Quantity and motion

Scalar quantity - magnitude only (distance, speed, time, mass, energy, temperature )

Vector quantity - both magnitude and direction (force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric field,
gravitational field strength)
b
1 7

a=b+c
222

c c
a

<
b

Speed : rate of change of distance Acceleration : rate of change of velocity

Velocity : rate of change of displacement Constant speed - acceleration = 0

a=v-u
v=s t
t

Distance-time graph Speed-time graph

Distance Speed Speed

1
1 -
Decreasing
acceleration
Stationary Constant speed

Increasing
Constant speed acceleration Increasing
speed

Time & Time > Time

O
o O

Free fall
Speed
- 2
Travels with acceleration due to gravity (constant) - 10 m/s.
A B
The acceleration increases. Air resistance increases as they
travel. The speed decreases. When the air resistance and
weight are equal, there’s no resultant force. The substance
C D travel with terminal velocity.

7 Time
O
 Mass and weight (W = mg)

Mass is constant while weight changes depending on gravitational field strength

Weight
Gravitational field strength =
Mass
m
Density (p = )
v
Volume of regular shape - measure with ruler
Volume of irregular shape - water in measuring cylinder

Force (F = ma)
Hooke’s law

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the weight applied until limit of proportionality is reached.

Stretching force
N
Total extension
M

·
Limit of proportionality
*
Limit of proportionality

>
8 Total extension
/

>
O Stretching force

F = kx
Force
Spring constant =
Extension

Newton’s First Law

An object will keep moving at a constant speed if an external force is not applied to the object.
P
Friction : the force that creates resistance when things slide against each other, making them slow down and
producing heat in the process.

Circular motion
· When a ball moves around a circle, the speed doesn’t
change. However as the direction changes, the velocity of
the ball changes. This means there’s acceleration. So the the

· ball is accelerating without changing speed.

↓
Velocity Centripetal
Force

3 The force that pull things towards the center when they’re moving in a circle.
Turning effect (moment)

moment = Force x perpendicular distance from the pivot (Nm)

An object is in equilibrium when :
* there’s no resultant force
*
there’s no resultant moment
Clockwise moment = Anti-clockwise moment

Center of gravity: a point where all the weight of object concentrated at.
& Centre of gravity and centre of mass can be used interchangeably

Momentum (mass x velocity)

p = mv

Conservation of momentum

* When two bodies collide each other, the momentum is conserved as the total momentum of the bodies
remains constant (no external force acting). The change in momentum of the two bodies is equal.

Impulse (change in momentum, force multiplies time )

Ft = m (v - u)

Energy

*
kinetic (a moving object has kinetic energy)
* gravitational potential (an object which is high up above the surface has g.p.e.)
*
chemical (food and fuels, coal, gas, oil, wood)
·
elastic/strain (energy in a stretched/compressed object, for example a rubber band or a stretched spring)
&
nuclear (energy stored in the nucleus of an atom)
electrostatic (energy stored in a charged object)
.
·
internal/thermal (total energy contained, fate of all other energy stores)

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. They can only be transferred from one form to another.

Examples
Lifting a weight - Kinetic energy to potential energy
Light bulb shining - electrical energy to heat energy
Heating water - chemical to thermal energy
2
Kinetic energy = 1mv G.P.E = mgh
2

Work done = force x distance (J)

Power

E
P= (Watt, W)
t
 Energy resources

...
Non-renewable - fossil fuels, nuclear fuel
Renewable -Biofuels (chemical)
-Water (hydroelectric)
-Geothermal
-Solar
-Wind
-Nuclear fuel

Pressure

F
P= (Pa)
A

Pressure in liquids

As you go deeper beneath the surface of a liquid, the pressure increases. This is due to the weight of liquid
pushing down. There more liquid above (h), the greater the force, and the greater the pressure.

P = gh

State of matter

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Volume Fixed Volume Fixed volume Indefinite volume

Shape Fixed shape Shape of the container Shape of container

Compression Not compressible Compressible Compressible

Attractive force Strong Weak No

Kinetic energy Low Moderate High

Move freely
Movement Vibrate at fixed position Slide past each other
and randomly

Structure Tightly packed Touching Not touching

Absolute zero : lowest possible temperature (0 K, -273 C) Boyle’s law
*

K = C + 273 pV = constant
s

C = K - 273 p V = p V = constant
*

Brownian motion 11 22

Random movement of microscopic particles in a liquid or gas due to collisions with liquid
and gas particles. Microscopic particles are moved by collisions with light fast-moving
molecules.
Thermal
Expansion

When heated, the particles vibrate/move more vigorously, their collisions push each other, causing the expansion.
Uses
-

Disadvantages
-

Bimetallic strip : thin strip made by joining

Railway tracks : trains derailing (leave tiny gaps)
two metals that bends when heated
because metals bend at different rates. Expansion of water : 4 C, water normally contracts
O

as it cools. However between 4 C and 0 C, water

& ·

1. Fire alarm : heat from fire causes the

expands. If the water freezes in a pipe between
bimetallic strip to bend which completes the
4 C and 0 C, the pipe may burst open.
· ·

circuit and triggers an alarm.

2. Thermostat : used bimetallic strips to turn on/off a
circuit when a specific temperature is reached

3. Liquid in glass thermometer

Specific heat capacity

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1 C.

a

E = mc T
Internal energy = Kinetic energy + Gravitational Potential Energy

If a substance takes longer to reach a certain temperature than an other substance,

its specific heat capacity is high.
Evaporation Vs Boiling

Evaporation Boiling

Takes place at the surface of the liquid Takes place through out the liquid

:
*
Any temperature
No Bubbles formed
*
Fixed temperature
Bubbles formed

*
Factors effecting rate of evaporation are Temperature and Surface area.
Thermal energy transfer

Conduction : transfer of heat through matter from places of higher temperature to low temperature without
the movement of matter itself.

Thermal Conductors : metals, Thermal insulators : plastic, glass, wood, air

 In metal, conduction occurs in 2 ways, via motion of electrons and vibration of particles.

When heated, electrons gain KE and start to move faster and further. When they move they interact with
the particles in the cooler parts, heating them up as well.

When heated, the particles gain KE and vibrate faster. They transfer energy with vibrations to the
neighboring particles.
Convection : the flow of thermal energy from hotter parts to cooler parts by the movement of the
particles itself.
Basically in convection, warmer area rises as they become less dense while cooler substances skink as they
become more dense.

Radiation: the transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Factors affecting rate of radiation: surface area, temperature

Wave
Features of a wave
* Wavefront: An imaginary line connecting points of the same
Crest phase.
N

↓
/
*
Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive wavefronts.
>
M
* Frequency: The number of wavefronts passing a point per unit
a time.
7 Crest (peak): The highest point of a wave.
↑
*

*
Trough: The lowest point of a wave.
Undisturbed *
Amplitude: The maximum displacement from the equilibrium
- position position.
Trough * Wave Speed: The rate at which the wave travels through a
medium.

Types of waves

Transverse wave Longitudinal wave

· The direction of vibration is perpendicular to ·

The direction of vibration is parallel to the
the direction of the wave travel. direction of the wave travel.
Have peaks and troughs Have compressions and rarefactions
· Examples : sound wave
·

· Examples : light waves, ripples

· Velocity of light is greatest in gas ·
Velocity of sound is greatest in solid

Compression : a region where the particles are packed closer

Rarefaction : a region where the particles are further apart

V=f
 Reflection
When a wave strike an obstacle, the wave is turned back.

-
·

Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged i=r

·
Rough surfaces scatter the light in all directions, so they
appear matte and unflective

Refraction

If the light passes into two different materials, it changes speed & direction.
i

ti
·
↓

- I
Air
-

Glass
F
W

When the wave travel to more dense area, Parallel side -> i // r N
it changes direction towards the normal
Travel along the normal - no refraction

Refractive index

A measure of how much light slows or bent

sin i
n= C n= n=
1 n=
sin r
V sin r sin (i) sin i

It has no unit because it is a ratio of same quantity and velocity

n sin x = n sin x
1 1 2 2

Total internal reflection

· The light in one medium does not enter the less dense medium
& is reflected back inside the incidence angle > critical angle.
·
Critical angle : the minimum angle of incidence at which total Conditions required
internal reflection occur. 1. More dense to less dense area
2. Angle of incidence > critical angle
 Diffraction

When waves passes through a narrow gap, the wave spread out.
The narrower the gap, the more the diffraction
:
The greater the wavelength, the more the diffraction
&
Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

Periscope

& consists of a tube containing two plane mirrors,

fixed parallel to & facing each other

Each makes an angle of 45.

-

·
..

Plane mirror
*

7 ↓
Properties
<
- &
same distance as the object
* same size as an object d

virtual
- · laterally inverted

*
L

Optical fibre
Light pipe : transparent rod in which successive total internal reflection can occur.
& Used to carry telephone and high speed broadband internet
·
Also used in endoscopy I
·
i
-
↓
-
-

Prism
* Dispersion of light : splitting of light into different color bonds

O Deviation n
> V
> Y
& Red
G Violet Greatest smallest shortest Greatest
- B
Violet I Red smallest greatest longest smallest
 Lenses
7

i i > Fatter lens -> shorter focal length

· Thinner lens -> longer focal length
1

Convex (Converging) Concave (Diverging)

Short sighted Long sighted

·..
· cannot focus on distant objects & the image formed · cannot focus on near objects & the image is formed
in front of retina behind the retina

Causes Causes
eye ball being too long eye ball being too short
Correction : concave lens Correction : convex lens

Electromagnetic spectrum
Uses
Radio waves: radio and TV communications; reflected by the ionosphere; long wavelength
Microwaves: satellite communication and microwave oven; pass through the ionosphere
Infrared radiation: remote controllers and infrared cameras
Ultraviolet light: tanning beds
X-rays: medical imaging and security Gamma radiation: medical treatment Fibre optics use visible light

Hazards
Ultraviolet light: increases the risk of skin cancer (use sun cream) X-rays and Gamma rays: cause cancer
Microwaves: internal heating of body tissues
Infrared radiation: skin burns

Analogue and digital signals

Analouge Digital

In analogue signals, voltages and currents In digital signals, voltages can have only
can have any value within a certain range. two values, either high (1) or low (0).

Sound

B
Humans hear only sounds from about 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
· Sounds beyond 20000 Hz are known as ultrasound Sounds below 20 Hz are known as infrasound
Speed of sound in air is 330 - 350 m/s

Frequency -> pitch

Loudness -> amplitude
Magnet

Magnets have 2 poles : North (N) and South (S)

Law of magnetic poles : like poles repel, unlike poles attract

Induced magnetism

When an unmagnetised material is made magnetic when it touches or is brought near a pole of permanent magnet.

Temporary Magnetism

When magnetism is induced onto soft iron, it does not induce magnetism permanently and will
lose magnetism when the source is removed.

Permanent magnetism

If we do the same experiment we did above using steel instead of iron, the steel would retain it’s magnetism.

Magnetic field : a region in which a magnetic pole experiences a force.

Magnetizing

1. Hammering
2. Stroking method
3. Electrical method (D.C is used)

Demagnetizing

1. Hammering and heating (perpendicular)

• heat the bar magnet and place it in east-west direction to cool
• place the magnet in east-west direction and slowly hammer it

2. Electrical method. (A.C is used)

• place the bar magnet on a coil connected to an A.C supply and slowly withdraw it
Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is when you create electricity in a wire by moving a magnet nearby

Fleming’s right-hand rule Fleming’s left hand rule

Generator, induced currents Motor, current carrying wire, charged particles

Factors affecting the magnitude of induced emf

Speed

· Coil Turns
Magnet Strength

Right-hand grip rule (current carrying wire)

direction of magnetic field lines around a current-carrying conductor

Magnetic Field Due to Currents in Straight Wires

The strength of the magnetic field decreases with increasing distance

from the wire. The field intensity follows an inverse relationship with the
distance, so the field gets weaker as you move farther away from the
wire.

Effect on Magnetic Field

Changing Magnitude of Current: Increasing the current makes the magnetic field stronger, with
closer and denser field lines (more lines in the same area).
Changing Direction of Current: Reversing the current direction changes the magnetic field’s
direction around the wire. The field lines now flow in the opposite
direction compared to the direction at the start.

Magnetic Field Due to Currents in Solenoids

Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field strength is relatively

constant, producing a strong and uniform magnetic field along its
axis. However, outside the solenoid, the field is relatively weak and
spreads out, resulting in a less uniform and weaker magnetic field
compared to the inside.

Effect on Magnetic Field

Changing Magnitude of Current: Increasing the current strengthens the magnetic field inside the
solenoid, making the field lines more uniform and concentrated
along its axis. Decreasing the current weakens the field.
Changing Direction of Current: Reversing the current direction in the solenoid also reverses the
magnetic field’s direction inside. The field lines that previously
flowed in one direction now flow in the opposite direction along
the solenoid’s axis.
 Application of the magnetic effect of a current

Relays

Relays are devices that use the magnetic effect of a current to act as remote-controlled switches.
· When a small electrical current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that attracts
a metal arm, closing or opening the switch, and allowing larger currents to be controlled.

Loudspeakers
·
Loudspeakers use the magnetic effect of a current to convert electrical signals into sound waves.
· The speaker converts electrical energy (audio signal from a source, such as a mobile phone) into mechanical energy
When the audio signal passes through a coil of wire wrapped around a cone-shaped diaphragm, it creates a
changing magnetic field due to the interaction with a permanent magnet.
.
This changing magnetic field causes the coil and diaphragm to vibrate rapidly which causes the diaphragm to push
and pull the surrounding air, creating sound waves (vibrations).

A.C Generators D.C Mortora

e M. f
.

I = El rotation

At the starting point (t = 0), the graph shows ·

! >
- horizontal position (maximum e m
. . f)
zero e.m.f. At this point, the coil is vertical
·
! vertical position (e. M .
f = 0)
. As the generator coil spins, the graph rises to
its highest point (peak) when the coil is turned
halfway (t = 0.25). The coil is horizontal at this
point
Transformer

In theory, if the voltage is doubled, the current is halved. But in reality life, if the voltage is doubled,
the current will be less than half, this is because of energy losses.

Why the energy is lost?

&
Resistance of winding : wound copper wire, which have resistance, causes energy loss.
&
Eddy current
&
Leakage of field lines : because of an air gap or bad design
Electricity

Current
-
·

·
Current is rate of flow of charge.

·
To measure current in a circuit, we use something called an ammeter, this device is used in series with the component(s).
There are two types of ammeters: analogue and digital.

e.m.f
The amount of work done required for a single charge to flow through a complete circuit.

Potential difference
The work done to flow a single charge through a component.

Resistance

Filament lamp

·
At low voltage, the current is relatively small because filament has
high resistance when it is cold.

·
Voltage increases, heat increases, resistance decreases, current rises
Higher voltage, resistance decreases less, gentle slope in the graph
 Diode

Allow current to pass in one direction but also blocks it in

opposite direction.

- It has low resistance when connected forward, allowing current to flow but
high resistance when reversed.

Power

Paying for electricity

·
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the electrical energy used by a 1 kW appliance in 1 hour.
.
1 kWh = 1000 W × X 60m ×X 60s which is equal to 3.6 ×
X 106 joules.

To calculate kWh, we divide the energy used in joules by 3.6 ×

X 106.

Series circuits Parallel circuits

·
In series circuit, the current remains the same · In a parallel circuit voltage (P.d.) stays the same and
and voltage differs across each component current is divided between components.

Calculating p.d and current in circuits V = IR

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

Use: LDRs are used to detect and measure light levels in various applications like automatic lighting systems and
light meters.
How it works: LDRs have a resistance that decreases as the intensity of light falling on them increases. This
property allows them to sense and respond to changes in light levels by adjusting the electrical
current passing through them.

Thermistor

Use: NTC thermistors are employed for temperature measurement, control, and compensation in devices like
thermostats and temperature sensors.
How it works: NTC thermistors contain semiconducting metallic oxides that exhibit a significant decrease in
resistance as temperature rises. This characteristic enables them to generate electrical signals
corresponding to temperature variations, allowing for accurate temperature monitoring and control.

Relays

Use: Relays are electrically operated switches that control high-power circuits with low-power control signals.
They are essential components in automation systems and industrial control applications.
How it works: Relays consist of an electromagnetic coil that, when energized, creates a magnetic field, causing
the relay’s contacts to open or close. This mechanism allows them to control the flow of current
in circuits, enabling the switching of high-power loads with the help of low-power control signals

LED (Light-Emitting Diode)

Use: LEDs are used for illumination, indicators, and displays in a wide range of electronic devices and lighting
applications.
How it works: LEDs are semiconductor diodes that emit light when forward biased. When a forward voltage is
applied, electrons and holes recombine within the LED’s semiconductor material, releasing
energy in the form of light. The emitted light’s color depends on the specific semiconductor
materials used in the LED

Semiconductor Diode

Use: Semiconductor diodes are used for rectification, signal detection, and switching in electronic circuits.
How it works:
Forward Bias: Applying a positive voltage to the anode and negative voltage to the cathode of a diode allows
current flow through the diode, making it conductive.
· Reverse Bias: Applying a positive voltage to the cathode and negative voltage to the anode of a diode blocks
current flow, acting as an insulator.
Rectifier: Diodes are commonly used as rectifiers to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
When connected in the forward bias configuration, diodes allow current flow during positive half
cycles of the AC signal while blocking it during negative half-cycles. This process rectifies the AC
signal, resulting in a pulsating DC waveform. Additional filtering components can be used to smooth
the pulsations and obtain a steady DC output.
 ↑

>

Mains Circuit

uses alternating current

· Consists of three wires : live, neutral and earth.
· Current flows from live wire to neutral wire. Earth wire is used for safety purposes and is
connected to the earth or ground.
② The purpose of earth wire to to direct any current from a fault or electrical leakage to the ground/earth
It is important to connect the switch with live wire (and not the neutral) because the live wire
carries the current, hence when the current is off, the flow of current is interrupted.

Trip switches

detect imbalances in current. If they sense a fault, they quickly cut off the power to the circuit.
· protect against electric shocks by stopping the current when there’s a problem.
have different sensitivity levels. Common settings are 30mA and 100mA, depending on the required safety level

Fuses
⑧
have a metal wire that melts if the current is too high. When it melts, it breaks the circuit and stops the
flow of electricity.
· protect against too much current, short circuits, and equipment damage. They help prevent fires.
· Fuse rating should be equal to or slightly higher than the maximum expected current, while still following
safety guidelines.
The decrease in mass in any reaction is known as mass defect
 Space Physics
Our solar system is known as the milkyway.
. There are 8 planets in our solar system.
Each planet in a solar system follows a specific path called an orbit.
The Earth rotates on an imaginary line called its axis, which is slightly tilted.
One rotation of the earth takes approximately 24 hours.
. The sun does not move, the earth revolves around it. So when the earth rotates, one side is facing towards
the sun, while the other is facing away from the sun therefore causing day and night.

The seasons
·
There are two factors which cause seasons:
Motion of earth around the sun (revolution) which takes 365 days
The tilt of the earth’s axis (which is about 23.5°)

Moon
One revolution of the moon around the earth takes approximately one month.
There are 8 phases of moon.

Average orbital speed

 The solar system

The solar system is a collection of celestial bodies, including the Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and
other smaller objects, bound together by gravity.

The Solar System consists of:

the Sun
Eight named planets in order from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
·
Neptune.
·
Minor planets such as dwarf planets (e.g., Pluto)
Asteroids in the asteroid belt.
· Moons, that orbit the planets
·
Smaller solar system bodies like comets and natural satellites.

The sun
-

·
makes up most of the mass of the Solar System (more than 99%)
. The force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the Sun which pulls
them towards it and keeps them moving in their orbits.

Asteroids
small rocky body that orbits a star
·
Asteroid Belt is a region between Mars and Jupiter containing numerous small rocky bodies

Comets
·
celestial objects composed of ice, dust, and gas
&
When comets are close to the sun, they develop a bright head and a long tail

Planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits.

Sun is not at the centre of the orbit, because it is elliptical.
The sun is only at the center of the orbit when the orbit is approximately circular.

The accretion model

theory that explains the formation of our Solar System and other celestial bodies in the universe
*
4.6 billion years ago, the sun was formed from Nebulae clouds containing hydrogen, dusts, and gas (interstellar clouds)
· The gravity pull the interstellar clouds together
*
The cloud swirls into a flat, spinning disk with dense blob in the centre.
*
Due to the temperature and pressure, its core trigger thermonuclear fusion
*
The accretion disk - tiny remaining leftover materials bumped into each other, forming planets

This can be explained by the accretion model described above.

· The inner planets are small, rocky, and have a higher density because they formed
closer to the hot center of the disk, causing the light (in mass) molecules (such as
hydrogen, helium, water and methane) to be in a gaseous or liquid form instead of a
solid form, leading the planets to be formed with heavier matter with high melting
points such as metals, making the planet dense.

However, far from the sun, these light molecules could exist in solid form, causing the
outer planets to be large, gaseous and less dense because they will be made up of
these light molecules.
·
Orbital Distance - As we move farther from the Sun, the average distance increases.
Orbital Speed - decreases as distance from the sun increases.
.
Orbital Duration - The farther the planet is from the Sun, the longer it takes to complete one orbit.
· Density -The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) tend to have higher densities compared to the
outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), which have lower densities.
Surface temperature- decreases as distance from sun increases
&
Surface gravity - Jupiter strongest

Gravity and Planetary motion

As a planet moves further away from the sun (distance from the sun increases), the strength of the sun’s
gravitational field decreases and the orbital speed of the planet also decreases.
I

An object in an elliptical orbit travels faster when it is closer to the Sun, this is because the total energy of an
object in an elliptical orbit is constant (law of conservation of energy).

.
As the object gets closer to the Sun, its potential energy decreases and its kinetic energy increases, increasing
the speed of the object.

Stars and Universe

Sun as a star
-

·
The Sun is a medium-sized star consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium,
.
It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Nuclear reactions in star

·
Stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy.
·
In stable stars the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen into helium.
· The stable star must have a hot enough core to carry out and maintain the nuclear reactions. This
temperature is maintained by the large amounts of energy released by nuclear fusion.
· Some of the energy that is generated at the core is transferred to the outer layers of the star, causing the
hydrogen gas to glow and emit electromagnetic radiation into space.
· Colour and brightness of the star both depend on surface temperature which is directly proportional to the
mass of the star.

15
One light year = 9.5 x 10 m

The star formation

When Interstellar clouds of dust & gas (hydrogen), collapse under the force of gravitational attraction, they
form a protostar.
As the mass of the protostar increases, the temperature of its core also increases. (This happens because of
the gravitational potential energy of the gas, is converted into kinetic energy, heating the core).
When the core is hot enough, nuclear fusion starts, and hydrogen is converted into helium and a star is
born.
The protostar becomes a stable star when force of expansion (due to high temperature) pushing outwards is
balanced out by the force of gravitational attraction pulling inwards.
If the mass of the star is very large, then it forms a blue or white star.
If the star has a smaller mass (like the Sun), it forms a yellow or red dwarf.
 Life cycle of a star
·
When the star starts to run out of hydrogen as a fuel for
nuclear reactions, it becomes unstable.

& This happens because less energy being is produced by

nuclear fusion, causing the forces to become unbalanced.
This causes the star to collapse inwards due to the force of
gravitational attraction.

·
This causes the core to become extremely hot (change of
potential energy into kinetic energy) causing the remaining
hydrogen to burn and the surface to cool down.

&
A red giant is now formed.
But if the mass of the star is massive, a red supergiant is
formed.

Low mass stars

· When the red giant runs out of helium, its core collapses
under its own gravity.
This releases enough energy to ejecte the outer layers of the
star into space.
· The now collapsed corea becomes a white dwarf at the
center, surrounded by a glowing shell of ionized gas called
planetary nebula.
·
The white dwarf eventually cools into a cold black dwarf.

High mass stars

· When the red supergiant runs out of helium, the core further
collapses under gravity.
·
This causes the core to get hot enough to start the nuclear
fusion of carbon into oxygen, nitrogen and iron.
·
After nuclear fusion stops, the star releases its energy in a
supernova explosion.
·
In the explosion, the star’s brightness increases along with its
temperature.
When the core is hot enough, the fusion of nuclei into many
elements heavier than iron occurs
· These heavy elements are thrown into space as nebula, and
become available for the formation of new stars and planets of
that star.
. The center of the star then collapses into a dense neutron star,
which spins rapidly and emits pulses of radio waves, creating a
pulsar.
·
However, if the center of the star is extremely dense, a black
hole is formed.
 The universe
Red shift
·
Redshift is the increase in the wavelength of light from a distant object, indicating that it is
moving away from us (the observer).
·
In simpler words, Redshift is when the wavelength of light from distant galaxies increases. It
occurs when galaxies are moving away.
· The light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light emitted on the
Earth.
The Big bang theory

&
The Big Bang Theory proposes that the entire universe was once compressed into a dense state and around
14 billion years ago, it exploded in a massive event called the Big Bang.
Since then, the universe has been expanding continuously.
·
Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is constantly expanding.

CMBR
.
Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) refers to the microwave radiation of a specific
frequency which is observed at all points in space around us.
.
This energy/radiation was produced by the big bang and still exists today in space in form of
CMBR. CMBR was produced shortly after the Universe was formed.
·
As the universe has constantly expanding and still is expanding, the CMBR has redshifted into
the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. (redshift is increase in wavelength)

Hubble’s constant (2 . 2 x 10-18 per second

The hubble’s constant is the ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth
to its distance from the Earth.

Ho =
H