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Suitability assessment of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and industrial

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Article in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · October 2008

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-007-0048-x

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Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406
DOI 10.1007/s10661-007-0048-x

Suitability assessment of groundwater for drinking,

irrigation and industrial use in some North Indian villages
A. K. Haritash & C. P. Kaushik & A. Kaushik &
Ankur Kansal & Asheesh Kumar Yadav

Received: 13 May 2007 / Accepted: 30 October 2007 / Published online: 17 January 2008
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract The study comprised suitability assessment industrial application since it had high concentration
of groundwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial of calcium carbonate which can precipitate very
use. A total of 34 groundwater samples were collected easily. It was observed that sodium, sulphate, and
from Rewari town and its perimeter from the land chloride were the chief ions present in water and
chiefly used for agriculture. Physico-chemical char- based on the abundance of ions and their correlation
acterization of the samples revealed that groundwater type, most of the groundwater samples are of sodium
from most of the sources was not fit for drinking sulphate and/or sodium chloride type. The high
owing to a high concentration of calcium, magne- concentration of the chemical constituents is attribut-
sium, hardness and fluoride. Suitability for irrigation, ed to the lithologic composition of the area. It was
too, was low since most of the sources had high value observed that the water of deep meteoric percolation
of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium type was of sodium sulphate type and the shallow of
carbonate (RSC), soluble sodium percentage (SSP) sodium chloride type.
and magnesium hazard which can render salinity and
alkali hazard to soils on long term use in irrigation. Keywords Groundwater . Sodium adsorption ratio
No source of water was found to be suitable for (SAR) . Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) . Soluble
sodium percentage (SSP) . Meteoric percolation
A. K. Haritash (*) : C. P. Kaushik : A. Kaushik :
A. Kansal : A. K. Yadav
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Introduction
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology,
Hisar, Haryana 125001, India
More than 90% of rural population in India depends
e-mail: akharitash@gmail.com
on groundwater for drinking, domestic and agricul-
Present address: tural use. Most rural areas lack treatment facilities for
A. K. Yadav drinking water. Though groundwater appears to be
Centre for Rural Development and Technology,
clean and safe as compared to the surface water, it
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
New Delhi 110016, India need not necessarily be safe (Banks et al. 1998).
Whereas surface water can be treated or reclaimed
Present address: easily, the task is equally tough for groundwater
A. Kansal
remediation. Disposal of untreated sewage, effluents,
Uttaranchal Environment Protection
and Pollution Control Board, and indiscriminate use of agrochemicals has rendered
Dehradun, Uttaranchal 248 011, India the groundwater unfit for drinking/agriculture or both
398 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

(Bruce and McMahon 1996). As per WHO report, geological structure is formed of Delhi Group (Middle
pollution of water has been reported to cause 80% of Proterozoic) formations. The rocks of Delhi Group
human diseases and 30% infant mortality in develop- are divided into Alwar and Ajabgarh groups. The
ing countries (Chakroborty 1999). Several studies Alwar group of rocks comprises predominantly of
have reported the adverse health effects of different arenaceous sediments and is represented by massive
pollutants like pesticides, arsenic, nitrate (Bruce and quartzite, usually felspathic in nature, micaceous
McMahon 1996), fluoride (Chandrawanshi and Patel quartizite with subordinate bands of mica schist and
1999), hardness and iron, etc. in groundwater (Soltan carbonaceous phyllite. The Ajabgarh group of rocks
1998). The quality of irrigation water can affect the in the area is characterized predominantly by argilla-
soil fertility and productivity. Soil that was originally ceous sediments and include shale, slate and silt stone
non saline and non alkaline may develop saline and together with few quartzitic and cherty bands,
alkaline character if excessive soluble salts or ex- siltstone being more predominant than other two
changeable sodium are allowed to accumulate in the varieties. Both these groups of rocks are intruded by
soil as the result of improper irrigation or soil- amphibolite, granite, aplite, pegmatite, calcite and
management practices, or inadequate drainage. In vein quartz. Alkaline earths occur as efflorescence on
excessively irrigated farms or areas of sufficient the surface of earth and contain predominantly
rainfall, the soluble salts originally present in the soil carbonate and bicarbonate of sodium (Thussu 1993).
or added to the soil with water are carried downward Temperature ranges from 2°C to 47°C, severe cold
by the water and ultimately reach the water table and in the months of December and January and summer
may affect the groundwater quality. There have been in the months of May and June. Dust storms occur in
numerous studies and reports on assessment of water summer season owing to the proximity to Thar Desert
quality for drinking in various states of the country of Rajasthan. Overall climate of this district remains
(Sarma and Rao 1997; Singh and Parwana 1999; dry. July, August and September are the months of
Singh et al. 2005), but the studies on assessment of rainy season. Light rains are experienced during
groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation in December, January, and February (Bhatt 1998).
Haryana state of India are scanty (Kaushik et al.
2000a, b). In a country whose economy runs on Sample collection and analysis
agriculture and which supports 1/6th of world
population, it becomes imperative to screen the Rewari and the neighboring villages, primarily en-
quality of water for drinking, agricultural, and gaged in agriculture as a profession, were selected for
industrial use and to suggest the preventive and the study. The villages identified in the perimeter of
remedial measures. In view of the facts, the present Rewari town were Gokalgarh (Sample nos. 1 and 2),
study was undertaken to characterize and evaluate the Gangaicha Ahir (3–5), Dayaki (6 and 7), Tahana (8–
suitability of groundwater in rural areas of Rewari 10), Mastapur (11–14), Harinagar (15–19), Thotwal
town and its perimeter. (20–23), Hussainpur (24–28), and some of the areas
of Rewari town (29–34) (Fig. 1). All the samples
were obtained in the month of May, 2001 from
Materials and methods the hand pumps or tube-wells on agricultural land, the
water being used for drinking and/or irrigation. The
Description of the study area samples were stored in pre-cleaned, distilled water
rinsed plastic bottles. pH and EC were noted at the
Rewari is located at 28° 12′ North latitude and 76° 40′ sampling site using portable meters. Rest of the
East longitude in the south–west direction of the characteristics of water samples were analyzed in
national capital Delhi across the Delhi Jaipur National the laboratory immediately after transportation to the
Highway No. 8 at a height of 241.95 m above mean laboratory. Chemical analysis was done in triplicates
sea level. The district is spread over 1,559 km2 area as per the standard recommended methods (Eaton
with a total population of 7,65,351 (2001 census) with et al. 1995) using double glass distilled water and
sub tropical continental monsoon climate. The general analytical grade (AR) chemicals. Total dissolved
slope of the district is towards North and the solids were estimated by gravimetric method; alka-
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406 399

E
D B AC

F I H
G

Fig. 1 Location of different areas [Gokalgarh (A), Gangaicha Ahir (B), Dayaki (C), Tahana (D), Mastapur (E), Harinagar (F), Thotwal
(G), Hussainpur (H), Rewari (I)] in the study area
400 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

linity, hardness, chloride, carbonate, and bicarbonate constituents to assess their suitability for drinking,
content was estimated by volumetric analyses; calci- agricultural and industrial use.
um, magnesium, sodium, potassium, sulfate, phos-
phate, and iron were determined by photometric Suitability for drinking
method; and fluoride was determined on spectropho-
tometer by SPADNS method. In order to calculate the Physico-chemical characterization of the groundwater
suitability of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and samples is given in Table 1. The water in the study
industrial use, following chemical relations and area is being used for drinking without any treatment
equations were used. and there were no significant visible effects on the
health of residents in the study area. pH of all the

water samples was within the safe limits. It varied
Base exchangeðbase exch:Þ ¼ ðNaþ
Cl
Þ SO2

4 meq=l
(Matthess 1982) from 7.4 to 8.8 with a mean value of 8.2. Though the
water was slightly alkaline, but suitable for drinking.

The electrical conductivity (EC) (in μmho/cm) varied
Meteoric genesisðmet: gen:Þ ¼ ½ðKþ þ Naþ Þ
Cl
 SO2

4
(Abdel Moneim 1988) in the range from 550 to 13,080 with a mean value of
3,390. It has a wide applicability with respect to
agricultural use, but for the drinking use high value of
According to the classification of meteoric genesis, EC denotes proportionately high value of calcium,
groundwater is of two types – deep meteoric water magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Total dissolved
percolation type (Met. gen.<1), and shallow meteoric solids (TDS) varied from 352 to 8,371 mg/l with a
water percolation type (Met. gen.>1). mean value of 1,959 mg/l. Water containing less than
Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and soluble 500 mg/l of dissolved solids is suitable for domestic
sodium percentage (SSP) were calculated as per use. In our study, water from 81% of the sources was
Eaton 1950. above the specified limit (500 mg/l) for TDS. Water
containing more than 1,000 mg/l of dissolved solids is
   2þ 
RSC ¼ HCO

3 þ CO3
2


Ca þ Mg2þ likely to contain enough of certain constituents to
cause noticeable taste or otherwise make the water

  undesirable or unsuitable for drinking. A high
SSP ¼ NAþ Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ Naþ  100 concentration of salts of sodium, calcium, and
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percent sodium magnesium is responsible for high amounts of total
(% Na), and magnesium hazard (Mg haz.) were dissolved solids. The sources of dissolved solids are
calculated as per Richards (1954), Wilcox (1948), natural as minerals in soils and anthropogenic as
and Paliwal (1972), respectively. agrochemicals. Alkalinity (as CaCO3) ranged from
104 to 464 mg/l with a mean value of 183 mg/l. The
.
1=2 total hardness caused by carbonates, bicarbonates,
SAR ¼ Naþ Ca2þ þ Mg2þ 2
chlorides, and sulphates of calcium and magnesium

  varied from 104 to 1,732 mg/l with a mean value of
% Na ¼ ½ðNaþ þ Kþ Þ  100 Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ Naþ þ Lþ
526 mg/l. Soft waters are those with a hardness of less
than 100 mg/l; moderately hard waters are those with
 
 
Mg haz: ¼ Mg2þ  100 Ca2þ þ Mg2þ a hardness range from 101 to 200 mg/l; and hard
waters are those which have hardness in excess of
The statistical analysis of physico-chemical char- 200 mg/l. In our study, 12% of the samples were
acteristics of water was done on SPSS software. moderately soft and the rest hard. Hardness of 71%
of the samples was found to be above the specified
safe limit of 300 mg/l. Twenty-seven percent of the
Results and discussion samples exceeded the specified limit (75 mg/l) of
calcium with the concentration range of 19–588 mg/l
The groundwater samples collected from the study and mean concentration of 55 mg/l. Magnesium was
area were analyzed for their physical and chemical found in the concentration range of 16–396 mg/l with
Table 1 Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater samples

No. pH EC TDS Alk. Hardness Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ CO2

3 HCO

3 Cl− F− PO3

4 SO2

4 Fe

1T 8.12 8.12 840 116 308 44 48.15 642 1.14 14.4 112.24 142 1.47 1.2 58.9 0
2T 8.53 1.24 793 108 552 588 95.28 190 4.56 14.4 92.72 163.3 1.93 2.21 97.08 0
3H 8.13 4.61 2,950 216 472 32 27.24 690 32.2 33.6 195.2 589.3 1.19 1 91.84 0
4T 8.4 1.22 781 200 192 32 103.1 273 1.14 8.8 185.44 142 2.26 1.25 24.14 0
5T 7.96 4.36 2,790 212 664 96 16.59 654 2.18 24 209.84 1,448.2 1.28 2.95 196.8 0
6T 8.63 2.88 1,843 376 204 55 42.9 606 0 62.4 331.84 191.7 4.09 1.29 4.87 0.01
7T 8.35 0.68 435 104 224 19 80.3 11 1.14 24 78.04 1,441.3 0.142 0.94 12.33 0
8T 8.29 3.93 2,515 132 720 156 59.81 559 0 28.8 102.48 1,909.9 0.284 0.69 64.68 0
9H 8.32 2.6 1,664 168 356 44 60.79 476 0 33.6 136.64 1,292.2 1.08 1.2 25.71 0.48
10H 8.18 3.31 2,118 128 400 60 99.67 559 0 9.6 136.64 1,625.9 0.142 1.06 27.94 0.64
11H 8.02 2.7 1,179 136 560 60 72.46 404 1.14 9.6 46.4 184.6 0.106 0.79 115.45 0.25
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

12T 8.25 1.79 1,145 116 468 68 191.6 452 2.28 9.6 22 901.7 0.569 1.47 76.35 0
13T 8.02 7.17 4,589 184 1,148 144 146.89 1,071 0 24 85.44 3,542.9 1.08 2.33 198.11 0
14T 8.16 3.57 2,285 108 1,004 160 107.93 452 0 24 82.96 1,767.9 1.53 1.43 19.81 0.48
15H 8.02 2.41 1,512 464 104 58 45.22 833 0 19.2 527.04 440.2 4.98 2 12.72 1.67
16T 8.22 2.59 1,658 204 564 48 46.2 428 0 19.2 209.84 930.1 1.54 1.06 42.5 0
17H 7.92 1.39 890 228 276 36 396.62 297 0 19.2 239.12 248.5 0.85 2.39 23.87 0.06
18H 8.52 1.02 653 152 300 44 70.01 178 0 24 136.64 25.9 2.2 5.39 21.38 0.04
19H 8.8 8.34 5,338 136 1,732 40 109.01 618 1.14 9.6 146.4 43.23 1.53 2.07 119.3 1.64
20T 8.25 3.03 1,939 208 368 32 59.73 535 0 28.8 195.2 1,086.3 1.9 0.9 131.2 0.02
21T 7.75 8.75 5,600 164 948 200 167.71 158 4.56 9.6 180.56 3,848.2 2.2 0 50.51 0
22H 7.4 2.25 1,440 192 444 172 18.51 559 13.68 4.8 224.48 769.7 4.32 1.12 45.39 0.08
23T 8.57 13.08 8,371 264 820 52 190.55 2,713 1.14 48 224.48 7,089.8 1.04 3.73 522.17 0.32
24T 8.04 0.6 352 112 220 57 69.53 47.6 19.38 19.2 97.6 127.8 0.8 0.59 6.95 0.54
25H 8.33 7.34 469 304 904 48 80.22 1,082 87.78 24 322.08 532.5 4.12 3.3 148.2 0
26H 8.3 0.8 512 160 376 36 129.31 107 22.8 14.4 165.92 127.8 1.35 1.35 10.23 0.67
27T 8.32 0.84 537 160 440 44 74.96 60 1.14 28.8 136.64 113.6 1.35 0.63 8 0
28T 8.36 2.08 1,331 228 632 40 59.86 238 36.4 28.8 219.6 504.1 3.14 1.76 11.54 0
29T 8.23 3.72 2,380 164 708 160 34.04 559 2.28 24 151.28 1,114.2 1.45 1.06 212.5 3.34
30T 7.6 4.13 4,643 188 516 108 128.8 618 1.14 9.6 209.84 1,089.2 2.06 1.1 292.5 0.046
31H 8.39 0.88 563 108 220 32 24.81 178 2.28 14.4 112.24 170.4 2.08 0.55 23.22 0
32H 8.3 2 1,280 240 660 52 29.18 285 1.14 38.4 214.72 347.9 3.63 4.6 46.83 0
33H 8.31 0.97 620 108 192 36 ND 178 2.28 9.6 112.24 184.6 1.35 0.55 29.9 0.32
34H 8.79 0.95 608 116 200 32 ND 178 2.28 24 92.72 184.6 1.35 4.61 21.25 0
Range 7.4– 0.55– 352– 104– 104– 19 – ND – 11– 0– 4.8– 22– 25.9– 0.106– 0– 4.87– 0–
8.79 13.18 8,371 464 1,732 588 396.62 2,713 87.78 62.4 527.04 7,089.8 4.98 5.39 522.17 3.34
Mean± 8.23± 3.39± 1,959.5± 182.47± 526.35± 84.85± 90.22± 496.72± 7.21± 21.72± 168.72± 1,009.46± 1.78± 1.72± 82.18± 4.65±
SD 0.30 2.91 1,814.44 79.46 337.68 101.42 73.24 475.26 16.94 12.15 94.68 1,410.61 1.24 1.29 105.9 0.68

All the values are expressed in mg/l except EC (μmho/cm) and pH

T tube well, H hand pump, Alk alkalinity
401
402 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

an average of 90 mg/l for the studied samples. 85% of for health. Many authors have reported a negative
the samples exceeded the safe desirable limit of 30 mg/l. relationship between fluoride and calcium in ground-
A very high concentration of calcium and magnesium water in different parts of India (Sarma and Rao 1997;
can be attributed to the lithologic composition and the Srikanth et al. 1994), whereas, high fluoride waters
minerals like calcite and dolomite, the integral compo- have high concentration of bicarbonate ions. In our
nents of siltstone, a geologic characteristic of the study study too, fluoride had negative correlation with
area. magnesium, insignificant or no correlation with
Chloride originates from sodium chloride which calcium, and a positive correlation with bicarbonate
gets dissolved in water from rocks and soil. Sodium ions. Calcium and magnesium were low in concen-
chloride has little effect on the suitability of water tration as they precipitate as carbonates. Low concen-
unless it is present in such concentrations as to make tration of calcium and magnesium in high fluoride
the water non-potable or corrosive. The removal of waters is due to very low solubility of CaF2
sodium chloride from water is difficult and too costly (Ksp ¼ 1  10
10:57 ).
for most water uses. Maximum concentration of It was observed that most of the samples exceeded
chloride ion in drinking water is 250 mg/l. Water the prescribed limit for one or other parameter. Most
containing more than 250 mg/l of chloride ion has of the samples exhibited high concentration for some
salty taste. It varied from 26 to 7,090 mg/l with a of the sensitive parameters like hardness, iron, and
mean concentration of 1,009 mg/l in our study. 59% fluoride. The major sources of the pollutants are
of the samples were found to be above the specified chiefly natural since the areas are rural and they do
limit. The concentration of sodium varied from 11 to not support industrial activity. A study by Manchanda
2,713 mg/l with a mean value of 497 mg/l. Sulfate et al. in 1972 also reported saline, sodic, and saline-
was found to be in the range of 4.87–522.17 mg/l with cum-sodic water pockets in different parts of Rewari
a mean value of 82.18 mg/l. Further, 85% of the tehsil. The study confirms natural occurrence of the
samples were within the specified limit for sulfate (150 chemical constituents since they were present even 35
mg/l). Next to hardness, iron is the constituent in years back when agriculture as well as industrial
natural waters that generally is the most objectionable. growth was low. Based on the chemical composition,
Iron, if present in sufficient quantity, gives a disagree- the groundwater is of sodium–sulfate–chloride type.
able taste to water. The iron content of water seems to
be related to depth of the aquifer, the type of rocks Suitability for irrigation
comprising the aquifer, the length of time the water has
been in the aquifer, the pH of the water and many other The development and maintenance of successful
factors like the material of pipe being used for pumping irrigation projects involve not only the supplying of
the water. Fluoride is another contaminant of ground- irrigation water to the land but also the control of salt
water present in low quantities, but it is important since and alkali in the soil. The characteristics of water for
the use of water containing fluoride in excess of 1.5 irrigation which are important in determining its
mg/l by children during formation of their permanent quality are: (1) total concentration of soluble salts;
teeth may cause mottling of the tooth enamel. If the (2) relative proportion of sodium to other principal
fluoride content is as high as 4 mg/l, about 90% of the cations (magnesium, calcium, and potassium); (3)
children using the water may have mottled tooth concentration of other elements that may be toxic to
enamel (Dean 1936). In our study, Fluoride concen- plants; and (4) the bicarbonate concentration, under
tration ranged from 0 to 4.98 mg/l with a mean value some conditions, related to the concentration of
of 1.77 mg/l. 82% of the samples exceeded the limit calcium and magnesium.
(1 mg/l) specified for fluoride. In rural parts of India, The cropping pattern in the study area was as per
where malnutrition is common, dietary intake of Rabi (growing wheat and mustard in winter) and
calcium is low, and people undertake heavy manual Kharif (growing sorghum and pearl millet in summer)
labour. Under such conditions, the consumption of system of India. Parameters important with respect to
water is high and so is the fluoride exposure and the use in irrigation are represented in Table 2. The
ingestion. Therefore the high concentration of fluoride total concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water
in most of the sources of water is a cause of concern can be adequately expressed in terms of electrical
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406 403

Table 2 Calculated values to assess the suitability of groundwater samples for irrigation and industrial use

No. Base exch. Depth (ft) Met. gen. RSC SSP SAR % Na Mg haz. Sat. index

1 19.49 70 19.51 −1.89 86.90 19.25 81.81 47.70 2.713

2 1.81 70 1.87 −31.37 19.84 2.02 18.33 11.90 2.731
3 7.00 30 7.44 1.59 91.65 25.65 88.85 41.50 2.744
4 15.65 80 15.71 −2.56 66.81 6.91 53.86 72.86 2.652
5 −3.01 80 −3.00 −1.25 83.81 17.16 82.17 12.59 2.704
6 206.47 75 206.47 2.98 85.31 17.49 80.64 39.39 2.753
7 −156.19 80 −156.08 −2.22 10.02 0.33 6.23 77.89 2.914
8 −21.89 80 −21.89 −7.65 70.25 10.71 65.53 24.21 2.809
9 −29.32 40 −29.32 −1.37 81.39 13.45 74.01 53.52 2.789
10 −36.93 35 −36.93 −4.59 77.26 12.85 68.25 58.06 2.671
11 5.14 40 5.15 −4.94 74.48 10.13 66.06 50.16 2.766
12 −3.61 70 −3.58 −10.70 63.32 8.24 50.44 70.13 2.888
13 −12.90 80 −12.90 −11.12 77.76 18.04 70.55 45.95 2.809
14 −73.05 110 −73.05 −10.34 61.13 7.86 53.63 35.99 2.814
15 89.88 30 89.88 4.50 88.33 23.42 84.45 39.38 2.643
16 −8.57 80 −8.57 −0.25 81.14 12.65 74.86 44.51 2.686
17 11.89 35 11.89 −13.77 41.34 4.27 27.03 90.18 2.678
18 15.74 40 15.74 −2.08 60.20 4.84 49.06 57.01 2.745
19 10.32 40 10.33 −3.82 80.42 14.86 70.82 69.43 2.668
20 −2.69 117 −2.69 0.07 85.05 16.27 77.96 60.87 2.726
21 −96.49 80 −96.37 −13.71 28.79 2.36 22.56 41.13 2.658
22 2.77 40 3.14 −5.53 72.17 11.23 70.85 8.23 2.631
23 −7.52 80 −7.51 −5.26 91.80 51.38 86.46 75.33 2.77
24 −10.57 65 −7.14 −3.51 26.48 1.22 22.89 50.41 2.759
25 10.38 40 11.11 0.34 89.12 27.76 84.44 58.21 2.674
26 4.94 40 7.68 −3.99 39.29 2.45 29.40 74.96 2.682
27 −3.55 70 −3.37 −2.12 32.89 1.60 23.80 58.67 2.768
28 −16.02 90 −12.14 0.07 69.72 6.90 61.75 55.50 2.716
29 −1.60 90 −1.59 −6.14 72.07 11.20 69.21 15.06 2.734
30 −0.63 90 −0.62 −7.01 71.39 11.58 62.51 49.85 2.651
31 6.08 40 6.20 −0.31 74.61 6.74 68.01 39.25 2.713
32 2.66 40 2.69 0.98 76.46 8.97 71.17 31.86 2.747
33 4.08 40 4.17 0.36 81.13 8.16 81.25 0.00 2.682
34 5.74 40 5.87 0.72 82.87 8.65 82.97 0.00 2.797

conductivity for purposes of diagnosis and classifica- other cations in irrigation water usually has been
tion. In general, water having conductivity below expressed as the percentage of sodium among the
750 μmhos/cm is satisfactory for irrigation. Water principal cations (expressed in epm) called as the
having a range of 750 to 2,250 μmhos/cm is widely percent sodium. Percent sodium varied from 6.23 to
used, and satisfactory crop growth is obtained under 88.85. Based on percent sodium (as per Wilcox
good management and favorable drainage conditions, 1955), it was observed that about 68% of the samples,
but saline conditions will develop if leaching and with percentage sodium value >60, were either
drainage are inadequate. In our study, (EC) (in μmho/ unsuitable or doubtful, and 32% of the samples in
cm) varied in the range from 550 to 13,080 with a the range of good to permissible for use in irrigation.
mean value of 3,390. About 53% of the water samples Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), used to express the
have EC higher than 2,250 μmho/cm and continuous relative activity of sodium ions in exchange reactions
application of such water may lead to formation of with soil, is a measure of suitability of water for
saline soils. The relative proportion of sodium to irrigation with respect to the salinity (sodium) hazard
404 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

(Fig. 2). SAR ranged from 0.33 to 51.38. As per the calcium and magnesium to precipitate since the water
U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), about 94% of in soil becomes more concentrated as a result of
the groundwater samples lie in the range of high to evaporation. This reaction ordinarily does not go to
very high salinity hazard. Low-sodium water can be completion, but when it does, there is a reduction in
used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger the concentration of calcium and magnesium and a
of developing harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. relative increase in sodium. The calcium and magne-
Medium-sodium water will present an appreciable sium are precipitated as carbonates, and any residual
sodium hazard in certain fine-textured soils, especial- carbonate or bicarbonate is left in solution as residual
ly poorly leached soils. Such water may be used sodium carbonate (RSC) or bicarbonate hazard. RSC
safely on coarse-textured or organic soils having good remained negative for most of the water samples, thus
permeability. High-sodium water may produce harm- showing that the water was either good or within the
ful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and limit (<2.5) for use in irrigation. Only two samples in
will require special soil management such as good the study area (sample nos. 6 and 15) were having
drainage and leaching and addition of organic matter. RSC above the safe limit. On the other hand, soluble
In our study, 47% of the sources of water were having sodium percentage (SSP) was reported in all the
low; 35% medium; and 18% high to very high value samples in considerable amounts. It ranged from
of SAR. Very high sodium water is generally 10.02 to 91.80 in the studied water samples. Ideally,
unsatisfactory for irrigation. In water having a high water intended for agricultural use should have a
concentration of bicarbonate, there is a tendency for lower concentration of sodium ions and higher
amount of calcium and magnesium ions. This is just
the opposite for water in domestic use. Sodium is the
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91000 2 3 4 5000
dominant cation in much of the groundwater sources
in the study area. Excessive amounts of this ion may
VERY HIGH

cause a significant decrease in the permeability of

30
agricultural soils receiving irrigation water. The
4

28 presence of excessive amounts of sodium ion in

26 groundwater is due to the phenomenon of cation
SODIUM ADSORPTION RATIO (SAR)

exchange as the water percolates through clay-rich

SODIUM (ALKALI) HAZARD
HIGH

24
sediments. Magnesium ion concentration also plays
3

22 an important role in productivity of soil. It has been

20 noted that if magnesium hazard is less than 50, the
23, 25
water is suitable for irrigation. In our study, about
18
47% of the sources had magnesium hazard more than
MEDIUM

16
50 and the water from these sources was found to be
2

14 unsuitable for irrigation. High concentration of mag-

12 1, 3,
nesium can be attributed to dolomite, a chief mineral
13, 15 of sandstone and siltstone. The categorization of
10
irrigation water on the basis of EC, % Na, RSC,
8 5, 6, 8,
9, 10, 11, SAR, and Mg hazard is given in Table 3. Chloride ion
LOW

6 16, 19, 20,

concentration also deserves due consideration, as
1

27, 29, 30
4 2, 6, 12, 17, according to Ayers and Branson (1975), when epm
7, 24 18, 26, 27, 28,
2
31, 32, 33, 34 14, 21 value of chloride in irrigation water is more than 10,
100 250 750 2250 water is likely to affect crop production adversely.
CL

C
CONDUCTIVITY IN MICROMHO/CM (EC x 106) AT 25OC In our study, epm values of about 56% of sources
AS

1 2 3 4 of water exceeded the limit and water from these

S

LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERY HIGH

sources is unsuitable for irrigation. It was also
SALINITY HAZARD
Fig. 2 Plots of calculated values of SAR and EC of
observed that 50% of the sources of water were of
groundwater samples (diagram after U.S. Salinity Laboratory sodium sulphate type with the base-exchange value
Staff 1954) less than one (1) and the rest of sodium chloride
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406 405

Table 3 Categorization of Mg.

water quality for irrigation Quality EC range % Na RSC SAR
Hazard
Very
250a < 1000b 20a <0c 0 -10e
good
< 1.25d
250 1000
Good 20 - 40 0-2.5 10 -18 < 50%f
-750 -2000
750 2000
Marginal 40 - 60 2.5-5.0 1.25 -2.5
a-
Wilcox; 1995, b- Bhumbla - 2000 -4000
18 -26
and Abrol, 1972; c- Bishnoi 2000 4000
Poor 60 - 80 5.0-7.5
et al., 1984; d- Eaton, 1950; -3000 -6000
e-
> 2.5 > 50%
Richards, 1954; f- Paliwal, Harmful 3000 > 6000 80 > 7.5 > 26
1972

type (value >1). Based on the analysis for meteoric Statistical analysis
genesis, it was found that the sources having sodium
sulphate type of water were of deep meteoric water Statistical analysis of the characteristics of groundwa-
percolation type and the other of shallow meteoric ter samples revealed good positive correlation of EC
water percolation type. with total dissolved solids (0.822), sodium (0.782),
chloride (0.713), and sulphate (0.701) significant at
Suitability for industrial application 0.01 level (2 tailed). Total dissolved solids, too, had a
positive correlation with the sodium (0.703), chloride
Saturation index is an important factor to test the (0.807), and sulphate (0.755). Sodium ions had a
quality of water for the degree to which water flowing good positive correlation with sulphate (0.826) and
through pipes will precipitate or dissolve calcium chloride (0.732) ions. It stated that sodium, sulphate,
carbonate. It is calculated by the difference of actual and chloride were the major ions present in water and
pH (pHw) and the calculated pH (pHcal.) of water, based on the abundance of ions and their correlation
which the water will have in equilibrium with calcium type, most of the groundwater samples are of sodium
carbonate. sulphate and/or sodium chloride type. Bicarbonate
ions had a good correlation with hardness and
Saturation Index ¼ ðpHw
pHcal: Þ
attributed towards the hardness of water chiefly.
pHcal. is calculated by the following equation (Rhades
and Bernstein 1971)
Conclusion
pHcal: ¼ ðpK2
pKs Þ þ pCa2þ þ pAlK
Based on the results observed, it was found that most of
from the negative logarithms of the second dissocia- the sources of water had the concentration of one or
tion constant of H2CO3 (pK2), solubility product other constituent above the safe prescribed limit. The
constant of calcium carbonate (pKs), molar concen- water from most of the sources was unsuitable for
tration of calcium pCa2+, and the equivalent concen- drinking since it had high concentration of some of the
tration of carbonate and bicarbonate (pAlK). If the sensitive parameters like hardness, calcium, magne-
saturation index is positive, CaCO3 will precipitate, sium, chloride, and fluoride. With respect to the
but if it is negative CaCO3 will dissolve. Analysis of agricultural use, it was found that most of the sources
the saturation index (Table 2) revealed that water from had high value of SAR, RSC, SSP, and Magnesium
all of the sources was unsuitable (having positive hazard and water from these sources was found to be
values) for industrial application since calcium car- unsuitable for irrigation on long-term use. Most of the
bonate will precipitate out in pipes, tanks, or reactors water was of sodium–sulphate–chloride type. Most of
causing scaling, corrosion, and extra input of energy. the sources had high to very high salinity hazard. The
The water from these sources needs to be pretreated water should either be treated before its use for
before use in industries. drinking and agriculture or be used intermittently.
406 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

Such water can be used over coarse textured, high Eaton, A. D., Clesceri, L. S., & Greenberg, A. E. (1995).
Standard methods for the examination of water and
organic content soils with good drainage or long-term
wastewater, APHA, 19th edition.
use might render the soil infertile. The water was Kaushik, A., Sharma, H. R., Mehta, B., Pragya, Shilpa, &
unsuitable for use in industry and needs pretreatment Sapna (2000a). Groundwater quality of Ambala and
for calcium carbonate. It was observed that the high Nilokheri cities in Haryana in relation land use. Environ-
ment & Ecology, 18(3), 616–623.
concentration was of natural origin as an input from the Kaushik, A., Sharma, H. R., Sharma, P., Mehta, B., Sikka, &
minerals like calcite and dolomite and the water of Shilpa (2000b). Variability in ground water quality of two
deep meteoric percolation type was of sodium sulphate industrial towns of Haryana in relation to anthropogenic
type and the shallow of sodium chloride type. activities. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 20
(3), 208–216.
Manchanda, H. R., Manchanda, M. L., & Siyag, R. S. (1972).
Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Depart- Distribution of different qualities of underground waters in
ment of Environmental Science and Engineering, G. J. Univer- Rewari tehsil of Haryana state. Indian Journal of
sity of Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana to accord the Agricultural Sciences, 42(9), 835–839.
laboratory facilities and permission to publish the work. Matthess, G. (1982). The properties of ground water (1st Ed.).
New York: Wiley.
Paliwal, K. V. (1972). Irrigation with saline water. I.A.R.I.
Monograph No. 2 (New Series), New Delhi, 198.
Rhades, J. D., & Bernstein, L. (1971). Chemical, physical and
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