirmed that Egypt still has an attractive higher education system, especially for the
students coming from neighbouring countries. The analysis also proved that mobility of
both students and academic staff has a prominent position, if compared with the mobility
of administrative staff.

Students’ mobility flows

Egypt has robust South-South mobility flows, in particular with regard to incoming students.
The first three countries most involved in students’ mobility in the period 2014-2019 are
Palestine, Algeria and Tunisia. The European country with the largest students’ mobility
flow involving Egypt in the same period is the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium and
France. Students are mostly undergraduates who move for a degree. This explains the
duration of mobilities, which mostly last more than two years.

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 Students’ incoming and outgoing mobility common trends

Data concerning the field of study of students’ mobility are of particularly interesting:
three of the four main fields of study are in the humanities and social sciences. In terms of
gender balance, there is an increase in female mobilities which in 2018/2019 constituted
more than the half of students’ mobilities, especially for outgoing flows.

Students’ incoming and outgoing mobility common trends

Teachers’ mobility flows

Data shows that South-North mobility is more developed, in both directions, than South-
South mobility. The countries most involved in teachers’ mobility are Germany, Italy, France,
Spain and Belgium. The number of teachers involved during the period 2015-2019 in the
South-South exchanges is higher for incoming mobility than for outgoing mobility. In terms
of numbers, the flows related to research remained constant, while mobility for teaching
have fluctuated over the years.

Teachers’ incoming and outgoing mobility common trends

108
Both for incoming and outgoing flows, mobilities in hard sciences are predominant. In
particular, most of the exchanges are in science studies, engineering and health. However,
it is worth stressing that mobilities in humanities, arts, and social sciences represent a
good portion of exchanges.

The main source of funding for outgoing mobility is the Ministry of Education, while the
remaining outgoing mobilities are funded by other programmes than those offered by the
European Commission and/or bilateral cooperation. With regards to incoming mobility, the
main source of funds are again other programmes.

Teachers’ outgoing mobility

Administrative mobility flows

With regard to administrative staff mobility, data reveal that during the period 2014-2019
almost all incoming mobilities came from European countries, in particular from Italy,
France and Spain. This means that there is a majority of North-South mobilities with the
only exception of mobility flows from Jordan. The same trends are confirmed also for the
outgoing mobilities, whose most common destination countries are Italy, Spain, France and
Lebanon. In terms of gender distribution, only one third of the administrative staff involved
in mobility are women. The duration of administrative staff exchanges is usually less than
one week.

Administrative incoming mobility

109
Jordan
The data collection process in Jordan has been smooth and supported by all actors involved.
Overall, data highlight an increase in the exchanges from 2014/2015 to 2018/2019 and the
importance of the European Commission in contributing to mobility in terms of financing
and geographical destinations.

Students’ mobility flows

Students’ mobility flows show similar characteristics in terms of numbers, students’
distribution and gender distribution, for what concerns both incoming and outgoing mobility.
Mobilities in and from Jordan are mostly performed by undergraduate students, with a
significant increase (especially for outgoing students) from 2014/2015 to 2018/2019.
While in 2014/2015 most of the students on the move were male, in 2018/2019 most of
them were female, with a significant increase over the years.

Incoming and outgoing students’ mobility common trends

Incoming mobility is mostly for a degree, with a duration of an average of 2 years. On the
contrary, outgoing mobility is mostly for credits, with a duration of about 6 months.

Incoming students’ mobility Outgoing students’ mobility

Incoming students moving to Jordan are mainly from Palestine, and then from Belgium,
Germany and Italy. Outgoing students travel mostly to Europe (Belgium, Spain, Germany,
United Kingdom and Italy) and to Turkey, which is rising as a destination country in the
region.

Teachers’ mobility flows

Most of the mobilities of the academic staff, both incoming and outgoing, are funded
primarily by the European Commission, and last less than two weeks in the majority of
cases. Overall, numbers grew over the years, showing the same trend as for students in
terms of increasing international exposure. The rise of mobility is also consistent with the

110
higher number of European funded projects involving Jordan over the years. In terms of
gender distribution of academics, data show a clear majority of male academics involved in
mobility. Although the percentage of women increased in 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 both
in incoming and outgoing mobility, there is still a gender gap, with a significantly higher
number of males.
Incoming and outgoing teachers’ mobility common trends

As regards the distribution of roles, data show that incoming mobility is mostly performed
by lecturers, while outgoing mobility is performed in almost the total of flows by Jordanian
assistant professors, associate professors and full professors. It is worth noting that
mobility data confirm the role Jordan plays in the region. Incoming academics come from
Europe with a very wide geographical distribution, and from neighbouring countries such
as Palestine, Lebanon, Egypt and Turkey. Similarly, outgoing teachers move towards
several European countries (with a slight majority towards Spain, Portugal, Italy and
Germany) and towards Egypt, Lebanon and with outstanding numbers to Turkey, which
is rising as a destination country. Both incoming and outgoing mobility flows are mainly
related to cooperation in hard sciences, namely Science and Engineering, with an increase
of exchanges related to Business and Law, Health and Welfare.

Incoming teachers’ mobility Outgoing teachers’’ mobility

Administrative mobility flows

As regards administrative mobility, trends are consistent with students’ and teachers’
mobility flows. Both incoming and outgoing mobility are financed almost totally by the
European Commission (administrative staff mostly perform mobilities in the framework
of Erasmus+ projects), the duration is of about a week (short exchanges) and the main
areas of interest are finance and administration as well as student services. The gender
distribution of administrative staff on the move is relatively even, showing a good percentage
of females engaged in administrative work which had the opportunity to have a mobility

111
experience. Administrative staff exchanges occur with Europe but also with Turkey and
other neighbouring countries, i.e., Lebanon, Algeria and Palestine.

Incoming and outgoing administrative mobility common trends

Lebanon
Data collection for mobility flows in Lebanon was particularly challenging, despite the
commitment shown by the participating universities and the strategies put in place to
support the partners. The country has been severely affected by a number of factors: the
lockdown for the COVID-19 virus, the blast in the Lebanese harbour which has deeply
affected the functioning of some institutions, and the scarce information available for the
whole period of the investigation. Moreover, additional factors influenced the analysis: the
high diversification in the higher education sector makes it more difficult to generalise
trends at the national level; the analysis does not involve countries outside of Europe, thus
underrepresenting other cooperation arrangements, such as those with the USA. Having
said that, data collected still show very interesting trends for the country, especially in
relation to the last academic years 2017/2018 and 2018/2019.

Students’ mobility flows

Students’ mobility trends show similar elements in relation to both incoming and outgoing
mobility: exchanges occur mostly for credits (with a duration of about six months) but there
is also a significant number of mobilities for a degree (with an average duration of one
year) which is consistent with the delivery of double diplomas with European institutions.
Mobility is financed mostly within the framework of bilateral cooperation agreements,
secondly by international organisations, private foundations and the European Commission.
It is noteworthy that the gender distribution of students on the move is balanced, with both
male and female students engaged in mobility over the years.

112
 Incoming and outgoing students’ mobility common trends

Students involved in incoming mobility are mostly at the bachelor and masters level.
Students involved in outgoing mobility are mostly at the masters level, with a significant
number of PhD students engaged in exchanges. Due to historical ties, France is the with the
highest mobility rate, both incoming and outgoing. Other countries with which exchanges
are frequent are Belgium, Italy and Germany, in line with the consolidated relations of
Lebanon with some European countries.

Teachers’ mobility flows

Teachers’ mobility flows show some similarities between incoming and outgoing trends:
the duration of exchanges is in the majority of cases of about a month, and main financing
sources of exchanges are private foundations and other bodies such as international
organisations or regional actors. In terms of academic mobility, European funded projects
seem to have a limited impact. In terms of gender distribution, an imbalance towards
male academics is shown for both incoming and outgoing mobility, despite the number of
females involved slowly increasing over the years.

Incoming and outgoing teachers’ mobility common trends

Teachers involved in incoming mobility come mostly from France, Italy, Belgium, Germany
and Spain. Among the neighbouring countries, mobilities have been tracked from Jordan
and Tunisia. As far as outgoing mobility is concerned, France emerges again as the
preferred destination, followed again by Italy, Belgium, Germany and Spain. Interestingly
enough, a number of exchanges have been tracked with Austria, the Netherlands and
Sweden, confirming the geographical diversification related to the participation into
cooperation projects in the framework of European funded projects. In terms of South-
South cooperation, outgoing mobilities exists with Jordan, Tunisia, Morocco and with
Turkey. Another element worth mentioning is that outgoing academic mobility occurred in
the past 5 years in quite a wide range of fields, which seems to be in line with the different
priorities of each higher education institution.

113
 Outgoing teachers’ mobility

Administrative mobility flows

Regarding administrative mobility from and to Lebanon, we must start by saying that
administrative mobility data showed that numbers are significantly low in comparison
with students and teachers mobilities. This is in line with the qualitative analysis which
highlighted how administrative mobility is less facilitated by institutions. The majority of
exchanges, both incoming and outgoing, lasted on average either a month or a week, were
funded by private foundations, the European Commission and other organisations and
were related mostly to internationalisation.

Incoming administrative mobility Outgoing administrative mobility

In terms of geographical distribution, it is worth noting that outgoing mobility of

administrative staff is directed, to Europe (e.g., France, Italy, Spain, UK, Germany) but also
to neighbouring counties, such as Turkey, Tunisia and Jordan.

Libya
When it comes to the quantitative analysis of the Libyan case, it is worth mentioning
that the data collected reflect the challenges that we faced on a daily basis during the
implementation of Erasmus+ project activities in the country. Despite the fact that all
the selected universities actively participated and contributed to the analysis, structural
problems should be taken into account when it comes to the data analysis. Electricity cuts
and a feeble internet connection both affected Libyan universities contribution. Similarly,
since no digitalisation process was put in place in order to record mobility data, these are
lacking for the first academic years of the analysis (2014/2015 and 2015/2016). COVID-19
has also widely affected the reactiveness of Libyan universities, considering that since

114
March 2020 institutional activities have slowed down and teaching activities practically
stopped due to a decision of the Ministry of Education.

Students’ mobility flows

Both outgoing and incoming mobility of students were widely affected by the armed clashes
that broke out in the country in 2016, making it hard to apply for and obtain a visa, and
negatively affecting the security situation in the country, thus reducing mobilities to and
from Libya.
Incoming and outgoing students’ mobility common trends

The decrease in the number of mobilities is dramatically clear, as well as the fact that
exchanges were mainly with neighbouring countries (Egypt and Tunisia) or towards
countries not requiring a visa for access (e.g., Turkey). Unlike the other countries in the
region, mobility appears to occur mainly for degrees, with a huge support by the Ministry of
Education. This is also confirmed by the duration of exchanges reported: in the majority of
cases, mobilities last longer than 2 years and are related to the bachelor level of education.

Incoming and outgoing students’ mobility common trends

Teachers’ mobility flows

Teachers’ outgoing mobility

115
Unlike what emerged for students’ flows, teachers’ outgoing mobility constantly increased
in the past years, probably due to the fact that mobility of academic staff has been favoured
by the many Erasmus+ involving a large number of Libyan HEIs. This is particularly
relevant because it confirms that Erasmus+ played a decisive role in guaranteeing short-
term mobilities (the absolute majority for more than 2 weeks) in addition to the constant
role played by the Ministry of Education in supporting international exchanges. We can
comfortably say that Erasmus+ has been crucial in providing additional international
opportunities for teachers, generating an impact above all on younger professors (associate
professors, assistant professors and even lecturers): most likely, due to a better knowledge
of the English language compared to older colleagues, they have proven to be ready to fully
exploit international opportunities.

Teachers’ outgoing mobility

Teachers’ mobility

Administrative mobility flows

The issue of language skills and lack thereof, is strictly interrelated with administrative staff
mobilities, significantly affecting the total number of mobilities, extremely low compared to
teacher and student mobility. Moreover, there is an evident gender gap resulting in only few
female administrative staff members accessing internationalisation opportunities.

116
 Administrative mobility

Interestingly enough, bilateral cooperation seems to play a decisive role in guaranteeing

opportunities for administrative staff mobility, if compared with the impact of the Erasmus+
programme or the Ministry of Education (as it was the case for students and teachers). The
universities interviewed stated that, for the academic year 2014/2015, specific bilateral
cooperation arrangements with Jordanian HEIs targeted specifically administrative
exchanges, while cooperation with Spain, Italy and Portugal was pursued mostly through
the Erasmus+ programme
.
Administrative mobility

Mauritania
Mauritania has a particular profile in the study. Due to the characteristics of its higher
education system, for the sake of representativeness, 2 universities have been involved
in the sample for data collection. Out of these 2 universities, the private one has not yet
implemented any mobility, neither outgoing nor incoming. Even if the trends presented
below represent a partial picture of the situation of the mobility to and from Mauritania
(due to incomplete information available at the time of data collection), the emerging
trends correspond to the main information collected during the interviews and the desk
research. Regarding the last five academic years, teachers’ mobility is twice as much as
students’ and still remains very modest. The main source of funding is the Ministry of
higher education, but when it comes to teachers, bilateral cooperation is another important
sponsor of mobility. The results do not allow any possible statistic for the administrative
staff category.

117
Students’ mobility flows
As shown in the qualitative analysis, the main destination countries are France, Morocco
and Tunisia, due to the historical bilateral cooperation that Mauritania had with them.

Students’ outgoing mobility

Mobility mainly involves master students in science. Although the number of students
involved remains constant over time, gender distribution fluctuates without a clear trend.

Students’ mobility

Bachelor

Teachers’ mobility flows

As it is for students’ mobility, the main destination countries for teachers’ mobility are
Tunisia, France, Morocco and Algeria, confirming the specific existing relationships with
the Maghreb countries.
Teachers’ outgoing mobility

118
The two mobility directions are well balanced, and exchanges engage teachers mainly from
the Southern Mediterranean area and, in a few cases, teachers from Spain and France. In
2018/2019, the number of teachers moving to Mauritania doubled compared to the previous
years. In both directions, teachers’ mobility concerns the fields of science and health and
welfare, confirming interviews’ results.

Teachers’ incoming and outgoing mobility common trends

The main purpose of mobility is teaching. Although the majority of mobilities last less than
two weeks, there are also many long-term exchanges (between three and six months and
more than a year). In general, mobility records a robust gender unbalance with a higher
number of males. More females are recorded in incoming exchanges.

Teachers’ incoming and outgoing mobility common trends

Morocco
In order to interpret Morocco’s data on mobility flows, the many factors influencing their
collection should be taken into account. Because of those factors, data only partially reflect
the mobility flows of the country. Firstly, not all universities involved were able to provide the
necessary information to carry out the analysis and others filled the survey only partially.
The main reason was the current situation in relation to the COVID-19 crisis, which affected
universities organisation and activities; another reason was the poor digitalisation process
of mobility data. Having said that, the mobility flows recorded still highlight interesting
trends, first of all that mobilities to and from Morocco from 2014/2015 to 2018/2019 kept
increasing. Half of the overall exchanges involved students, followed by teachers and, to a
lesser extent, by the administrative staff.

Students’ mobility flows

Students moving to Morocco come mainly from Spain, France and Italy. This figure has
remained constant throughout the five years, even though numbers have grown in volume.
Compared to 2014/2015, in 2018/2019 the number of students more than doubled.

119
 Students’ incoming mobility

Incoming exchanges are for credits only. This is directly linked to the duration, with all
mobilities lasting between six months and a year, a trend that has remained steady over
the years. South-South mobility mainly involves PhD students. Mobilities received funding
by the European Commission or through bilateral cooperation programmes.

Students’ incoming mobility

Teachers’ mobility flows

The number of teachers in incoming mobility increased significantly from 2014/2015 to
2018/2019 and data show that teachers come mainly from Belgium, Germany, France and
Turkey. The number of outgoing exchanges increased over the period under review. Still,
the ratio between researchers and teachers remained constant.

Teachers’ outgoing mobility

120
A breakdown of data related to incoming teachers shows a preponderance of full professors.
Moroccan teachers mainly move to Europe, especially to Germany, France and Spain.

Teachers’ incoming mobility

Almost all mobilities were very short and lasted less than two weeks. Bilateral Cooperation
and the European Commission are the primary sources of funding.

Teachers’ incoming mobility

Administrative mobility flows

With regard to administrative staff mobilities, the number increased significantly from
2014/2015 to 2016/2017; then the number remained constant. Data reveal that incoming
administrative staff come mainly from European countries such as Spain, France, Poland,
Romania and the United Kingdom. There are a few South-South mobilities that involve
Algeria, Jordan and Tunisia, in an almost homogeneous way.

Administrative mobility

121
The countries to which administrative staff move are mainly European countries such as
Spain, Poland, Italy, and Romania. Almost all outgoing mobilities have a short duration (less
than one week) and are financed by the European Commission.

Outgoing administrative mobility

Palestine
Palestinian institutions have actively participated in the data collection process, despite the
COVID-19 crisis forced all of them to quickly rearrange their workload distribution. In spite
of the satisfactory number of participants from both the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the
pandemic condition did not allow all of the universities to timely reply to the survey or to be
available for interviews. Tensions with Israel, mobilities’ restrictions, the isolation of HEIs
in Gaza, all such conditions must be taken into account when interpreting and analysing
the Palestinian quantitative data. Based on the sample and the scope of this study, the
strong relationship with the Gulf and the USA remains evident, just like the influence of
international UN agencies on the local HE systems. In addition, most of the Palestinian
universities confirmed the difficulty in finding non-digitalised data relating to 2014/2015
and 2015/2016.

Students’ mobility flows

Exchanges with Western Europe are predominant when it comes to students’ mobility, as it
was also confirmed during the interviews, and most likely due to the poor relationships with
Eastern European countries. United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy and Spain emerge as
the top destination countries for Palestinian students.
Students’ mobility

122
Interestingly enough, both teachers and students engaged in mobility work and study in
the field of social sciences, confirming the predominance of the humanities in cooperation,
considered as a priority in the HE system.

Incoming mobility data reflect the difficulties in obtaining long-term visas for incoming
students. The absolute majority stayed in Palestine for a period of less than 6 months and
all mobilities occurred for credit purposes, as it was stated.

Teachers’ mobility flows

Teachers’ mobility flows are consistent with students’ mobility results, if we consider that
for all categories there is a clear lack of data regarding 2014/2015 and 2015/2016. The
privileged teaching areas are social sciences, followed by business and law and only in
third position engineering. Incoming mobility is affected by the same difficulties in obtaining
long-term permissions for teaching or performing joint research activities: 2 weeks is the
maximum period of exchanges.

Teachers’ incoming mobility

A slight difference can be found in the geographical distribution: in addition to Western

Europe, several Northern European countries as well as Turkey are mentioned as destination
countries for outgoing mobility.

Teachers’ outgoing mobility

123
Administrative mobility flows
The analysis of administrative mobility confirms that there is a clear lack of data for
2014/2015 and 2015/2016. In relation to administrative mobility, it is worth mentioning
that there is a more balanced distribution in terms of gender.

Administrative mobility

While for students and teachers it was possible to find bilateral cooperation agreements,
with the Ministry and the European Commission acting as funding bodies for mobility, when
it comes to administrative staff only the European Commission is recognised as funding
body, with exchanges lasting only for a short period of time. This reflects the participation
of administrative staff in Erasmus+ projects and their participation in CBHE activities in the
form of short-training activities abroad. In this sense, there seems to be a greater interest
in research and financial and administration areas.

Administrative mobility

124
Tunisia
When interpreting Tunisia’s mobility flows, it must be taken into account that their collection
was influenced by several factors, leading to a partial perception of the global trends in
the country. First, not all Tunisian public universities agreed to participate in the survey.
Second, like all other target countries, Tunisia was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and
this hindered data collection activities. Moreover, universities had difficulties in gathering
data for the first years of the analysis (due to a lack of digitalisation of mobility information),
and for the last academic year under examination (2018/2019), probably because data
were still being processed.

Students’ mobility flows

Students’ mobility

From the academic year 2014/2015 to the academic year 2018/2019, there was a
progressive reduction in mobilities for degrees, and a rise in mobilities for credits. While the
number of exchanges for credits remains substantially stable, there is a sharp decrease in
mobility for degrees, down to zero in the last academic year (2018/2019), when a reduction
in exchanges in general has been detected. The gap between mobility for credit and for
degree purposes can be explained by the fact that among the most important sources of
funding, respondents pointed to the Ministry of Education and the Erasmus+ Programme
KA107, both financing short-term mobilities, from 3 up to 12 months.

Students’ mobility

125
Teachers’ mobility flows
Teachers’ mobility

The graph shows an overwhelming majority of full professors participating in international

activities, which constitute more than half of the mobility. This obviously happens at the
expense of the other grades of academics (associate professors, assistant professors,
lectures), which have more trouble accessing international mobility and networking. The
phenomenon is also linked to the type of activity that academics carry out abroad, mainly
focused on research rather than on teaching. Therefore, we can assume that research
abroad is still mainly a prerogative of full professors.

Administrative mobility flows

Administrative mobility

It is worth mentioning that in the academic years examined, the mobility of the administrative
staff abroad is more concentrated in the financial and administration area, followed by
students’ services and internationalisation. The trend underlines the training needs and
priorities of the Tunisian higher education system in terms of financial management and
administration services capacity. On the other hand, the research area is the least popular
field of work, probably because it remains a prerogative of academics, which are also
allowed, within the Erasmus+ programme, to engage in mobility for training.

126
 “Open your mind and get out of your comfort
zone: travel adds value to humans”
The students mobility experience

The survey addressed to students of our target countries allowed to gather 3,280 answers,
of which 523 came from students who engaged in mobility during the last academic years.
64% of the students involved in the survey were female. The following tables indicate the
country of origin of the respondents and the mobility destination country.

Country of origin
1000

750

500

250

0
Algeria Egypt Jordan Lebanon Libya Morocco Palestine Tunisia

200
Destination Country

150

100

50

0
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
Czech
Egypt
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
India
Italy
Jordan
Kuweit
Latvia
Lebanon
Libya
Lituania
Malta
Morocco
Norway
Palestine
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Tunisia
Turkey
United Arab
United
USA

As for the data provided by the partner universities, France is the first destination country,
followed by Spain, Italy and Turkey. The majority of those who engaged in mobility
programmes did it for credit, followed by degree and lastly for shorter mobilities, like
summer schools. Half of the mobilities had a duration lower to 6 months. The destination
country has been chosen mainly because of previous existing collaborations between the 2
universities, followed by personal interests. Some students would have preferred another
destination country but that was not possible.

127
When asked whether they would repeat and recommend the mobility experience, the vast
majority of students said yes. European countries seem to remain the most attractive ones,
even if a smaller number of students declared to be interested in mobility irrespective the
country. South-South mobility suffers from a lack of interest.

250

200

150

100

50

0
in a European in the same everywhere, the in a Southern
country country important thing Mediterranean
is going abroad country

We asked the students to evaluate on a scale from 1 to 5, four different aspects of

their mobility: 1) improvement of a foreign language, 2) improvement of intercultural
competences, 3) impact on employability and 4) added value on their curriculum. Answers
are represented below. The added-value on the curriculum and the improvement of
intercultural competences are the dimensions most positively impacted by mobility.

Improvement of a foreign language Improvement of your intercultural competencies

On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 is the less positive and 5 is the more positive On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being the negative and 5 being the positive
200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Impact on employability Added value on your curriculum

On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being the negative and 5 being the positive On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being the negative and 5 being the positive
150 200

150
100

100

50
50

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

128
Students have been asked to identity the obstacles to mobility that they have experienced.
Students who did not encounter any particular difficulty arrive in second position after those
mentioning the visa procedure difficulty, and the specific case of receiving the invitation
letter from the hosting university. This aspect has been shared by a lot of university
representatives (at least for Maghreb region) during the focus groups and consultations. The
burden of administrative procedures, the lack of information and guidance from both origin
and destination universities, as well as the difficulty of defining the learning agreement
have also been reported by students. The lack of resources and the accommodation issue
have been frequently highlighted too.

Regarding the obstacles met during mobility, language issues are the first reported by
students, as an obstacle for the academic and social life. It is worth highlighting that this
issue not only concerned students’ skills but also staff members of the hosting university,
who did not speak other languages. Then, COVID-19 pandemic was the second most cited
difficulty, having caused an intense feeling of isolation, having made it hard to attend the
courses and, as a result, to complete the foreseen mobility plan. Several students revealed
that they have been victims of racism and/or discriminatory acts. Most of them did not
encounter any difficulty at the end of the mobility, but a significant part has mentioned
difficulties in the process of recognition of credits, even when a learning agreement had
been validated before the mobility.

Among the recommendations made by the students to improve mobility, the following
are worth mentioning: facilitating the entire administrative process, facilitating the visa
delivery and strengthening financial support; providing more information/guidance before
the mobility and improving credit recognition; encouraging their university to implement
more cooperation agreements in order to provide more mobility opportunities (in particular
for PhD students and researchers); creating a digital platform for the exchange of research
results. Other recommendations that came up frequently are the need to improve English
language skills and to define the training plan in as much detail as possible. Both universities’
responsibility of favouring and ensuring quality monitoring has also been recalled.

129
 BOX 1

Recognition of qualifications and

portability of credits

The portability of credits and the recognition of qualifications are among the major challenges and

Lorem ipsum
key drivers of change in higher education worldwide. Two decades have passed since the beginning
of the Bologna process and only some of the countries analysed in this study have fully adopted the
European system of LMD and ECTS. Most of them, except for Algeria and Tunisia, face problems in
credit recognition. HEIs in the latter countries do not seem to experience huge criticalities thanks

Lorem ipsum
to their efforts displayed to harmonise the credit recognition system. In addition, those countries
put in place both internal and external quality assurance systems and accreditation measures and
provided HEIs with a set of guidelines.

Although in different ways, all South-Mediterranean HEIs are developing a more transparent and
easy recognition process, thanks to their major involvement in International Credit Mobility and in
Capacity Building projects, in multilateral cooperation agreements, but there is still a long way to go
before the Bologna process is fully implemented. Therefore, the issue of improving and simplifying
recognition practices should be integrated into a wider internationalisation strategy.

In particular, the majority of Egyptian HE Institutions have implemented the American education
system and it is very diverse. This means that they do not have a national framework for recogni-
tion of international credits and diplomas, which should be done in an institutional manner. The
same applies to Jordan. In Lebanon, as well as in Palestine, credit recognition is a huge challenge
because systems are not homogeneous, there are no national guidelines to be followed and the
context is fragmented. Finally, in Mauritania and in Libya the internationalisation process and -as
a consequence- recognition procedures are both still at an early stage. In Morocco, there is a shift
towards a hybrid system, which includes elements of the Bologna process and elements of the
Anglo-Saxon system, potentially increasing internationalisation opportunities but also making pro-
cedures more complex. Against this backdrop, some obstacles need to be addressed and further
actions are required to support the higher education systems in the South-Mediterranean region
and improve their capacities, their national regulations and the practices related to the recognition
of qualifications.

International references:
• UNESCO Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education;496
• The Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area497

496 https://en.unesco.org/themes/higher-education/recognition-qualifications/global-convention (Last access

February 2021)
497 https://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/higher-education/bologna-process-and-european-higher-educa-
tion-area_en (Last access February 2021)
 BOX 2

Internationalisation at home:
an opportunity during the
COVID-19 pandemic
COVID-19 crisis dramatically forced HEIs to change their internationalisation strategies and speed
up the digitalisation process. The silver lining of the pandemic is that it helped HEIs to move fa-
ster towards digitalisation and the use of ICT tools in education, to compensate for the restrictions
of movement and in-presence life. At the same time, international activities stopped, since it was
impossible to perform mobilities and organise international symposiums and events, as well as
training and project activities. In this sense, Internationalisation at home may be considered as a
response to the limitations caused by modern crises, such as the COVID-19 one.

Internationalisation at home (IaH) is the integration of international components, in the curricula, in

the campus, in the faculty, promoting intercultural dialogue and the development of a global mind-
set without the necessity for the student or the staff to leave the home University. In this sense,
it complements the other internationalisation dimensions and grants to higher education Institu-
tions to have additional tools to create a modern, fair, international, inclusive environment. In the
countries of the study, it seems there is a lack of knowledge and understanding of the practices on
Internationalisation at home, which in turns generates resistance: most of the universities stated
that in their respective country IaH is not considered a priority, a strategic issue, and therefore there
are not dedicated resources to the development of these practices. Instead, it requires that faculty
members and administrators work collaboratively to design deliberate and meaningful spaces of
integration, thereby creating international, intercultural, and global learning experiences for all stu-
dents, and framing Internationalisation at home as a pillar of the strategic plan.

A cultural shift is needed, and it may take some time, to fully implement Internationalisation at
home practices, since most universities in the study mentioned the reduced attractiveness of activi-
ties that do not imply physical mobility (such as the virtual exchange). Along with that, major invest-
ments in infrastructures should also be made to ensure a greater access to opportunities. With the
COVID-19 pandemic and the need to turn most university activities into virtual ones, the importance
of digitalisation and the opportunities that HEIs can offer to their educational communities have
become evident, leading to a new understanding of internationalisation beyond pure mobility. It is
worth mentioning a few cases pointing in that direction: Jordan has been the first South-Mediter-
ranean country in terms of participation in the European Virtual Exchange programme; Palestine is
developing the COIL model-Collaborative Online International Learning, that can lead professors to
design their online courses, after delivering them in different parts of the world. On the other hand,
in Egypt, Algeria and Mauritania, the lack of linguistic skills -especially English- may become a bar-
rier to the internationalisation process.
 BOX 3

Impact of cooperation programmes

in the Mediterranean region, as
perceived by practitioners
In order to assess the impact generated by cooperation programmes on the internationalisation
of higher education as perceived by practitioners, a specific question was asked during the Focus
Groups exercise. The interlocutors were asked to rate the impact of five programmes or classes
of programmes, namely Erasmus+, H2020, National Ministries’ programmes, University/industries
cooperation and Other programmes including past programmes. In all cases, Erasmus+ is consi-
dered by far the programme which has had the highest impact on the internationalisation of HE in
the Mediterranean countries, both in terms of cooperation projects and of mobility of students and
staff. The reasons for this are mainly the fact that it is a very powerful tool especially designed
for the purpose of supporting the internationalisation of HEIs in non-EU countries; it is conside-
red rather “user-friendly” and priorities are negotiated and defined through bilateral consultations.
Furthermore, in most of the target countries, the National Erasmus Offices are very active and very
positively perceived by the operators as they provide effective and technical support to the partici-
pation of local HEIs in the programme and very much facilitated the modernisation process of the
HE sector.

The perception of the H2020 in terms of impact is totally different and it ranks much lower. Indeed,
statistics of participation are much less significant than in the previous case, although there are
clear differences among countries, with some countries performing rather well compared to the
average (such as Israel). In this case, the main problems perceived are the fierce competition, the
limited knowledge of the programme and of its mechanisms, and the fact that -with very few excep-
tions- the calls for proposals are not designed specifically for Southern Mediterranean countries.
Much work needs to be done to improve the situation and fully leverage the status of associate
country in the future Horizon Europe programme.

Results regarding the impact of National Programmes run by local Ministries are patchy and he-
terogeneous: they vary a lot from country to country, depending on the HE system’s structure, the
level of investments, the level of autonomy of HEIs, the country’ s situation in terms of social peace
and so on.
Similarly, University-Industry cooperation’s impact varies from country to country, , mainly due to
the different levels of industrial development in the different countries and to the presence or stren-
gth of bilateral cooperation programmes with individual EU countries, where historical links are still
active and generate useful cooperation.

Last but not least, the “other programmes” include: a) previous programmes such as Tempus (the
predecessor of Erasmus+), and the Erasmus Mundus, which has been valued by many as one of the
most tailored and effective programmes promoted by the European Commission; b) cooperation ar-
rangements offered by international stakeholders, such as the AUF for French speaking countries.
Once again, the perception varies from country to country but the general feeling is that all these
programmes have had a positive impact, again both in terms of mobility and of cooperation projects.
How to make
regional cooperation
more effective:
challenges to face
and inspiring practices
3.1 Insights from regional Lack of attractiveness: a
organisations dangerous paradigm
Over the course of the research process, the
research team interviewed representatives
of regional and international organisations
dealing with HEIs in the Euro-Mediterranean
area. These organisations differ in nature,
These countries are our
scope and goals, but in some ways they all neighbours. If we don’t take care
contribute to the internationalisation of HE. of them, somebody else will do
This said, most respondents pointed out that Michael Gaebel EUA
these organisations significantly support
the international dimension of universities.
We deemed it appropriate to give visibility
in our findings to international and regional Attractiveness (or, to be more accurate, the
actors by sharing their reflections on the lack of attractiveness) has been the core
internationalisation of higher education topic of several international organisations’
in the Euro-Mediterranean region. The comments on the target countries’ higher
following organisations were interviewed: education systems. In the words of the
UNESCO representative in Beirut, one
• Agence Française de Développement of the main challenges is how Southern
(AFD) universities are able to receive and host
• Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie students, researchers and administrative
(AUF) representatives from the North. It is indeed
• Association of Arab Universities (AArU) very important to reflect on how Southern
• Campus France universities could be attractive enough to
• Center for Mediterranean Integration attract and receive students from other
(CMI) universities in terms of quality, good
• Directorate-General for Education, curriculum, reliable infrastructures and
Youth, Sport and Culture (DG EAC) so on. Nowadays, it is common to consider
• European Association for International mostly one-way mobility from the South to
Education (EAIE) the North. The absence of reciprocity is a
• Erasmus Student Network (ESN) crucial and negative aspect in the perception
• European University Association (EUA) of Southern Mediterranean university
• Expertise France practitioners.
• HOMERe
• International Association of Universities According to the National Italian Agency
(IAU) in charge of the KA107 Action in the
• Istituto Nazionale di Documentazione, framework of the Erasmus+ Programme,
Innovazione e Ricerca Educativa (INDIRE) the Southern Mediterranean countries are
• Téthys Network the most funded in the International Credit
• United Nations Educational, Scientific Mobility scheme, financing mainly master’s
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) degree students. According to the European
• United Nations High Commissioner for students who took part in the ICM programme,
Refugees (UNHCR) travelling to a partner country might have

134
the same difficulties as travelling within the major challenges for internationalisation
the EU itself. The only barrier they found is in the Mediterranean area, and for mobility
related to the management of activities from from Southern Mediterranean countries
the partner institutions. More bureaucracy towards Europe and vice versa, are visas
and less transparency than in the European and the perception of instability in the
universities are two of the main barriers region. This is causing low interest from
affecting the international attractiveness of students and staff in Europe for a mobility
local HEIs in a non-EU country. period in Southern Mediterranean countries.
This lack of reciprocity is probably the main
When we explicitly asked why the Southern problem for internationalisation in the
Mediterranean system is less attractive Mediterranean region.”
compared to other regions of the world,
especially when it comes to the offer Some Southern Mediterranean countries
of double degrees or joint degrees, all have to deal with a real problem, which is
respondents pointed in the same direction. instability (political, economic and social
According to the representative from instability) and we cannot agree more with
EUA, it is a mix of security issues, lack of the AUF, as all these instabilities affect the
preparation and research quality. By quoting internationalisation strategy in the region.
him “[...] occasionally, you will also hear Like all the other stakeholders, we also share
that in some countries they might not want the EAIE’s view, as stated by Laura Howard:
to work with the Islamic world. I mean, it “The Mediterranean is not a priority, and
may come partly from the institutions. But especially for European countries, despite
it also comes from some governments that we are very close, at least geographically.
we know already. I think it is partly also And we have a common history. And very
a cultural barrier. But it becomes a very often we face similar challenges, despite
concrete problem that it is not only the we might not recognise that, but we still are
South-Med, but in some countries, if you in the process of understanding why the
have a scholar from Pakistan, you will have Mediterranean is not felt as a priority”.
a hard time getting a visa for him or her”.
He also stated: “Generally speaking, the Internationalisation
Arab world is, with a few exceptions, less of research: one step
attractive as a partner region than South backward to take two
America or parts of Asia are. The change that steps forward
we have seen over the past 20 years is that
the so-called emerging countries become
more attractive for university partnerships:
I think this is something that we have clearly
seen. So there has been a reorientation,
but there is certainly more to be done in Research should be a priority,
particular with these countries in our direct
neighbourhood.”
linked to societal developments
and bringing innovation
Giorgio Marinoni from IAU added that: in the region
“Instability at the political and social level Anas Bouhlal, UNESCO
does not help certain countries, and two of

135
When we talk about the attractiveness of the the need to take one step back in Capacity
universities in the region, we have to talk Building projects with a specific focus on
about research as well. Most of the higher research, to allow for greater advancements.
education institutions in the South-Med
are predominantly teaching universities. Widening access for
They often only offer bachelor and master vulnerable groups:
degrees, causing another issue, namely the internationalisation
limited availability of doctoral studies. through inclusion
AArU is currently working to face these
challenges deemed most relevant in the
Arab world today, working on two initiatives.
Firstly, AArU is working to give more visibility
to Arab publications and authors, through the
In terms of higher education,
Arab impact factor project, dealing with the the commitment to the situation
publication in Arabic of research outcomes. in and around Syria remains
In most Arab countries, scientific disciplines visible and of high priority,
are taught in English; in other countries like
Morocco, Algeria, and Mauritania, they are
especially in terms of willingness
taught in French. The language diversity of donors to respond to higher
becomes an issue when we talk about education needs
humanities and social subjects: we need to UNHCR
work so that the Arabic language is not an
obstacle for research. The idea is to create
an Arab journals platform, which is an open
electronic network of scholarly journals
that will help raise awareness of the Diversity is a core element of
strong academic research and publishing internationalisation, as it relates to
being done throughout the Arab world. As inclusion and cultural dialogue. Vulnerable
a second project, AArU is advocating for students should be seen as a resource for
an “Arab Fund for Scientific Research” for higher education. However, as stated by the
mobilising resources for scientific research International Organisation for Migration,
projects in Arab universities, valorising the students with a migrant background face
well qualified researchers and universities a number of obstacles in higher education
in the Arab world. affecting their learning and development,
and in turn their successful participation in
This is also the reason why institutions the academic community from admission
such as Campus France insist on the until graduation. Within the framework of
importance of the co-supervision of theses IOM actions, students often reported that
(co-supervised Doctorate) and research high levels of bureaucracy and requirements
development, to cope with the real demand represent an obstacle affecting different
coming from neighbouring countries at the aspects of their access and participation.
research level.
IOM actions are in line with the work carried
In conclusion, all organisations recognised on by the UNHCR: “Our commitment is to
work towards a greater inclusion of refugees

136
in national education systems, including Qualifications Passport (UQP) emphasises
higher education, whether that be college the need to implement a comprehensive
and university or technical and vocational refugee response, strengthening global
education and training. The increased governance of migration. A Qualifications
participation of refugees in those systems Passport under the auspices of UNESCO
and academic communities’ campus, off could become a modern universal tool to
campus, etc., enriches the global dialogue facilitate the mobility for refugees with
and enriches the quality of education for all”. qualifications, and may even be used at a
To better understand the UNHCR action in later stage, as a mobility tool for migrants
the region it is necessary to consider it within around the globe.
the framework of the “UNHCR Education
Strategy, which aims to achieve 15% Quality, quality,
enrolment of refugees in higher education quality. A mantra for
by the year 2030. UNHCR higher education Southern Mediterranean
scholarship programme is, and it has been universities
for a long time, the core programme on
promoting internationalisation for refugees,
refugee communities, hosting communities
and home communities, should those
individuals return home, at the tertiary
education level”. Inclusion should be a tassel The region has to commit itself as
of regional cooperation resulting in cultural
dialogue, mutual understanding and a
a region - all can’t be done at the
reduction of social tensions. In this sense, a national level.
strategic action is the DAFI (Albert Einstein Blanca Moreno Dodson, CMI
German Academic Refugee Initiative)
scholarship programme: “The UNHCR
scholarship programme really hinges on
the argument that greater diversity in the
higher education student body is the benefit When interacting with international
to everyone and the DAFI programme aims stakeholders and regional organisations, we
exactly at overcoming the barriers that noticed that the disparity between North and
keep refugees from participating in higher South mainly resides a disparity in quality,
education and academic life”. Widening as confirmed also by the CMI representative.
access may become a way to widen North can act as the catalyst for the South
opportunities and enhance universities’ at the educational level, and should enhance
global environment. the notion of quality in cooperation.

Another initiative worth mentioning is the In terms of teaching quality and

UNESCO Qualifications Passport, drawing internationalisation processes, there is an
from the experiences and methodology of issue (raised by UNESCO, but shared by
the European Qualifications Passport (EQP) almost all the interviewed stakeholders)
initiative taken by the Norwegian Agency for concerning the language: few universities
Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) and in the South are offering complete degrees
the Council of Europe. Establishing a UNESCO in English, generally they offer only some
courses in English. HEIs in the northern parts

137
of Mediterranean are more developed and and harmonisation of Arab qualifications
they offer more courses and even degrees in with international qualifications, and at
foreign languages; this generates a disparity facilitating special procedures for the
and mismatch related to the quality and recognition of university degrees”, thus
the variety of the courses offered in higher increasing the quality of higher education
education. The issue of language is clearly in the Arab world and the ability of HEIs to
named as a barrier also by the respondent attract foreign students and staff.
from the Directorate-General for Education,
Youth, Sport and Culture: “Regarding the When we talk about the challenges for
weakness of local systems, I believe that Southern higher education sectors, along
actually the scarce knowledge of foreign with the lack of knowledge of foreign
languages is critical. For mobility purposes languages, another element comes to mind:
you need foreign languages that’s for sure”. the limited international exposure of the
administrative staff, usually less involved
A better knowledge of foreign languages in the mobility schemes. Indeed, increasing
may also increase the quality of the research the skills of administrative staff is crucial.
at Southern institutions, by widening the In the worlds of the respondent from EUA:
scope and the standard of cooperation that “It would be useful for administrative
is, at this very moment, affected by the lack staff from both EU and the South-Med to
of quality in collaborations, especially in increase their international experience in
social science. Again, in the words of the particular, but not only, for those who work
Directorate-General for Education, Youth, in internationalisation but also for other
Sport and Culture: “We see a lot of projects parts of the institution: it enhances the
when it comes to engineering science. [...] We tolerance, understanding, and also ability
would like to see more social sciences, law, to put yourself in the shoes of others. And it
economics, this kind of more humanitarian also helps to open up your mindset”.
disciplines, political science, we also would
like to see more Jean Monnet activities in It would be beneficial for our partners
place, more cultural activities: speaking in the South-Mediterranean region to
about law, about human rights, about upscale ongoing initiatives, such as the
how the economy should be developed or one mentioned by Laura Rumbley from the
planned”. EAIE: “There is an initiative called SUCTI,
which aims at empowering the backbone
Enhancing the quality of curricula, systems of institutions: its administrative staff. As
and exchanges, has been at the core of a direct consequence, the SUCTI Academia
AArU’s activities: the recently launched has now been founded, a project exactly
Arab Qualification Framework initiative built on SUCTI, a three-year initiative (2016-
in cooperation with the Arab League for 2019) approved for funding under the
Education, Culture and Science (ALECSO) European Commission’s Erasmus+ KA2
and the League of Arab States, goes Strategic Partnerships for higher education
exactly in this direction. The rationale is to that focuses on the internationalisation of
strengthen confidence and credibility in the administrative staff”.
Arab qualifications, developing a regional
approach for accreditation and setting up
of a framework to achieve comparison

138
Digitalisation processes: forcibly displaced people through high-
going virtual in order to quality faculty professional development.
boost physical activities This shift was so quick and rapid that the
UNHCR admitted that just “One year ago,
we probably wouldn’t consider it as vital
in terms of the scholarship programme, in
terms of access to education. We were very
involved and invested in connected and
blended learning for higher education but in
We will continue supporting
terms of the scholarship programme, no, we
physical mobility, and our budget underestimated its value”.
will continue to be allocated to
physical mobility. That is what the On the other hand, we noticed that
international organisations, despite the
universities want. That is what
worldwide enthusiasm about “going
the young people want. And that’s virtual” in 2020 due to the impact of the
what gives greater benefits. pandemic, have been also very aware
German Bernal Rios, DG EAC since the beginning of the potential cons
or, at least, of the inevitable risks related
to the virtual dimension. “It is necessary
for us to approach the issue holistically,
not only from the technological point of
As recognised by the IOM, by supporting view, i.e., availability of internet, but also in
innovative forms of interaction with partners terms of universities’ capacities to provide
and beneficiaries, the new challenge posed quality education during this time. At the
by digitalisation and virtual exchange has beginning of the crisis, 95% of the vocational
turned into an opportunity, opening new schools in the region were closed. The
creative scenarios and enhancing innovation, reason being they could not handle the
especially relying on the ability of youth to challenge of shifting to digital. We do have
involve their peers and create alternative countries with a low connectivity context,
dynamics of interaction and remote sharing. but again it is a combination of factors not
International partners, such as the UNHCR, only the technology or connectivity itself.”
underlined how huge was the amount of The UNHCR long quotation allows us to
exchanges revolving around digitalisation understand the cultural, infrastructural and
and virtual mobility during the first year of technological barriers that are hampering
the COVID-19 pandemic. For instance, the the digitalisation process from becoming
UNHCR quoted the Connected Learning in structural in the region and it underlines the
Crisis Consortium (CLCC), which received necessity to have a holistic approach in order
many requests for technical support and to be successful and sufficiently impactful.
advice. Through the CLCC, the UNHCR The representative of DG EAC clearly
also collaborated with the Carey Institute expressed his view on the digital divide: “If
for Global Good and pursued different we have the best digital projects, but actually
projects focused on fostering access, universities are not well connected, the
inclusion and academic success of higher students cannot study from home because
education learners, refugees, and other there is no internet at home, we are a little

139
bit trapped in a situation where only the Recognising shared
elite has access to the internet. In any case, cultural roots,
despite this huge digital divide, definitely deconstructing
digital is going to be one of the key aspects stereotypes,
of the new programme and we are going to increasing mutual
foster digital cooperation”. knowledge
Regarding virtual mobility, it is important to
recognise the unspoken fear that it might
actually replace physical mobility. The
representative of the Italian institute INDIRE
stated: “face-to-face mobilities are more
attractive than virtual ones”. Quoting EUA,
mobility is composed of several different
This is the elephant in the room
aspects: “this is something that changes you that sometimes Europeans do not
once you have been abroad, not for a short want to see.
visit, but rather once you have spent some Giorgio Marinoni, IAU
time there. I think that the important thing
is not just the visit, when you have a few
lectures or so, but to have, for example, the
opportunity for job shadowing and sharing
tasks with others in order to get a better One of the barriers to internationalisation
understanding of how the other universities in the South-Med region cited the most,
work and how other systems look like”. DG in the words of the representative to the
EAC representative clearly confirmed this: representative of DG EAC, is the lack of
“When we talk to the universities and to the mutual knowledge. Interestingly enough,
students, I see very little interest in virtual he added, “I might say the difficulties, the
mobility alone. Despite that, we have our barriers are not located in the Maghreb,
digital education action plan and Europe has or Muslim countries or in countries in
an international digital dimension”. Blended the south Mediterranean, but in the
mobility might be the answer, as confirmed European countries. They have to see this
by our respondent from IAU: “About virtual mutual cooperation as an opportunity:
mobility, I would say it is an interesting tool that it is important to cooperate with
that allows reaching thousands of students the neighbouring countries. Not just the
who will never be mobile, even if I believe Mediterranean countries, but also beyond.
it cannot completely replace the experience Mutual knowledge has to be increased and
given by physical mobility. I think in the intercultural learning is also very important
future the two types of mobility should and in this regard”.
will coexist”. The distrust, the problem, the elephant in the
room, to quote Giorgio Marinoni from IAU: “has
historical roots and depends on the attitude
that Europeans still have, unfortunately,
towards Southern Mediterranean countries:
sometimes there is still a colonial approach.
It is interesting for European countries to
attract students from the South, but it is

140
not interesting to send their students there. misperceptions: “The strength of the region,
This kind of Western-centric approach is I would say, is the dynamism, because it
still a barrier. Unfortunately, universities in is a very young region that has a really
Europe are still too often asking themselves young population much more than the
questions such as: what is the interest for EU. So really, there is thirst for training,
our students to go there? This attitude must for education. I think the dynamics of the
change. This is the elephant in the room that region is its strength. Even Israel, which is
sometimes Europeans do not want to see. a little bit different, has, I believe, a much
This is valid for the Southern Mediterranean, younger population than the EU. We see
but also for many other regions of the world cooperation in the field of education as a
such as, for instance, Sub-Saharan Africa”. really fundamental issue. Mediterranean
In the last few years, the tightening of visa countries are very active compared to other
restrictions also contributed to the negative regions in the world”.
perception of the Arab world and negatively In this sense, it is worth mentioning
affected mobility flows. According to an initiative launched by the Agence
the representative of the European Universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF),
Commission’s Directorate-General for whose objective is to increase dialogue
Education, Youth, Sport and Culture: “It is and cultural understanding. The MOOC
difficult to get to know each other if you developed and launched by the AUF has
cannot jump on a plane and get to know been designed to address the challenges
somebody, [...] with Erasmus+, we also of breaking the social bond and conflict
tackle this aspect through staff mobility, by addressing issues related to dialogue,
which is very important [...] also to give birth communication, and the resolution or
to student mobility and to capacity-building transformation of conflicts. The success
projects. These short mobilities are really of this initiative, which had about 4,000
an important tool”. registrations, shows the need for these
Even non-educational stakeholders, such type of actions to re-connect the Euro-
as the IOM, have, over the years, have been Mediterranean region to its common cultural
focusing on, universities “recognising their roots.
key role as strategic hubs for sharing ideas
and promoting dialogue among youth, Abandoning silo mentality
with a view to offer a youth-led approach in favour of clustering:
to foster inclusion and social cohesion. the role of regional
Through ad hoc tools and capacity-building organisations
activities, they support universities in their
efforts to facilitate the inclusion of those
students within the student community,
thus contributing to building more cohesive
Euro-Mediterranean international
academic societies. If more efficient services organisations represent an
are offered to international students, and the antidote to national selfishness
access process is made smoother, mobility and sovereigntist policies for
is definitely encouraged.”
During our discussion, the representative
an open and inclusive
of DG EAC stressed again the importance Mediterranean region.
of mutual knowledge, in order to overcome Marcello Scalisi, UNIMED

141
In the majority of our interviews with financed by European funded programmes,
international stakeholders, we observed reported as a priority and a strategic action
a concrete and tangible willingness to by our interviewee from AArU.
avoid silo mentality and have instead “All
international and regional organisations It is worth mentioning the clear
acting to work together, not separately: it is recommendation made by INDIRE regarding
a loss of energy and effort and resources. the role of the local NEO: “National Erasmus+
By working together, we can get a strong Officers (NEOs) should play a major role in
voice and convince the universities to work order to implement networking activities
together through very well-developed among institutions”. In the same direction
policies for their needs. We need to identify goes the Téthys network, demonstrating
innovative cooperation initiatives, to be able the need to build networks and connections
to understand the differences and to use between all the actors involved. Activities
these differences as a richness not as an should pursue the wider objective of
obstacle.” (UNESCO MENA). A concrete call strengthening synergies, in particular with
for regional and multilateral cooperation regard to North to South cooperation. It is
among countries, but also among also the network’s responsibility to lobby for
international players. more balanced mobility flows (improving the
one from North to South), to build bridges
The Agence Internationale de la and promote a change in perspectives.
Francophonie (AUF) launched an interesting
initiative in the Middle East area. The According to UNIMED director Marcello
regional management set up CONFREMO, a Scalisi, regional networks can play a decisive
regional conference of university presidents role in further promoting the European
who meet and discuss their priorities, Neighbourhood Policy and the Barcelona
looking for similarities and leveraging on process, which have so far guaranteed a
synergies. Within the framework of the unique regional cooperation framework
consultation body, there are sub think- for the Mediterranean university, but have
tanks, including a group concerned with failed to solve many problems in the region.
internationalisation, specifically working The time has come to make room for the
on internationalisation quality criteria, and Mediterranean Generation, for it to express
professionalising international relations its potential beyond national borders and
services, boosting their ability to set up and cultural barriers and forge a new idea of
manage international collaborations and Mediterranean.
projects. Similar efforts have been made
by the AUF Maghreb, supporting university
governance.

Only with a synergic approach is it possible

to reach higher goals such as developing
a new scheme or programme for Arab
mobility of students and staff amongst
Arab universities and institutions of higher
education, and with universities from all
over the globe, in addition to the mobilities

142
3.2 Inspiring practices (which will be reported in the bibliography),
the websites of the National Erasmus
While conducting the desk research, the Office of the countries involved in the
research team identified the “practices” study, the websites of several international
that may be upscaled and adapted to the organisations and networks, European
national contexts taken into consideration. funded projects websites and records.
Among those practices, a selection has been To complete the process, an additional
made to identify inspiring practices at the consultation was conducted during the focus
regional level, which may serve as inspiring groups to validate the practices selected
practices for practitioners, university and add more relevant inspiring examples
leaders and in general for all the actors if missing. It is fundamental to say that the
involved in the international dimension proposed practices do not represent in any
of universities. Best practices are not case an exhaustive list, instead they are
presented in absolute terms: for the specific inspiring examples that may provide some
purpose of the current study and the current opportunities.
analysis, the term best is used to indicate
the practices which better suit the purpose Among all the practices identified, a selection
of strengthening internationalisation in the has been made so that the inspiring examples
Euro-Mediterranean region. As a starting could represent the widest possible
point, researchers agreed on a definition of set of initiatives, addressing the most
best practice, built upon different available comprehensive range of internationalisation
definitions: dimensions. The criteria for the selection of
practices are listed and explained below:
A procedure that has been shown by
research and experience to produce optimal • impactful: able to generate a change in
results and that is established or proposed as the context, with an emphasis on quality
a standard suitable for widespread adoption. over quantity.
A good/best practice is characterised by a • transferable/replicable: able to be
measurable impact, the capacity to propose transferred or replicated to other
innovative approaches, its sustainability, its contexts/countries/institutions and still
transferability, replicability, adaptability, and generate a positive similar impact.
ultimately for its added value. A best practice • sustainable: able to rely on existing
is to be intended as a highly successful resources and survive over time.
practice, which represents leading-edge • adaptable: able to be adapted to other
experience, though not necessarily ideal or contexts and still generate a positive
unproblematic. impact.
• innovative: exhibiting innovative
The stakeholders engaged in the interviews elements with respect to the status quo.
and the universities, with whom we interact • added value: able to build on and
on a regular basis, were asked to contribute improve processes and results, overall
to the identification of the practices that being capable of becoming a learning
have a potential to be replicated and experience for others.
upscaled in the region. Secondary sources
were also consulted, such as: the secondary In addition to these criteria, practices were
sources consulted during the desk research selected that could highlight a range of

143
issues considered relevant to the region and not be interpreted as a ranking system, but
this particular study: as the outcome of a simplification exercise,
with the aim of helping the readers perceive
• diverse cooperation arrangements the value and strengths of each case.
(North-South, South-North, South-South)
• practices framed in the institutional List of the selected
strategy inspiring practices
• stand-alone cases which stand out for
their innovative characteristics International projects
• top-down approaches (framed within • ATIAH, Developing Innovative
existing policies) Approaches and Tools for
• bottom-up approaches (able to generate Internationalisation at Home,
a change in the decision-making process) coordinated by Newcastle University,
• a wide range of internationalisation United Kingdom
aspects (i.e., inclusion, • DIRE-MED, Dialogue Interculturel,
internationalisation at home, RÉseaux et Mobilité en MÉDiterranée,
employability, mobility, joint educational coordinated by UNIMED, Mediterranean
arrangements, partnerships, etc.). Universities Union, Italy
• MIMI, Modernisation of Institutional
The focus of the selected practices, in terms Management of Internationalisation
of geographical coverage, was the whole in South-Neighbouring countries,
Euro-Mediterranean region. This decision coordinated by University of Barcelona,
seemed appropriate for the study, since Spain
the overall goal was to identify inspiring • MERIC-Net, Mediterranean Network
cases with broad appeal and applicability: of National Information Centres on
practices should exploit their full potential, the Recognition of Qualifications,
building on the peculiarities of each context coordinated by Université de Nice Sophia
and maximising their impact in a new shape. Antipolis, France
However, a few initiatives from other regions • TUNING MEDA, Tuning Middle East
of the world are also mentioned, in order to and North Africa, coordinated by the
highlight successful experiences which may University of Deusto, Spain
be reproduced in the Mediterranean.
Guidelines and tools
The inspiring practices selected have been • Guidelines for Good Practice for
grouped into three main categories: 1) Awarding Joint Degrees, ECA, European
international projects, 2) guidelines and tools Consortium for Accreditation
to improve the internationalisation of higher • Guidelines for international partnership
education, 3) strategic initiatives. Special agreements, Södertörn University,
importance was attached to the lesson that Sweden
can be learnt from each experience. The • Transnational education toolkit, higher
practice itself is the source of inspiration, education Academy, United Kingdom
with its strengths, as well as its capacity of
being a learning experience for others. The Strategic initiatives
evaluation process was translated into an • Arab Master in Democracy and Human
appealing, graphical star system. This should Rights, ARMA, coordinated by the

144
 University of Saint-Joseph, Beirut
• Diaspora.mr, a platform dedicated to the
Mauritanian Diaspora
• Euro-Mediterranean University (EMUNI),
Slovenia
• Euro-Mediterranean University of Fes
(UEMF), public interest institution
labelled by the Union for the
Mediterranean
• International student welcome week at
La Sapienza University, Italy
• Safir, Youth in Action
• SEMSEM, Services for Employability
and Mobility in the form of Company
Internships for Maghreb/ Mashreq
Students
• Toward Empowered Migrant Youth in
Southern Europe – TandEM, International
Organisation for Migration

Each inspiring practice is described and

assessed in the following tables. A similar
but different template is used to maintain
coherence in the analysis, but adapting to
the different nature of the practice
(international projects, guidelines and
tools, strategic initiatives). In a few cases
some information was missing.

145
 Developing Innovative Approaches and Tools for
Internationalisation at Home, project ATIAH
Start and End dates: 01/09/2016 - 30/09/2018
Countries involved: United Kingdom, Belgium, Italy
Partners: Newcastle University, KU Leuven, Università di Bologna
Contact: Sue Robson, Newcastle University, UK

Type of initiative
Practices framed in the institutional strategy

Lessons Learnt
Dialogue around Internationalisation at Home (IaH) is gathering momentum as the values,
purposes, and means of HE internationalisation are being re-examined. The rationale behind the
project is that the benefits of an internationalised university experience should not be limited to
the internationally-mobile minority. For universities seeking to graduate interculturally competent
global citizens, IaH can purposefully integrate the international and intercultural dimensions into a
formal and non-formal curriculum for all students (domestic and international and/or exchange).
Students can learn foreign languages, interact with staff with international experience, benefit from
learning with peers from other countries and cultures, and engage in virtual mobilities via online
learning. This will help to develop the knowledge, skills, and competences necessary to operate
successfully in a globally integrated economic environment. The research project foregrounds
not only the academic, but also the social, intercultural and global learning benefits of an
internationalised university experience. The consortium has developed a set of innovative resources
for Internationalisation at Home: 1) a self-audit tool for universities seeking to benchmark their
IaH practices; 2) a curriculum framework for “internationalising your university experience”; 3) an
evidence framework for evidencing and communicating advances in IaH. The additional added value
of the ATIAH project approach lies in the possibility to find out whether and to what extent HEIs
enact Internationalisation at Home practices, whilst fostering awareness of internationalisation
principles, strategies and practices. IaH implies commitment on behalf of the institution to dedicate
resources (both HR and funds) towards an international campus and towards the delivery of
international education. In this sense, implementing actions of IaH is cost-effective and sustainable
over time because framed in the institutional strategy.

Keywords
Internationalisation at Home, intercultural competences, virtual mobility, global mindset

Reference
www.research.ncl.ac.uk/atiah

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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146
 Dialogue Interculturel, RÉseaux et Mobilité
en MÉDiterranée-DIRE-MED
Start and End dates: 15/10/2016-15/10/2020
Countries involved: Italy, Spain, France, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Partners: Mediterranean Universities Union-UNIMED, University of Catania, University of Paris
1 Pantheon Sorbonne, Regional Council of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur, Estudios Universitarios
y Superiores de Andalucía S.L.U., International Consulting and Mobility Agency S.L., University
Abdelmalek Essaâdi, Hassan II Agronomic and Veterinary Institute, University Mohamed Lamine
Debaghine of Sétif 2, University of Alger 1, University of Tunis El Manar, University of Tunis Carthage
Contact: Mediterranean Universities Union-UNIMED, Rome, Italy

Type of initiative
Intercultural dialogue project

Lessons Learnt
DIRE-MED project’s main objectives were to strengthen the capacities of the International Relations
Offices (IROs) of the partner HE institutions and to promote the intercultural dialogue in the
region. After collecting the good practices implemented by the partners to manage international
mobility at each step (before, during and after), and in parallel with capacity building activities
(namely training-of-trainers activities), partners have defined and implemented: 1) an innovative
cooperation framework for academic and non-academic cooperation in the Mediterranean basin,
2) an action plan addressed to universities and institutional and local stakeholders in order to
promote the cooperation in the Region. Thanks to this framework, the partners implemented
around 70 mobilities (South-South, South-North, North-South) involving students, academic staff
and non-academic staff, for short-term mobilities, in several scientific and administrative fields.
Another important result of DIRE-MED was the organisation of two intercultural dialogue events, an
opportunity to discuss and share views with local, national and international organisations on the
Mediterranean and where students presented their projects. The first event took place in Tangier
and the second one in the whole region, as it was organised online due to the COVID- 19 pandemic.
Finally, the experience gained during the 4 years of the project allowed the partners to make
recommendations at the national and regional levels to strengthen Mediterranean cooperation.
Among the main lessons learnt during the project life span, we can highlight the following: the
crucial role of the IRO service for the identification, promotion and management of the international
opportunities as well as the needed commitment and involvement of academic and other
administrative staff; the importance of mobility as a tool for mutual knowledge and understanding;
the relevance of South-South mobility as a tool for mutual understanding and favouring regional
integration; the need to encourage more North-South mobility in order to improve the reciprocal
knowledge and fight against prejudice; the usefulness of virtual mobility tool as a facilitator before
a mobility and an alternative in case of pandemic; the need to create more spaces of dialogue
between the university and its local environment.

Keywords
Intercultural Dialogue, International Relations Offices, South-South cooperation

Reference
https://www.diremedproject.eu/en/

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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147
 Modernisation of Institutional Management of
Internationalisation in South Neighbouring Countries-MIMI
Start and End dates: 15/09/2013-15/09/2016
Countries involved: Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Spain, France, Austria, Germany, Italy, Poland,
Netherlands
Partners: Princess Sumaya University for Technology; Yarmouk University; Ministry of higher
education and Scientific Research; Association of Arab Universities; Lebanese University; Modern
University of Business and Science; Ministry of Education and higher education; Abdelmalek Essaâdi
University; Ibn Tofail University; Ministry of higher education, Scientific Research and Profession;
University of Barcelona; Campus France; Carinthia University of Applied Sciences; Centre for
higher education Development Consult (CHE Consult); National Agency for Quality Assessment and
Accreditation of Spain; Sapienza Università di Roma; Université de Montpellier 1; Warsaw University of
Technology; The EAIE

Type of initiative
Practices framed in the institutional strategy

Lessons Learnt
The goal of the project was to assess the degree of internationalisation in participating universities
in the Southern neighbouring area, followed by the development of an internationalisation
management model in partner institutions. The model provided appropriate knowledge and means
to improve internationalisation actions and activities in the involved universities, and contributed
to the development of strategic plans granting the sustainability of their international dimension
over time. The project has been defined as a turning point in the internationalisation process of the
involved HEIs, because it supported the process of improvement of institutional management of
internationalisation, establishing governance procedures and engaging the universities leaderships,
building their capacity, empowering them and aligning institutions to EU practices. The model was
based on analyses of needs and capacities in partner HEIs and the experiences and best practices
from EU partner institutions. This led to producing a set of principles, priorities, guidelines and
procedures to support HEIs to improve management of the internationalisation processes at the
institutional level. The project increased the knowledge and skills related to internationalisation,
improved governance procedures and quality assurance measures, increased knowledge and skills
on the use of virtual tools to enhance internationalisation, and set-up of collaborations that are
still ongoing. The project highlights the importance of framing internationalisation into the wider
institutional strategic planning and the necessity to dedicate resources to this continuous process
of development.

Keywords
Internationalisation Management, Sustainability, Strategic planning on internationalisation

Reference
http://www.mimiproject.org/

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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148
 Mediterranean Network of National Information
Centres on the Recognition of Qualifications, MERIC-Net
Start and End dates: 15/10/2016-14/01/2020
Countries involved: France, Norway, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Lebanon
Partners: Centre international d’études pédagogique (coordinator), Associazione CIMEA, The
Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education, NOKUT, University of Oslo (UiO), Palermo
University, Mediterranean Universities Union-UNIMED, Ministère de l’enseignement supérieur-
MESRS Algeria, Ministère de l’enseignement supérieur-DAJEC Morocco, Ministère de l’enseignement
supérieur-DGES Tunisia, Ministère de l’enseignement supérieur-DGHE, Lebanon
Algiers University 1, Université Aboubekr Belkaïd Tlemcen, Cadi Ayyad University, University
Mohammed V of Rabat, University of Tunis El Manar, University of Monastir, Université Antonin,
Holy Spirit University of Kaslik
Contact: Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, project coordinator info@meric-net.eu

Type of initiative
Bottom-up approach, able to generate a change in the decision-making process

Lessons Learnt
The MERIC-Net objective was to revitalise the MERIC network (Mediterranean Recognition
Information Centres) to favour and increase the recognition of qualifications within the
Mediterranean region and to raise the quality of vertical and horizontal mobility in the higher
education systems of the involved countries. Partner institutions contributed to capacity building
actions aimed at developing competences and skills related to credit recognition and the portability
of qualifications, and moved on defining guidelines for the recognition of qualifications of refugees,
displaced persons and persons in a refugee-like situation; and a report on recognition procedures
and mobility flows. The project built on the experience of the European higher education institutions
and practices adopted by the ENIC-NARIC centres and involved the Ministry of higher education in
the four Partners countries. The project had the potential to change the regulatory framework in
Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Lebanon, and complemented the efforts in place in these countries
for the implementation of the Bologna process. It is a reference and possibly a starting point for
future cooperation on the matter, and raised awareness (at various levels) on the vital importance
of smoothing recognition procedures of qualifications in the Mediterranean area.

Keywords
Modernisation, Bologna process, Credit recognition

Reference
http://www.meric-net.eu/en/index.aspx

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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149
 Tuning Middle East and North Africa-Tuning MEDA
Start and End dates: 01/12/2013-30/11/2016
Countries involved: Spain, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Greece, France, Italy, Malta, Cyprus, Algeria,
Morocco, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Tunisia, Lebanon, Libya
Partners: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, University of Omar Almukhtar, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Université d’Angers, Università degli Studi di Padova, University of Malta, University of Cyprus, Université
Mouloud Mammeri de Tizi Ouzou, Université d’Alger 1, University Mohammed First, Université Moulay Ismail,
Cairo University, Suez Canal University, Palestine Ahliya University College in Bethlehem, Islamic University
of Gaza, International University for Science and Technology, Arab International University, The Syrian
Consulting Bureau for Development and Investment, Yarmouk University, Jordan University of Science and
Technology, Hashemite University, Association of Arab Universities, University of Monastir, University of
Jendouba, University of Tunis, Modern University for Business and Science, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik,
University of Balamand, Beirut Arab University, Directorate General Of higher education in Lebanon, The
Libyan International Medical University, London School of Economics and Political Sciences
Contact: Universidad de Deusto, Deusto, Spain

Type of initiative
Design and deliver joint degree programmes

Lessons Learnt
The Tuning MEDA project results from the previous Tuning project, enlarging the experience from
Europe to the MENA region. It aimed at implementing the Bologna tools in Southern Neighbouring Area
universities by building a framework of comparable, compatible and transparent programmes of studies.
In order to achieve this, four specific objectives have been identified: to apply the Tuning methodology in
universities of Southern Neighbouring Area in four subjects (law and good governance including human
rights; healthcare and nursing; construction trades, engineering and architecture; tourism); to develop
Tuning Reference Points; to develop, implement, monitor and improve degree programmes for the first
cycle; and to promote regional and international cooperation between the Southern neighbouring area
and EU universities.
The project was designed to facilitate the modernisation of higher education in the Southern neighbouring
area and focused on the development of degree programmes in partner universities with particular
attention to: curricula design and delivery, employability of graduates, recognition of degree programmes,
quality of higher education, and staff training. The consortium has developed a set of resources to build
a comprehensive programme of studies through the implementation of the Bologna tools: 1) a series
of tools for the assessment of specific competences in the different fields of architecture, law, nursing
and tourism; 2) a series of questionnaires to be used in order to enhance mutual understanding of
degrees across the Southern neighbouring area and European Union. The Tuning methodology and
the resources developed may support additional universities in designing, delivering and structuring
degree programmes. The tools are highly adaptable to allow for tailored solutions, making the project
outputs transferable and replicable Resources are available in English, French and Arabic, which is an
additional value. Moreover, the project gathered a very high number of universities from many countries,
demonstrating that South-Mediterranean countries and their European counterparts have the capacity
(and will) to tackle common challenges together. It is not by chance that the Tuning scheme has been
adopted in Europe first, then in MENA countries and later in India.

Keywords
Internationalisation at Home, intercultural competences, virtual mobility, global mindset

Reference
www.research.ncl.ac.uk/atiah

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

transferable
impactful or replicable sustainable adaptable innovative added value

150
 Guidelines for Good Practice for
Awarding Joint Degrees
Institution: European Consortium for Accreditation in higher education
Authors: Axel Aerden & Hanna Reczulska

Type of publication
Support to educational arrangements

Presentation
The Guidelines for Good Practice for Awarding Joint Degrees aim to address two main elements.
First, there is a lack of transparent and full information provision through the documents such as
degrees, transcript and/or diploma supplement, that recognition information centres, institutional
credential evaluators and employers receive. Second, the relevant legal frameworks do not
necessarily accommodate the way in which joint programmes are organised. In the light of this,
the Guidelines want to provide higher education institutions, and their joint programmes, with
examples of good practices by providing the perspective of ENIC-NARICs recognition centres. The
main objective of these guidelines is therefore to facilitate and improve the full recognition of joint
degrees by clarifying the expectations of ENIC-NARICs regarding the design and content of the
degree and the Diploma Supplement. The Guidelines for Good Practice provide explanations on
how to award a joint degree in such a way that it is recognisable and indeed recognised, on how the
design of the joint degree and the Diploma Supplement can facilitate access to the labour-market,
and when a joint degree is regarded as an official degree in other countries.

Keywords
Joint programmes, Recognition of joint degrees, Degree evaluation, Recognition centres

Reference
http://ecahe.eu/w/index.php/Guidelines_for_Good_Practice_for_Awarding_Joint_Degrees

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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151
 Guidelines for international
partnership agreements
Institution: Södertörn University, Stockholm, Sweden
Authors: Advisory Board for Internationalisation, Södertörn University

Type of publication
Development of international partnerships

Presentation
The Guidelines drafted by Södertörn University provide a comprehensive overview of the
procedure for concluding international partnerships with higher education institutions (HEIs) and
organisations in other countries, in the following areas: mobility for students, lecturers and other
staff; recruitment of programme students from other countries; internationalisation at home (IaH);
international networks and research partnerships. Many of these types of partnerships require
the university to enter a written agreement to regulate liability and ensure mutual support. The
majority of university agreements on international partnerships are signed at the university level,
but there are also agreements that are signed by academic schools. This document provides a
description of the university’s various forms of agreement, what the university or school commits
to, and a checklist for preparing and following up agreements, primarily mobility agreements.

Keywords
International Partnership agreement, Agreement of Cooperation, Mobility agreements

Reference
Guidelines for international partnership agreements-ENG.pdf

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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152
 Transnational Education toolkit

Institution: University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom

Authors: Karen Smith

Type of publication
Practical guide to transnational education

Presentation
This toolkit focuses specifically on UK transnational education. The quality assurance procedures
and the enhancement activities described are based on and geared toward the UK context.
Elements of the guide will certainly be of use to people operating in different jurisdictions. While
the principal focus of the toolkit is on flying faculty teachers (most apparent in the section on the
logistics of transnational education), the toolkit nevertheless contains material useful to those
who have other roles in transnational education such as staff at international branch campuses,
transnational education partners, faculties that need to develop relationships with their students.
The transnational education toolkit gathers existing resources, in particular those developed by the
higher education Academy (HEA) and the guidance from the Teaching International Students (TIS)
project, published research, and links to other institutional resources. Summaries and extracts
from the existing resources and research are supplemented by reflective questions, prompts,
checklists, templates and tips from experienced transnational education teachers, which all aim to
foster critical reflection on professional practice.
The transnational education toolkit is focused specifically on quality assurance and enhancement;
the logistics of transnational education teaching; learning, teaching, and assessment; and finally, on
the ability to build relationships when providing transnational education.

Keywords
Transnational education, Quality assurance, Learning and teaching assessment

Reference
Transnational Education toolkit.pdf

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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153
 Arab Master in Democracy and
Human Rights, ARMA
Coordinator: University of Saint-Joseph, Lebanon
Countries involved: Lebanon, Palestine, Morocco, Tunisia, Jordan, Egypt, Italy, Denmark
Contact: University of Saint-Joseph, arma@usj.edu.lb

Type of initiative
South-South cooperation

Abstract
The Arab Master in Democracy and Human Rights is a unique programme designed to meet the
needs of students, professionals and experts who want to deepen their knowledge and develop
their skills in the field of democratic governance and human rights in the Middle East and North
Africa. Established in 2015, it is the youngest of the Global Campus’ regional masters. The
programme was coordinated by the European Inter-University Centre during its first three editions,
in collaboration with the Ca’ Foscari University in Venice. It moved to Beirut in 2017 and is now
coordinated by the Saint Joseph University. The Arab Master in Democracy and Human Rights is
supported by a growing network of partner universities from the region: Saint Joseph University
(Lebanon), Birzeit University (Palestine), International University of Rabat (Morocco), University of
Carthage (Tunisia). Professors from the University of Jordan (Jordan) and the University of Cairo
(Egypt) are also engaged in the programme. The partnership is also open to institutions beyond the
region such as: the European Inter-University Centre (Italy), the Danish Institute for Human Rights,
the University of Southern Denmark. The Arab Master in Democracy and Human Rights aims to
support the next generation of experts, academics and practitioners and to give them the practical
experience needed for building up their professional career and academic activities. It offers
cross-regional mobility, with one semester in Beirut (Lebanon) and another in one of the following
universities: Birzeit University (Palestine), the International University of Rabat (Morocco), the
University of Carthage (Tunisia) or the University of Jordan (Jordan).

Keywords
Regional cooperation, Joint Master, Regional mobility, Democratic governance

Reference
https://arma-isp.usj.edu.lb/

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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154
 DIASPORA.MR

Countries involved: Mauritania

Contact: diasporamesrs@gmail.com

Type of initiative
Reconnecting academics to their home country

Abstract
The DIASPORA.MR project is a partnership of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research and Technology Information and Communication, and the IOM. The main objective of the
website is to encourage people from the diaspora to become more involved in the development of
Mauritania. Established in 2007, the IOM Mission in Mauritania collaborates with the Government
of Mauritania and other partners in an effort to strengthen national migration management-
capacity and increase support to migrants in the country. The academic diaspora portal has been
launched in Mauritania in a bid to address the loss of local scholars and expertise in a country
marked by serious brain drain. It aims to translate the Mauritanian brain drain into brain gain
and brain circulation by accessing the knowledge held by Mauritanian experts from all fields
and utilising such knowledge in the interests of the country and its higher education system. The
portal is managed and updated by officials of the Ministry of Higher Education in Mauritania and
seeks to strengthen relationships and enhance cooperation between the foreign higher education
institutions, where Mauritanian academics are based, and local universities.

Keywords
Diaspora, Brain drain, Brain gain, Higher education, Migration

Reference
https://www.diaspora.mr/

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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impactful or replicable sustainable adaptable innovative added value

155
 Euro-Mediterranean University, EMUNI

Countries involved: the Euro-Mediterranean region

Contact: info@emuni.si

Type of initiative
Euro-Mediterranean cooperation network

Abstract
In June 2008, the Euro-Mediterranean University (EMUNI) was inaugurated in Slovenia. Shortly
thereafter, EMUNI was endorsed by the heads of states at the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean,
identifying EMUNI in their declaration as one of the priority areas of the Union for the Mediterranean
(UfM). EMUNI was entrusted with the mission of contributing to knowledge amongst people in the
region by establishing and fostering a Euro-Mediterranean higher education and research area.
EMUNI, with its vast network of more than 130 universities from over 30 Euro-Mediterranean
States, is more than just a conventional university. It is a university that operates through true
partnership with other universities. It is a resilient network of collaborating higher education
institutions from across the Mediterranean and it is also a platform for inter-cultural dialogue and
science diplomacy. Established as an international organisation, EMUNI acts as a powerful force to
bridge the shores of the Mediterranean. As such, EMUNI seeks to become:

• A reference university, conducting quality study programmes and state-of-the-art research in

fields of high relevance, serving Euro-Mediterranean interests and challenges;
• A committed and dynamic network of diverse Euro-Mediterranean higher education and
research institutions;
• An inclusive platform for intercultural dialogue and science diplomacy in the Euro-
Mediterranean region.

Keywords
Euro-Mediterranean cooperation, Inclusive platform, Higher education, Research, Science
diplomacy

Reference
https://emuni.si/

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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156
 Euromed University of Fes, UEMF

Countries: Morocco
Contact: contact@ueuromed.org

Type of initiative
Regional integration promoting cooperation in Africa

Abstract
The Euromed University of Fez (UEMF) is a non-profit, public interest institution labelled by
the Union for the Mediterranean with the support of its 43 member countries. Its diplomas are
recognised by the Moroccan State, and several of its courses are in double graduation with the best
universities in the Euro-Mediterranean area. The creation of the UEMF had the objective to create
in Fez a framework for higher education and research-based on intercultural dialogue, exchange,
and cooperation between the two shores of the Mediterranean and with a natural extension towards
Sub-Saharan Africa, while offering education of excellence and conducting scientific research
of very high level in close connection with the socio-economic world. UEMF contributes, from an
academic and cultural point of view, to the development of regional integration in the Europe-
Mediterranean-Africa area, promoting intercultural dialogue, exchange and academic and cultural
partnerships. UEMF aims to be a research university that gives great importance to the three
cycles of university education. Its educational programmes are designed to provide graduates with
strong employability and/or entrepreneurial potential. It also conducts high-level research that
meets the needs of society, working to design an enabling environment for innovation, knowledge
and technology creation and transfer. Finally, UEMF aims to be one of the essential engines of
development in the Fès-Meknès region. Ultimately, UEMF is gradually becoming one of the leaders
in digital transformation and also as a major centre for innovation and entrepreneurship. UEMF has
also the ambition to become a centre of cultural diversity, collaboration and exchange in the Euro-
Mediterranean-African space, raise as the 1st University in Africa for education in targeted fields
and the 1st University in Morocco for research capacity and entrepreneurship driver.

Keywords
Regional integration, Euro-Mediterranean-Africa space, research, exchange, entrepreneurship

Reference
https://ueuromed.org/en

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

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157
 International Student Welcome
Week at La Sapienza University
Contact: La Sapienza University of Rome, International Office, Italy

Type of initiative
Welcome and orientation services

Abstract
Studying in Europe’s largest university, learning a new language, living in a European capital in a
foreign country and meeting other students is a fantastic opportunity, but it can also be hard! The
International Student Welcome Week is an event dedicated to welcome and orientation activities
for foreign students arriving in Rome. In 2021, the Welcome Week is in its 7th edition. Each faculty
organises welcome days, information on all the associations operating at and with the university is
provided, plus key references are made available in terms of hospitality, housing, residence permit,
health services and transportation. On the webpage dedicated to the event, the university also
provides international students with an international student guide, practical pieces of information
and a section dedicated to scholarships.

Keywords
Guidance, Orientation, Students’ services

Reference
https://www.uniroma1.it/en/pagina/international-student-welcome-week (2021 edition)

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158
 Safir, youth in action

Partners: French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs, Institut Français, CFI Media Development,
Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie, Arab NGO Network for development, Laboratoire de
l’Économie Sociale et Solidaire, Pitchworthy, co-financed by the European Union
Countries involved: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria, Tunisia.

Type of initiative
Regional cooperation for social entrepreneurship

Abstract
Safir is an ambitious project supporting youth and the achievement of Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) in 9 countries across Northern Africa and the Middle East. It supports more than 1,000
young project leaders involved in entrepreneurial projects with social, cultural and environmental
impact, the development of a regional network of organisations supporting social entrepreneurship,
and the creation of spaces for dialogue between youth and governmental authorities. The
projects involve civil society organisations, incubators, young leaders and universities to generate
synergies and promote: 1) advocacy training and skill-building sessions; 2) creation of a network of
incubators in Northern Africa and the Middle East and create a regional toolkit to support innovative
entrepreneurship; 3) 1,000 young people, giving them the opportunity to participate in social
transformation by supporting their associative and entrepreneurial projects.

Keywords
Regional cooperation, Social entrepreneurship, Youth, dialogue

Reference
https://www.safir-eu.com/index-en.html

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159
 SEMSEM, Employability and mobility services in the form
of company internships for Maghreb/Mashreq students
Coordinator: University of Montpellier, France
Countries involved: Germany, France, Spain, Morocco, Lebanon, Tunisia and Algeria
Contact: SEMSEM-Internship Consortium, supportsemsem@univ-montp2.fr

Type of initiative
Measure to boost employability of young graduates

Abstract
The acronym SEMSEM refers to the old Arabic tale of “The Thousand and One Nights”. It designates
in Arabic the word “Sesame” which is a magical word that can, in the tale, open the door of the
treasure. The SEMSEM project is a regional structural programme which aims at optimising the
employability and pace of professional integration of young graduates in the Maghreb, Mashreq
and Europe. It is a single interface that brings together students, universities and businesses. The
project took place between December 2013 and December 2016. The members of the SEMSEM
project consortium belong to 7 countries (Germany, France, Spain, Morocco, Lebanon, Tunisia
and Algeria). The objectives of the SEMSEM project were: 1) implementing a multiservice digital
platform, designed to facilitate the research, finalisation, support and monitoring of transnational
internships in companies bringing together three audience groups: students, universities and
companies; 2) providing internship supervision training, through the organisation of quality
workshops that bring together industrial internship managers and academic tutors. The project
idea offers solutions to students in terms of internship and mobility opportunities both at the
national and regional level. Likewise, it promotes coordination between school supervisors and
professionals in order to ensure effective internships’ management. Moreover, the initiative
strengthens collaborations in many directions: between the private sector and higher education
institutions, between Southern and northern universities, and among Southern universities
themselves.

Keywords
Employability, Professional integration, University-industry Collaboration

Reference
https://www.enp.edu.dz/storage/2020/10/projet-SEMSEM.pdf

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

transferable
impactful or replicable sustainable adaptable innovative added value

160
 Toward Empowered Migrant Youth
in Southern Europe-TandEM
Start and End dates: 01/01/2018-15/12/2020
Countries involved: Spain, Italy, Malta, Greece, Croatia and Cyprus
Partners: International Organisation for Migration (IOM), European University Association (EUA), the
Comunità Religiosa Islamica Italiana (COREIS)

Type of initiative
Social inclusion

Abstract
The TandEM Project-Toward Empowered Migrant Youth in Southern Europe aimed to build a bridge
between migrants and local youth to promote dialogue, mutual understanding and cohesion
in Spain, Italy, Malta, Greece, Croatia and Cyprus. The project was grounded in a network of
universities, as the places of socialisation and integration for an increasing number of foreign
students in Southern Europe, the ideal places to design a youth-led response to discriminatory
and toxic narratives on migration. The project had the objective to encourage young Southern
Europeans’ active participation in the integration of young migrants in their countries, while
allowing young people to speak up and define their identities. The project had four main
objectives: enhancing education, promoting inter-cultural dialogue and understanding among
students and young people, encouraging communication through the launch of a dedicated social
media campaign and supporting integration through the development of a student mentorship
programmes. A series of tools are available on the website of the project. In particular, in the
framework of the project a regional study conducted by the EUA (European University Association)
has been developed and published. The study explores foreign students’ needs and barriers to
access higher education, maps challenges to integration in Southern European universities and
develops recommendations for national governments, universities, international organisations and
students themselves.

Keywords
Integration of young migrants, Intercultural dialogue, Social cohesion

Reference
https://iomintandem.com/project/

Evaluation Criteria value from 1 to 3 stars (low-medium-high)

transferable
impactful or replicable sustainable adaptable innovative added value

161
Practices from other in Africa. ASAF’s vision is to become an
regions of the world inclusive and transcultural platform that
contributes to the achievement of the United
ARROW, improvement of research and Nations Sustainable Development Goals
innovation skills in Mongolian universities, (SDGs), of the objectives of the African
coordinated by Universidad de Las Palmas Union’s Agenda 2063 (“The Africa We Want”)
de Gran Canaria, Spain. and of the partnership between Africa
The aim of the project is to improve the and the European Union. ASAF’s overall
scientific quality of publications in Mongolian objective is to enhance learning mobility,
universities by developing the writing skills innovation and competitiveness in Africa by
and increasing the number of publications of supporting young people’s employability,
scientific papers in those faculties with low career perspectives and entrepreneurship
or very low publication rates. The project by strengthening their participatory and
groups 4 European universities (from leadership skills. More specifically, ASAF
Portugal, Poland, Spain) and 11 Mongolian wants to help improve the quality and
partners. Mongolian researchers learnt harmonisation process of higher education,
how to improve the quality of their scientific increase transparency and recognition
productions, and engage in a “mentor of learning outcomes in Africa, and raise
scientist” platform, where prestigious awareness of EU-funded international
scientists around the world altruistically mobility programmes.
help improving the manuscripts of scientists
in developing countries. A focus was set More information: https://www.asaf.africa/
on English skills for scientific purposes,
plagiarism, writing skills, statistics and OPT-IN, intercultural transnational
online scientific databases. The training operators project Coordinated by the
material, developed in English, is available University of Bologna (Italy) involving
for all researchers worldwide and can Ecuador, Colombia, Italy, France and Spain.
benefit many more than the sole project OPT-IN is an initiative aimed at establishing
partners. an academic programme that addresses
two fundamental issues: the protection of
More information: www.arrow.ulpgc.es nature and the construction of Peace. The
participating universities make it a unique
ASAF, African students and alumni forum transnational project, since 8 universities of
It is a platform of African students, alumni the Andean Community and the European
and professionals who have benefited from Union participate in it. The OPT-IN project
international mobility scholarships funded created a new master’s degree (in Ecuador)
by the European Union and the African Union and updated existing post-graduate courses
that offers opportunities for exchange, (in Colombia) on the defence of the rights of
collaboration and capacity building. ASAF nature and intercultural justice in Ecuador
is organised by its members who work on a and Colombia. The goal is to highlight the
volunteer basis. It is funded by the European interrelations between socio-environmental
Union and managed by the European Union conflicts and justice from an intercultural
in close cooperation with the African Union. perspective, which recognises nature as a
The rationale is to contribute to improving the subject of rights and the collective rights of
quality and integration of higher education peoples whose relationship with nature has

162
always been based on the protection of it. As 3.3 Complementarities
a result, all the universities involved have and synergies in the
developed an academic offer that is more in Mediterranean
line with the actual needs of the respective
national societies. The impact on national It is nowadays widely recognised that
politics of both States and international it makes little sense to talk about a
cooperation between the states has been homogeneous “Mediterranean region” as
strong and effective. such, just because of the huge differences
between its countries in term of culture,
More information: http://naturalezaypaz- language, historical background and more. It
optin.net/ is time to acknowledge that the “others” have
the same complexities that characterise
PONCHO, internationalisation of Latin our European scenario. Our common roots,
American peripheral universities through common culture and common heritage can
sustainable integration and inclusive no longer be ignored, or simplified, and
implementation of International Relations generalised approaches (“The Arabs”, “The
Offices, coordinated by the Universidad de Islamic World”, and so on) should no longer
las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain. exist. The differences and complexities that
The project was aimed at encouraging do exist should be considered as a richness,
the internationalisation of Latin American as an added value leading to tailored
partner universities, especially those strategic actions.
working in peripheral regions. At the
institutional level, internationalisation An innovative approach in this sense will
strategies have been improved and not neglect or deny that the countries
International Relations Offices have been of the region present many differences,
created or consolidated and included in as well as it does not exclude common
HEIs’ structures. In order to encourage problems, challenges, and opportunities
the internationalisation of Latin American that affect the internationalisation process
partner universities, an online platform in more than one country. In the following
was created to increase networking and section we have listed the common issues
the international reach of partners. The emerged in the majority of the target
PONCHO consortium grouped together 4 countries of the study, upon which we
European universities (from Spain, France, formulated the recommendations on how
Portugal and Poland) and 21 universities to improve the level and scope of
from 8 Latin American countries (Argentina, internationalisation of South-Mediterranean
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, HEIs. Recommendations are addressed
Peru and Uruguay). The peculiarity and to all the actors involved in the process,
novelty of PONCHO lie in the fact that it is namely the universities themselves,
mainly composed of small universities, national and international policy-makers,
geographically located in peripheral areas regional organisations and practitioners.
and with no, or little, experience in EU and The recommendations are the final result of
capacity building projects. the participatory method applied throughout
the whole study.
More information: http://poncho.ulpgc.es/

163
• The impact of the Erasmus+ programme. • Regional and national structural
Erasmus+ is the programme that has problems in gathering information on
generated the largest and most positive international activities and mobility.
impact on the strategies of the target The research highlights clear difficulties in
countries in terms of internationalisation. collecting reliable and comparable data, due
The availability of funds, the geographical to difficulties in accessing sources and the
diversification and the possibility to differences in data collection methods. This
implement capacity building actions in makes it difficult to compare information
different fields have generated opportunities across countries and it underlines the need
of internationalisation in many directions, of to improve the accessibility of data, and
mobility actions and in general opportunities to make the data collection process more
of growth for the HE systems. coherent, reliable and homogeneous, thanks
to a more coordinated involvement of the
• Administrative staff competences. academic community and the university
The study shed light on an issue shared management.
by most countries involved in the study:
the administrative staff’s failure to tap into • Low attractiveness of local HE systems.
international activities and to support HEIs in MENA countries’ institutions aim at being
the management, participation and access to modern, competitive, consistent with
opportunities of cooperation. Therefore, the international standards to become attractive
top management should commit to consider systems, looking at Europe and at other
T the administrative staff as a key element regions of the world. Most of the countries
in the process of internationalisation. in the study want to become more attractive
and play the role of destination countries for
• Recognition of credits and qualifications international students, in particular coming
systems. from neighbouring regions (e.g., Sub-
The analysis showed a fragmented reality in Saharan region). In addition to that, they
terms of credit recognition and assessment need to have efficient Quality Assurance
of qualifications, a barrier that negatively systems, improve the knowledge of foreign
impacts on the internationalisation actions languages and advance in the process of
implemented by the HEIs, in terms of digitalisation of the internal procedures and
accessibility and in general reducing the in the delivery of online teaching within the
appeal of South-Mediterranean HE systems. context of formal learning.
There is a clear need to adopt national
and regional reforms aimed at designing a • Visa problems.
framework for the recognition of credits and Obtaining visas for international mobility,
qualifications, through the simplification of especially from MENA countries to Europe,
the national framework or the creation of has always been a serious obstacle to
new ones, either at a national or regional mobility. It mostly depends on the political
level. and social contexts of both MENA and EU
countries. The research results suggest
that efforts should be made to increase the
communications on the visa procedures
within all actors involved in order to
improve the participation in mobility and in

164
cross-borders collaboration arrangements, • Bilateral cooperation.
including the Erasmus+ programme, by Bilateral cooperation fosters forms of
students and staff. This will also strengthen collaboration mainly because it facilitates
the participation of disadvantaged and overcoming contextual obstacles and
vulnerable groups, and reduce the loss of barriers to internationalisation, such as
attractiveness of Europe in favour of other the criticalities related to credit recognition
non-EU realities, redirecting flows far from or language limitations. Cooperation
Europe where access is made easier. through bilateral agreements is a common
practice for many institutions in the region.
• International cooperation in human and Nevertheless, even if it favours mutual
social sciences. understanding, the study reveals that
This study has shown that the international bilateral cooperation may also increase
cooperation in human and social is less the fragmentation and exclusiveness of
developed than cooperation in hard international relations.
sciences, which maintains a high level
of attractiveness and participation. • Internationalisation of research.
An increased cooperation in the It is widely recognised that the
human sciences would favour mutual internationalisation of research is
understanding and intercultural dialogue, implemented at very different levels
and would pave the way to new possibilities across the target countries. Cooperation
for development and funding that have not can be encouraged by enhancing Capacity
yet been explored. Building actions for South-Mediterranean
researchers on research methodology,
• Knowledge of all the dimensions of by improving publication policies and by
internationalisation. boosting investments in technology and
In most cases, internationalisation is basically equipment, in order to raise the level and
identified solely with mobility. Raising accessibility of the research produced in the
awareness on all the dimensions related South.
to internationalisation would increase the
number of possible collaborations and
improve the quality standards of HEIs, thanks
to a more comprehensive and responsible
internationalisation process.

• Simplification and harmonisation of

bureaucratic procedures.
High levels of bureaucracy in the HE systems
are a common feature in most of the target
countries involved in the study, representing
an obstacle to the implementation of
institutional internationalisation strategies.
Complex and lengthy procedures generate
difficulties in accessing information, limit
participation, reduce efficiency, and hinder
transnational cooperation and mobility.

165
Enhancing
internationalisation
of higher education
in the Mediterranean
4.1 Country-specific
recommendations and
roadmaps
After the comprehensive collection
and elaboration of both qualitative and
quantitative data, ongoing consultations and
a continuous validation process, the UNIMED
research team was able to conduct a SWOT
analysis for each HE system, in order to
highlight challenges and opportunities for
internationalisation of higher education in
each country of the study. Once the analysis
was completed, the results were used to
define a set of actions and recommendations,
highlighting internal and external factors
which are positively or negatively impacting
higher education (and in turn the national
context). The SWOT analysis was used as
the basis to reflect on long-term changes
and resources. The recommendations and
the theme-based roadmaps are intended to
support the UfM Secretariat in its mandate
for regional integration and cooperation
promotion within the UfM strategic area of
higher education, through the involvement
and capacity building of all the stakeholders
involved. Beyond the national context,
regional recommendations were also
made, for the challenges and opportunities
common to several countries.

167
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Algeria
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Ministry has an internationalisation strategy and
• Limited autonomy in the final decision
a holistic strategy for mobility of all categories
making
(academic and administrative staff, students)
• In each HEI, presence of dedicated delegates for • Lack of English language knowledge
external relations and cooperation service • Need to reinforce staff capabilities in less
• International students considered as national internationalised HEIs
ones (equal access) • Cultural resistance to undertake mobility
• HE system is a destination country for Sub- • Reduced access to ICM
Saharan and Arab countries • Lack of international cooperation in
• Strong bilateral cooperation with France humanities and social sciences even if it’s
• Diversified international cooperation in the greatest part of registered students
geographical terms • Brain drain effect
• Promotion of the outgoing mobility for PHD and • Cultural resistance of the academic staff to
research students on-line teaching in spite of ongoing efforts
• Presence of original format of international HEI
by HEIs and ministry to promote it
(ex: Pan African University, ESAA)
• Digital divide in rural areas
• High impact of internationalisation activities for
the internationalisation of research • PHD Mobility is almost completely outgoing
• Adoption of ECTS facilitates international and very little incoming
exchanges

Opportunities Threats
• Significant internal funds for higher • Bureaucratic process limiting the decisional
education process
• Favourable geographical position • Inequal coverage of multilateral cooperation
• The national system looks at Africa as the • Prejudices from EU partners affecting the
reference market international perception of Algeria as a
• Strong bilateral cooperation with France destination country
• ICM special window for Algeria • Not a destination country at tourism level,
• Reinforce multilateral cooperation therefore the country is not well known at
the international level
• Visa needed to enter the country
• Financial regulations slow down payment
procedures
• Low quality of internet connection
• Geographical conformation

168
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 Moving forward in the ongoing governance reform process regarding quality assurance
and university strategic plans, in order to make universities more autonomous and
inclusive in the definition of their internationalisation actions.

R2 Widening the outreach of Algerian universities by involving the less involved HEIs, in order
to allow a coherent growth of the HE system and diversifying the internationalisation
process by capitalising on internal resources, expertise and opportunities.

R3 Increasing the attractiveness of the Algerian HE system by leveraging the country’s

geographical position in the Mediterranean and its role in Africa.

R4 Strengthening the investment of resources in scientific research to foster international

exposure and recognition of Algerian HEIs in the international arena.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Identifying and training focal points at faculty level (departments, libraries, communication
services…) for a more effective dissemination of internationalisation opportunities.

• Implementing and monitoring the internationalisation strategy at institutional level upon shared
indicators for the whole HE sector.

• Organising cluster meetings at a regional level in order to share best practices acquired through
multi- o bilateral cooperation agreements, especially with the more remote and less involved
universities in the country. Virtual platforms and tools can be fully exploited in this sense to widen
access and participation.

• Increasing the availability of updated and wide-ranging information on university resources, offers,
opportunities, international activities.

• Exploring privileged bilateral cooperation arrangements in order to develop more joint activities,
relying on international staff and students in mobility as ambassadors and testimonials.

• Improving the knowledge of foreign languages among all the categories involved in international
activities (students, academic staff and administrative staff) in order to increase the international
exposure of the Algerian universities. Special attention should be paid to social sciences and
humanities in cooperation.

• Accelerating the modernisation of infrastructures for hosting people involved in mobility and
dedicated to research.

169
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Egypt
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Green economy and climate change have • Legislation for financial management is
been declared as priorities by HEI system very restrictive
• Financial support by the government for • Bureaucratic procedures affect
mobilities (international exchanges) internationalisation of HEIs
• Scholarships are co-financed in bilateral • Mobility only for students and academic
agreements with EU countries staff not for admin staff
• Presence of international branches of • Language is a barrier for admin staff
foreign universities • Missing solid framework for recognition of
• Desire of diversifying the geographical international credits and diplomas
distribution of international cooperation • Difficulty of peripheral HEIs to access EU
• High Participation EU projects during the programmes due to scarce staff knowledge
last 5 years and capabilities of the same
• Egypt has a strategy to become a • Credit recognition systems diversification
destination country and use of the American education system
in most HEIs make it difficult to implement
joint degrees and hinders some forms of
cooperation

Opportunities Threats
• Great attractiveness of country in EU and • Decision process is highly centralised,
Mediterranean countries for historical and limited autonomy by HEIs
cultural reasons • Significant digital divide prevents access to
• New emerging financial and cooperation online teaching
partners beyond the EU (International • Brain drain
Branch Campuses program)
• Bilateral cooperation ongoing with other
funding bodies (e.g. DAAD, high cooperation
with Germany)

170
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 The international dimension has traditionally been a structural element of Egyptian HEIs,
making Egypt a traditional destination country for international mobility. Nevertheless,
the increasing competitiveness with neighbouring countries makes it necessary to invest
in new infrastructures and in research and innovation in order to raise the quality and the
attractiveness of the Egyptian higher education system.

R2 Lack of comprehensive information on the recognition procedures, as well as a lack

of knowledge about the distribution of responsibilities among the various actors
involved in the recognition process, constitutes one of the most important barriers for
internationalisation. In this regard, Egypt should provide a general national framework for
credit recognition and assessment of qualifications.

R3 Simplification of national rules is needed in order to strengthen universities’ participation

and performance in international activities and programmes.

R4
Improve the knowledge of foreign languages among all the categories involved in
international activities (students, academic staff and administrative staff) in order to
increase the international exposure of the universities.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• The Egyptian higher education system benefits from a certain degree of autonomy in the definition
of the internationalisation strategies. Nevertheless, the national governance structure reveals that
the system is highly centralised, especially with regard to decision-making processes. In the light
of this, Egypt should increase the level of decisional autonomy of HEIs in order to make the system
more dynamic and more attractive.

• Reform of the credit recognition system in order to expand the spectrum of international relations
and to forty the universities’ international cooperation, complemented by a capacity building action
to train the staff entitled to manage the recognition process.

• Ministries should simplify laws and regulations related to the university’s functioning especially
concerning financial administration.

• Universities should define a clear strategy around internationalisation in line with national
internationalisation targets and international standards.

• Accelerating the modernisation of infrastructures and improve the digitalisation process in order
to reinforce the internal capacity of academic and administrative staff on research and innovation.

• Improving national and institutional policies aimed at strengthening administrative staff skills in
order to make the universities’ actions and the international relations offices’ performance more
impactful.

• Increasing collaboration with the private sector in order to make international cooperation
stronger and more attractive in particular with regard to crucial areas such as renewable energies,
healthcare and climate change. Involving private sector stakeholders in the institutional life and in
the definition of curricula.

171
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Israel
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Council of HE implements a strategy for • The HEI system does not interact with other
internationalisation Mediterranean countries’ HEI systems
• State provides funds to support the • Lack of accessibility to data and statistics
development of internationalisation on HEI system (mainly in Hebrew)
strategies • Courses are taught in the Hebrew language
• Knowledge triangle is very strong to
increase the systems attractiveness
• High level of interaction of the HEI system
with central Europe and the most advanced
countries (USA, Japan, China, etc.) HEIs
• NEO has a specific strategy to increase
Erasmus impact on students
• Strong and competitive research system
• HEI have large autonomy

Opportunities Threats
• Usage of Erasmus+ for international • Political relationships with neighbouring
mobility countries do not facilitate regional
• General attractiveness of country, especially cooperation
in the field of tech, research and innovation
• Restrictions on the granting of visas
• Bilateral cooperation opportunities are well
exploited
• Israel has been an associated country of the
Horizon Program since the creation of the
program

172
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 Higher education institutions play a major role in Israel. Despite the high level of
internationalisation, Israel should further increase the attractiveness of Israeli HEIs by
diversifying the educational offer currently mainly in Hebrew. This would make it possible
to achieve excellence in teaching and research, one of the main objectives of the Israeli
higher education system.

R2 Increasing students’ English language knowledge to allow them to take more international
opportunities and to improve their internationalisation exposure.

R3
Given that most of the data available are in Hebrew, there is a need to increase the
accessibility to the data concerning the higher education system through publication in
English. This would ease access to important information and increase opportunities for
collaboration with international stakeholders.

R4
Widening the scope of the internationalisation of the Israeli higher education system
through the use of new channels of cooperation.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Improving national and institutional policies aimed at strengthening administrative staff skills
(with specific attention on language) in order to make the universities’ actions and the international
relations offices’ performance more impactful.

• Increasing the number of courses taught in English in order to make the whole system more
attractive.

• Updating the main public databases with data and documents available in foreign languages on the
Israeli HE sector.

• Strengthening and promoting science diplomacy actions aimed at increasing academic collaborations
and at paving the way for scientific cooperation, on the basis of past initiatives that proved to be
successful, such as SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the
Middle East).

173
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Jordan
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Rapid modernization of the HEI sector and its quality • Insufficient knowledge of HEIs of the whole set of
has made it a strategic pillar for the development of activities to be implemented to fully promote their
the country internationalisation
• Legislative reform indicates internationalisation as an • Most of English courses are in Hard Sciences
asset and a priority while Humanities are mostly taught in Arabic,
• The HE system is mature enough to be further reducing international cooperation in Social
improved Sciences
• English teaching and syllabus coherent with • Scarce knowledge of the English language in
international standards, English version of institutional smaller and peripheral HEIs
websites available • Scarce participation in EU programmes of
• Good cooperation in Hard Sciences and research on smaller and peripheral HEIs
the top agenda of internationalization for universities • Gender gap in travels, especially for students
• A QA policy and agency exists for HEIs, which • Quick shift to online learning and digitalization
contributed to quality of education and improved creates a gap between most prepared HEIs and
universities’ international ranking, perceived as a HEIs which are not ready to react (readiness and
means of promoting international research preparedness), risking the increase the digital
• The Ministry of HE and SR is perceived by HEIs as divide
a reliable actor to support their internationalisation • Credit recognitions systems diversification and
activities the use of the American education system in most
• Policy reform for online learning and digitalization in HEIs makes it difficult to implement joint degrees
place and hinders some forms of cooperation
• Some Universities have students’ organizations or • Lack of sufficient joint programs and doctoral
alumni clubs which greatly support incoming and studies
outgoing students’ mobility

Opportunities Threats
• Diversification of cooperation opportunities • High presence of refugees putting pressure
with other countries: Turkey, Saudi Arabia, on the HE system
India, China, Malaysia • Lack of national funding for
• Bilateral cooperation ongoing with other internationalization
funding bodies (e.g., DAAD, high cooperation • Internet infrastructure is weak
with Germany)
• The country’s stability compared to the
other countries in the region is an asset
• Jordan has a high attractiveness in the
region

174
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 Jordanian universities are considered to be among the major actors for the development
of the country. Universities should play a wider role through the reinforcement of
internationalisation at home practices and their social responsibility dimension; and
strengthening the entrepreneurial mindset and the capacity to dialogue with the private
sector, to reduce brain drain, especially towards the Gulf countries.

R2 Jordanian HEIs should capitalise on previous experiences and acquired skills, considering
a strategic shift for which internationalisation is no longer the objective but the means
to reaching higher goals. Internationalisation should increase the attractiveness of the
higher education system in Jordan, as a destination country for international students and
scholars, and a reliable actor for international organisations.

R3
Jordan should invest in research and innovation, raising the quality and the number of
post-graduate studies, reinforcing the offer of joint degrees in collaboration with more
experienced institutions and leveraging on the high-quality human capital to soar in
international research collaborations.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Creating a national agency providing orientation and guidance to international students

and scholars, enhancing the potential of attractiveness of the higher education sector. The
National Agency would provide information and references, support on mobility and hospitality,
promote cultural dialogue, and increase the visibility of university activities and programmes.
To complement, universities should dedicate resources to track all the activities implemented and
make the most of the information available on their institutional websites.

• Strengthening relevant internationalisation at home and inclusion measures, such as: the
organisation of events of intercultural dialogue; organising extra-curricular activities engaging
social actors and civil society organisations providing spaces for integration and valorisation of
diversity; inviting international organisations and experts to deliver speeches and workshops at the
university (both in-presence and virtually); including a global perspective in the curricula.

• Empowering and strengthening the role and presence of students’ organisations, as a means to
supporting incoming and outgoing students’ mobility.

• Following successful examples in the country and regional good practices for the development of
effective relations with the private sector, strengthening the role of career centres and developing
internships opportunities with local providers.

• Focusing on the future by developing cooperation projects in research, both in hard sciences and
humanities.

• Relying on existing bilateral cooperation agreements to widen the offer of joint degrees and
strengthening the post-doctoral education offer, as well as making agreements for co-supervision
of PhD students.

• Creating a dedicated platform where researchers can network with each other and with
international peers, showcase their project ideas, exchange resources. The platform should follow
in the footsteps of the MIMIr project and has the potential to become a virtual collaborative space
for the research conducted in the region.

175
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Lebanon
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Strong international links with EU and non-EU • Lack of a national strategy for HEI (legislation
HEIs on several matters exists on paper, but very
• Full autonomy of HEIs under all aspects, the outdated and rarely translated into action)
ministry does not interfere neither in both • The HE system is highly fragmented
public nor private institutions • HEIs communicate with foreign counterparts
• IROs and QA offices exist in most universities on an individual basis
• Lack of a vision for the sector by the ministry
• HE system works in 3 languages, facilitating
• Credit recognition is a big problem, systems
2-ways mobilities
are not homogeneous and there are no
• Erasmus+ has generated a diversification in guidelines at national level
the partnerships and South-South cooperation • Cultural resistance and dislike towards virtual
• High levels of incoming and outgoing mobility, activities
gender independent, also supported by the • Lack of legislation on online teaching and
private sector and foreign governments learning
• Strong interaction with large international • Formal recognition of refugees is missing
organisations • Not all level of HEIs staff are equally involved
• AUB based in Beirut is at the top ranking for in international activities
HEIs worldwide • Lack of a national agency for QA and
accreditation

Opportunities Threats
• Significant funding opportunities for • Financial crisis and the 2020 crisis of the
bilateral cooperation banking system
• Diaspora as a networking opportunity • Governmental and institutional crisis
• Cultural bridge between Europe and the • Turmoil and unrests affecting security since
Middle East October 2019
• Opening to the Gulf area • External policies affect internal processes
• Bureaucratic barriers negatively affect in-
ternationalisation
• Internet and ICT infrastructure of bad quality

176
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 The reform process initiated with the aim of developing a coherent and tailored national
strategy for the higher education sector should be accelerated, in order to reduce the
negative effects generated by a highly diversified and fragmented sector, providing
HEIs with a number of guiding principles to maximise their impact and contribute to the
development of the country.

R2 The issue of qualifications recognition poses a challenge to the Lebanese higher education
system, due to the coexistence at HEIs of both the European and the American frameworks
for recognition. The definition of a national qualification framework, providing universities
with clear guidance in the matter, would be beneficial and in turn would facilitate exchanges
and international cooperation both with Europe and the Middle East.

R3 A long-term regulatory framework for online learning and the recognition of virtual
activities should be further developed, beyond the recent emergency legislation issued to
cope with the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic.

R4 HEIs should leverage on the strong bilateral cooperation agreements with a wide range
of international organisations to generate synergies and reduce duplication of efforts and
replication of initiatives.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Developing a national strategy for higher education that is up-to-date and supports the modernisation of
the sector in line with international standards and trends, with the support of reliable institutional actor,
such as the HERE working group and the World Bank. The strategy should be implemented with the
support of dedicated structures at the Ministry and at the institutional level.

• Creating a national agency for quality assurance as a national reference for HEIs, in order to guarantee
the adequacy of the education provided and to complement international accreditations of institutions
and programmes.

• Developing dedicated actions that build on past and current experiences (above all on the MERIC-Net
project and the LEBPASS project) and on the collaboration with international stakeholders, in order
to define a national qualification framework (NQF), providing universities with a clear guidance in the
matter. The creation of the NQF for recognition of qualifications will enhance transparency, coherence
and compatibility between systems. Support may be granted by the already existing Recognition and
Equivalence Committee.

• Developing capacity-building actions to train academic and administrative staff on the recognition
procedures in the different systems, reducing the complexity of assessing foreign qualifications and the
credits acquired by national students in mobility.

• Developing a long-term national legislation on e-learning and a system of recognition of virtual

activities. Thanks to these national regulations, universities would be able to offer blended learning
experiences, including international contents, in their curriculum, involving foreign teachers in course
delivery (virtually). Moreover, virtual collaborative learning may become an additional opportunity of
internationalisation for students.

• Developing a capacity-building action to strengthen digital skills (for both academic staff, administrative
staff, and students) and explore all the possibilities offered by the use of technology in education. This
should be complemented by an investment in terms of infrastructures and equipment, to increase access
to digitalisation.

• Organising a cluster meeting with the main international organisations operating in the country to
showcase their initiatives and create synergies, among them and with other institutions in the region
experiencing similar challenges.

177
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Libya
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• A number of HEIs have good skills and • Lack of ministerial policy
internationalisation capabilities thanks to • A number of HEIs lack skills in
EU projects (Tempus + CBHE) internationalisation (young HEIs)
• Education Ministry is running a significant • Regulations for usage of funds by HEIs
scholarship programme for international • Scarce knowledge of foreign languages by
mobility HEIs staff
• Each HEI has an international relationships • Lack of IT equipment
office and they work in a coordinated way • Lack of legislation for online teaching
• HEI remained open and operational in spite • Low quality and quantity of research
of the crisis projects reduced the international
• Recognition of international mobility as a attractiveness of the whole HEI system
career opportunity • Gender gap in the access to
• HEIs are committed to enhancing their internationalisation opportunities especially
international standing by HEI staff
• A number of HEIs have formalised • Frequent staff turnover in IROs
relationships with African universities

Opportunities Threats
• New EU programmes for HEIs • Conflicts and war-like situation affecting
internationalisation HEIs’ performances
• Libya is a priority for EU external • Legislation on financial matters is a
cooperation and for international blocking factor for payments
• Security restrictions and Visa problems
stakeholders
(affecting incoming and outgoing mobility)
• Lack of efficient Network infrastructure
(web)
• Other countries are developing online
teaching as a means of internationalisation
• Lack of readiness of industry for
cooperation with academia

178
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 Supporting a structural reform process in the country for a clear definition of a strategic
vision concerning the higher education system, with specific attention to research,
governance (with a focus on institutional autonomy) and quality of teaching.

R2
Strengthening universities’ exposure and performance in particular by addressing
language and cultural barriers, which are currently limiting the access to
internationalisation opportunities for both academic and administrative staff and
consequently limiting their capacities.

R3
Widening the outreach of Libyan universities by involving the less involved HEIs in order
to allow a coherent growth of the Libyan HE system and benefiting from the possibility of
connection with Sub-Saharan Africa.

R4
International stakeholders should support the development of infrastructure and the
country digitalisation in order to allow the local higher education institutions to increase
attractiveness and technological readiness.
Theme-based roadmap

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• International stakeholders should support local institutions, in cooperation with the universities,
in the finalisation of a structural reform process for higher education. The creation of a multi-
stakeholder committee (under the supervision of the EU delegation for Libya) for supporting this
reform process is highly recommended as the first concrete step.

• The Libyan University Presidents Council should be supported in playing a decisive role in assisting
the Ministry of Education towards strategic advancements of the HE sector.

• Universities should take capacity-building actions aimed at raising the quality of their research and
engaging in high-quality scientific research activities, complemented by the definition of successful
actions tackling the challenges of the Libyan society.

• The EU should find concrete and tangible synergies among ongoing programmes and projects by
upscaling already ongoing initiatives and by efficiently using different budget lines.

• European universities should abandon a stereotyped vision of the country and recognise that,
despite all the difficulties, it is possible and feasible to cooperate with the Libyan higher education
system.

• Universities should guarantee an ongoing update of university’s staff skills, in particular on the
following issues: quality assurance, institutional management, pedagogical innovation, teaching
and research methodology.

• Universities should upscale and upgrade the existing quality and performance evaluation offices,
in a way that they become a reference point to disseminate quality and assurance practices at the
institutions.

• Supporting scientific collaboration under the form of “science diplomacy action” with the aim of
easing political tensions, guaranteeing stability, mitigating the economic crisis, supporting long-
term stabilisation and, ultimately, reducing the country’s isolation.

179
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Mauritania
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Historical bilateral cooperation with France, • Young and inexperienced system
Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal, Spain • Lack of multilateral cooperation experience
• Ministry funds scholarship programmes • Lack of trained staff
• Short missions of foreign teachers locally
• Lack of knowledge of foreign languages
• Relying on North African competencies to
• National recognition system is missing
enhance academic quality
• Inclusive system for international • Digital divide
vulnerable students • Problem of access to HEIs due to distance
• Bilateral cooperation with France and Spain and internal mobility difficulties
• Ministry has defined its priority
• Leadership of HEI is well trained
• International stakeholders have positively
impacted the training of HEIs staff
• Voluntarism and ongoing modernization of
the system

Opportunities Threats
• Geographical position exposes to both • Low-income country
Mediterranean and African cooperation • HE is not a priority of international
• The country looks at the 3 Maghreb stakeholders
countries as cooperation partners • Country is not well known abroad
• Diaspora • Scarce attractivity of research at the
international level

180
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 International players should support the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research
strategic vision concerning the higher education system, with specific attention to
research, governance, quality of teaching and internationalisation.

R2 Strengthening HEIs exposure and performance in particular by addressing language

and cultural barriers, which are currently limiting the access to the internationalisation
opportunities for both academic and administrative staff and consequently limiting their
capacities.

R3
Organising a cluster meeting with the main international stakeholders operating in the
country to imagine synergies and ways to strengthen national efforts towards higher
education.

R4 Supporting the national and institutional efforts for developing scientific research.

R5 EU institutions should consider Mauritania as a bridge towards other Sub-Saharan

countries and invest in cross-regional cooperation.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Increasing the mobility of all categories involved in international activities in order to reinforce
the modernisation of teaching and services, and to strengthen the capacities of university’s staff
members and students.

• Increasing the knowledge of foreign languages among all the categories involved in international
activities (students, academic staff and administrative staff), in order to increase the international
exposure of the universities.

• Exploring the privileged cooperation with some European countries and Maghreb countries in order
to develop more structural cooperation and explore the Intra-Africa Academic Mobility Scheme.

• Raising awareness on internationalisation needs at the national level through dissemination

activities and deepening the understanding at the institutional level of all the possibilities included
in a comprehensive internationalisation process.

181
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Morocco
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Institutional commitment towards • Language problem: courses are only in
internationalisation French and Arabic, this is an obstacle for
• High participation to ICM incoming students
• Destination country for Sub-Saharan Africa • Credit recognition not aligned with EU
• Presence of foreign providers in the HE standards
sector (international universities) • Lack of national system for credit
• Double degree accreditation recognition
• Openness to Europe and new countries and • Lack of infrastructures for receiving
also towards Anglophone countries incoming international students
• Strong bilateral cooperation with France • IROs not well implemented in all HEIs,
staff is not always well trained for
internationalisation
• Websites available in Arab and French only

Opportunities Threats
• Geographical position and attractiveness • Digital divide in the country
favours incoming mobility • Visa problems for outgoing students
• Stability of the country
• Bilateral cooperation
• Erasmus+ support the implementation of
the credit system

182
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 Increasing the leadership commitment through an internationalisation strategy, which

strives to be as consolidated as possible, by restructuring the internal institutional
organisation chart and enforcing management skills.

R2
Increasing the attractiveness of the Moroccan HE system by leveraging on the country’s
geographical position and its role in Africa. Becoming a destination country by including
the HEIs in the national strategy for the country’s development, benefiting from the
possibility of connection with Sub-Saharan Africa.

R3
Strengthening the role of universities (in terms of human resources and equipment)
through the acceleration and regulation of the digitalisation process and by exploiting ICT
tools for greater international exposure.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Defining a national comprehensive strategy for the establishment of internal structures dedicated
to international activities, by strengthening existing international relations offices or through
dedicated investments of resources in the case no structure dedicated to internationalisation
within the institution exists.

• Developing and aligning reception policies at the national level for incoming mobilities. Improving
the management of the arrivals of foreign students in terms of infrastructures and guidance, in
order to increase appeal of the Moroccan HE system. Leveraging on country stability and tourism
flows to increase short-mobilities, with specific attention to the flows to and from Europe.

• State institutions should strengthen the foreign-language learning process during the whole
education pipeline in order to foster openness to the Anglo-Saxon world.

• Increasing the knowledge of foreign languages among all categories involved in international
activities (students, academic staff and administrative staff) in order to increase the international
exposure of the universities.

• Moroccan universities (under a clear strategy set by the Ministry) are about to implement the
Anglophone bachelor system. An acceleration in the implementation of the reform, specifically
with regards to the credit recognition system, would facilitate the diversification of the
international relations portfolio. At the same time, a regular evaluation of the reform process
will allow to measure its transferability potential at the regional level and its long-term impact.

• Providing a decisive boost in terms of EU funds and developing capacity-building actions to

strengthen digital skills (for both academic staff, administrative staff and students) capitalising
on European funded projects of the past and exploring all the possibilities offered by the use of
technology in education (as stated in the OER Morocco Declaration). This should be complemented
by an investment in terms of infrastructures and equipment, to reduce the digital divide in the
country, through the definition of a national plan for structural investment.

183
 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Palestine
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Capability to quickly adapt to the isolation • Not all HEIs are equally capable of
due to COVID19 because of previous exploiting the EU programmes
experience in being isolated • Lack of ministerial strategy on
• High capability of exploiting the Erasmus+ internationalisation
funding system as a whole • Different credit systems affect the credit
• Ongoing university reform process on recognition
internationalisation • Concerns about virtual mobility which could
• High level of digital competencies allowing replace physical mobility
virtual mobility • Brain drain effect
• HEIs have large autonomy related to • Job market is not prepared to recognise
international cooperation international experience as an added value
• HEIs leadership is well established
• Several curricular activities for
internationalisation

Opportunities Threats
• International cooperation with EU • Heavy restrictions to the mobility of people
institutions is not perceived as being • Problems in obtaining visas
politically biased • Financial crisis
• Bilateral cooperation opportunities are well • Incoming international students have
exploited by HEIs difficulties in getting long term visas
• Presence of international funds for
international activities
• Cultural and social diversity should be
perceived as an opportunity

184
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 Standardising the variety of credits systems and practices presents in the Palestinian
higher education sector as this variety is perceived as one of the main obstacles
affecting the recognition of qualification and, consequently, students’ mobility. Efforts
and engagement of the MoEHE in Palestine in developing national regulations related to
recognition of credits and mobility, should be supported, especially to amplify the offer of
joint master programmes.

R2 Strengthening the university leadership engagement and commitment in social sciences

and humanities, especially in terms of students and academic mobility, so that Palestinian
good practices are upscaled and may become regional good practices for international
cooperation.

R3
Major efforts and institutional commitment should be made to favour access and exposure
of universities to international experiences in terms of teaching, research and business, to
cope with the high-level unemployment of graduates in order to enhance attractiveness
and reduce brain drain.

R4
Supporting the development of national regulations on e-learning and virtual mobility as
a national strategic priority, also due to the specific condition in which some institutions
are operating (e.g., Gaza Strip)

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• International stakeholders should support the Ministerial efforts in the issue of standardisation of
credits systems and assessment of qualifications in the HEIs in Palestine in order to improve and
promote students’ mobility.

• Palestinian universities should disseminate and share their experience in social sciences and
humanities at the regional level, capitalising on past successful experiences.

• Palestinian universities should focus, with the support of international stakeholders, on research
internationalisation activities targeting specific national priorities.

• The private sector should be sensitised and trained to value the international experiences of students
which should be recognised as an added value while hiring. This may in turn help overcoming
unemployment problems.

• Palestinian Ministry of higher education should to be supported in defining a national strategy

and legal frameworks to encourage and recognise virtual mobility and e-learning as tools of
internationalisation at home, with the potential of balance the limitations related to the specific
conditions in which HEIs operate.

• Providing a decisive boost in terms of EU funds for digitalisation and virtual mobility, without
reducing support and investments for physical mobility, which still remains a challenge for
Palestinian students, educators and staff.

• Palestinian universities should focus on regional best practices regarding innovative online teaching
methodologies.

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 SWOT A N A LYSIS

Tunisia
Internal factors (strengths and weaknesses): Higher Education sector, HEIs and the Ministry of HE and SR
External factors (opportunities and threats): the national, regional and international context

Strengths Weaknesses
• Strong connections with sub-Saharan Africa HEI • In some specific areas there is a problem of
system credit recognition for returning students
• Bologna process is implemented since 2008
• Quality of teaching has to be improved
• Strong South-South cooperation
• “AAET-Agence D’Accompagnement des Étudiants • Limited autonomy by HEIs: system is
vers la Tunisie” is set up to attract foreign students strongly centralised
• Peripheric HEIs are very active in terms of the EU • Cultural barriers to improve the online
projects teaching by academic staff
• Tunisian HEIs are highly interested in double • Lack of human resources to manage more
degrees
mobility activities abroad
• Quality tests are carried out by the National
Evaluation, Quality Assurance & Accreditation • Performances on Framework participation
Authority affected by lack of competence
• Tunisia has a strategy to become a destination
country
• Ministry financially supports mobility projects
• Strategic plan declares online training as a priority
• The adoption of ECTS facilitates international
exchanges
• No gender gap in mobility with the exception of
teaching mobility

Opportunities Threats
• Geographical position • Strong brain drain
• International stakeholders intend to • Frequent changes in government are
increase the participation of less involved/ affecting long terms strategies
smaller HEIs • Economic system in crisis
• Significant funding by EU sources to Tunisia • Bureaucratic obstacles to spend public
in the last years money
• New emerging financial and cooperation • Visa problems for outgoing students
partners beyond the EU
• Tunisia is associated partner of
Horizon2020 programme

186
 R E CO MMEN DAT ION S

R1 It is desirable to make further efforts to increase the double degree offer with European
universities. Preliminary steps have already been taken with the establishment, for
instance, of the Franco-Tunisian University in 2019. The Tunisian system is ready to increase
double degree options in the coming years, and to relaunch the internationalisation
process reinforcing the attractiveness of Tunisian HEIs for international students.

R2 Tunisian universities should capitalise on the skills acquired thanks to the Erasmus+
programme to strengthen research skills and exploit the possibilities offered to the
country by the participation in research programmes, also considering its privileged
position as a H2020 associated country (currently Tunisia is negotiating its participation
as an associated country in the new Horizon Europe programme).

R3 European institutions and universities should leverage on the potential of Tunisia to act
as a bridge between the two continents (Europe and Africa), improving, through dedicated
national and international resources (projects and training), Tunisia’s ability to manage
and attract African students and researchers.

R4
It is necessary that Tunisian universities and the Ministry of higher education make greater
efforts and invest more in lifelong learning for the country’s international relations officers
by building on previous experiences, in order to increase attractiveness and funds.

T H E M E - BA SED ROA DMA P

• Supporting the ongoing governance reform process to allow universities to be more autonomous
from the central authorities in the definition of their internationalisation actions, strategies and
targets.

• Increasing the national budget share dedicated to research and innovation.

• Updating institutional websites and widen the availability of information to give more visibility to
the educational offer and to the actions undertaken by Tunisian HEIs.

• Planning strategic international alliances and initiatives such as the recently established Université
Franco-Tunisienne pour l’Afrique et la Méditerranée-UFTAM; the Programme UTIQUE 2022 that
enhances research capacities and the exchange of researchers; and the double degree set up in the
framework of the FORMED project between the University of Carthage and the University of Sassari
in urbanism and architecture.

• Strengthening the skills of international relations officers in order to improve the recruitment process
of international students and staff improve services related to the management of international
activities, supported by a stronger institutional commitment by the university leadership.

187
4.2 Regional clusters: governance, digitalisation,
Recommendations international relations, students’
services, etc. A horizontal action
The impact of the (upon the example of the Interreg MED
programme) would encourage synergies
Erasmus+ programme and collaboration among projects and
would guarantee greater impact and
• R1. Strengthening and broadening
visibility to all the actors involved.
the consultation process between
the European Commission and the
• R5. In the light of the current pandemic
HE systems of South-Mediterranean
and of the urgent need for MENA HEIs to
countries (Ministries, universities,
maintain the reform process initiated
local stakeholders) for the definition of
in the sector of internationalisation
thematic areas of interest and national
and cross-border cooperation, virtual
priorities, strengthening the role of
exchanges represent a cost-effective
NEOs which generated a positive impact
tool to be further promoted and
in university participation and in the
exploited, offering innovative forms
capacity building process.
of virtual learning and collaboration,
which can equip future graduates with
• R2. Strengthening the participation
the competences and skills needed for
of remote, peripheral and smaller
the international labour market, as well
universities in the Erasmus+
as with a higher capacity to understand
programme, ensuring a homogeneous
different cultures. Virtual exchange must
growth of the HE system in the target
be intended as a complement to physical
countries, promoting a shared approach
mobility, providing a scalable and
between several players, each upon
highly inclusive opportunity to access
their role and ability to contribute to
international and intercultural learning
the overall goal of comprehensive
and soft skills development.
internationalisation.

• R6. Sharing and enlarging the initiative

• R3. Promoting a “Euro-Mediterranean
of Erasmus+ traineeship (nowadays
free-exchange area for diplomas” that
present at the EU level), to support
allows for longer-term degree mobility
internships, work experiences,
and ideally more two-ways and less one-
apprenticeships abroad for students
way mobility, as it happens today with
enrolled in a three-year and master’s
short-term outgoing mobility for credits.
degree course, and for doctoral students
The aim is to generate shared research
in Southern Mediterranean countries.
and teaching arrangements expected
This type of mobility will not only
to increase the attractiveness of the
improve students’ communication skills
Southern Mediterranean systems.
and their language and intercultural
competences, but also their transversal
• R4. For the future generation of Capacity
skills and entrepreneurial spirit.
Building projects, it is advisable to
achieve greater coordination among
projects active in the same fields, through
the creation of thematic multilateral

188
Administrative staff • R9. Supporting the regional efforts
competences made by international stakeholders,
such as the initiative recently promoted
by AArU to create an Arab qualification
• R7. The HE system should guarantee
framework project in cooperation with
recognition and opportunities for
the Arab League Educational, Cultural
administrative staff members to
and Scientific Organisation (ALECSO)
strengthen their language, intercultural
and the League of Arab States; upscaling
and management skills by promoting
the experience of the MERIC-Net
their international exposure.
project which had the great value of
Consequently, a change in the perception
stimulating a dialogue between different
of their position and a strong commitment
systems; mainstreaming the UNESCO-
on the part of the university leadership
UNHCR qualifications passport for
is necessary to guarantee administrative
refugees and vulnerable migrants to
staff mobility and training, consistent
support inclusion in HE.
with the institutional internationalisation
strategy. This would enhance the key
• R10. Improving the knowledge and
role of the administrative body in the
implementation of Bologna-process-
management of internationalisation
related practices as a further tool for
activities and will guarantee to the
strengthening internationalisation of
institutions themselves a reliable
HE, also thanks to the support of
expertise. Universities should define
international organisations.
a three-step awarding scheme: first,
raising awareness on the topics and
their importance for HE, secondly Regional and national
defining a training scheme for both structural difficulties in
administrative staff, third providing gathering information
participants with awards as an incentive on the process of
for their professional growth. internationalisation and
mobility
Recognition of credits and
qualification systems • R11. Defining a common framework
and methodology for improved data
• R8. Supporting the ongoing reform collection, monitoring, and accessibility
processes in each country to define/ of information on internationalisation
redefine/refine the credit and activities and mobility, complemented
qualification recognition systems, by the improvement of technical skills
for a simplification of practices and and equipment. Culturally enhancing
the creation of a national reference the perception about the importance of
framework for HEIs. This will in turn data with the aim of informing strategic
improve the level of attractiveness and leadership decisions, measuring impact,
accessibility of the HE systems and giving visibility to the activities carried
facilitate dialogue with European and out and the opportunities that universities
regional institutions. can guarantee, increasing the appeal
of universities and the involvement of
the academic community, exploiting

189
 successful experiences, and – last but students and administrative staff
not least – encouraging investments by creating a dedicated channel for
on behalf of national and international mobility. Without a clear and recognised
stakeholders. regulation that facilitates the procedure
of access, the Erasmus+ programme
Low attractiveness of risks losing its impact in favour of other
local higher education non-European cooperation programmes.
systems In addition to that, European institutions
should reinforce the participation of
• R12. Developing concrete actions, disadvantaged groups in Erasmus+
upscale initiatives, multiplicate efforts which may have more difficulties in
to reduce feelings of Islamophobia and obtaining visa.
combat stereotypes towards the region:
the two factors that are clearly and • R16. Creating a permanent forum,
constantly reducing its attractiveness. gathering all the involved actors
responsible for visa procedures, in
• R13. Universities must strive to improve order to share information, understand
quality of research and teaching, to common problems, promote mutual
internationalise editorial committees, comprehension and find shared
to implement co-supervision actions for solutions.
PhDs. South-Mediterranean researchers
need to be more present in international International cooperation
journals. In addition, course catalogues in human and social
must be updated with a richer educational sciences
offer, also in terms of multilingual
courses and updated research activities. • R17. All the participating countries aim
to increase international cooperation in
• R14. In order to improve attractiveness, human and social sciences, currently
a better visual web identity at the less developed than cooperation in hard
institutional level is needed. It is also sciences. Cooperation in humanities
vital to have greater transparency on and social sciences has the potential
scholarship opportunities including to deepen mutual knowledge and
bilateral ones. It is essential that each strengthen South-South cooperation (for
university make available on their example in arts, archaeology, history).
respective institutional websites an
updated and visible organisational chart • R18. Improving integration between
with roles and responsibilities clearly hard and social sciences through a
defined and assigned, to facilitate multidisciplinary approach, expanding
reaching out to institutions. the quality of cooperation and the impact
on society at large. Knowing the history,
Visa problems culture, and literature of the respective
countries may reduce radicalisation,
• R15. European institutions should create boost intercultural dialogue, mutual
a formula (Erasmus+ visa/Erasmus+ knowledge and the understanding of
passport) to increase participation in mutual differences.
the Erasmus+ programme of academics,

190
Knowledge of all
the dimensions of • R22. Sharing good practices (e.g.,
among Ministries) in order to simplify
internationalisation procedures and unburden the HE system,
while increasing the accountability of
• R19. South-Mediterranean HEIs do
HEIs, making them more autonomous
not know all the aspects related to the
in the financial and overall institutional
internationalisation of higher education.
management.
Often internationalisation is seen only
as mobility and capacity building, while
other dimensions such as scientific and
Upscaling bilateral
research cooperation should be also cooperation towards
promoted and explored. a thematic regional
approach
• R20. A comprehensive and responsible
internationalisation strategy is needed • R23. Strengthen ongoing bilateral
as a governance tool for universities, collaborations to overcome some
which relates to the wider social obstacles to internationalisation (for
responsibility and third mission of the example credit recognition and language
institution. The strategy should not barriers) and to reinforce existing good
solely focus on numbers (mobilities, practices extended to the whole HE
agreements, partnerships), but sector. Fragmentation and exclusiveness
follow quality standards to ensure of international relations (especially in
opportunities to all. Actions should countries where historical links risk to
be taken to grant opportunities for prevail over new opportunities) should
those not engaged in mobility, through also be avoided. In addition, thematic
internationalisation at home practices, South-South cooperation should be
ensuring a global perspective in the enhanced and boosted based on common
curricula and setting-up tools to priorities.
monitor the quality (over the quantity) of
international collaborations. • R24. Supporting the role of European and
regional university networks to promote
Simplification and the international dimension of HEIs.
harmonisation of These networks play a fundamental
bureaucratic procedures role in promoting academic mobility and
cooperation at all levels. We strongly
recommend the creation of a permanent
• R21. Simplifying the access to
forum for dialogue with national and
international opportunities and the
international networks, in line with
procedures to manage resources,
the policy dialogue promoted by DG
both for the beneficiaries and for
Education with the aim of strengthening
the funding agencies, will help fully
regional cooperation.
exploit trans-national cooperation,
streamline internationalisation,
increase accountability and
transparency, and avoid corruption and
waste of time and resources.

191
Internationalisation of
research
• R25. Enhancing the educational offer at
postgraduate level (PhD) and encouraging
co-supervision of PhD students.

• R26. Boost investments in technology,

labs and equipment to raise the level of
research and increase the opportunities
for South-Mediterranean universities to
engage in international collaboration in
research.

• R27. Improving publication policies

in order to give more visibility to the
outcomes produced by the South-
Mediterranean researchers, overcome
language barriers and stereotypes.

• R28. Enhance capacity building for

South-Mediterranean researchers with
regards to research methodology, R&I
management and knowledge transfer.

• R29. Creating a bridging programme

linking capacity-building (as part of the
new Erasmus+ programme) to research-
cooperation (through the new Horizon
Europe) in order to build on the skills
acquired and to prepare researchers to
be engaged in high-level research
projects. Single researchers’ skills
should be increased, but also the
institutions ability to compete and
participate in research on a global scale
is key.

192
Conclusions
The first thing that we realised when concluding the study is that it represents a first milestone
for future research in the forthcoming years. It should be considered as a starting point, but a
particularly exhaustive one. There is significant room for improvement once more reliable and
comprehensive data will be made available to researchers and international stakeholders, which
have the duty of taking advantage of the “unpacked opportunities” (to use Laura Rumbley’s words)
that are still hided beyond the curtains of misinterpretation and stereotypes.

There are difficulties, but also opportunities, in a young region, full of dynamism and thirst for
cooperation. The study clearly shows the weaknesses of the South-Mediterranean HE systems:
poor research quality, high bureaucracy, lack of capacities, language barriers, visa policies and in
general a limited attractiveness of the HEIs in the region. On the other hand, we must recognise
that the rate of participation of universities and international stakeholders in the research, their
interest, their active contribution clearly highlight that all actors are ready to reach out to each
other and embark hands in hands on new cooperation paths.

It is worth mentioning that Europe is still perceived as the main partner and the most important HE
arena. Other actors are stepping in (Turkey, China, India, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia), but the European
countries are still the top destinations for all target countries’ students, teachers and administrative
staff. Rather than considering it as an arrival point, this should be considered as a starting point.
We have to reverse the perspective and abandon our Orientalist lens, strengthening the reciprocity
principle, beginning a new era based on two-directions cooperation and collaboration.

We are still far away from the finish line and we are not sure that we will be able to reach it. The
study can be viewed as an effort to upscale existing research and as a building block for opening
up future studies. The shared and strong willingness of enhancing internationalisation of higher
education in the Euro-Mediterranean region is undoubtedly a good sign that we are going in the
right direction. “Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do”. It is
time to start working. It is time to act.
 Authors profile
Maria Maria Giulia Ballatore is a Research Fellow at the Department of
Mathematical Sciences of the Politecnico di Torino, Italy. At the same
time, she is a PhD student in Engineering Education at the School
Giulia of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Technological University
Dublin, Ireland. She holds an Electrical Engineering Master’s degree.

Ballatore She is a member of the TEACH group. Her research activities are
related to engineering education with a particular interest in spatial
(external expert) ability, gamification and gender issues. Moreover, she has developed
robust qualitative research skills thanks to different projects aiming
to foster the open practice and develop and standardise learning
technology.

Raniero He has been involved since 1985 in European projects (mainly

in RTD, training and international cooperation), as a Commission
Official (ESPRIT Programme 85-88), Project Manager, Project Design
Chelli specialist, Evaluator and reviewer, Quality assurance manager,
National Delegate in IST management Committees and as a trainer
on EU programmes and funding. He is currently the Coordinator of
EU projects at UNIMED, aimed at facilitating access to EU funding
by identifying appropriate calls for proposals, drafting successful
proposals and setting up consortia, and where applicable, supporting
the management of selected projects with a particular emphasis on
Quality Assurance. Over the years, he has managed more than 10
significant projects funded by the European Commission through R&D
Framework Programmes, TEMPUS, Erasmus+ and Euromed Heritage
and he has consequently acquired an outstanding experience in
managing large and complex international publicly funded projects,
especially as regards the planning the activities of highly diversified
consortia, conflicts resolution and administrative matters.

Federica Federica De Giorgi holds a Postgraduate Master’s Degree in European

Project Planning and Management at PIXEL International School and
Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees in Classics at Roma Tre University.
De Giorgi She joined the UNIMED team in 2015 as International Project Officer.
She is in charge of Euro-Mediterranean and international projects,
research activities and analyses, contributes to networking, drafting
project proposals and managing ICM mobility projects. She is Italian
mother-tongue and she speaks fluent English and French.

194
Marco Di PhD researcher in Political Thinking and Political Communication,
Marco Di Donato also holds a Master’s Degree cum laude in Arabic
language and Islamic Studies at the L’Orientale University of Naples
Donato (Italy). He focuses his research on the Islamist movement in the
Middle East area. Author of several publications with Italian and
International publishing houses, in 2015 he wrote his first monograph
on “Hezbollah, the Lebanese Resistance Movement” published by
Mimesis; in 2018 he published his second monograph on Salafism
and in 2019 his third one on Islamic political thought. Proficient in
Arabic and English, he was the professor (2013-2015) of the course
on “Islam and Politics” at FUA (Florence University of Arts) in
Florence. Since 2014, he has been part of the UNIMED Research Unit.
From 2016 to 2018, he worked as Professor of “History of Islamic
Countries” and “Islamic Thought” at the University of Trento. In the
last academic year (2019/2020), he has been professor of “Arabic
Culture” at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”.

Federica Federica Li Muli graduated from SSML Centro Masterly in Translation

and Interpreting and has also obtained a Master’s Degree in
Intercultural Studies and International Relations at Enna Kore
Li Muli University. After having worked as an interpreter in some meetings,
she joined UNIMED in 2017, looking after the organisation and the
logistical aspects of UNIMED projects. She currently works within
UNIMED, in the International projects and networking team, as
Assistant Project Manager. She speaks Italian, English and French
and she has some knowledge of Spanish.

Silvia Silvia Marchionne holds a Postgraduate Master’s Degree in

International Cooperation and Development, with a focus on Middle
East and North Africa region, a Master’s Degree in “Arabic Language
Marchionne and Islamic Studies” at the L’Orientale University of Naples and a
Bachelor’s Degree in Languages and Intercultural Communication.
She has been part of the UNIMED team since 2013, she works within
UNIMED in the International Projects and Networking Team as Project
Manager. She gained experience in research activities and analysis
for Euro-Mediterranean and international projects, in proposals
writing, monitoring and evaluation and in project management (with
particular focus on governance of higher education and employability
issues in the MENA region). She is also in charge of networking
activities with UNIMED university members. Furthermore, she acts
as external consultant for the World Bank programme “University
Governance and Quality Assurance of higher education in the MENA
region”.

195
Anne- Anne-Laurence Pastorini joined UNIMED in 2017, where she works
as project manager and contributes to research and networking
activities. She holds a Master’s Degree in International law -
Laurence international administration (Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne university)
and gained experience in international cooperation within different

Pastorini institutions such as the FAO office in Ecuador, CISP (an Italian NGO)
and the French Embassy in Algeria, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
World Bank Regional Office in Dakar. University cooperation has been
the main focus of her work, especially in the Maghreb region. Before
joining UNIMED, she was in charge of the Mediterranean-Arab world
partnerships for Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University, where she
also contributed to the creation of Chaire Maghreb.

Eugenio Eugenio Platania holds a Postgraduate Master’s Degree in

international relations and diplomatic studies and a Master’s Degree
in Law, with a focus on industrial policy in the European, French and
Platania Italian legal system. He has been part of the UNIMED since March
2019. He works within UNIMED in the international projects and
networking team as Assistant Project Manager. He has been working
in the field of international cooperation in the Mediterranean area
since 2015 thanks to his experience as junior consultant at the
CIHEAM-Headquarters in Paris. He is currently a Teaching Assistant
at the Department of European Law of the University of Rome “La
Sapienza”. He speaks Italian, English and French.

Martina Martina Zipoli joined UNIMED International projects and networking

team in 2016. She holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Political Sciences
and Cooperation Studies (Università degli Studi Roma Tre, Italy) and
Zipoli a Master’s Degree in Public Administration (MPA) from the University
of Bergen (Norway) with a specific focus on organisations and politics,
and on higher education Institutions. She has been working with
EU funded projects in the field of education since 2014, and gained
experience in proposals writing, research activities, monitoring
and evaluation, and project management. She speaks Italian,
English and Norwegian, and has some knowledge of Spanish and
French. She is currently working as project manager and expert on
internationalisation of higher education in the Euro-Mediterranean
region.

196
 ANNEX I
Stakeholders Register

197
 6

198
 ANNEX II
Final sample of the universities
involved in the study

199
 ANNEX III
Institutions involved
in the Focus Groups
• Algeria (14/01/2021)
University of Mohamed Khider Biskra, University Mohamed Lamine Debaghine of
Sétif 2, University of Science and Technology of Oran Mohamed Boudiaf, University
of Bejaia, University Mouloud Mammeri of Tizi Ouzou, University Ferhat Abbas of
Sétif 1, University of Frères Mentouri - Constantine 1, University of M’hamed Bougara
Boumerdes, University 8 May 45 of Guelma, University Abdelhamid Ibn Badis of
Mostaganem, University of Blida 2
• Algeria (19/01/2021)
University Abdelhamid Ibn Badis of Mostaganem, University of Algiers 2, University of
El Oued, Djillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes, Polytechnic School of Architecture
and Urbanism - Algiers, University of Abou Bekr Belkaid Tlemcen
• Egypt (18/01/2021)
Alexandria University, Damanhour University, Arab Academy for Science And
Technology and Maritime Transport, University Of Sadat City, Helwan University, Tanta
University, Assiut University.
• Mauritania (25/01/02021)
University of Nouakchott Al Aasriya, Lebanese International University in Mauritania
• Morocco (14/01/2021)
Mohammed V University in Rabat, Ibn Tofail University of Kenitra, Sidi Mohamed Ben
Abdellah University, Cadi Ayyad University, Mundiapolis University, University Moulay
Ismail Meknes, Sultan Moulay Slimane University Beni-Mellal
• Lebanon (15/01/2021)
Lebanese University, USEK, Antonine University, Lebanese International University,
University of Saint-Joseph
• Libya (13/01/2021)
University of Zawia, Misurata University, Sebha University, University of Benghazi,
University of Tripoli, Libyan International Medical University
• Jordan (12/01/2021)
Princess Sumaya University for Technology, JUST, University of Jordan, Isra University,
Mutah University, Yarmouk University, University of Zarqa
• Palestine (13/01/2021)
An-Najah National University, Birzeit University, Arab American University, Al- Aqsa
University (Gaza), Hebron University, Islamic University of Gaza
• Tunisia (15/01/2021)
University of Gabès, University of Gafsa, University of Jendouba, University of Monastir

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