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y4 physics
Dynamics: Forces
Forces: different types of forces
A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another
objects

Units: newton (N)

Vector

Types of forces

1. Contact forces

Result from physical contact between two objects, eg.:

applied force (push or pull)

frictional force

tension force

spring force

normal contact force

air resistance (drag force)

2. Non-contact forces

Forces acting between disconnected objects due to fields, eg.:

gravitational force

electric force

magnetic force

Free body diagram

eg.

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 eg. A book resting on a tabletop

eg. an egg free-falling from a nest in a tree (neglect air resistance)

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 Resultant vectors and net forces
resultant and net force (collinear)

Newton’s 2nd law (first part):

When a resultant (net) force acts on an object of constant mass, the object will accelerate in
the direction of the resultant (net) force.

The net force is the “summation” of all forces acting on a body of interest. Its value depends
on the magnitude as well as direction of the forces involved.

resultant and net force (non-collinear)

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 Concept of net force
The vector sum of resultant of all forces acting on an object or system

Zero net force

When net force of a system is zero, we say that the forces are balanced (vice versa)

Newton’s Laws
Newton’s 1st law of motion (Law of inertia)

An object will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion (constant velocity) in straight
line unless an external unbalanced force acts on it.
Explains the motion of object when FORCES ARE BALANCED

At rest: remains at rest

In motion: continues to move with uniform motion in a straight line

Mass and Inertia

Mass: the amount of matter in a body

units: kg

scalar quantity
Inertia: the reluctance of a body to change its state of rest or motion

at rest: reluctant to start moving

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 in motion: reluctant to stop moving

Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia.
Newton’s 2nd law of motion

When a resultant (net) force acts on an object of constant mass, the object will accelerate in
the direction of the resultant (net) force.
The product of the mass and acceleration of the object is equal to the resultant force.

Explains the motion of an object when FORCES ARE UNBALANCED

example 1: unbalanced forces

An object is being pushed with a constant force along a smooth floor (net force acts in
the same direction as the motion.

Based on Newton’s 2nd law, object accelerates in the direction of the net force.

Object moves faster and faster (acceleration)

example 2: balanced forces

no net force on the object

based on Newton’s 1st law, object moves with constant velocity.

example 3: unbalanced forces

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 a net force (caused by friction) now acts in the opposite direction of motion.

Based on Newton’s 2nd law, object accelerates in the direction of the net force.

Object slows down and stops (deceleration)

Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion formula

Fnet = net force (N)

m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (ms-2)

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 Newton’s 3rd Law of motion (Law of inertia)
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and those forces act on mutually
opposite bodies.

Note that for any action-reaction pair:

1. They are opposite in direction

2. They are equal in magnitude

3. They act on different bodies

4. They are the same type of forces

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 Mass and Weight
The weight of an object is defined as the force acting on it due to gravitational attraction, or
gravity.

Note: gravity is not a force. Gravity is a simple term to describe a gravitational field.

The only force acting on an object in free fall is the gravitational force or its weight.

W - weight (N)

m - mass (kg)

g - acceleration due to gravity (ms-2) or gravitational field strength (N/kg)

Earth vs moon

Gravitational field strength on Earth is 9.81 N/kg and on moon it is 1.6N/kg

A 1kg mass would have a force of 9.81 N on Earth

A 1kg mass would have a force of 1.6N on the moon.

Difference between mass and weight

Mass Weight

Amount of substance/matter in a body Amount of force acting on a body due to gravity

A scalar quantity A vector quantity

SI unit: kg SI unit: N

Independent of gravitational field strength Dependent on gravitational field strength

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 Measured using beam balance Measured using spring balance.

Friction and Air resistance

Friction

Friction (or frictional force) is a contact force that opposes or tends to oppose motion
between surfaces in contact. Friction generates heat.
Kinetic friction is present when an object slides across a surface.

Static friction acts to oppose the force trying to move an object

On a microscopic level, even a highly polished surface has bumps and hollows. It follows
that when two surfaces are put together the actual area of contact is less than the apparent
area of contact.

The pressure at the contact points between the two surfaces are very high and the molecules
will be pushed into close proximity that the attractive forces between them weld the surfaces
together at these points of contact. This causes the resistance in the motion of the object.
Static friction and how it works

Static friction results when the surfaces of two objects are at rest relative to one another and a
force exists on one of the objects to set it into motion relative to the other object.

Static friction will always try to match the pushing force until it reaches its limit, in this
case 10N.

If max static friction is 10N, 10N is the minimum amount of force to start the object
moving.

Kinetic friction and how it works

Kinetic friction is present when an object slides across a surface.

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 Kinetic friction remains constant regardless of the pushing force.

If an object is travelling at constant velocity, then its pushing force = friction (kinetic)
based on Newton’s laws.

Free Fall
Objects, which are said to be undergoing free-fall, do not encounter a significant force of air
resistance. They are falling under the sole influence of gravity (gravitational force).

All free falling objects near surface of the Earth, regardless of mass and size, will
experience a constant acceleration of 9.81ms-2 when it is allowed to fall freely under the
Earth’s gravitational pull.

This acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g. It is usually taken to be 9.81 m s-2

and is approximated to 10 m s-2. In the absence of air resistance, objects that are
released from rest from the same height will reach the ground at the same time.

Air resistance

Air resistance is a resistive force, which increases mainly with the:

1. speed of object — the faster the object, the greater the air resistance

2. surface area — the greater the surface area, the greater the air resistance

3. density of air

When an object is in motion (both on the ground and in the air), there is air resistance acting
on it in an opposite direction to the direction of motion. Air resistance is the result of
collisions of the object’s leading surface with air molecules.

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 V-T graphs of falling objects

All objects accelerate at 9.81ms-2 due to its weight during free-fall

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 At the point when the air resistance equals to the weight, there is no acceleration adn the
object will fall with TERMINAL VELOCITY.
Sky diver analysis

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 General Wave Properties
Wave motion
A periodic motion/travelling disturbance repeated at regular intervals, which transfer energy
from one place to another without any transfer of matter (or the medium)

The source of waves is a vibration or oscillation.

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 Observations:

wave moves away from the source of vibration

Individual particles do not move in the direction of the wave, instead they only oscillate
about their fixed position in the direction of the vibration (up and down). This shows that
waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

Particles direction of motion

Particles at the extreme ends are stationary at this instance because they are going to change
direction in the next instance.

Types of Waves
Transverse waves

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 Transverse waves travel in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the vibrations.

Examples: water waves, rope waves, visible light and other electromagnetic waves.

Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves travel in a direction parallel to the direction of the vibrations

Examples: sound

Terminologies
Terms for transverse waves

Crests and troughs: Highest and lowest points of a transverse wave, respectively

Phase: any two points moving in the same direction and have the same speed and the same
displacement from the equilibrium position are said to be in phase. Any 2 crests or troughs

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 are always in phase.
Amplitude (A): maximum displacement from the equilibrium or centre position

SI unit: metre (m)

Wavelength: shortest distance between any two point in a wave that are in phase, such as
two successive crests or troughs

SI unit: metre

The equilibrium position is sometimes known as the rest position.

Rest position does not mean the particles are at rest!

The rest position simply means the particles are at this position before the waves start
moving.

Terms for longitudinal waves

Compressions are regions where the medium’s density is higher than the surrounding
density.

Rarefactions are regions where the medium’s density is lower than the surrounding density.
Wavelength: Length between two successive compressions or two successive rarefactions.

Wave Equation
1 wavelength = 1 complete wave
Period and Frequency

Period (T): time taken to produce one complete wave. It is also the time taken for any given
point on the wave to move a distance of one wavelength.

Measured in seconds

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 Frequency (f): number of complete waves produced per second. It is also the number of
crests or troughs that pass a point per second.

Measured in hertz (Hz)

Wave equation
Speed (v): Speed of the waves is the distance moved by a wave in one second.

Measured in metre per second (ms-1)

Wavefronts
An imaginary line on a wave that joins all adjacent points that are in phase

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 Ripple Tank

Contains water and has a projector so that the pattern of water can be shown

The bright and dark lines correspond to the crests and troughs of the plane waves
respectively.

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 The depth at which the dipper is placed affects the amplitude of the waves.

The frequency of the waves is determined by the frequency of vibration of the dipper.

Graphs
Displacement-Distance Graph

describes the displacements of all the particles at a particular point in time.

Displacement-Time Graph

Reflection and refraction of waves

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 Reflection of waves: a straight barrier standing upright in the water also causes the incoming
waves to be reflected.

Refraction of waves: when waves enter a region of shallow water, it slows down. Since
frequency is the same, the wavelength decreases

Frequency is the same as frequency of the wave depends on the source (eg. the dipper of
the ripple tank oscillates at a certain frequency)

Refraction of waves: When waves enter a region of shallow water at an angle, the waves will
refract.

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 Pressure
Pressure, P is defined as the force, F acting normally per unit area, A.

SI unit, Pa, Pascal

1Pa=1Nm-2

Application of pressure on solids

1. Thumbtack: small surface area at the tip in order for force to exert maximum pressure.

2. Scissors: Surface area of the sharp edges is very small. Allows for maximum pressure
when a force is applied.

3. Bulldozer: The surface area of the caterpillar wheels reduces the pressure exerted by the
bulldozer. Allowing it to move without sinking.

Pressure in Liquid
The force by a static fluid on an object is always perpendicular to the surface of object and in
all directions.

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 P=hρg
Because the forces in a static fluid acts perpendicularly in all directions, the pressure in fluids
is simply affected by its depth, gravitational field strength and density.

orientation does not matter

Pascal Principle/Law
Pressure exerted anywhere in a mass of confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions throughout the liquid.

Water finds its own level

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 Pressure at p1 is smaller than p2 because h1 is smaller

p1 smaller force p2 bigger force

Resultant force towards p1 forces water level to go up until the water levels are of the
same height.

Pressure in gases (atmospheric pressure: 1.013 x 10^5 Pa)

How does gas pressure arise?

The collisions of air particles against the inner surfaces of the container exerts a force on it.
The force per unit area is thus known as gas pressure.

Note: the rapidity of collisions gives the appearance of a uniform force.

Atmospheric pressure

Lower pressure: lower concentration of air particles

Higher pressure: higher concentration of air particles

Air particles are also subjected to gravitational force.

Movement of air particles

In the absence of other external factors, air particles will move from higher pressure to lower
pressure until equilibrium is met.

Applications of gas pressure

1. Suction cup: when air is pushed out, atmospheric pressure is strong enough to hold the
suction cup to the surface.

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 2. Syringe: Water in the container is pushed inside the syringe by atmospheric pressure as
the person pulls out the plunger.

3. Drinking straw: As air is sucked out of the straw, atmospheric pressure pushed the
liquid into the straw.

Manometer — instrument for measuring fluid pressure

Same level, same liquid, same pressure

Manometer examples

Gas with higher pressure than air

Pressure at p1 and p2 are the same

p1 = p2

Gas pressure = Patm + liquid pressure

Gas pressure = Patm + hpg

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 Gas with lower pressure than air

Gas pressure + liquid pressure = Patm

Gas pressure = Patm-hpg

Barometer — instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure = pressure exerted by mercury column

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 Atmospheric pressure = 760 mm Hg

Kinetic Model of Matter

Matter is made of tiny particles in continuous, random motion.

Brownian Motion
Brownian motion refers to the random motion of tiny particles suspended in a fluid (eg.
smoke in air or pollen in water)

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Particles are in orderly Particles are not in Particles are not in

Arrangement and
arrangement and are orderly arrangement orderly arrangement
packing between
packed very closely and are not closely and are very far apart
particles
together. packed together. from one another.

Particles are free to

Particles vibrate about move around the liquid Particles are very far
Motion of particles
their fixed position. and slide around each apart from each other.
other.

Very strong forces of Strong forces of Very weak forces of

Forces of attraction
attraction between the attraction between the attraction between
between the particles.
particles particles particles.

Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

Fixed shape and Fixed volume and No fixed shape or

Shape and volume
volume shape of vessel volume

Temperature in relation to kinetic energy of particles

Pressure vs Temperature (at constant volume)

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 As temperature increases, the average speed of gas molecules increases (due to an
increase in the average kinetic energy of the molecules)

They collide with the walls of the container more frequently and with greater force.

Since pressure = force per unit area, the gas pressure increases.

Volume vs Temperature (at constant pressure)

As temperature increases, the average speed of gas molecules increases (due to an

increase in the average kinetic energy of the molecules)

They collide with the walls of the container more frequently and with greater force.

If pressure is kept constant, the volume of the gas needs to increase.

Pressure vs Volume (at constant temperature)

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 As volume increases, the number of gas molecules per unit volume decreases.

There are less frequent collisions with the walls of the container, resulting in a lower
force per unit area being exerted.

Hence pressure decreases.

Equations

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 Combined Gas Law

Thermal Properties of Matter

Absolute Temperature Scale — The Kelvin scale
Temperature

Temperature is a property of a material, and thus depends on the material, whereas thermal
energy is a form of energy existing on its own.

Temperature measures the concentration of thermal energy.

Macroscopic: How hot or cold an object is

Microscopic: temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles that
make up the body.
Thermal Equilibrium

Net heat flows from a region of hot to cold

Until both are of the same temperature

Both objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium. There is no net heat flow between
them.

Heat

Heat is a measure of how much thermal energy is transferred from one body to another.

Transfer of energy from one body to another is a result of temperature differences between
them.

Kelvin scale and Absolute temperature scale

Pressure is zero at T=-273.15 degrees celsius

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 Molecules have stopped moving

-273.15 degrees celsius is known as the absolute zero or zero Kelvin

Celsius Scale and Kelvin scale

Pure melting ice Pure steam Zero Kelvin

Kelvin 273.15 373.15 0

Degrees celsius 0 100 -273.15

Special name Ice point Steam point Absolute zero

TK = TC + 273.15
TK - temperature in Kelvin

TC - temperature in degrees celsius

Note: change in temperature in Kelvin is

the same as change in temperature in
degrees celsius

Internal energy — Kinetic energy and potential energy of particles

Internal energy of a body is the total kinetic energy due to the motion of the molecules and
the potential energy due to the intermolecular forces in the body.

Internal energy = kinetic energy + potential energy

Kinetic energy

due to motion of particles

Related to temperature

As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the particles increases

The higher the temperature, the more vigorously the particles vibrate (in solids) or move
(in liquids and gases) and vice versa

Potential energy

due to intermolecular bonds

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 energy stored depends on: forces and distance between the particles

Potential energy related to change in state

During melting/boiling (particles move further apart), P.E of particles increases.

Due to the stretching and compressing of the intermolecular bonds as particles vibrate.

During solidification/condensation (particles move closer together), P.E of particles decreases

Heat Capacity
The heat capacity of a body is the quantity of energy needed to cause its temperature to
change by 1 degrees celsius of 1K.

Depends on

1. the substance(s) the object is made up of

2. the mass of the substances in the body

Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a body is the quantity of energy needed to change the
temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1 degrees celsius or 1K

Water has very high specific heat capacity to serve as ‘heat sink’

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 Phase Changes — change in state without change in temp.
Melting, boiling: latent heat is absorbed

Freezing, condensation: latent heat is released

solid — gas → sublimation

gas — solid → deposition

Latent heat
Latent heat of fusion
It is the amount of thermal energy required to change a substance from a solid to a liquid (or
vice versa) without a change in temperature.
Latent heat of vapourisation

It is the amount of thermal energy required to change a substance from liquid to gas (or vice
versa) without a change in temperature.

Heating curve — melting

Thermal energy is absorbed to weaken

the bonds of the solid particles

P.E increased

K.E remains the same (hence

temperature is constant)

The thermal energy absorbed during

melting is known as the latent heat of
fusion

Heating curve — boiling

From X to Y, the average kinetic

energy of the molecules increases.

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 From Y to Z, P.E increased. Energy is
absorbed to break the intermolecular
bonds of the water molecules.

The thermal energy absorbed during

boiling is known as the latent heat of
vaporisation.

Heating curve

Cooling curve

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 Specific Latent heat

Boiling vs Evaporation
Boiling
Change of state from liquid to gas, without a change in temperature. (boiling point)

Evaporation

Change of state of a liquid into gas, at any temperature. Evaporation causes cooling.

Boiling Evaporation

Occurs at fixed temperature Occurs at any temperature

Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs at the surface of the liquid

Occurs quickly Occurs slowly

Bubbles are formed in the liquid No bubbles formed in the liquid.

Thermal energy is supplied by an energy source Thermal energy is supplied by the surroundings.

Factors affecting rate of evaporation

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 1. Temperature — Higher temperature, higher rate of evaporation

2. Surface area — Bigger surface area, higher rate of evaporation

3. Nature of liquid

4. Humidity — Higher humidity, lower rate of evaporation

5. Pressure — Higher pressure, lower rate of evaporation

Static Electricity
Atom

Same number of protons (+) and electrons (-)

electrically neutral

Ions

Negative ions

Atom gains electrons

More negative charges

Positive ions

Atom loses electrons

More positive charges

Static Electricity

An imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material or between materials

When a body loses electrons, it becomes positively-charged.

When a body gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.

Law of Electrostatics
Like charged repel and unlike charges attract

Measuring Electrostatic Charge

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 Q: charge (SI unit: coulomb, C)
I: electric current (SI unit: ampere, A)

t: time (SI unit: second, s)

Charge of protons and electrons

A proton has a charge of 1.6 x 10^-19 C
An electron has a charge of -1.6 x 10^-19 C
1 coulomb of charge has 6.25 x 10^18 charged particles

Conductors and Insulators

Electrical conductors (mostly metals) Electrical insulators (mostly non-metals)

allow electrons to move about easily do not allow electrons to move freely

Have valence electrons) which are loosely bound have electrons in fixed positions.

When electrons are gained/lost by the conductors, The addition or removal of electrons at any one
the other electrons will flow so that electron re- part of the insulator does not result in the electrons
distribution occurs. in other parts of the same insulator to move.

The electrons are delocalised The charge is localised (or confined) to the region

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 In static electricity, only electrons are gained/lost or transferred

Charging and discharging

Example: Charging by Friction

When wool is rubbed against a plastic strip, electrons are removed from the wool. (due
to friction)

The plastic strip ends up gains electrons and becomes negatively-charged and wool loses
electrons and becomes positively-charged

The charges stay where they are placed (localised).

When wool is rubbed against a nylon strip, electrons are removed from the nylon strip
(due to friction).

The Nylon strip loses electrons, and becomes positively-charged and wool gains
electrons and becomes negatively-charged.

The charges stay where they are placed (localised)

If the nylon strip and plastic strip are brought near each other, a force of attraction will
pull the two strips together.

If the two strips have like charges, they will repel each other and move apart.

Triboelectric Series

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 Under ideal conditions, if two materials are rubbed together, objects on the left side of the list
will give up their electrons and become positively-charged.
Charge polarisation

When negatively charged ruler is brought near uncharged pieces of paper, the molecules
in the paper reorient itself such that its positive ends are closed to the negatively-charged
surface of the rule.

This reorientation is known as charge polarisation.

Since the positive portion of the paper is closer, the forces of attraction is stronger than
the forces of repulsion, therefore paper gets attracted to the ruler.

Charging a conductor
Conductors cannot be charged by friction, because the mobile electrons will simply move and
rearrange themselves to neutralise the excess charges.

Charging by induction (2 conductors)

Bring a negatively-charged rod near the two conductors

Ensure that the negatively-charged rod does not touch

any of the two conductors.

The negative charges in the rod repel the electrons in A

and they move further away.

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 Since A touches B, some electrons in A will be repelled
to the further end of B.

As A lost some electrons, A becomes positively-

charged.

As some electrons were gained by B, B becomes

negatively-charged.

With the negatively-charged rod still in place, separate

the two conductors.

Note: the charged distribution in both the conductors

remains unaffected due to the presence of the charged
rod.

With the two charged conductors still separated, remove

the negatively charged rod

The charges in A and B re-distribute themselves

immediately.

Two conductors that are oppositely charged.

The number of positive charges in one conductor is equal

to the number of negative charges in the other conductor.

Charged by induction (1 conductor)

Place a negatively-charged rod near the uncharged single

conductor (eg. metallic sphere)

Note that the charge distribution in the conductor is

disturbed immediately.

The negative charges repel the conductor’s electrons to

its further end

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 Next, touch the conductor for a short while

Electrons (in this case) will flow through the body down
to the “ground” (on earth).

Remove the finger, then remove the rod

the charges will redistribute themselves.

Since the sphere loses electrons, it becomes positively-

charged.

the charge of a conductor is always opposite to the

charge of the insulator brought to it

Discharging an insulator
Discharging is the process in which a charged body is removed of excess charges from it.

When a charged body is discharged, it is said to be neutralised.

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 All conductors can be discharged by
earthing.

Earthing — to provide a path for excess

electrons to flow away (or to) an electrically
charged conductor
Earthing an object will neutralise the
objects excess charges (unless the charges
are bound by an external charged object,
like when we are charging a conductor by
induction)

Electric Fields
An electric field is a region where an electric charge
experiences an electric force.

Every charge has an electric field around it

An electric field line is the path in which a positive

charge would take in an electric field.

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 Electric fields

Electric field of a positive charge

Electric field of a negative charge

Electric fields of like charges

Electric fields of unlike charges

Electric fields of parallel plates

Hazards and Uses

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 Lightning

Is caused by charging (friction) between water droplets and air molecules.

When the charge build up is large enough, the air will ionise allowing the charge to
discharge to the ground.

Lightning Rods

a metal conducting rod installed to

buildings to protect from lightning
strikes.

electrons are repelled to the ground as

storm clouds (negative charge passed
by)

top of rod is induced with positive

charges, ionises the air.

the positive ions are then attracted to

the negative part of the cloud,
neutralising partially, reducing chance
of a strike

Fire and Explosions

Charge can build up on many objects such as planes and petrol tankers.

If not discharges carefully, a spark (similar to that produced by lightning) can start a fire
or cause as explosion.

Electroscope
Used to:

1. test the presence of a charge

2. test the sign of a charge (positive or negative)

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 If a charged rod is brought near a
positively-charged electroscope and the
gold leaves are observed to diverge
even more.

We can conclude that the charges on

the rod are positive.

Spray painting
Nozzle and metal object are given
opposite charges

Charged paint spreads out (like charges

repel)

Gets attracted to the object (unlike

charges attract)

More efficient and saves paint

Flue Ash Removal Flue ash is a mixture of dust and smoke

produced by many factories and power
stations.

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 Charged metal plates in the chimney
attract these particles and remove them
from the exhaust gases.

Photocopier

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