MULTIMETER  Old incandescent type light bulbs

can be tested
- also known as a volt/ohm meter or
 It is used in the applications of
VOM
environmental and temperature
- is an electronic measuring  Measurement of time & frequency
instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit. PRIMARY TYPES OF MULTIMETER
- very useful instruments that can be
utilized in a number of fields, the ANALOG MULTIMETER
primary users being electrician  Is used to measure AC and DC
FUNCTIONS OF A MULTIMETER current as well as voltage. It is also
used to measure resistance.
Basic types of multimeter are mainly used to  The analog multimeter also exhibits
measure amperage, resistance, voltage, low resistance and high sensitivity
checks continuity and a complete circuit can with scales down, which can make it
be tested like the following: difficult to use.
 It consists of a continuous scale over
 Resistance in Ohms which a deflecting needle indicates
 Capacity in Farads the value to be measured.
 The temperature in Fahrenheit/ Inside analog multimeter there is a current
Celsius measuring moving coil meter with
 AC Voltage & Amperage appropriate internal resistors which will be
 Inductance Henrys brought into circuit based on range switch
 DC Voltage & Amperage selection.
 Frequency in Hz
 Conductance in Siemens DIGITAL MULTIMETER
 Decibels
 A digital multimeter is essentially a
 Duty Cycle
voltmeter.
 In order to measure current and
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIMETER
resistance, some internal circuitry is
 AC/DC voltage measurement used to “ convert” current and
resistance values to corresponding
 AC/DC current measurement voltage values.
 Resistance & continuity  Using an analog to digital converter,
measurement the voltage is converted to a digital
 To check diode signal and a value is displayed using
 Measurement of capacitance a display, which is typically a 7
 Measurement of frequency segment display
 To test batteries
 A broken power cable can be FEATURES OF NEW AND OLD DIGITAL
determined MULTIMETER
 The switch can be tested
In older digital multimeters, the type of
 An outlet can be tested
measurement as well as the range needs to
be selected manually. Most new digital
multimeters have an auto ranging feature.  block that is used when measuring
However, users still have the ability to the resistance, continuity of an
manually select the range (this is especially object
useful when measuring values that change
Direct Current mille Ampere Block
by large amounts periodically)
 block that is used to measure the
DIGITAL CLAMP METER
small voltage of direct current
 A digital clamp meter has built-in
Zero Ohms Ω Adjuster Knob
tools used to measure electrical
flow.  used to calibrate the multitester
 A clamp DMM' s primary function is when you want to measure the
to measure voltage and amperage resistance of an object
flowing through an insulated cable.
 Most digital clamp meters can not Needle Pointer
measure electrical resistance.  the needle-shaped rod that moves
 They measure current flow through over the scale of a meter. The
the clamp portion and the volts using needle pointer is mechanically
the probes. The power consumption, connected to the moving coil. The
or Watts, can be calibrated by value the pointer hovers over
multiplying the amps and the indicates the value being measured
readings of the volt by the multitester
AUTO RANGING MULTIMETER Test Probes
 Auto-ranging multimeters  A test probe or a test lead is an
automatically adjust to the voltage or instrument used to connect a
ohm setting needed to test the multimeter to a Device Under Test
component or circuit. which is known as DUT.
PARTS OF AN ANALOG MULTIMETER  are flexible, insulated wires
 are able to establish an electrical
Meter Scale connection between a multimeter
and the DUT without exposing
 used to identify the amount of
electrical workers to live conductive
voltage current and resistance of the
parts.
circuit being measured
 Red test probes connect to the
Alternating Current Voltage Block positive terminal, and black test
probes connect to the negative
 the block used when measuring the
terminal.
power, voltage of an object
Range Selector
Direct Current Voltage Block
 allows you to adjust the settings of
 block used if there is polarity will be
the multitester (range selector knobs
check and commonly used in the
are also present on the best
battery.
insulation resistance testers)
Resistance Block
  Using this you can change what the  For measuring the resistor of any
multitester is measuring (e.g. resistor or resistance of any circuit
voltage, current, or resistance), as firstly select the selector switch on
well as the range of the resistance and connect the leads
measurement (e.g. volts or
CONTINUITY CHECK
millivolts).
 For continuity check set selector
PARTS OF A DIGITAL MULTIMETER
switch on continuity and connect the
Display leads as per beow picture.If circuit
have very low resistance then digitsl
 where measurement readouts can
multimeter create beep sound
be viewed
AC CURRENT MEASUREMENT
Selector Switch
 For the measurement of Ac current
 used for selecting primary
firstly set selector switch to Ac
measurement values (volts, amps,
current and then connect the
ohms).
leads(in series with circuit)
Buttons
MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE AND
 It is used for selecting various DIODE
functions; the options vary by model.
 The selector switch should be on
Input jacks diode symbol and simply connection
are just like resistance
 where test leads are inserted measurement. So these are
HOW TO USE A MULTIMETER methods of measurement with help
of digital multimeter
MEASUREMENT OF DC VOLTAGE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AN ANALOG
 To measure the Dc voltage with help MULTIMETER AND A DIGITAL
of Digital multimeter firstly set the MULTIMETER
selector switch on Dc voltage. Now
connect the Voltage/ohms lead to  Input resistance of digital multimeter
positive end of cell and common is constant for all the ranges to be
lead to negative end of cell measured unlike analog multimeter
 Digital multimeters measure with
MEASUREMENT OF AC VOLTAGE accuracy better than analog
 For measurement of Ac voltage multimeter as analog multimeter is
firstly set the selector switch to Vac prone to errors due to wrong pointer
and after that connect connection based reading
leads to ac source whose voltage is  The highest frequency of analog
need to measured multimeter using rectifiers on AC
range is about 2KHz. For digital
Measurement of Resistance electronic multimeter this range is
higher than analog type
 The comparison between analog  Warming of the meter during its use
and digital meters comes down to can change its properties
one word: precision. Most situations  The A/D converter has a limitation
call for as precise a reading as on word length
possible, making a digital meter the  There is a voltage limitation
better choice. However, instead of a  The digital nature makes it
single precise reading, some unsuitable for adjusting tuning
instances call for finding out a range circuits or peaking tunable
of readings, making an analog meter responses.
the better choice.  They are expensive due to high
manufacturing cost.

ADVANTAGES OF ANALOG
MULTIMETER

 It is cheaper compared to digital

meter
 Response quickly to the
measurement
 No batteries are required
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL  The sensitivity of an analog
MULTIMETER multimeter is very less.

 more accurate than analog DISADVANTAGES OF ANALOG

multimeters MULTIMETER
 reduce reading and interpolation
errors  Required manual reading parameter
 auto-polarity function  Movement is slow
 parallax errors are eliminated  Inaccurate result
 no moving parts  Lack of advanced features
 increased reading speed  Size and cost
 zero adjustment not required  Robustness
 accuracy
 auto-ranging PRECAUTIONS FOR
 portable size MEASUREMENT
 Connection should be tight.
DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL  Leads should be of good
MULTIMETER quality.
 Range selection should be
 LCD display depends on a battery or correct.
external power source  Calibration of digital
 In case of fluctuations or transients, multimeter should be done
it can record an error perodically.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER SAFETY

  Always assume every electrical - An electromagnet is a magnet that
component in a circuit is energized runs on electricity.
until you ’ ve taken the steps to
ELECTROMAGNETISM
positively discharge it. Shock occurs
when the human body becomes part - Electromagnetism is a branch of
of an electrical circuit; be cognizant Physics, that deals with the
of body positioning when working in electromagnetic force that occurs
electrical environments between electrically charged
 Be sure to use the correct personal particles
protective equipment (PPE) in each
and every situation. This means both DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGNETS
on-body (i.e. gloves, headwear) and - Horseshoe Magnet
near-body (i.e. insulated rubber
- Bar Magnet
mats). They ’ re required when
working on, or near, energized and MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
exposed electrical circuits greater
- Like poles repel each other
than 50 V.
 Never work alone when working on, - Opposite poles attract each other
or near, exposed and energized DIFFERENCE OF ELECTRIC CHARGES
equipment. Stay safe and make sure AND MAGNETS
you and your partner are aware of
your environment, as well. If Electric Charges
possible, don ’t take measurements - CAN BE ISOLATED
in humid or damp environments and
make sure there are no atmospheric Magnets
hazards around you (i.e. flammable
- CANNOT BE ISOLATED
dust or vapor)
- If you cut it in half, you’ll get 2
 Finally, watch your digital
multimeter’s display for any visual magnets with both poles
warnings. It can alert users to FERROMAGNETISM
irregularities such as unsafe
voltages (30 V or greater) at the test - basic method in which a compound
probes. forms a permanent magnet or is
attracted to a magnetic field.
MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETS & - a kind of magnetism that is
ELECTROMAGNETISM associated with iron, cobalt, nickel,
MAGNETISM and some alloys or compounds
containing one or more of these
- Magnetism is the force exerted by elements.
magnets when they attract or repel - physical phenomenon in which
each other. certain electrically uncharged
ELECTROMAGNETS materials strongly attract others

HANS CHRISTIAN ØRSTED

 - was a Danish physicist and chemist  The strength of the field at any
who discovered that electric currents point is inversely proportional to the
create magnetic fields, which was distance of the point from the wire
the first connection found between
electricity and magnetism. Oersted's ELECTROMAGNET
law and the oersted unit are named
WHAT IS ELECTROMAGNET?
after him.
- An electromagnet is a type of
ORSTED’S LAW
magnet where an electric current
Oersted discovered that a compass needle creates the magnetic field.
below a wire - The wire that makes up an
electromagnet is typically coiled into
(A) pointed north when there was not a
a coil. A magnetic field is produced
current,
by a current flowing through the wire
(B) moved at right angles when a current and is centered in the hole in the
flowed one way, and center of the coil.
- A simple electromagnet consisting of
(C) moved at right angles in the opposite
a coil of wire wrapped around an
direction when the current was reversed.
iron core called solenoid. When an
This rule states that if you put the thumb of electrical current is introduced, a
your right hand in the direction of the core of ferromagnetic material like
current, the magnetic field will wrap around iron serves to increase the magnetic
the wire the same way your fingers will. Use field created
(A) a right-hand rule of thumb to determine
The main advantage of an
the direction of a magnetic field around a
electromagnet over a permanent
conventional current.
magnet is the ability to swiftly adjust the
SOME KEY POINTS OF OERSTED'S magnetic field by adjusting the amount
LAW of electric current flowing through the
winding. An electromagnet, in contrast
Oersted found that for a straight wire to a permanent magnet, needs a
carrying a steady (DC) current: constant flow of current to sustain the
magnetic field
 The magnetic field lines encircle the
current-carrying wire. USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
 The magnetic field lines lie in a
- Electromagnets are widely used
plane perpendicular to the wire
as components of other electrical
 If the direction of the current is
devices, such as motors,
reversed, the direction of the
generators, electromechanical
magnetic field reverses.
solenoids, relays, loudspeakers,
 The strength of the field is directly
hard disks, MRI machines,
proportional to the magnitude of the
scientific instruments, and
current.
magnetic separation equipment.
 - Electromagnets are also as magnetic fields, electric fields,
employed in industry for picking and light.
up and moving heavy iron - It is the fundamental cause for why
objects such as scrap iron and electrons are bonded to the nucleus
steel and what gives the nucleus its entire
structure.
WILLIAM STURGEON
WHAT IS ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE?
- British scientist William Sturgeon
invented the electromagnet in - A sort of physical interaction that
1824. takes place between electrically
- His first electromagnet was a charged particles is the
horseshoe-shaped piece of iron electromagnetic force.
that was wrapped with about 18 - It combines all magnetic and
turns of bare copper wire. electrical forces and works between
charged particles. Both attraction
and repulsion are possible with the
JOSEPH HENRY electromagnetic force.

- US scientist Joseph Henry People and scientists used to believe that

systematically improved and electricity and magnetism were two distinct
popularised the electromagnet. subjects before the discovery of
- By using wire insulated by silk electromagnetism. After James Clerk
thread, and inspired by Maxwell's 1873 publication of A Treatise on
Schweigger's use of multiple Electricity and Magnetism, the opinion has
turns of wire to make a changed. According to the article, there’s
galvanometer it is an instrument only one that mediates the interaction of
for detecting and measuring positive and negative charges. The theory
small electric currents. of electromagnetism was founded on this
- he was able to wind multiple discovery. Later, several scientists such as
layers of wire on cores, creating Heinrich Hertz, Oliver Heaviside, and
powerful magnets with Michael Faraday added their theories on
thousands of turns of wire, electromagnetic
including one that could support WHAT IS ELECTROMAGNETISM?
936 kg
Electromagnetism is a process in which a
ELECTROMAGNETISM magnetic field is created by introducing the
- Electromagnetism is a branch of current in the conductor. An example of this
Physics which studies the is when a conductor is electrically charged,
electromagnetic force that occurs it generates magnetic lines. For example, if
between the electrically charged current(positive charges) moves in a wire, it
particles. can generate magnetic field along the wire,
- the electromagnetic force is one of and the direction of magnetic lines and force
can be determined using Right-hand Rule
the four fundamental forces and
exhibits electromagnetic fields such
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLOSCOPE AND OTHER
WAVES MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

- Electromagnetic waves are OSCILLOSCOPE

propagated through oscillation of
 also known as oscillograph, is an
electric and magnetic waves at right
electronic device that displays a
angles to each other
graph of electrical signals and how
- Travels at a speed of 3 × 10⁸ m/s in
they change over time.
a vacuum - Electromagnetic waves
 this signals are measured by the
are also transverse waves
oscilloscope using sensor.
- Exhibits properties of interference
 used when designing, manufacturing
and diffraction
or repairing electronic equipment.
- The relationship between its  Engineers use an oscilloscope to
wavelength (λ) and frequency (c) is measure electrical phenomena and
given as follows: c = v λ solve measurement challenges
APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETISM quickly and accurately to verify their
designs or confirm that a sensor is
The concept of how electromagnetism working properly.
works can be presented through a simple
methods. Suppose a hollow ferromagnetic PARTS OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE
pole is used. Copper wire is wound many  Intensity Control: Controls the
times around the hollow pole. During the brightness of the beam
process, a long screw or bolt is inserted  Focus: Allows for the adjustment of
through the pole. When the copper wire is the beam on thinness and
powered with electric current, it would pull sharpness
the screw to move further in.  VERT & HOR Position: Controls the
vertical and horizontal position of the
display respectively
 VERT V/div: Controls the vertical
sensitivity
 HOR Sweep Speed: Controls the
horizontal sensitivity
 VERT & HOR Vernier: Allows for the
adjustments of the vertical and
horizontal sensitivity settings to be
varied in small steps
 Astigmatism Control: Allows for the
adjustment of the trace so as to
make it uniform across the sweep.
This adjustment compensates for
the curvature of the CRT

2 TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPE
  Analogue-works by directly applying  voltages that turns on and off at
a voltage being measured to an regular intervals . This type of wave
electron beam moving across the is commonly seen when testing
oscilloscope screen. Voltage amplifiers.
deflects the beam up or down
RECTANGULAR WAVE
proportionally, tracing the waveform
on the screen giving an immediate  same as to square waves but differ
picture of the wave form. from the length between high and
 Digital-samples the waveform and low time intervals.
uses an analogue to digital converter  particularly important when
to transform the voltage being analyzing digital circuitry.
measured into digital information
then uses this digital information to SAWTOOTH AND TRIANGLE WAVES
reconstruct the waveform on the  can be seen as a result from testing
screen. circuits designed to control voltage
 Analogue oscilloscopes are often linearly. these transitions are called
preferred when itis important to ramps
display rapidly varying signals in
Realtime. STEPS AND PULSES
 Digital oscilloscopes allow the  only occurs once and are called
capture and viewing of events that single shot or transient signals .
happen only once. They can process  The pulse indicates what you would
the digital waveform data or send see if you turned a power switch on
the data to a computer for and then off again. It might represent
processing and can store the digital one bit of information traveling
waveform data for later viewing and through a computer circuit or it might
printing. be a defect in a circuit.
TYPES OF WAVES  Pulse train- collection of pulses
when traveling together.
Sine wave
COMPLEX WAVES
 fundamental wave shape for several
reasons. has harmonious  combine the characteristics of sines,
mathematical properties, and has squares, steps, and pulses to
two different types: sine and damped produce a wave-shape that
sine wave challenges many oscilloscopes
 Sine waves are commonly produced POWER SUPPLY
by AC and DC since the current is
steady and flowing.  Used for electronic testing. Power
 Damped sine waves are a rare case supplies comes in DC. There are
that is mostly seen in circuits as they two types of power supplies.
oscillates but winds down over time.  Linear regulated power supply -
regulates the output voltage by
SQUARE WAVE dropping excess voltage in a series
dissipative component.
  Switch mode power supply 1. Set controls to normal position- this
incorporates a switching regulator to includes the knobs, push buttons,
convert electrical power efficiently. and dials to be put back in normal
position and connections are need to
WHAT IS A DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE?
be pulled out.
 a complex electronic device that is
2. Turn on the oscilloscope
composed of electronic hardware
modules that work together to 3. Set the VOLTS/DIV Control to Your
capture ,process, display, and store Desired Settings-While you can
data that represents the signals of choose your desired setting for the
interest of an operator. VOLTS/DIV, it is usually ideal to set
 Digital oscilloscope is also know as it to 1 for calibration purposes.
Digital storage oscilloscope or DSO Setting it to 1 lets the oscilloscope
 Digital oscilloscopes periodically display one volt per vertical division.
samples a time varying analog
4. 4. Set the TIME/DIV to the Lowest
signal and stores in the waveform
Setting-This setting, usually set to
memory the signal’s values in
1ms, gives the oscilloscope the
correlation with time.
horizontal division to represent the
PARTS OF A DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE time interval
5. Turn the Trigger Switch to Auto-
 Cathode-ray tube (CRT)-consists of
Setting the trigger to auto helps
a screen where signals are viewed,
establish a common trigger point in
and the elements within the CRT,
the waveform to stabilize the trace.
which generate and control a stream
Without this, the waveform drifts and
of electrons that strike the inside of
is difficult to watch.
the CRT screen, producing the
6. Connect the Oscilloscope to the
illumination you view on the outside
Input Signal
of the screen.
7. Connect the Probe to the
 Intensity and focus controls- allow Oscilloscope’s Calibration Terminal-
the users to adjust the brightness, Some oscilloscopes have two
size, clarity, and focus of the spot or terminals, usually 0.2V and 2V. If
trace on the CRT screen caused by your instrument has two terminals,
the electron beam. use the 2V for this purpose. When
using your oscilloscope on an
 Position controls-allow adjusting electrical circuit, it is important to
voltages that control the position of connect the oscilloscope’s grounding
the trace on the CRT screen. to a grounding source connected to
 Horizontal sweep frequency the earth. This is to prevent the risk
controls -used to control the linear of shocks and damaging your
trace speed and repetition rate of the circuit.However, for calibrati on
horizontal trace of the electron beam purposes, connecting the grounding
across the CRT screen. lead is not necessary.
8. Adjust the Wave- If the square wave
HOW TO USE AND CALIBRATE displayed doesn’t fit well within the
screen, you can always adjust it
using the TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV
controls.

Other useful controls include the Y-

POS and the X-POS controls. While
the Y-POS control helps center the
trace horizontally, the X-POS
centers the trace vertically.