2.

Definition of non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication consists of all the messages other than words that are used in
communication. In oral communication, these symbolic messages are transferred by means of
intonation, tone of voice, vocally produced noises, body posture, body gestures, facial
expressions or pauses

When individuals speak, they normally do not confine themselves to the mere emission of words.
A great deal of meaning is conveyed by non-verbal means which always accompany oral
discourse – intended or not. In other words, a spoken message is always sent on two levels
simultaneously, verbal and non-verbal.

Non-verbal behaviour predates verbal communication because individuals, since birth, rely first
on non-verbal means to express themselves. This innate character of non-verbal behaviour is
important in communication. Even before a sentence is uttered, the hearer observes the body
gestures and facial expressions of the speaker, trying to make sense of these symbolic messages.
They seem to be trustable because they are mostly unconscious and part of every-day behaviour.
People assume that non-verbal actions do not lie and therefore they tend to believe the non-
verbal message when a verbal message contradicts it. This was proven in tests in which subjects
were asked to react to sentences that appeared friendly and inviting when reading them but were
spoken angrily. In short, people try to make sense of the non-verbal behaviour of others by
attaching meaning to what they observe them doing. Consequently, these symbolic messages
help the hearer to interpret the speaker’s intention and this indicates the importance of non-verbal
communication in the field of interpretation. In daily conversations it often happens that we do
not understand what the other person wants to say. Thus we ask questions such as “What do you
mean by this” so that the speaker clarifies his message. The interpreter is deprived of this
possibility and therefore has to fall back on other means allowing him to understand the speaker.
This is the moment when non-verbal communication comes in, giving him subtle hints on how
the message is to be understood.

From the speaker’s point of view, however, there are numerous functions of non-verbal behavior
– even if he or she is not aware of them. Human beings use non-verbal means to persuade or to
control others, to clarify or embellish things, to stress, complement, regulate and repeat verbal
expressions. They can also be used to substitute verbal expression, as this is the case with several
body gestures. Non-verbal communication is emotionally expressive and so any discourse
appealing to the receiver’s emotions has a persuasive impact.

Although many non-verbal means are innate and universal, (i.e. people in different cultures have
a common understanding of these cues), the contribution of non-verbal communication to the
total meaning of a discourse can be culturally determined and differ in different countries . use of
the zero shape made by the fingers).

3. Examples
3.1. Intonation

Intonation is the way that the sender’s pitch of voice rises and falls when speaking. For example,
it shows the interpreter whether the speaker expresses his or her message in the form of a
question or statement. In the first case, the voice rises at the end of the phrase or the sentence and
in the second case, it falls. At the same time, intonation indicates the end of an entity of
information, which – in written communication – is shown by means of a comma, semicolon,
point, exclamation mark or question mark. Another function of intonation is to lay emphasis on a
particular word or idea, a detail that the interpreter must not fail to be aware of.

3.2. Tone of voice

The tone of voice is a means by which the speaker implies his or her attitude to the message. It is
also a means by which he seeks a reaction from the hearer. In a political debate, for instance, the
tone of voice is likely to be rousing, whereas on television the daily news is communicated in a
more factual tone. Other examples of tone of voice are: aggressive, critical, nervous,
disappointed, monotonous, friendly, enthusiastic, vivid, persuasive, etc.

3.3. Vocally produced noises

Spoken discourse can be accompanied by vocally produced noises that are not regarded as part
of language, though they help in communication for the expression of attitude or feeling. Such
non-lexical expressions differ in important respects from language: They are much more similar
in form and meaning, i.e. universal, as a whole in contrast to the great diversity of language.
Vocally produced noises include laughter, shouts, screams of joy, fear, pain, as well as
conventional expressions of disgust, triumph, etc., traditionally spelled “ugh!”, “ha ha!”…

3.4. Body posture

Body posture is the bearing or the position of the speaker’s body. It is a more or less stable state
and thus not to be confused with body gestures which are movements. Body posture can be
characteristic and assumed for a special purpose or it can correspond to the normal expectations
in the context of a particular situation. Obviously one can be lying down, seating, or standing.
Normally, these are not the elements of posture that convey messages. However, when the
speaker is slouched or erect, his or her legs crossed or arms folded, such postures convey a
degree of formality or relaxation. Once more, they can also transfer symbolic messages on the
orator’s attitude or intention with regard to the message.

3.5. Body gestures

A body gesture is a movement made with a limb, especially the hands, to express, confirm,
emphasize or back up the speaker’s attitude or intention. This non-verbal activity is regularly
used in oral discourse. If a body act requires no verbal accompaniment, it is called an “emblem”.
Examples are: hand signals such as waving good-bye, the “V” for victory sign or the “high five”
signalling victory. While some emblems, for example a clenched fist, have universal meaning,
there are others that are idiosyncratic or culturally conditioned. The use of the zero shape made
by the fingers, for instance, does not mean the same thing in different cultures. Standing for
“OK” in the UK, it may be a vulgar expression in South American cultures, sometimes
embarrassingly so… Body gestures are always perceived and interpreted together with facial
expressions.

3.6. Facial expressions and eye movement

Facial expressions are dynamic features which communicate the speaker’s attitude, emotions,
intentions, and so on. The face is the primary source of emotions. During oral communication,
facial expressions change continually and are constantly monitored and interpreted by the
receiver. Examples are: a smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn or sneer.

Eye movement is a key part of facial behaviour because the eyes are invariably involved in facial
displays. The different forms are observed to be cross-cultural. The frequency of eye contact may
suggest either interest or boredom or may even betray dishonesty. The direct stare of the speaker
can show candour or openness. Downward glances are generally associated with modesty; eyes
rolled upwards are conveyed as a sign of fatigue. Researchers have discovered that certain facial
areas reveal our emotional state better than others. For example the eyes tend to show happiness,
sadness or even surprise. The lower face can also express happiness or surprise; a smile, for
instance, can communicate friendliness or cooperation. As for the lower face, brows and
forehead are known to reveal mostly anger.

3.7. Pause

A pause can have two different functions:

1. It can be a brief suspension of the voice to indicate the limits and relations of sentences and
their parts. A pause then assumes a similar function in oral discourse to intonation.

2. It can consist of a temporary vocal inaction revealing the speaker’s uncertainty, hesitation,
tension or uneasiness. In this context, a pause can also be judgmental by indicating favour or
disfavour, agreement or disagreement. Consequently, the non-verbal cue of a pause can give rise
to problems when interpreting it because its meaning can vary considerably. It can have a
positive or negative influence on the process of communication.

4.1. The importance of face-to-face situations

Non-verbal communication does not only play a role in face-to-face situations. It is also
important in mediated communication, for example, as this is the case for telephone interpreting,
where the interpreter does not see the speaker. Non-verbal communication is also crucial for
every other kind of professional interpreting where the speaker cannot be seen. It is important,
because even in such situations the voice itself can express non-verbal paralinguistic messages.
Those messages, for example, are intonation, tone of voice, vocally produced noises or pause
.Then again, it has to be considered that non-verbal, communicative acts might only be fully
expressed and observed in face-to-face situations, where rhetorical sensitivity is accompanied by
visually perceivable emotions. As a result, this chapter will mainly consider face-to-face
situations.