Memory Hierarchy in

Computer Architecture
In the design of the computer system, a processor, as well as a
large amount of memory devices, has been used. However, the main
problem is, these parts are expensive. So the memory
organization of the system can be done by memory hierarchy. It has
several levels of memory with different performance rates. But all
these can supply an exact purpose, such that the access time can be
reduced. The memory hierarchy was developed depending upon the
behavior of the program. This article discusses an overview of the
memory hierarchy in computer architecture.

What is Memory Hierarchy?

The memory in a computer can be divided into five hierarchies based

on the speed as well as use. The processor can move from one level
to another based on its requirements. The five hierarchies in the
memory are registers, cache, main memory, magnetic discs, and
magnetic tapes. The first three hierarchies are volatile memories
which mean when there is no power, and then automatically they
lose their stored data. Whereas the last two hierarchies are not
volatile which means they store the data permanently.

A memory element is the set of storage devices which stores the

binary data in the type of bits. In general, the storage of memory can
be classified into two categories such as volatile as well as non-
volatile.

Memory Hierarchy in Computer Architecture

The memory hierarchy design in a computer system mainly
includes different storage devices. Most of the computers were inbuilt
with extra storage to run more powerfully beyond the main memory
capacity. The following memory hierarchy diagram is a hierarchical
pyramid for computer memory. The designing of the memory
hierarchy is divided into two types such as primary (Internal) memory
and secondary (External) memory.

Memory Hierarchy

Primary Memory

The primary memory is also known as internal memory, and this is

accessible by the processor straightly. This memory includes main,
cache, as well as CPU registers.

Secondary Memory
The secondary memory is also known as external memory, and this
is accessible by the processor through an input/output module. This
memory includes an optical disk, magnetic disk, and magnetic tape.

Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy

The memory hierarchy characteristics mainly include the following.

Performance

Previously, the designing of a computer system was done without

memory hierarchy, and the speed gap among the main memory as
well as the CPU registers enhances because of the huge disparity in
access time, which will cause the lower performance of the system.
So, the enhancement was mandatory. The enhancement of this was
designed in the memory hierarchy model due to the system’s
performance increase.

Ability

The ability of the memory hierarchy is the total amount of data the
memory can store. Because whenever we shift from top to bottom
inside the memory hierarchy, then the capacity will increase.

Access Time

The access time in the memory hierarchy is the interval of the time
among the data availability as well as request to read or write.
Because whenever we shift from top to bottom inside the memory
hierarchy, then the access time will increase
Cost per bit

When we shift from bottom to top inside the memory hierarchy, then
the cost for each bit will increase which means an internal Memory is
expensive compared with external memory.

Memory Hierarchy Design

The memory hierarchy in computers mainly includes the following.

Registers

Usually, the register is a static RAM or SRAM in the processor of the

computer which is used for holding the data word which is typically
64 or 128 bits. The program counter register is the most important as
well as found in all the processors. Most of the processors use a
status word register as well as an accumulator. A status word register
is used for decision making, and the accumulator is used to store the
data like mathematical operation. Usually, computers like complex
instruction set computers have so many registers for accepting
main memory, and RISC- reduced instruction set computers have
more registers.

Cache Memory

Cache memory can also be found in the processor, however rarely it

may be another IC (integrated circuit) which is separated into
levels. The cache holds the chunk of data which are frequently used
from main memory. When the processor has a single core then it will
have two (or) more cache levels rarely. Present multi-core
processors will be having three, 2-levels for each one core, and one
level is shared.
Main Memory

The main memory in the computer is nothing but, the memory unit in
the CPU that communicates directly. It is the main storage unit of the
computer. This memory is fast as well as large memory used for
storing the data throughout the operations of the computer. This
memory is made up of RAM as well as ROM.

Magnetic Disks

The magnetic disks in the computer are circular plates fabricated of

plastic otherwise metal by magnetized material. Frequently, two
faces of the disk are utilized as well as many disks may be stacked
on one spindle by read or write heads obtainable on every plane. All
the disks in computer turn jointly at high speed. The tracks in the
computer are nothing but bits which are stored within the magnetized
plane in spots next to concentric circles. These are usually separated
into sections which are named as sectors.

Magnetic Tape

This tape is a normal magnetic recording which is designed with a

slender magnetizable covering on an extended, plastic film of the thin
strip. This is mainly used to back up huge data. Whenever the
computer requires to access a strip, first it will mount to access the
data. Once the data is allowed, then it will be unmounted. The access
time of memory will be slower within magnetic strip as well as it will
take a few minutes for accessing a strip.

Advantages of Memory Hierarchy

The need for a memory hierarchy includes the following.

 Memory distributing is simple and economical
 Removes external destruction
 Data can be spread all over
 Permits demand paging & pre-paging
 Swapping will be more proficient
Thus, this is all about memory hierarchy. From the above
information, finally, we can conclude that it is mainly used to
decrease the bit cost, access frequency, and to increase the
capacity, access time. So it is up to the designer how much they
need these characteristics for satisfying the necessities of their
consumers.
GENERTIONS OF COMPUTER

First to Fifth Generations of Computer

Computers are essential devices that you must have used while growing up. There are
also pretty good chances that you still use a computer daily. Have you ever wondered
what a computer really is? Do you know what the generation of computers is?

If you are curious to know the answer to these questions, that is great. In this article,
we will answer both of these questions in great detail.

Let’s first begin with what the meaning of computers is. According to experts, a
computer can be defined as an electronic device used for manipulating information or
data. Computers also have the ability to store, retrieve and process information.
These days, people use computers for typing documents, playing games, sending
emails and browsing the internet. One can also use these devices to create or edit
presentations, spreadsheets and videos.

You might also be interested to know that the evolution of computers began sometime
during the 1940s. At that time, the first generation of computers was created. Since
then, experts have also developed other generations of computers. As of now, there
are five generations of computers.

In the field of electronics and technology, generation is computer terminology. This

term refers to the change that a computer goes through. Earlier, the term generation
was used to differentiate between different hardware technologies. However, these
days, generation can be used to refer to both software and hardware; these together
form the entire computer system.

In the rest of the article, we will discuss these five computer generations. Before we
jump on to the details, it is important to go through an overview of these generations.

The Generation of Computer Evolution is Generally Divided Into 5

Categories.

Generations of
S.no Time-period Evolving Hardware
Computer
 1 1940-1950 First-generation Vacuum-Tube Based

2 1950-1960 Second generation Transistor Based

3 1960-1970 Third generation Integrated-Circuit Based

4 1970-Present Fourth Generation Microprocessor-Based

5 Present-Future Fifth Generation Artificial Intelligence Based

The First Generation of Computers- (the 1940s-1950s)

The main electronic component used in the computers of the 1940s to 1950s era were
vacuum tubes.

The main memory storing units were magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.

The machine language was used as the programming language.

The sizes used to be very large which could take up entire rooms and the speed was
very slow.

The only input/output devices were paper tape and punched cards.

Around 100 different vacuum tubes were used in order to produce the computers.

Examples are UNIVAC1, ENIAC, IBM 701 and IBM 650, etc.

The Second Generation of Computers- (the 1950s-1960s)

The main electronic component used in the computers of the 1950s to 1960s era were
transistors.

The main memory storing units were magnetic tape or disk and magnetic core

The assembly language was used as the programming language.

The sizes were smaller as compared to those of the first generation and they used to
consume low power and generate less heat.

There was an improvement in speed.

The input/output devices were magnetic tape and punched cards.

Examples are IBM 1401, IBM 7094 AND IBM 7090, UNIVAC 1107, and so on.

The Third Generation of Computers- (the 1960s-1970s)

The main electronic components used in the computers of the era 1060s to 1970s
were integrated circuits ICs.

The memory storing units were the magnetic disk or take and a large magnetic core.

High-level languages such as BASIC, COBOL, Pascal were used as the programming
language.

The sizes were smaller and efficient and the computers were called minicomputers.

There was an improvement in reliability and speed as compared to the second

generation of computers.

The input/output devices were keyboards, magnetic tape monitor, printer,

etc.Examples are IBM 370, IBM 360, UNIVAC 1108 and so on.

The Fourth Generation of Computers- (1970s-present)

The main electronic components used in the fourth generation of computers are
microprocessors and very large scale integration (VLSI).

When thousands of transistors are attached to a single microchip, it is known as VLSI.

Semiconductor memory storage units such as RAM, ROM, etc were introduced.RAM
(random-access memory)- Temporarily stores the programs and data and the contents
are lost when the computer is shut down.

ROM (read-only memory)- Permanently stores the data and programs and the
contents are retained even after shutting down the computer.
High-level languages such as C#, JAVA, Python, JavaScript are used as programming
languages.

The sizes are smaller and the speed has improved.

The input/output devices are a monitor, mouse, keyboard, printer, and so on.

Examples are STAR 1000, APPLE II, IBM PC, and so on.

The Fifth Generation of Computers- (present and the future)

The main electronic components that are used in the present generation of computers
is Artificial Intelligence which uses the parallel processing method and the Ultra-
Large Scale Integration (ULSI).

The fifth generation of computers understands the natural human language.The

speeds are really fast and the sizes are also small.

The fifth-generation computers are portable and have a huge storage capacity.

The input/output devices are keyboards, monitors, touchscreen pens, printers, light
scanners, and so on.

Examples are laptops, desktops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

Input and Output devices of computer: An input/output device, often known
as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a human operator or other
systems to interact with a computer. Input and output devices are important
components of a computer. These enable the system to function properly in
the absence of external assistance. The input enables the user to provide data,
whereas the output completes the data-related operation. These are all
auxiliary devices that connect to the device and perform all of the necessary
functions.

Input Devices of Computer

The input devices enable users to send signals to the computer in order for it
to complete a certain task. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) then receives
the signal and transmits it to the output devices. Input devices are further
classified, such as visual or auditory, discrete or continuous, and direct or
indirect. Some examples of Input devices are:

Keyboard

The most commonly used type of input device is a keyboard. They link to the
computer via wifi or a USB system. There are keys for everything: numbers,
letters, characters, and functions. The typing keys are A-Z and the numeric
keys until 09. There are different varieties of keyboards, but the most common
is QWERTY.

Mouse

A mouse is a hand-held input device that allows users to move the cursor on
the screen. It operates on a level surface, with a wheel positioned between the
left and right buttons. Laptops have a touchpad, which serves the same
purpose as of mouse Douglas C. Engelbart was the first to invent the mouse
in 1063.

Optical scanners

Optical scanners can read marks made using a pen or pencil. It is frequently
used by educational institutions to examine objective test papers.

Barcode Reader

It is a reading device that is used to read barcode information on products,

books, etc. Both stationary and handheld scanners scan the image by
converting it to an alphanumeric value on the computer.

Microphone

It has a voice input system built in, that receives sound signals and converts
them into digital form. It is a device, commonly used in music-related apps and
multimedia presentations.

Scanner

A scanner is an input device that transfers information from paper to a

computer much like a photocopy does. This is primarily used to modify data by
converting an image to a digital format and then printing it.

Light Pen

Light Pen is a pointing device with a pen-like shape that enables users to
select and even draw on the screen. The compact tube has built-in photocells
and optical components that enable the signal flow to the CPU. When the
button is pressed, the pen’s tip moves on the screen, and the CPU receives
the signals.

Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing device that is used for moving the cursor on a
display screen. However, it’s not the same as a mouse, for moving the cursor.
It has a sphere-shaped ball-and-stick configuration. It is a computer tool made
primarily for gaming that can move in all directions.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR is a device that is found in banks as banks have to deal with a large
number of cheques every day. The magnetic ink in the bank’s code number
and the cheque number enables machines to read the letters. Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition technique is used in this procedure. It is quick and has
fewer errors.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

It is a reading device that scans printed text character by character to read it.
Before storing them in the system memory, it first turns them into machine-
readable code.

Output devices of computer

After the input device has processed the data, the output devices are
responsible for showing the outcome. It could take the shape of an image,
graphic, text, or audio file. These devices display the visual elements on the
screen. Examples of output devices are:
Printers

Printers are output devices that enable the user to print data or information on
paper. Impact printers, character printers, line printers, laser printers, etc are
different types of printers.

Speakers

Speaker is a sound-producing output device that responds to computer

commands by making a sound. Computers along with other hardware devices
are also supported by them. Bluetooth-enabled wireless speakers are now
available as well.

Projector

This optical device displays both stationary and moving images on the screen.
They can be found in auditoriums, movie theatres, etc. It establishes a
connection with the computer and extends the image’s viewing area.

Monitor

The most important output device for providing the user with a pixel-based
visual is the visual display unit. Monitors are also known as Visual Display
Units (VDUs). It produces images by arranging small dots, called pixels. Image
sharpness is determined by these pixels.

Video Card

This component fits inside the motherboard sockets of a computer system. It

improvises the look of digital content on other output devices. It becomes
 essential now because many people have multiple devices for personal usage
nowadays.

Headphones

Another name for headphones is headsets. The only difference between

headphones and a speaker is the frequency of sound. This device has a lower
sound frequency and is also difficult to hear in large places such as lawns and
parks. Only the individual using them can hear the sound.

Both the Input and Output devices of the computer

Some devices have features that make them suitable as both input and
output devices. They have the capability to both receive and transmit
data, becoming useful for both purposes.

 Headset: It has an input device (the microphone) and an output device (the speaker).
 Modems: These devices are in charge of using telephone connections to transport data from
one device to another.
 Facsimile: This type of fax machine has a printer as the output device and a scanner as the
input device.
 USB drive: It is a removable storage medium that can transfer data between devices and
receive data from any computer.
 CD Drives: It stores information from the computer in the specified format and can also
transfer information to other devices with disk space.

What is the difference between Input and Output

Devices?

Input Devices Output Devices

Data is accepted from the user Displays the data to the user after
processing.

Receives data from the user and sends it to Receives the information from the
the processor for processing or storing in a processor and gives it back to the user
secondary memory.
More complex designing Less complex designing

Used for accepting the data Used for the purpose of displaying or
showing the data

Example: Scanner, Keyboard, etc. Example: Monitor, Speaker, etc.

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