Chap 8 Conservation Laws

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8.1. CHARGE AND ENERGY

8.1.1 The Continuity Equation

In this chapter we study conservation of energy, momentum, and angular
momentum, in electrodynamics.
The conservation of charge: If the charge in some region changes, then exactly
that amount of charge must have passed in or out through the surface.

Q(t)

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This is the continuity equation  the precise mathematical statement of local
conservation of charge. It can be derived from Maxwell‘s equations  conservation of
charge is not an independent assumption; it is built into the laws of electrodynamics.

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕𝐄 1 1
= 𝜖0 𝛁 ∙ 𝐄 = 𝜖0 𝛁 ∙ = 𝜖0 𝛁 ∙ − 𝐉 + 𝛁 × 𝐁 = −𝛁 ∙ 𝐉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜇0

𝜕𝜌
= −𝛁 ∙ 𝐉
𝜕𝑡

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 8.1.2 Poynting's Theorem

E B

1 1
W𝑒 = 𝜖0 න 𝐸 2 𝑑𝜏 W𝑚 = න 𝐵2 𝑑𝜏
2 2𝜇0

The total energy stored in electromagnetic fields, per unit volume, is

1 2
1 2
𝑢 = 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝐵
2 2𝜇0

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How much work, dW, is done by the electromagnetic forces acting
on a charge, in the interval dt?
v
q 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐅 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑞 𝐄 + 𝐯 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝐯𝑑𝑡 = 𝑞𝐄 ∙ 𝐯𝑑𝑡
𝑞 → 𝜌𝑑𝜏, 𝜌𝐯 → 𝐉
E, B
𝑑𝑊
= 𝑞𝐄 ∙ 𝐯 = න 𝐄 ∙ 𝐯𝜌𝑑𝜏 = න 𝐄 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡

Evidently E · J is the work done per unit time, per unit volume. i.e.
the power delivered per unit volume.

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 𝜕𝐄 1 𝜕𝐄
𝛁 × 𝐁 = 𝜇0 𝐉 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝐉 = 𝛁 × 𝐁 − 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜇0 𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕𝐄
𝐄 ∙ 𝐉 = 𝐄 ∙ (𝛁 × 𝐁) − 𝜖0 𝐄 ∙ ∵ 𝛁 ∙ 𝐄 × 𝐁 = 𝐁 ∙ 𝛁 × 𝐄 − 𝐄 ∙ (𝛁 × 𝐁)
𝜇0 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐁 𝜕𝐁
𝐄 ∙ 𝛁 × 𝐁 = −𝐁 ∙ − 𝛁 ∙ (𝐄 × 𝐁) ∵𝛁×𝐄=−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐁 1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝐄 1 𝜕 2
𝐁∙ = 𝐵 𝐄∙ = 𝐸
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
1𝜕 2
1 2 1
𝐄∙𝐉=− 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝐵 − 𝛁 ∙ (𝐄 × 𝐁)
2 𝜕𝑡 𝜇0 𝜇0
𝑑𝑊 𝑑 1 2
1 2 1
= න 𝐄 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝜏 = − න 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝐵 𝑑𝜏 − ර(𝐄 × 𝐁) ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝜇0 𝜇0

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Poynting's theorem

𝑑𝑊 𝑑 1 2
1 2 1
= − න 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝐵 𝑑𝜏 − ර(𝐄 × 𝐁) ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝜇0 𝜇0

(the total energy stored in the fields)

(the rate at which energy is transported out of

volume, across its boundary surface, by the
electromagnetic fields.)

This is Poynting's theorem; it is the "work-energy theorem" of

electrodynamics.
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The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields is called
the Poynting vector:
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𝐒 ≡ (𝐄 × 𝐁) (the energy flux density)
𝜇0

Poynting theorem 𝑑𝑊 𝑑
= − න 𝑢𝑑𝜏 − ර 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑆

In a region of empty space, (no charge)

𝑑𝑊 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 0, න 𝑑𝜏 = − ර 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = − න 𝛁 ∙ 𝐒 𝑑𝜏 = −𝛁 ∙ 𝐒
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

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Example 8.1. When current flows down a wire, work is done, which shows up as
Joule heating of the wire. Though there are certainly easier ways to do it, the energy
per unit time delivered to the wire can be calculated using the Poynting vector.

1 𝑉 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐒≡ 𝐄 × 𝐁 , 𝐄 = 𝒛ො , 𝐁(𝑟 = 𝑎) = ෡
𝝓,
𝜇0 𝐿 2𝜋𝑎

1 𝑉 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑉𝐼
S= 𝒛ො × ෡ =−
𝝓 𝒓ො , (points radially inward)
𝜇0 𝐿 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎𝐿

The energy per unit time passing in through the surface of the wire is therefore

න 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = S 2𝜋𝑎𝐿 = 𝑉𝐼

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8.2 MOMENTUM
8.2.1 Newton's Third Law in Electrodynamics
Imagine a point charge q traveling in along the x axis at a constant speed v. The
electric field is not given by Coulomb's law. E still points radially outward from the
instantaneous position of the charge.
A moving point charge does not constitute a steady current, its magnetic field is not
given by the Biot-Savart law. B still circles around the axis in a manner suggested
by the right-hand rule

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8.2.1 Newton's Third Law in Electrodynamics

q1 traveling in along the x axis, an identical q2

traveling in along the y axis
• The electric force between them is repulsive.
• The net electromagnetic force of ql on q2 is equal
but not opposite to the force of q2 on q1. in
violation of Newton's third law.
• In electrostatics and magnetostatics the third law
holds, but in electrodynamics it does not.
• Newton’s third law Conservation of
momentum ?
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• Momentum conservation is rescued, in electrodynamics, by the realization that
the fields themselves carry momentum.
• The EM fields carry energy and momentum.

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8.2.2 Maxwell's Stress Tensor

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It can be simplified by introducing the Maxwell stress tensor

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Maxwell's Stress Tensor

Because it carries two indices, where a

vector has only one, Tij is sometimes
written with a double arrow: 𝐓.
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 the dot product of 𝐓 with a vector a

𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑥𝑧

𝐚 ∙ 𝐓 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝑇𝑦𝑥 𝑇𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑧 = 𝐚∙𝐓 𝑥
𝐚∙𝐓 𝑦
𝐚∙𝐓 𝑧
𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑧𝑦 𝑇𝑧𝑧

𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑥𝑧 𝑎𝑥 𝐓∙𝐚 𝑥

𝐓 ∙ 𝐚 = 𝑇𝑦𝑥 𝑇𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑧 𝑎𝑦 = 𝐓∙𝐚 𝑦
𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑧𝑦 𝑇𝑧𝑧 𝑎𝑧
(𝐓 ∙ 𝐚)𝑧

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 𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑥𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁∙𝐓= 𝑇𝑦𝑥 𝑇𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑦𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑇𝑧𝑥 𝑇𝑧𝑦 𝑇𝑧𝑧

𝜕𝑇𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝑇𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝑇𝑧𝑥

(𝛁 ∙ 𝐓)𝑥 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜖0 𝜕 2 2 2
1 𝜕 2 2 2
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 + 𝐵 − 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐵𝑧 + 𝜖0 𝐸 𝐸 + 𝐵 𝐵 + 𝜖0 𝐸𝐸
2 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 2𝜇0 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 𝜇0 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 𝑥
1 𝜕
+ 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥
𝜇0 𝜕𝑧
1
𝜖0 𝛁 ∙ 𝐄 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐄 ∙ 𝛁 𝐸𝑥 − 𝛁𝑥 𝐸 2
2
𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕
= 𝜖0 + + 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝐸𝑥 − (𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 + 𝐸𝑧2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥
𝜖0 𝜕 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕
= 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 + 𝜖0 𝐸 𝐸 + 𝜖0 𝐸𝐸
2 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 𝑥

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 1 1 1
(𝛁 ∙ 𝐓)𝑗 = 𝜖0 𝛁 ∙ 𝐄 𝐸𝑗 + 𝐄 ∙ 𝛁 𝐸𝑗 − 𝛁𝑗 𝐸 + [ 𝛁 ∙ 𝐁 𝐵𝑗 + 𝐁 ∙ 𝛁 𝐵𝑗 − 𝛁𝑗 𝐵2 ]
2
2 𝜇0 2

The force per unit volume can be written

𝜕𝐒
𝐟 = 𝛁 ∙ 𝐓 − 𝜖0 𝜇0 , where S is the Poynting vector.
𝜕𝑡

The total electromagnetic force on the charges in V is

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In the static case the second term drops out.

Physically, 𝐓 is the force per unit area (or stress) acting on the surface.

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Example 8.2. A uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and charge Q is cut into two
hemisphere. Find the force required to prevent the hemisphere from separating.

This is an electrostatics, no magnetic field involved.

For the bowl,

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The net force is obviously in the z-direction

For the disk,

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The net force on the northern hemisphere is

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8.2.3 Conservation of Momentum

Newton's second law

𝑑𝐩𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑑
𝐅= = −𝜖0 𝜇0 න 𝐒𝑑𝜏 + ර 𝐓 ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑆

where pmech is the (mechanical) momentum of the particles in volume V.

The first integral represents momentum stored in the fields:

𝐩 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 න 𝐒𝑑𝜏 . 𝐠 ≡ 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝐒 = 𝜖0 (𝐄 × 𝐁) (The momentum

density)
𝑉
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 𝑑𝐩𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑑
= −𝜖0 𝜇0 න 𝐒𝑑𝜏 + ර 𝐓 ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑆

The second integral is the momentum per unit time flowing in through
the surface.

Conservation of momentum in electrodynamics:

If the mechanical momentum increases, either the field momentum
decreases, or else the fields are carrying momentum into the volume
through the surface.

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• The momentum flux transported by the fields is −𝐓 (specifically,
− 𝐓 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 is the electromagnetic momentum per unit time passing
through the area 𝑑𝐚).

𝑑𝐩𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑑 𝑑
= −𝜖0 𝜇0 න 𝐒𝑑𝜏 + ර 𝐓 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = − න 𝐠𝑑𝜏 + ර 𝐓 ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑆 𝑉 𝑆
𝑑𝐩𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝐠
If = 0 ⇒ න 𝑑𝜏 = ර 𝐓 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = න 𝛁 ∙ 𝐓𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐠 𝜕𝜌𝑓
=𝛁∙𝐓⟺− = 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉𝑓
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
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• The Poynting vector 𝐒 : is the energy per unit area, per unit
time, transported by the electromagnetic fields.
• The momentum density 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝐒 is the momentum per unit volume
stored in the electromagnetic fields.
• 𝐓 is the electromagnetic stress (force per unit area) acting on a
surface.
• −𝐓 describes the flow of momentum (it is the momentum
current density) carried by the fields.
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8.2.4 Angular Momentum

The electromagnetic fields carry energy, momentum and angular

momentum
1 2
1 2
𝑢= 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝐵 , 𝐠 = 𝜖0 𝐄 × 𝐁 , 𝒍 = 𝐫 × 𝐠 = 𝜖0 𝐫 × 𝐄 × 𝐁 .
2 𝜇0

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