Communication Studies

Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

What we do is a means of communication, subject to interpretation by others. Did you ever stop
to think that even failure to act is a way of communicating? Today, many researchers are
concerned with the information sent by communication that is independent of and different from
verbal information; namely, the non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is organized
by language; non-verbal communication is not.

Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend
about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to
others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-
verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms.

These are two distinct forms of communication: verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal communication is that type of communication that is spoken or written.

Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body
posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our
clothes or the silence we keep.

In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously. If the
nonverbal cues and the spoken message are incongruous, the flow of communication is hindered.
Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to base the intentions of the sender on
the non- verbal cues he receives.

Verbal Communication
Our study of verbal communication is to help you to become a person who has something to say
and can say it well. Before you first acquired language you needed to be able to hear and think,
receive and process information. Once you have made sense of sounds around you, you begin to
imitate these sounds to get reactions, solve problems or simply to enjoy making the sounds.

Meanings are in people not in words. Although many people believe that words contain meaning.
Meaning is created because words are arbitrary used in a specific context frame work with both
denotative and connotative meaning. It is inaccurate to assume that a word means the same thing
to everyone. Even though you spend most of your communication time listening and thinking,
your most frequent interactions with others will probably focus on verbal messages.

The way we use words – verbal communication is one of the distinguishing characteristics of our
species. We are able to turn our reactions to the world around us into symbols. These symbols
represent the physical aspect of the world and our response to them. A symbol is something that
stands for something else; in our mind it replaces what it stands for in a form of short hand.

Some information is passed on consciously and unconsciously. Some information is written,

spoken, acted out or passed on in a symbolic format. These various ways of expressing
ourselves constitutes the form of communication.

N.b. Denotative and Connotative meanings

• Denotative conveys the words in its restrictive or literal meaning (dictionary meaning)
• Connotative is the level of language which conveys feelings as words also have a
personal and subjective meaning to us, for example i.e., ‘green’, ‘red’, ‘old man’.

Understanding how Words Work

Words are arbitrary - In English, words arbitrarily represent something else. The word dog for
e.g. does not sound or look like a dog. There is no longer a logical connection between the best
and the symbol.

Words are context bound – You have been cautioned that taking something out of context,
changes its meaning. Symbols derive their meaning from the situation in which they are used.
You need to know the context of the phrase or word, in order to decipher its specific meaning.
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Words are culturally bound - Culture consists of the rules, norms and values of a group of
people which have been learned and shaped from one generation to the next. The meaning of a
symbol such as a word, can change from culture to culture.

Words have denotative and connotative meaning- These words are definitely one source of
confusion in verbal communication. It can also be a source of enrichment for symbolizing ideas.
Message creates both content and feeling. So language creates language on two levels:
denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the general dictionary definition or the
literal meaning while connotative refers to the specific associations and reactions you may have/
symbolic/figurative meaning. Words also have personal and subjective meanings.

Words communicate concrete or abstract meaning – People call a word concrete if they can
experience it with one of their senses, if you can touch it, see it, smell it etc., then it is concrete;
if you cannot do these things with them the word is abstract.

Words have power to create- When you label something as “good” or “bad”, you are using
language to create your own vision of how you experience the world.

Words have power to affect thoughts and actions – Advertisers have long known that the way
a product is labelled, affects our propensity to purchase it. Words have power to affect policy
and procedures.

Words have power to affect and reflect culture – Language shapes your culture and culture
shapes your language.

Functions of Words:
1. Words are symbols, that it, you make associations with them.
2. Words are arbitrary, that it, random by choice.
3. Words are contest bound. Words or symbols derive their meaning from the situations in
which they are used, for example, chair – something to sit on. Depending on the situation
it can be a bean bag, lawn chair, recliner or easy chair.
4. Words are culturally bound. The meaning of a symbol may change from culture to
culture, for example, in West Africa, the comment that you have put on weight is a
compliment. However, if you say that to someone in America, he or she will feel
insulted.

Verbal Communication uses words and other sounds uttered by speakers.

Word Barriers
Bypassing - One word with two thoughts/ misinterpreting a word that evokes different meanings
for people. For example, to the Swiss, WC means Wayside Chapel; WC to Jamaicans means
Water Commission; to the British it means Water Closet.

Bafflegap/ Highfaultin’ - The unnecessary use of many abstract words, for example, Please
extinguish all smoking materials.

Lack of Clarity/ Lack of Precision - Words used inappropriately in an imprecise way, for
example, the manager have passed all the water served.

Static Evaluation/ Stereotyping -Labeling people, objects and events without considering
change, for example, all white people are racist or all black people are poor.

Biased Language - Language that reflects gender, racial or ethnic biases, for example, my
mother is a mail-man.

Summary
Since words occupy so much of your occupation and will continue to be a part of your future
interactions in career, family, social and recreational studies, it is important to know how words
function as symbols of our world.

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 Non Verbal Communication (NVC)
“What you do speaks so loud that I cannot hear what you say.” Ralph Waldo Emerson.

This relies on elements other than speech or writing. It is just as important as verbal
communication. Often our non-verbal actions tell a different story from the one we are telling in
words. NVC is a wordless system of codes that in combination conveys messages. NVC is
behaviour other than written or spoken language that creates meaning for someone. You can
send more messages through NVC than you do through verbal communication.

Communicating Nonverbally
Nonverbal communication refers to body movements or vocal variations that communicate
without words. Non verbal behaviour manages and regulates conversation, displays emotions
and feelings, provides feedback and influences others.

Nonverbal Communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of sending and

receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture; body
language; or posture; facial expression and eye gaze; object communication such as
clothing, hairstyles or even architecture; symbols and info graphics; prosodic features of
speech such as intonation and stress and other paralinguistic features of speech such as voice
quality, emotion and speaking style.

Sign language and writing are generally understood as forms of verbal communication, as both
make use of words — although like speech, both may contain paralinguistic elements and often
occur alongside nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication can occur through any
sensory channel – sight, sound, smell, touch, or taste. Nonverbal communication is also
distinguished from unconscious communication, which may be verbal or non-verbal.

Types of Non-verbal Communication

Kinesic behaviours are the movements we use to communicate. Kinesic behaviours, such as
leaning or pressing your index finger to your lips to signal others to be quiet, can regulate
conversation. They can also help us illustrate our verbal points, reduce anxiety and express
emotion.

Eye behaviour can certainly communicate emotions, but it can also facilitate and regulate
conversation and monitor others’ reactions. Imagine that you are at a department meeting during
which you are scheduled to present report findings. The department director looks directly at you
to signal that it is time for your presentation. While you are presenting, you notice the gaze of
your colleagues and determine their level of interest or attention to your message. From a
cultural perspective, direct eye contact is important in North America because it can signal
interest. But in Japan and some Eastern cultures, direct eye contact can signal aggressiveness,
disrespect or even an invasion of privacy.

Paralanguage, also referred to as vocalic, involves vocal sounds other than words. Paralanguage
is about how you say something rather than what the words mean. In our interactions with others,
vocal pitch (highness or lowness of tone), speech rate (speed), volume (loudness) and rhythm
(timing and emphasis) can express a variety of meanings. Suppose that when you present your
report to the members of your department, your speech is hesitant, your rate of speech is slow,
and you repeatedly use vocal interferences such as “um”, “er”, “uh”, and “like”, “you know” to
fill some of the dead air. Your colleagues may interpret this paralanguage as insecurity or limited
knowledge of the subject matter.

Vocalics is the study of nonverbal cues of the voice. Things such as tone, pitch, accent, and
volume can all give off nonverbal cues. It's possible to learn about an individual's personality,
mood, and culture with the information given by their voice.

Body language is a broad term for forms of communication using body movements or gestures
instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other forms of communication. It forms
part of the category of paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that
are not verbal language. This includes the most subtle of movements that many people are not
aware of, including winking and slight movement of the eyebrows.

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Paralanguage, including body language, has been extensively studied in social psychology. In
everyday speech and popular psychology, the term is most often applied to body language that is
considered involuntary, even though the distinction between voluntary and involuntary body
language is often controversial. For example, a smile may be produced either consciously or
unconsciously.

Oculesics is the study of the role of eyes in nonverbal communication. This includes the study of
eye gaze and pupil dilation. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate their
interest. This can be done through eye contact. For example, when a professor is giving a lecture
and one read a magazine instead of looking at him/her and giving one's full attention, this would
indicate to the professor that one is uninterested in his/her lecture.

The study of how people use and perceive time is known as chronemics. Time is of great
importance in North American culture. In the United States, time equals money, so the focus is
on adherence to deadlines, schedules, promptness and alacrity when making points, all facets of
monochronic time. From a monochronic time perspective, arriving ten minutes late to a job
interview may convey a message to the employer that the applicant is unreliable or uninterested
and may cost the company valuable time. It is not unusual in the United States and England for
business meetings to begin exactly at the scheduled time. In Eastern Asia, 20 to 30 minutes early
is common. By contrast, in many Latin American and Middle Eastern cultures the focus is on
interpersonal relationships and a perception that everything has its own time. In this polychromic
time orientation, schedules are not strictly observed and expectations about arrival and departure
time are less rigid. Being 20- 30 minutes late is acceptable because the pace is more relaxed.

Proxemics is the study of our use of space and distance. The distance we put between ourselves
and others also reflects feeling and attitudes and thus it affects communication. For example,
distance can reflect the attitude of the person who does the positioning. Research shows that a
person who expects an unpleasant message or views the speaker as unfriendly takes a more
distant position than does someone expecting good news or viewing the speaker as friendly. An
observant communicator can thus use the distance others choose with respect to him or her as a
basis for hunches about their feelings.

Interpersonal distance is another nonverbal indicator of power. One unspoken cultural rule is that
the person with higher status generally controls the degree of approach. This principle of
distance explains why subordinates rarely question the boss’s right to drop in to their work area
without invitation but are reluctant to approach their superior’s office even when told the door is
always open.

Touching behaviour is known as haptics. Nonverbal touching can communicate a variety of

messages, including a formal greeting. Most business touching consists of formal handshakes,
informal pats on the back and the occasional arm touch when addressing a co-worker in
conversation.

Elements of Non Verbal Communication

Elements Description Guidelines for speakers

Volume The loudness/ softness of voice Speak loudly enough to be heard
but not too loud to make your
audience uncomfortable
Pitch/Inotation The highness/ loudness of voice Vary your pitch to give your
(projection) expressions the right quality to
communicate meanings
Enunciation The clearness with which syllables are Slightly exaggerate the clearness of
spoken you syllables to ensure that you are
understood
Pace The speed at which something is said Do not speak to slow or too quickly
Stress The emphasis given to syllables words Use stress to emphasize the
or phrases important ideas you should
however vary stress along with
pace.

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 Tone The emotional quality of speech It is important to suit the tone to
the message. Vary the tone
appropriately throughout the
speech.

Importance of Nonverbal Communication

Burbinster sees six functions for nonverbal communication.
Complementing: nonverbal signals that complement the verbal message repeat it. Typically,
these signals accompany what is being said. For e.g., a supervisor welcoming a subordinating
back after a lengthy illness might give him a warm handshake to stress how pleased he is at the
other’s return.

Accenting: those nonverbal signals that accent call our attention to a matter being discussed. A
common example is a person pounding on a desk as she makes an important point.

Contradicting: The nonverbal signs that contradict are less obvious. These are usually sent
unintentionally by the subconscious to say nonverbally the opposite of what is being said
verbally. Either subtly or obviously, nonverbal cues will often tell the careful observers the truth
when the verbal cues don’t.

Repeating: this occurs when we already have sent a message using one form of communication
and wish to emphasize the point being made. For example, a demonstration following a verbal
description of a tool’s use is a nonverbal repetition.

Regulating: this occurs during conversations to signal to our partner to “slow,”“stop”, and even
“wait your turn” and let the other person know that you are ready to listen or to speak.

Substituting: when we can’t send a message by verbal cues, we might choose to use nonverbal
ones- especially emblems, to get the point across to our receiver. A supervisor visiting a loud
factory might use the “OK” sign to signal to an employee.

From a theoretical perspective, nonverbal communication also serves another important function:
communication redundancy. This concept refers to the phenomena built into any language
system that combat the effects of noise. It simply means that much of the meaning of a message
can be deduced from other elements in the message that have already appeared. The TV show
Wheel of Fortune is an example of redundancy in that not every word or letter must be on the
game board before one can guess the correct phrase.

Verbal and Nonverbal Differences

Verbal communication and non-verbal communication differ in eight important ways:
1. Environment – in contrast to much verbal communication NVC can take place when you
are not around people. The environment you choose can also tell something about you.

2. Feedback – As well as reacting verbally to others you give a lot of nonverbal feedback.
Your facial expression and body positioning express much of your emotional response.

3. Continuity – unlike verbal communication, which begins and ends with words NVC, is
continuous.

4. Channel – NVC uses more than one channel.

5. Control – you do not always have control over your NVC. The area where you have least
control is your emotional responses. Most of your non-verbal signals are spontaneous,
arising out of the occasion.

6. Senses – in verbal communication much of your information is conveyed through words.

NVC uses the senses.
7. Structure – because so much NVC occurs unconsciously it follows no planned sequence.
Unlike verbal communication, which has a grammar that determines how you build your
sentences, NVC lacks formal structure. The only roles that govern NVC are those that
determine whether a behaviour is appropriate or permissible.

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 8. Acquisition – many of the formal rules for verbal communication such as grammar are
taught in a structured formal environment such as a school, in contrast much NVC is not
formally taught. You pick it up by imitating others.

How we use NVC

1. To communicate feelings and attitudes. Seven (7) % of the emotional means of a
message is communicated through verbal channels.
2. The most significant source of emotional communication is our face.
3. Vocal cues communicate our emotional feelings
4. When we communicate we alter our NVCs to suit the situation/ relationship.
5. To make messages more believable; it is said that NVC is more believable than
verbal communication. NVC messages are more difficult to fake.

NVC System
This is composed of at least eight different codes of behaviour. These are:
Appearance
The significance of communication with reference to appearance can be measured in at least two
ways:
a) First Impression – body type and height; skin and hair; clothing and accessories.
b) How people perceive themselves as a result of their appearance and the impact
this perception has on their self-confidence.

It is believed that these who are perceived as beautiful are also perceived as smart, sociable,
successful and self-confident. The criteria people used in judging other’s physical attractiveness
also affect how they see themselves.

Communication also needs to consider the impact of their appearance and how they are
perceived. Communication should also consider the degree their appearance is appropriate to the
context of communication. We should however, try to rely less on physical appearances in
forming first impressions of each other as appearance is but a single code in the non-verbal
system.

Face and Eyes

People can infer a great deal from the expressions of our face and eyes. There is a conclusion
that the face signals emotions with a high degree of meaning. These are happiness, contempt,
interest, surprise, fear, disgust, anger and sadness. The face is also rich in non-verbal codes
signaling the intensity of the emotion experienced or the degree of control people have over their
emotions.

Eye behaviour called oculesics adds to the meaning that can be derived from facial expressions.
Like the face, eyes are very expressive and they are very susceptible to incorrect stereotyping. It
makes good sense to avoid inferring too much about people on the basis of their face and eyes as
both are potentially rich in meaning. The best way to decipher is when the face and eyes are
considered in conjunction with non-verbal codes and then the content of the person’s verbal
message.

The Voice
On hearing a person’s voice we are able to deduce the person’s age, race, etc. We also make
assumptions based on the sounds of their voice. The voice is a significant medium of emotional
expression. Like the face and eyes the voice can disclose happiness, sadness, anger and
contempt. Unlike the face and eyes, however, the voice is very easy to manipulate in an attempt
to project a certain image. The voice can be made louder or softer, its pitch can be lower or
higher and its rate can be accelerated or slowed down. How people use their voice to send a
message depends on their interaction goals. During a speech for example it is important to be
precise and confident or self- assured. This perception demands a quick rate of speaking, good
articulation and a volume that is audible.

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Just as each person has a unique set of finger prints, everyone has a voice that is uniquely their
own. People are seldom judged by their finger prints but they are often judged by their voice
print.
Touch/ Hepatics (How people use and respond to touch)
This is the most intimate of codes in the non-verbal system. This is when you may need to
exercise greater care. How people respond to touch differ from culture to culture.

In Italy, for example, touch is central communication. People touch cheek to cheek when
greeting each other, they hold hands when engaged in conversation and they vigorously hug
before departure. In such areas as North America and the Caribbean touch is usually offensive
and is kept to a minimum.

Body
Technically, known as kinesics, (the study of movement). The way in which people use their
bodies to embellish verbal messages change as they move from one dimension of
communication to the next. So, too do the functions of non-verbal messages of the inter-personal
communication, a person’s gestures and movements are spontaneous and informal reflecting
both the context and content of a message. For the gestures and movement function primarily to
regulate the transaction (e.g. leaning forward and nodding one’s head signals interest and
encourages the continuation of the conversation; slapping one’s thigh with palm of hands and
leaning back, in contrast, signals a readiness to bring the transaction to a close).

The movements of the body also serves to regulate behaviour in groups as people move from
social to task – oriented groups, for example, group involving participating in activities or
solving problems. Their gestures and movements may become more constrained reflecting their
task – oriented environment and the problem - oriented content of messages. Behaviours such as
leaning in towards the group or leaning back may indicate how involved people are in the
problem. Gestures can also compliment delivery of speeches in several ways. Further, good body
posture can serve to make speaker and messages appear authoritative to an audience.

Space/ Distance and Territory

Motions of individual space distance and territory may vary from culture to culture, group to
group and person to person. The study of the ways that distance, space and time affect human
interaction is called Proxemics.

Proxemics researchers, in looking at the relationship between the special features of an

environment and the communication behaviours of people in that environment have come up
with useful and intriguing information.

The outline of space in an environment can either facilitate or impede communication. Robert
Somer suggests that some environment that are so societal or that simulate human involvement
include communication. Generally, some environments that are perceived as warm, allow for
privacy, provide comfortable seating and relatively intimate. In contrast other environments
discourage communication. They are configured to make people feel distant. They intentionally
create interior spaces that discourage lingering after eating.

Personal distance norms are a consequence of culture and relationships. What is considered
normal for one culture may not be so for another. In North America, for example, the distance
norm is about 18 inches for intimate relationships, 2-4 feed for social consultative relationships
(sales person and client). Latinos and Asians Americans require less social consultative distance
than do Anglo-Americans. North Americans convicted of violent crimes have been found to
require twice as much social consultative distance than the norm.

Territory is geographically fixed and marked by explicit or implicit signs that are meant to
communicate ownership of a particular territory. They can be as obvious as “private property-
trespassing expressedly forbidden by law” or they can be as subtle as backpacks and books
strategically arranged at a table in a library. Violations of distance tend to invite an immediate
response. When personal distance is violated we behave in three ways:
1. Flight Response: literally running away.
2. Stand one’s ground
3. Threat the violators as an object rather than a person.

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In places such as crowded elevators people can neither run nor stand their ground and challenge
those that intrude their space. Violating territory that is “owned”, such as one’s bedroom
generally results in conflict. In extreme cases violence is not uncommon. The need for personal
space, distance and territory appears to be innate. When denied Proximic satisfaction people are
likely to suffer. Overcrowding for example makes people anxious for example dormitory life. In
prisons overcrowding is the leading cause of prison violence.

Time
In all cultures, time like space communicates much about our relationship status. Space can
communicate status and power. For example, large office buildings compared to small ones,
while time communicates relationship and control.

Culture plays a big part in how we use time to communicate. Some places seem to have far
broader and flexible definitions of “begin on time”. For example, “The tour bus leaves at 10
a.m. – that means that at 9:57 a.m., everyone must be buckled up and doors closed, at 10 a.m.
the bus leaves those who came at 10 a.m. is late”.

Graphics (charts, tables, diagrams)

There are several types of useful, visual aids. These include: charts, tables and diagrams. Charts
and diagrams are effective ways of supplementary communication.

Graphs are an especially good way to show relationships among numbers. For example: you
might make some simple bar graphs to communicate the 12-19 year group and how each year is
affected by weight, diabetes, lethargy and other illnesses.