IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST

BENEFICENT, THE MOST MERCIFUL.

1
 Fluid Mechanics-I
(CE-206)

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf

Department of Civil Engineering,

U.E.T Peshawar (Bannu Campus) 2
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Statics

Department of Civil Engineering,

U.E.T Peshawar (Bannu Campus) 3
Fluid Statics Lecture # 4

Pressure
Def:The average pressure intensity p is force exerted on a unit area.

If F represents the total normal force on some finite area A, while dF represents the
force on an infinite area dA, the pressure is:

p = dF/dA Pressure & Stress

Pressure is the normal
If the pressure is uniform over the total area, then external force and stress is
the normal internal force
p = F/A per unit area. Simply
pressure causes the stress.
Unit: SI unit, pascal (N/m2) or Kpa (kN/m2)
B.G unit, psi (lb/in2 ) or psf (lb/ft2 )

In metric system , bars and millibars are also used to express pressure:
1bar =100kpa (100,000 pa)
1 mb = 100 pa
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf (Bannu Campus) 44
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Statics
Principles about Pressure
■ Two important principles about pressure were described
by Blaise Pascal, a seventeenth-century scientist:
1. Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume
of a fluid.
2. In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the boundary.

Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf (Bannu Campus) 5
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Statics
Direction of fluid pressure on
boundaries

Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf (Bannu Campus) 6
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Statics
Pressure at a Point is same in All direction
1.
(Pascal’s Law)
Consider a wedge (like a prism) shaped element of a fluid at rest.
2. Thickness = dz (perpendicular to the plane of the paper).
3. Let p = avg . pressure in any direction.
4. px and py are avg. Pressure in horizontal and vertical direction
respectively.
5. Equilibrium condition: Sum of the force components on the element in
any direction must be equal to zero. i.e. ∑ Fx = 0, ∑ Fy = 0 and ∑ Fz = 0
Let
∑ Fx = 0; p cos 𝝰 dldz – px dydz =0,
Since dy = dl cos 𝝰, therefore; p=px
p

𝜶
 Lecture #4

Fluid Statics
Pressure at a Point is same in All direction
As
W = ɣ . Vol = ɣ . A. L= ɣ.(1/2 X dxdy).dz

pz
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Statics
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
■ Atmospheric Pressure: It is the force per unit area exerted by the
weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth (or that
of another planet). It is also called as barometric pressure.
■ Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of
pressure measuring instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is
taken as Datum (reference from which measurements are made).
■ Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure equal to the sum of
atmospheric and gauge pressures. Or
■ If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero (perfect Vacuum)
we call it absolute pressure.
■ Vacuum: If the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure we call it
as vacuum.
_
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar 9
(Bannu Campus)
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

▪Absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero on the pressure
scale, so absolute pressure can never be negative.
▪Gage pressure are positive if they are above that of the atmosphere and
negative if they are vacuum.

pabs = patm ± pgage where pgage may be positive or negative (vacuum)

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Measuring Fluid Pressure Lecture # 4

Measuring gauge (gage) pressure: Measuring

Atmospheric Pressure.
?
the open-tube manometer.
The mercury barometer What is the height
of the mercury
column in a
barometer if the
atmospheric
Patm=ρHggh pressure is 1 atm
ρHg = density
(101.325 kPa)?. The
of mercury density of mercury
at 0ºC is 13.595x103
kg/m3. The same if
the liquid in the
column were water
The top of the tube is open to at 4 ºC
the atmosphere at pressure
Patm. The other end of the The absolute pressure in the container is
tube is at pressure P, which is obtained from the gauge pressure by
to be measured. The difference adding atmospheric pressure to it:
P – Patm, called the gauge P = Patm + ρgh
pressure, will be P – Patm = ρgh
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar
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Measuring Fluid Pressure Lecture # 4

BAROMETER
■ Used to measure the atmospheric pressure.

Mercury Barometer (1643; and 1810)

■ Procedure:
1. Immerse the open end of tube in a liquid which
is open to atmosphere.
2. The liquid will rise in the tube if we exhaust air
from the tube.
3. If all the air is removed and the tube is long
enough, than only pressure on the surface is the
vapour pressure and liquid will reach its max.
possible height (y).

Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu

Campus) 1212
 Lecture # 4
Measuring Fluid Pressure

The liquid used in this type of barometer is usually

mercury, because

Its density is sufficiently great to enable a

reasonably short tube to be used,

Its vapor pressure is negligibly small at ordinary

temperatures.

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu

Campus) 13
 Lecture # 4

Measuring Fluid Pressure

Aneroid Barometer

An aneroid barometer measures the difference in pressure between the

atmosphere and an evacuated cylinder by means of a sensitive elastic
diaphragm and linkage system as depicted in the fig.

Aneroid barometer
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Campus) 14
 Lecture # 4

Measuring Fluid Pressure

The pressure
change in the
cylinder is
transmitted to the
gear mechanism
by the linkage
system of small
shafts, which
drives an
indicating pointer
on a calibrated
scale.

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu

Campus) 15
 Lecture # 4

Measuring Fluid Pressure

▪ Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is used so widely and
oftenlly, it is good to know the equivalent forms of expression.

▪ The standard sea-level atmospheric pressure can be expressed

in the 14.696
following
psiadifferent
(2116.2ways.
psfa) or 101.325 kPa abs (1013.25 mb abs)
29.92 in Hg or 760 mm Hg
33.91 ft of water or 10.34 m of water

Barometric
psia is called as absolute pressure, pressure is
pabs is used for absolute pressure always measured
in pabs

Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Campus) 16
 Lecture # 4

Measuring Fluid Pressure

Difference in psi, psia and psig
The terms absolute and gauge are universal for pressure measurement
▪ PSI is a common
unit of pressure
used for non-SI
industrial and
technical
purposes.

▪ PSIA is measured
relative to a full
vacuum with 0
(zero) PSIA. Barometric pressure
sensors are absolute

▪ PSIG is measured relative to normal atmospheric pressure i.e 0 psig at 14.7psia.

▪ 1 PSI = 6,894.75729 pascals. PSIA referred to as pounds per square inch absolute.
PSIG is one of the most common used and referenced forms of pressure.
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu 17
Campus)
 Lecture # 4

Measuring Fluid Pressure

Measurements of Fluid Pressure
1. Mechanical gauges Pressure is found out by balancing the
liquid column by the spring or dead
weight.

2. Tube gauges Pressure is found by balancing the liquid

column by the same or another column.

1. Mechanical gauges
▪ Bourdon gage
▪ Diaphragm pressure gage
▪ Dead weight pressure gage
Mechanical gauge Tube gauge
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(Bannu Campus) 18
Fluid Pressure & its Measurements Lecture # 2

Bourdon Gage

▪ The Bourdon gage is used to measure pressure or vacuum.

Bourdon gage

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu

Campus) 19
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Bourdon Gage
▪ In bourdon gage, a curved tube of
elliptical cross section changes its
curvature with changes in pressure inside
the tube; higher pressure tends to
straighten it.

▪ The moving end of the tube rotates a

hand on a dial through a linkage system.

▪ The pressure indicated by such gages is

that at their centers.
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
Campus) 20
Fluid Pressure & its Measurements
Lecture # 4

Diaphragm pressure gage

(Mechanical Transducer)
▪ The pressure above or below the atmosphere is also
found out by diaphragm pressure gage.
▪ A diaphragm pressure gage in its simplest form
consist of a corrugated diaphragm as shown.
▪ When the gage is connected to the fluid at C, the
fluid under pressure causes some deformation of the
diaphragm.
▪ With the help of some pinion arrangement, the
elastic deformation of the diaphragm rotates the pointer.
▪ This pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which
directly gives the pressure.
▪ A diaphragm pressure gage is generally, used to
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
measure relatively
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf low pressure. Campus) 21
Fluid Pressure & its Measurements Lecture # 2

Dead weight pressure gage

(Calibrator)

Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu

Campus) 22
Measuring Fluid Pressure Lecture # 2

2. Tube Gauges to Measure Fluid Pressure

i) Piezometer Tube

ii) Manometer

Piezometer Tube Manometer

Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar

(Bannu Campus) 23
 Lecture # 2

Measuring Fluid Pressure

i) Peizometer Tube
• Simple device to measure the pressure in
pipelines or in any vessel.

• Transparent tube with one end open to the

Peizometer
atmosphere while the lower end is connected tube

to the pipeline at the point of pressure

measurement. h

• The liquid rise in the tube due to the pressure

in the pipeline up to a certain height, ‘h’ called
as pressure head.

• The pressure at any point A on the pipeline

will be found by the relation pA = ɣh,
Where 𝛾 is the sp.wt of the liquid in the pipe
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Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf (Bannu Campus)
Fluid Pressure & its Measurements Lecture # 2

ii) Manometer
• An improved form of a Peizometer tube.
• Comparatively high pressure and negative pressures can also be
measured.

Types of Manometer
a. Simple manometer

b. Micro manometer

c. Differential manometer

d. Inverted differential manometer.

Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar

(Bannu Campus) 25
 Lecture # 2

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Types of
Manometer

U-tube Manometer

Well-type Manometer Incline-tube Manometer

Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
Campus) 26
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

a. Simple Manometer:
● Consists of a tube bent in U-Shape, one
end of which is attached to the gauge point
and the other is open to the atmosphere.
● Mercury is used in the bent tube which is
13.6 times heavier than water. Therefore it
is suitable for measuring high pressure as
well.
Procedure:
1. Consider a simple Manometer connected
to a pipe containing a light liquid under
high pressure. The high pressure in the
pipe will force the mercury in the left limb
of U-tube to move downward,
corresponding the rise of mercury in the
right limb.
Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
Campus) 27
 Equating
eqns (i) & (ii)

Where S1 = 𝛾L/ 𝛾L = 1 and S2 = 𝛾H/ 𝛾 L 28

 Lecture # 4

Simple Manometer
2. The horizontal surface, at which the heavy and light liquid
meet in the left limb, is known as datum line. (Z-Z)
Let h1 = height of light liquid in the left limb above datum.
h2 = height of heavy liquid in the right limb above datum.
h = Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of
water.
s1=Sp. Gravity of light liquid.
s2=Sp. Gravity of heavy liquid.
3. Pressure in left limb above datum = h +s1h1
4. Pressure in right limb above datum = s2h2 (as patm is zero)
5. Since the pressure is both limbs is equal So,
h +s1h1 = s2h2 = h= (s2h2 - s1h1) of water
S 1 = γL / γL = 1 and S 2 = γ H/ γ L
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu 29
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf
Campus)
 Lecture # 4

Simple Manometer
To measure negative pressure (Vaccum)

■ In this case negative pressure in the

pipe will suck the light liquid which will
pull up the mercury in the left limb of
U-tube. Correspondingly fall of liquid in
the right limb.
6. Pressure in left limb above datum (z-z)
= h +s1h1 + s2h2
7. Pressure in right limb = 0
8. Equating, we get
h = -s1h1-s2h2 = - (s1h1+s2h2) m of water
S 1 = 𝛾L / 𝛾L = 1 and S2 = 𝛾H/ 𝛾 L
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Campus) 30
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

c. Deferential Manometer

• A device used for measuring the

difference of pressures, between
the two points in a pipe, or in two
different pipes.

• Consists of U-tube containing a

heavy liquid (mercury) whose both
ends are connected to the points,
for which the pressure difference
is to be found out.
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Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Campus) 31
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Procedure:
• Let us take the horizontal surface
Z-Z, at which heavy liquid and
light liquid meet in the left limb,
as datum line.

• Let, h=Difference of levels (also

known as differential manometer
reading)
• hA, hB = Pressure head in pipe A
and B, respectively.

• s1, s2 = Sp. Gravity of light and

heavy liquid respectively.
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
Dr. Ateeq ur Rauf Campus) 32
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Differential Manometer:
1. Consider figure (a):
2. Pressure head in the left limb
above Z-Z = hA+s1(H+h)
= hA+s1H+s1h
3. Pressure head in the right
limb above Z-Z = hB+s1H+s2h
4. Equating we get,
hA+s1H+s1h = hB+s1H+s2h
hA - hB=s2h-s1h = h(s2-s1) S 1 = 𝛾L / 𝛾L = 1 and S2 = 𝛾H/ 𝛾 L
Ateeq ur Rauf Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar(Bannu
Campus) 33
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Differential Manometer:
Two pipes at different levels:
1. Pressure head in the left limb above Z-Z
= hA+s1h1
2. Pressure head in the right limb above Z-Z
= s2h2+s3h3+hB
3. Equating we get,
hA+s1h1 = s2h2+s3h3+hB
Where;
h1= Height of lightest liquid in left limb
h2= Difference of levels of the heavy liquid in the right and left limb (reading of
differential manometer). S1 = ɣLA/ ɣLA = 1 and S2 = ɣH/ ɣLA S3 = ɣLB/ ɣL A
h3= Height of lighter liquid in right limb
s1,s2,s3 = Sp. Gravity of left pipe liquid, heavy liquid, right pipe liquid,
respectively.
Department of Civil Engineering, UET, Peshawar 34
Ateeq ur Rauf (Bannu Campus)
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Example
A simple manometer containing mercury is used to measure the
pressure of water flowing in a pipeline. The mercury level in the
open tube is 60mm higher than that on the left tube. If the height
of water in the left tube is 50mm, determine the pressure in the
pipe in terms of head of water.
Solution:

35
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Example
A simple manometer containing mercury was used to find the
negative pressure in pipe containing water. The right limb of the
manometer was open to atmosphere. Find the negative pressure,
below the atmosphere in the pipe.
Solution:

0.7 m

(-0.7) = -6.86
= - 6.86
= 6.86 36
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Example
Figure shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which U
tube manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer
given in figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of
the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.

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 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Solution:

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 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

39
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

Example
A U-tube differential manometer connects two pressure pipes A and B. The
pipe A contains carbon Tetrachloride having a Sp. Gravity 1.6 under a pressure
of 120 kPa. The pipe B contains oil of Sp. Gravity 0.8 under a pressure of 200
kPa. The pipe A lies 2.5m above pipe B. Find the difference of pressures
measured by mercury as fluid filling U-tube.
Solution:

40
 Lecture # 4

Fluid Pressure & its Measurements

=h1

41
 THE END
Department of Civil Engineering, U.E.T,
Engr.Ateeq-ur-Rauf Peshawar 42
 Department of Civil Engineering, U.E.T,
Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Peshawar(Bannu Campus) 43