CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are basic materials in construction industry.
Construction of any building component requires good quantity of sand. The non-availability
or shortage of river sand, we need to find new material to replace the river sand. Robo sand is
sand manufactured in stone quarries and it is a substitute for the river sand which is used in
construction. Robo sand can use for all the constructions. So, Robo sand is good replacement
with river sand.
Plastic have become an inseparable and integral part of our lives. The number of plastics
consumed annually has been growing rapidly. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, making
them very adaptable for different uses. Plastic pollution can afflict land, waterways and oceans.
It is estimated that 1.1 to 8.8 million tonnes of plastic waste enter the ocean from coastal
communities every year. Some researchers suggest that by 2050 there could be more plastic
than fish in the oceans. Living organisms, particularly marine animals can be harmed.
Degraded plastic waste can directly affect human health and environment. Plastic waste can be
reduced by using in concrete manufacturing as fine aggregate replacement.
Metakaolin is a high quality pozzolanic material. Metakaolin is the mineral admixtures and
it can be used for partial replacement in cement. The metakaolin was produced by thermal
treatment (calcination) of pure or refined Kaolinite clay at temperature ranging between 500°C
and 800°C. Due to its high surface area and high reactivity increases in strength,
impermeability and durability, while its light colour gives it aesthetic advantage.

1.1 CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together
with a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens over time. Concrete is the second most used
material on earth after water, and is the most widely used building material. Construction
industry in India is expected to grow by 12% to reach INR 45,907 billion in 2023. Concrete is
the composite material that is created by mixing binding material (cement or lime) along with
the filler material (fine aggregates, coarse aggregates such as sand and gravel) water,
admixtures in specific proportions. Strength and quality depend on the mixing ratio. Concrete
is very necessary and useful material for construction works. Once all the ingredients – cement,
aggregate, and water unit of measurement mixed in the required ratio, the cement and water
start to react with each other and bind into a hardened mass. It hardens the rock-like mass in the
concrete.

2
 Concrete has changed over the years and today it is made from same materials, but the main
difference between when concrete was first made and now is the strength of concrete and the
fact that is produced in larger quantities. Some of the different types are: Reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, Air-entrained concrete, high early strength concrete and lightweight
concrete.

Figure 1.1: Concrete

Concrete is economical, strong and easy to create and can be easily moulded into various
shapes and sizes. It is designed to allow reliable and high-quality fast-track construction.
Structures designed with concrete are very durable and when designed with seismic loading it
can withstand to earthquakes also. The concrete structures can withstand for hurricanes,
typhoons, and tornadoes.
Concrete = Binding material + Fine and coarse aggregate + Water + Admixture
(optional).

1.2 CEMENT
Cement is a binding material in concrete mix. It is the finer material which is less than 90
microns. This cement is a mixture of various chemicals such as Lime, Silica, Alumina Oxide,
Iron Oxide etc. The process of manufacture of cement consists essentially of grinding the raw
materials, mixing them intimately in certain proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at a
temperature of up to about 1450 ºC when the material sinters and partially fuses into balls
known as clinkers. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some gypsum
added, and the resulting product is the commercial cement so widely used throughout the
world.

3
1.2.1 ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most important type of cement. The OPC was
classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade depending upon the
strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS 4031-1988. If the 28 days strength is
not less than 33N/mm2, it is called 33 grade cement, if the strength is not less than 43N/mm 2, it
is called 43 grade cement, and if the strength is not less than 53 N/mm 2, it is called 53 grade
cement. But the actual strength achieved by these cements at the factory is much higher than
the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) specifications. It has been possible to upgrade the
qualities of cement by using high quality limestone, modern equipment’s, maintaining better
particle size distribution, finer grinding and better packing. Generally, use of high-grade
cements offers many advantages for making stronger concrete. Although they are little costlier
than low grade cement, they offer 10-20% savings in cement consumption and also, they offer
many hidden benefits.
The manufacture of OPC is decreasing all over the world in view of the popularity of
blended cement on account of lower energy consumption, environmental pollution, economic
and other technical reasons. In advanced western countries the use of OPC has come down to
about 40% of the total cement production.

Figure 1.2: Ordinary Portland Cement

4
1.2.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of lime,
silica, alumina and iron oxide. These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at
high temperature to form more complex compounds. Table 1.1 shows the
approximate oxide composition limits of Ordinary Portland Cement.
Table 1.1: Oxide Composition Limits of Ordinary Portland cement

Oxide Percent content Average 1.3

Lime (CaO) 60 to 67% 63

Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25% 20

Alumina Oxide (Al2O3) 3 to 8% 6

Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3 to 4% 3.5

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6% 3

Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4% 1.5

Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1.3 to 3% 2

Alkalies (Na2O, K2O) 0.4 to 1.3% 1

METAKAOLIN
Metakaolin is a high quality pozzolanic material. Metakaolin is the mineral
admixtures and it can be used for partial replacement in cement. The metakaolin was
produced by thermal treatment (calcination) of pure or refined Kaolinite clay at
temperature ranging between 500°C and 800°C. Once the burning process gets completed

5
it is properly grinded to achieve desired fineness to improve the various strengths and property
parameters of cement mortar and concrete. Kaolin clay is the raw material for the
manufacturing of Metakaolin. Kaolinite clay is mineral which is fine and white in colour and it
is used in the manufacturing of porcelain. Kaolinite clay is also known as China clay or kaolin
clay.
Depending upon purity, MK can be an effective pozzolanic if used in cement-based system,
in that it leads to strength enhancement, lower drying shrinkage and higher durability. MK with
high purity is much more expensive than cement and this will affect the unit cost of concrete.
Therefore, other types of metakaolin need to be explored. if the MK is not pure, the strength of
concrete may not be enhanced but comparable to the control. The durability is higher if used as
partial replacement of cement. In recent years, Metakaolin started to gain interests and it is
expected its uses in concrete applications will increase in the future. However, it is important to
find suitable preparation and calcining methods that is efficient and economically viable. If MK
is fired at a temperature of around 8000C, it should be cheaper than cement that is fired at 1450
0
C. Using pozzolanic materials in cementitious systems can enhanced the durability of the
material produced. Some countries in the world such as the UK will stop generating coal fly
ash in the future and it may be required to find other sources of pozzolanic materials. Calcined
clay and Metakaolin are viable alternatives. Also, in many parts of the world, kaolin clay is
available and the production of MK is a good option as it would reduce the amount of CO 2
emitted into the atmosphere and can improve the performance of cementitious composite

Figure 1.3: Metakaolin

When MK is used in concrete, it reduces

porosity and acts as a filler to penetrate the voids between the cement particles thereby

6
resulting into a more impermeable concrete. Metakaolin has positive impacts on concrete such
as improve durability and reduce environmental impact resulting from cement industry.

1.3.1 SPECIFICATION OF METAKAOLIN

Table 1.2: Specification of Metakaolin

MATERIAL GRADE SRM

Colour shade (On Water Panel) White Powder/Off White

Bulk density (gms/lit) 300 - 400 gms/lit

PH 5–7

Residue 1.0% max

Yellow Index 4.0 - 5.0

Oil Absorption (gm/100gm) 55 – 60

1.3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF METAKAOLIN

Table 1.3: Chemical Composition of Metakaolin
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Silica (SiO2) 49-54%

Alumina (Al2O3) 41-45%

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) ≤ 1.0%

Titanium Oxide (TiO2) ≤ 1.0%

Lime (Cao) N/A

7
 Magnesium Oxide (MgO) ≤0.50%

Sodium Oxide (Na2O) ≤0.20%

Potassium Oxide (K2O) ≤0.20%

Loss of Ignition ≤0.50%

1.3.3 ADVANTAGES OF METAKAOLIN

 Use of Metakaolin in concrete accelerates the initial setting time of concrete.
 It helps in development of the early age strength of concrete which allows the
early removal of formwork and thus it enhances the production rate.
 Metakaolin consumes calcium hydroxide thereby preventing the reaction of alkali-
silica. Use of Metakaolin increases the resistance to sulphate attack, chemical attack
and freeze and thaw action.
 It reduces drying shrinkage and efflorescence.
 It improves water-tightness and impermeability of concrete hence it is safe for using
in water retaining structure, off-shore structure etc.
 It can increase the residual strength of refractory concrete after firing.
 It increases the strength and durability of concrete.
 It gives good spray-ability.
 It is an eco-friendly building material.
 Compared to other mineral admixtures, it is easily and abundantly available in the
market.

1.3.4 DISADVANTAGES OF METAKAOLIN

 Use of Metakaolin reduces the workability of the concrete due to its fineness; hence
it becomes necessary to use water reducers or air entraining admixtures to achieve
the desired workability.
 Increased quality control is essential in order to maintain the desired properties. High
quality control must be consistent for it to be effective.

8
  Selection of material is equally important. Better quality may cost more than the lower
ones.

1.4 FINE AGGREGATE

The aggregate is an inert mineral material used for the manufacture of mortar and
concrete. A good aggregate for concrete construction should be sufficiently strong, chemically
inert, sufficiently hard and durable. The aggregates which will pass through 4.75mm IS sieve
and entirely retain on 75 microns IS sieve is called fine aggregate. It may be natural sand,
crushed stone sand or crushed gravel sand. The minimum particle size of fine aggregate is
0.075mm and the maximum particle size is 4.75mm. The material having particle size varying
from 0.002 to 0.06 mm is termed as silt and still smaller particles are called clay.
Sand Fills the voids between aggregates. It forms the bulk and makes mortar or concrete
economical. It provides resistance against shrinking and cracking. It is naturally available.

Figure 1.4: Sand

1.4.1 TYPES OF FINE AGGREGATES

Fine aggregates are classified as follows:

9
  Mode of Origin
 Composition
 Grain Size
1. CLASSIFICATION OF FINE AGGREGATE ACCORDING TO MODE OF
ORIGIN
 Pit Sand
 River Sand
 Sea Sand
 PIT SAND
They are sharp and angular in outline. Translation and deposition are done by the
wind. Such sand accumulation is sometimes covered by clay. It will be desirable to
wash and clean this type of sand before use.

 RIVER SAND
River sand is found in the river in-plane area. Grains of river sand is round in shape.
This sand is clean and free from salt encrustations. No organic impurities are noticed.
This sand is generally used for construction purposes.
 SEA SAND
This type of sand is found on beaches and along sea-shore. These sand particles are
round in shape. Grains are often coated with salts that cannot be easily separated.
These salts, when coming in contact with binding material of mortar or concrete,
create problems. They absorb water from the atmosphere and delay setting. They
produce dampness and efflorescence. Hence this type of sand is not preferred for
construction.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF FINE AGGREGATE ACCORDING TO

COMPOSITION
 Clean Sand
 Silty Sand
 Clayey Sand
 CLEAN SAND
These are well-graded sand containing quartz particles in a wide range of grain sizes.

 SILTY SAND

10
 These are poorly graded, having a considerable proportion of silt and other non-
plastic fines.
 CLAYEY SAND
These are poorly graded sand that has a prominent clay fraction and also plastic fines.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF FINE AGGREGATE ACCORDING TO GRAIN

SIZE
Different sizes of sand are necessary for different works. According to their sizes the
sand can be classified into fine, medium and coarse sand.
According to this classification sands are classified as under,

Table 1.4: Classification of Fine Aggregate

GRAIN SIZE TYPE
2mm - 1mm Coarse
1mm - 0.25mm Medium
0.2mm - 0.15mm Fine

1.4.2 USES OF FINE AGGREGATE

 It is used in manufacturing of concrete.
 It is used to prepare mortar for masonry work.
 It is used as inert material it reduces the consumption of cement, water and
contributes the mechanical strength of the concrete.

1.4.3 FINE AGGREGATE: GENERAL AND SPECIALISED

APPLICATIONS
General Applications
 Making mortar to be used in masonry projects.
 Preparing many kinds of mortar for plastering and painting.
 Mixing concrete for a floor, rafters.
 Filling the craters.
 Levelling the terrain.
 Foundational cement.

11
  Floorings.
 Different kinds of precast modules, tiles, concrete pipelines, etc.
Specific Applications
 To defend black cotton soil foundations.
 To fill up canal bank breaches.
 Temporary reservoir.
 Absorbing excess bitumen from the roadway’s surface.
 For play areas.
 Moulding operations.
 Counter-weights.

1.5 ROBO SAND

Robo sand is sand manufactured in stone quarries and it is a substitute for the river sand
which is used in construction. Robo sand is economical than River Sand due to its abundant
availability. Its complete absence of deleterious materials and better quality makes it preferable
to use in concreting and plastering.

Figure 1.5: Robo Sand

Robo sand is the environment friendly solution that serves as a perfect substitute for the fast
depleting and excessively mined river sand, which is so essential for percolating and storing
rain water in deep underground pockets and protects the ground water tables. It has very less
destructive to our environment because it highly reduces sand mining from the river bed. It
improves the workability of concrete. Robo sand also called as M sand.

12
 M Sand or Manufactured sand is an Eco-friendly and economical alternative for river sand,
which has become widely popular for use in all construction purposes. Three different types of
M Sand are manufactured which fulfil the Indian Standards.

1.5.1 TYPES OF ROBO SAND OR M SAND

1. Concrete M Sand
This type of M-sand is mainly used for construction purposes. The granule thickness
is 150 microns – 4.75mm. It conforms to IS Code 383:1970.

2. Plastering M Sand
This type of sand finds applications in tiling and wall plastering purposes. The granule
thickness is 150 microns – 2.36 mm. It conforms to IS Code 1542:1992.

3. Brick/Bock M Sand
This type of sand is mainly used for masonry or brick or block-laying works. The
granule thickness or sieve size is 150 microns – 3.55 mm. It conforms to IS Code
2116:1980.
1.5.2 ADVANTAGES OF ROBO SAND
 Robo sand provides better strength and durability as compared to river sand.
 Due to rough surface or texture, provides good bonding strength.
 Reduction in voids increases workability.
 Manufactured sand has a higher fineness modulus index as compared to natural sand.
 It has better abrasion resistance because manufactured sand is free from silt and clay.
 Lower Permeability.
 Higher unit weights.
 It has very less destructive to our environment because it highly reduces sand mining
from the river bed.

1.5.3 DISADVANTAGES OF ROBO SAND

There aren’t many disadvantages of Robo sand unless the manufacturer is not very good at
quality control. They may be:
 There is a possibility of hard soil or hard clay strata crushed along with the desired
rock.

13
  Often morrum boulder is also present. It gets crushed into finer particles and disturbs
the mix design, workability and setting times of concrete.

1.5.4 PROPERTIES OF ROBO SAND

 No or near zero impurities

 Controlled gradation of particles. Hence, no wastage.

 No oversized particles or shingles, stones and pebbles.

 Higher concrete compressive strength achieved.

 Zero silt content.

 Cheaper than marine sand or river sand.

 Easier to spot adulteration judging by oversized or undersized particles and colour

(greyer the purer, browner the impure)

 Extraction of sand from river and sea beds is an environmental hazard.

1.6 PLASTIC GRANULES

Plastic granules are small pieces of plastic that have been heated and melted into a liquid
form. These granules are then cooled and moulded into various shapes and sizes. They are
commonly used as raw material for the production of plastic products such as bottles,
containers, toys, and other items. Plastic granules are available in a variety of colours, sizes,
and shapes. The use of plastic granules helps reduce waste and make it easier to reuse and
recycle plastic products.

Figure 1.6: Plastic Granules

14
 Plastic granules are one of the most useful materials in modern industry. The production
process of plastic granules is quite simple. They are created by melting plastic material and
forming it into small, uniform pellets. These pellets can be used in a variety of ways depending
on the type of plastic used and the desired end product.
The use of plastic granules has become increasingly popular in recent years due to its
versatility and cost-effectiveness. They are highly durable and resistant to wear, making them
an ideal choice for products that can withstand exposure to harsh environments. Additionally,
plastic granules can be recycled, which makes them an environmentally friendly choice. Plastic
granules are used in plastic industry for the manufacturing of various plastic items. They are
also used in the production of toys, furniture, and other consumer goods.
Plastic granules have a number of advantages over other materials. They are also resistant to
corrosion. Additionally, they can be easily moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes. They are
made from recycled materials; they reduce the amount of waste going into landfills. They are
so lightweight and efficient to transport; they can reduce transportation costs. Overall, plastic
granules are an incredibly useful material that can be used in a wide variety of applications.
Additionally, granules are produced from a wide variety of raw materials, including polymers,
such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. These materials can be derived from
petroleum, natural gas, and biomass sources.

1.7 COARSE AGGREGATE

Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete,
reduce shrinkage and effect economy. The aggregate which pass through 75mm IS sieve and
entirely retain on 4.75 mm IS sieve is known as coarse aggregate. It may be gravel or stone,
uncrushed gravel or stone, partially crushed gravel or stone. The minimum particle size of
coarse aggregate is 4.75 mm and the maximum particle size is 75 mm. Coarse Aggregates
gives volume to the concrete. Coarse Aggregates in concrete provides body and strength to the
concrete and acts as a filler material. Coarse aggregates have a wide variety of construction
applications because they resemble standard rock particles.

15
 Figure 1.7: Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate is mined from rock quarries or dredged from river beds, therefore the size,
shape, hardness, texture and many other properties can vary greatly based on location. Even
materials coming from the same quarry or pit and type of stone can vary greatly. The shape of
aggregates is an important characteristic since it affects the workability of concrete. It is
difficult to measure the shape of irregular body like concrete aggregate which are derived from
various rocks.
Most generally, coarse aggregate can be characterized as either smooth or rounded (such as
river gravel) or angular (such as crushed stone).

1.7.1 ORIGIN OF AGGREGATE

All-natural aggregate originates from bed rocks. There are three kinds of rocks, namely
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. These classifications are based on the mode of
formation of rocks.

The Aggregates which are used in the construction must have the following
properties
 The coarse aggregate should be durable.
 The coarse aggregate should be hard and strong.
 It should be clean and free from the dust and organic materials otherwise it will
reduce the bonding of the aggregate with concrete.
 The aggregates should not react with the cement after mixing.
 Coarse aggregates should not be soft and porous.
 Coarse aggregates should not absorb water by more than 5%.
 Aggregates should be chemically inert.

 The shape of the aggregate preferably cubical or spherical.

1.7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THE AGGREGATES

16
 Coarse aggregate is classified as follows
 According to the source or the nature of the formation of the aggregate.
 According to the size of the aggregate.
 According to the shape of the aggregate.
1. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE SOURCE OR NATURE OF
FORMULATION
 Naturally Occurring Aggregates.
 Artificially Manufactures Aggregates.
 NATURALLY OCCURRING AGGREGATES
Coarse Aggregates are obtained from the stone quarries and the stone crushers.
Natural aggregate materials originate from bedrocks.

 ARTIFICIALLY MANUFACTURES AGGREGATES

The broken bricks or blast furnace slag are the artificial aggregates which are
also used for the various concreting work.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES ACCORDING TO THE SIZE

 Fine Aggregates.
 Coarse Aggregates.
 FINE AGGREGATES
Aggregates less than 4.75 mm in size are known as fine aggregate. The
Aggregates sizes ranges from 150 microns to 4.75 mm aggregates are termed as
Fine Aggregates.
 COARSE AGGREGATES
Aggregates more than 4.75 mm in size are known as Coarse aggregate.
The Aggregates sizes ranges from 4.75 mm to 80 mm are termed as coarse
Aggregates.
3. CLASSICATION ACCORDING TO THE SHAPE OF AGGREGATES
 Rounded Aggregates.
 Angular Aggregates.
 Flaky Aggregates.
 Irregular Aggregates.

17
 The Irregular and Angular Aggregates give greater bond strength as compared to the
Rounded and Flaky Aggregates due to their shape because there is more interlocking
effect in this Aggregate.

 ROUNDED AGGREGATES
Natural aggregates smoothed by weathering, erosion and attrition. Rocks,
stone, sand and gravel found in riverbeds are most common rounded aggregates.
These aggregates are the main factor behind workability.
 ANGULAR AGGREGATES
Angular Aggregates have a higher specific surface area than the smooth
rounded aggregate. The term “angular” refers to the shape of the individual
particles in the aggregate, which are typically rough and have sharp edges. This
angular shape allows the particles to interlock with each other, providing
additional strength and stability to the concrete.

 FLAKY AGGREGATES
An Aggregate is termed flaky when its least dimension (thickness) is less than
3/5th of its mean dimension. The mean dimension of aggregate is the average of
the sieve sizes through which the particles pass and are required, respectively.
 IRREGULAR AGGREGATES
These are also shaped by attrition but are not completely round. These consist
of small stones, gravel and offer reduced workability to rounded aggregates.

1.7.3 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD COARSE AGGREGATE

 It should be angular or cubical in shape.
 It must be sound and durable.
 A Good Coarse Aggregate should be absolutely clean and free from any organic matter,
chemicals and coating of clay.
 It should be hard and tough.

1.7.4 USES OF COARSE AGGREGATES IN CONSTRUCTION WORKS

18
 The coarse aggregates have many advantages which are listed are as follows
 In the construction of railway tracks, coarse aggregates are widely used in the
railway ballast which will help to uniformly distribute the load.
 It will help to increase the volume of the concrete and also reduces the costs of the
project.
 Coarse aggregates are used in construction of roads.
 The coarse aggregates are also used as the upper layer on the rainwater harvesting to
drain off the water into the ground.

1.8 WATER
Water is the least expensive ingredient of concrete. The amount of water add in concrete
may controls fresh and hardened properties of concrete including workability, compressive
strengths, permeability, watertightness, drying shrinkage and potential for cracking.
Potable water is preferred in construction for mixing, curing purpose of concrete. The pH
value of water lies between 6 to 8 and the water is free from organic matter, sulphate, chloride
and hardness of the water is low and
temperature of the water should be
moderate.

Figure 1.8: Water

Reducing water will….

 Increase compressive and flexural strengths.

 Lower permeability and increase water tightness.
 Increase durability and resistance to weathering including chemical attack and
freezing-thawing cycles including surface scaling.
 Reduce concrete drying shrinkage and potential for cracking.

19
 1.9 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To replace the natural sand with Robo sand in order to overcome the problem of acute
shortage of natural river sand which is most commonly used in all types of structural
constructions which ultimately reduces the cost of construction. Partial replacement of natural
fine aggregate with plastic waste in cement concrete to reduce disposal of plastic waste.
The main objective of our project is to know whether Robo sand and Plastic waste are
advisable to use as replacement for fine aggregate.

Replacement

e 1.9: Sand Figure 1.10: Robo Sand

Partial
Replacement

12: Robo Sand Figure 1.11: Plastic Granules

1.10 SCOPE OF THE
STUDY
To find Compressive strength, Split Tensile strength,
Workability, Water absorption, Compaction factor
and gradation of Plastic waste and Robo sand by
using various proportions.

20
Table 1.5: Various proportions of Robo aggregate and Plastic waste
ROBO AGGREGATE (%) PLASTIC WASTE (%)

100 0

85 15

80 20

75 25

21