Steam Generation - Efficiency Improvements

Improving
Steam System
Performance
a sourcebook for industry
One of a
series of
industrial
energy
efficiency
sourcebooks
NT OF
ME EN
RT
Office of Industrial Technologies
A
ER
DEP
GY
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

ICA
U N IT
ER
U.S. Department of Energy

ED
ST A
AT E S OF
Acknowledgements
Improving Steam System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry is a development of the BestPractices
Program under the U. S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT). BestPractices
undertook this project as a series of sourcebook publications. Other topics in this series include: compressed air
systems, pumping systems, fan systems, and motor and drive systems. For more information about DOE’s
BestPractices, see OIT and BestPractices in the the Programs, Contacts, and Resources section of this publication.
OIT, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and Resource Dynamics Corporation wish to thank the staff
at the many organizations that so generously assisted in the collection of data for this Sourcebook. The
Alliance to Save Energy, the Council of Industrial Boiler Operators, the National Insulation Association, and
the North American Insulation Manufacturers Association provided valuable assistance in developing,
compiling, and reviewing this publication.
The BestPractices Steam program appreciates the participation of the Steam Technical Subcommittee. Special
thanks are extended to its co-chairs, Dr. Anthony Wright, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Glenn Hahn,
Spirax Sarco, an Allied Partner, for providing extensive technical guidance and review throughout the
preparation of this publication. The efforts of these program and committee participants are greatly appreciated.
Additionally, the contributions of the following participants are appreciated for their review of and
suggestions for this Sourcebook:
Deborah Bloom, ONDEO-Nalco

Sean Casten, Turbosteam Corporation
Bruce Gorelick, Enercheck Systems
Robert Griffin, Enbridge Consumers Gas, Canada
Dr. Greg Harrell, Energy, Environment and Resources Center, University of Tennessee-Knoxville
Thomas Henry, Armstrong Service
Carroll Hooper, Steam Solutions, Inc.
James Kumana, Kumana and Associates
Andrew W. Larkin, Trigen Energy Corporation
Lloyd Mason, Condensate Return Specialists
Gil McCoy, Office of Industrial Technologies Clearinghouse
Kelly Paffel, Plant Support and Evaluations, Inc.
W. Randall Rawson, American Boiler Manufacturers Association
Douglas Riley, Millennium Chemical
Thomas Scheetz, BASF
John Todd, Yarway Corporation
Prepared for: The United States Department of Energy

Prepared by: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Washington, DC
Resource Dynamics Corporation
Vienna, VA
Cover photo credit: NREL/PIX 05559. The Leathers geothermal power plant located in the Salton Sea, California.
Photo by Warren Gretz.
i Improving Steam System Performance

Appendix B: Steam Tip Sheet Number 3
Tip Sheet #3 • June 1999 Steam Motors Compressed Air
Exhaust Gas Use Feedwater Economizers for Waste

Temperature Limits Heat Recovery
The lowest temperature to
which flue gases can be cooled A feedwater economizer reduces steam boiler fuel requirements by transferring heat
depends on the type of fuel from the flue gas to incoming feedwater. Boiler flue gases are often rejected to the stack
used: 250°F for natural gas, at temperatures more than 100°F to 150°F higher than the temperature of the generated
300°F for coal and low sulphur steam. Generally, boiler efficiency can be increased by 1% for every 40°F reduction in
content fuel oils, and 350°F for flue gas temperature. By recovering waste heat, an economizer can often reduce fuel
high sulphur fuel oils. These requirements by 5% to 10% and pay for itself in less than 2 years. The table provides
limits are set to prevent examples of the potential for heat recovery.
condensation and possible
corrosion of the stack. Recoverable Heat from Boiler Flue Gases
Recoverable Heat, MMBtu/hr
Potential Economizer Initial Stack Gas Boiler Thermal Output, MMBtu/hr
Applications Temperature, °F 25 50 100 200
A feedwater economizer is 400 1.3 2.6 5.3 10.6
appropriate when insufficient
heat transfer surface exists 500 2.3 4.6 9.2 18.4
within the boiler to remove 600 3.3 6.5 13.0 26.1
combustion heat. Boilers that Based on natural gas fuel, 15% excess air, and a final stack temperature of 250°F.
exceed 100 boiler hp, operating
at pressures exceeding Example
75 psig or above, and that are A boiler generates 45,000 lb/hr of 150 psig steam by burning natural gas. Condensate is
significantly loaded all year returned to the boiler and mixed with makeup water to yield 117°F feedwater. The stack
long are excellent candidates temperature is measured at 500°F. Determine the annual energy savings that will be
for an economizer retrofit. achieved by installing an economizer given 8,400 hours per year of boiler operation at an
energy cost of $4.50/MMBtu.
From the steam tables, the following enthalpy values are available:
For 150 psig saturated steam: 1,195.5 Btu/lb
For 117°F feedwater: 84.97 Btu/lb
Boiler thermal output = 45,000 lb/hr x (1,195.5 – 84.97) Btu/lb = 50 million Btu/hr
The recoverable heat corresponding to a stack temperature of 500°F and a natural gas-
fired boiler load of 50 MMBtu/hr is read from the table (above) as 4.6 MMBtu/hr.
Annual savings = 4.6 MMBtu/hr x $4.50/MMBtu x 8,400 hr/yr = $173,880/yr
Steam Tip Sheet information
adapted from material provided Suggested Actions
by the Industrial Energy
Extension Service of Georgia • Determine the stack temperature after the boiler has been tuned to manufacturer’s
Tech and reviewed by the specifications. The boiler should be operating at close-to-optimum excess air levels
DOE BestPractices Steam with all heat transfer surfaces clean.
Technical Subcommittee. For
• Determine the minimum temperature to which stack gases can be cooled subject to
additional information on steam
system efficiency measures, criteria such as dew point, cold-end corrosion, and economic heat transfer surface.
contact the OIT Clearinghouse (See sidebar: Exhaust Gas Temperature Limits.)
at (800) 862-2086. • Study the cost-effectiveness of installing a feedwater economizer or air preheater in
your boiler.
OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY • U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
A Sourcebook for Industry 67

Appendix B: Steam Tip Sheet Number 3 (continued)
About DOE’s Office of Industrial Technologies

The Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT), through partnerships with industry,
government, and non-governmental organizations, develops and delivers advanced
energy efficiency, renewable energy, and pollution prevention technologies for
industrial applications. OIT is part of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
OIT encourages industry-wide efforts to boost resource productivity through a
strategy called Industries of the Future (IOF). IOF focuses on the following nine
BestPractices is part of the Office of
energy- and resource-intensive industries: Industrial Technologies’ (OIT’s) Industries
• Agriculture • Forest Products • Mining of the Future strategy, which helps the
country’s most energy-intensive
• Aluminum • Glass • Petroleum industries improve their competitiveness.
• Chemicals • Metal Casting • Steel BestPractices brings together the best-
available and emerging technologies
OIT and its BestPractices program offer a wide variety of resources to industrial and practices to help companies begin
partners that cover motor, steam, compressed air, and process heating systems. improving energy efficiency, environmental
performance, and productivity right now.
For example, BestPractices software can help you decide whether to replace or
rewind motors (MotorMaster+), assess the efficiency of pumping systems (PSAT), BestPractices emphasizes plant systems,
compressed air systems (AirMaster+), steam systems (Steam Scoping Tool), or where significant efficiency improvements
determine optimal insulation thickness for pipes and pressure vessels (3E Plus). and savings can be achieved. Industry
gains easy access to near-term and
Training is available to help you or your staff learn how to use these software long-term solutions for improving the
programs and learn more about industrial systems. Workshops are held around the performance of motor, steam, compressed
country on topics such as “Capturing the Value of Steam Efficiency,” “Fundamentals air, and process heating systems. In
addition, the Industrial Assessment Centers
and Advanced Management of Compressed Air Systems,” and “Motor System
provide comprehensive industrial energy
Management.” Available technical publications range from case studies and tip evaluations to small and medium-size
sheets to sourcebooks and market assessments. The Energy Matters newsletter, for manufacturers.
example, provides timely articles and information on comprehensive energy systems
for industry. You can access these resources and more by visiting the BestPractices
Web site at www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices or by contacting the OIT Clearinghouse at
800-862-2086 or via email at clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov. F OR A DDITIONAL I NFORMATION ,
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
Peter.Salmon-Cox@hq.doe.gov
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices
OIT Clearinghouse
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (360) 586-8303
clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov
Please send any comments,

questions, or suggestions to
webmaster.oit@ee.doe.gov
Visit our home page at

www.oit.doe.gov

Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy
Washington, DC 20585-0121
DOE/GO-10099-809
June 1999
Steam Tip Sheet #3
68 Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #4 • June 1999 Steam Motors Compressed Air
Flue Gas Analyzers Improve Your Boiler’s Combustion Efficiency

The percentage of oxygen in the
flue gas can be measured by Combustion Efficiency
inexpensive gas-absorbing test Operating your boiler with an optimum amount of excess air will minimize heat loss up
kits. More expensive ($500- the stack and improve combustion efficiency. Combustion efficiency is a measure of how
$1,000) hand-held, computer- effectively the heat content of a fuel is transferred into usable heat. The stack temperature
based analyzers display percent and flue gas oxygen (or carbon dioxide) concentrations are primary indicators of
oxygen, stack gas temperature, combustion efficiency.
and boiler efficiency. They are a Given complete mixing, a precise or stoichiometric amount of air is required to completely
recommended investment for react with a given quantity of fuel. In practice, combustion conditions are never ideal,
any boiler system with annual and additional or “excess” air must be supplied to completely burn the fuel.
fuel costs exceeding $50,000. The correct amount of excess air is determined from analyzing flue gas oxygen or carbon
dioxide concentrations. Inadequate excess air results in unburned combustibles (fuel,
Oxygen Trim Systems soot, smoke, and carbon monoxide) while too much results in heat lost due to the
When fuel composition is increased flue gas flow—thus lowering the overall boiler fuel-to-steam efficiency. The
highly variable (such as refinery table relates stack readings to boiler performance.
gas, hog fuel, or multi-fuel Combustion Efficiency for Natural Gas
boilers), or where steam flows
are highly variable, an on-line Combustion Efficiency
oxygen analyzer should be Excess % Flue gas temperature less combustion air temp, °F
considered. The oxygen “trim” Air Oxygen 200 300 400 500 600
system provides feedback to the
9.5 2.0 85.4 83.1 80.8 78.4 76.0
burner controls to automatically
minimize excess combustion air 15.0 3.0 85.2 82.8 80.4 77.9 75.4
and optimize the air-to-fuel 28.1 5.0 84.7 82.1 79.5 76.7 74.0
ratio. 44.9 7.0 84.1 81.2 78.2 75.2 72.1
81.6 10.0 82.8 79.3 75.6 71.9 68.2
Assumes complete combustion with no water vapor in the combustion air.
On well-designed natural gas-fired systems, an excess air level of 10% is attainable. An

often stated rule of thumb is that boiler efficiency can be increased by 1% for each 15%
reduction in excess air or 40°F reduction in stack gas temperature.
Example
A boiler operates for 8,000 hours per year and consumes 500,000 MMBtu of natural gas
while producing 45,000 lb/hr of 150 psig steam. Stack gas measurements indicate an
Steam Tip Sheet information excess air level of 44.9% with a flue gas less combustion air temperature of 400°F. From
adapted from material provided the table, the boiler combustion efficiency is 78.2% (E1). Tuning the boiler reduces the
by the Industrial Energy excess air to 9.5% with a flue gas less combustion air temperature of 300°F. The boiler
Extension Service of Georgia combustion efficiency increases to 83.1% (E2). Assuming a steam value of $4.50/MMBtu,
Tech and reviewed by the the annual cost savings are:
DOE BestPractices Steam
Cost Savings = Fuel Consumption x (1 - E1/E2) x steam cost
additional information on steam = 29,482 MMBtu/yr x $4.50/MMBtu = $132,671 annually
system efficiency measures,
contact the OIT Clearinghouse Suggested Actions
at (800) 862-2086.
Boilers often operate at excess air levels higher than the optimum. Periodically monitor
flue gas composition and tune your boilers to maintain excess air at optimum levels.



rewind motors (MotorMaster+), assess the efficiency of pumping systems (PSAT), BestPractices emphasizes plant systems,
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
OIT Clearinghouse
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (360) 586-8303


www.oit.doe.gov

Energy Efficiency
Washington, DC 20585-0121
DOE/GO-10099-808
June 1999
Steam Tip Sheet #4

Tip Sheet #7 • Revised June 2001 Steam Motors Compressed Air
Clean Boiler Waterside Heat Transfer

Surfaces
Monitor Flue Gas Even on small boilers, the prevention of scale formation can produce substantial energy
Temperature savings. Scale deposits occur when calcium, magnesium, and silica, commonly found in
most water supplies, react to form a continuous layer of material on the waterside of the
An indirect indicator of scale or
boiler heat exchange tubes.
deposit formation is flue gas
temperature. If the flue gas Scale creates a problem because it typically possesses a thermal conductivity an order of
temperature rises (with boiler magnitude less than the corresponding value for bare steel. Even thin layers of scale serve
load and excess air held constant), as an effective insulator and retard heat transfer. The result is overheating of boiler tube
the effect is possibly due to the metal, tube failures, and loss of energy efficiency. Fuel waste due to boiler scale may be
presence of scale. 2% for water-tube boilers and up to 5% in fire-tube boilers. Energy losses as a function of
scale thickness and composition are given in the table below.
Perform Visual
Inspections Energy Loss Due to Scale Deposits*
Visually inspect boiler tubes
Fuel Loss, % of Total Use
when the unit is shut down for
maintenance. Scale removal can Scale Thickness, Scale Type
be achieved by mechanical inches “Normal” High Iron Iron Plus Silica
means or acid cleaning. If scale is 1/64 1.0 1.6 3.5
present, consult with your local
1/32 2.0 3.1 7.0
water treatment specialist
and consider modifying your 3/64 3.0 4.7 –
feedwater treatment or chemical 1/16 3.9 6.2 –
additives schedule.
Note: “Normal” scale is usually encountered in low-pressure applications. The high iron and
iron plus silica scale composition results from high-pressure service conditions.
*Extracted from National Institute of Standards and Technology, Handbook 115, Supplement 1.
Example
A boiler annually uses 450,000 million Btu (MMBtu) of fuel while operating for 8,000 hours
at its rated capacity of 45,000 pounds-per-hour (lbs/hr) of 150-psig steam. If scale 1/32nd
of an inch thick is allowed to form on the boiler tubes, and the scale is of “normal”
composition, the table indicates a fuel loss of 2%. The increase in operating costs, assuming
Steam Tip Sheet information energy is priced at $3.00/MMBtu, is:
adapted from material provided
Extension Service of Georgia Annual Operating Cost Increase = 450,000 MMBtu/year x $3.00/MMBtu x 0.02
Tech and reviewed by the = $27,000
contact the OIT Clearinghouse
at (800) 862-2086.


Suggested Actions
Any scale in a boiler is undesirable. The best way to deal with scale is not to let it form
in the first place. Scale formation is prevented by:
• Pretreatment of boiler make-up water (using water softeners, demineralizers, and
reverse osmosis to remove scale-forming minerals),
• Chemical injection into the boiler feedwater, and
• Adopting proper boiler blowdown practices.
Industrial Technologies’ (OIT’s) Industries
of the Future strategy, which helps the
industries improve their competitiveness.
BestPractices brings together the best-
and practices to help companies begin
improving energy efficiency, environmental
BestPractices focuses on plant systems,

where significant efficiency improvements
and savings can be achieved. Industry
long-term solutions for improving the
performance of motor, steam, compressed
air, and process heating systems. In
evaluations to small and medium-size
manufacturers.
F OR A DDITIONAL I NFORMATION ,
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
About DOE’s Office of Industrial Technologies Office of Industrial Technologies
The Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT), through partnerships with industry, Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
government, and non-governmental organizations, develops and delivers advanced Peter.Salmon-Cox@hq.doe.gov
energy efficiency, renewable energy, and pollution prevention technologies for www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. OIT Clearinghouse
OIT encourages industry-wide efforts to boost resource productivity through a Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (360) 586-8303
strategy called Industries of the Future (IOF). IOF focuses on the following nine clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov
energy- and resource-intensive industries:
• Agriculture • Forest Products • Mining Please send any comments,
• Aluminum • Glass • Petroleum questions, or suggestions to
• Chemicals • Metal Casting • Steel webmaster.oit@ee.doe.gov
OIT and its BestPractices program offer a wide variety of resources to industrial
partners that cover motor, steam, compressed air, and process heating systems. www.oit.doe.gov
rewind motors (MotorMaster+), assess the efficiency of pumping systems (PSAT),
or determine optimal insulation thickness for pipes and pressure vessels (3E Plus). Office of Industrial Technologies
Energy Efficiency
Training is available to help you or your staff learn how to use these software and Renewable Energy
programs and learn more about industrial systems. Workshops are held around the U.S. Department of Energy
country on topics such as “Capturing the Value of Steam Efficiency,” “Fundamentals Washington, DC 20585-0121
Management.” Available technical publications range from case studies and tip sheets
to sourcebooks and market assessments. The Energy Matters newsletter, for example,
provides timely articles and information on comprehensive energy systems for indus-
try. You can access these resources and more by visiting the BestPractices Web site at
DOE/GO-10099-952
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices or by contacting the OIT Clearinghouse at 800-862- Revised June 2001
2086 or via email at clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov. Steam Tip Sheet #7

Return Condensate to the Boiler

Condensate Recovery When steam transfers its heat in a manufacturing process, heat exchanger, or heating coil,
Produces Savings it reverts to a liquid phase called condensate. An attractive method of improving your
power plant’s energy efficiency is to increase the condensate return to the boiler.
A large specialty paper plant
reduced its boiler makeup water Returning hot condensate to the boiler makes sense for several reasons. As more
rate from about 35% of steam condensate is returned, less make-up water is required, saving fuel, make-up water, and
production to between 14% and chemicals and treatment costs. Less condensate discharged into a sewer system reduces
20% by returning additional disposal costs. Return of high purity condensate also reduces energy losses due to boiler
condensate. Annual savings blowdown. Significant fuel savings occur as most returned condensate is relatively hot
added up to more than $300,000. (130°F to 225°F), reducing the amount of cold make-up water (50°F to 60°F) that must be
heated.
Suggested Actions A simple calculation indicates that energy in the condensate can be more than 10% of the
Reduce operating costs through total steam energy content of a typical system. The graph shows the heat remaining in the
maximizing the return of hot condensate at various condensate temperatures, for a steam system operating at 100 psig,
condensate to the boiler. with make-up water at 55°F.
Consider the following actions:
•If a condensate return system
is absent, estimate the cost of a 25 Let:
in Condensate (%)
Heat Remaining
condensate return and treatment 20 hc = enthalpy of condensate at 180°F = 148 Btu/lb

hm = enthalpy of make-up water at 55°F = 23 Btu/lb
system (as necessary) and
15 hs = enthalpy of steam at 100 psig = 1189 Btu/lb
install one if economically
justified. 10 Heat remaining in condensate (%):
= (hc – hm)/(hs – hm) x 100
•Repair steam distribution and 5
condensate return system = (148 – 23)/(1189 – 23) x 100 = 10.7%
0
leaks. 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350
Condensate Temperature (°F)
•Insulate condensate return
system piping to conserve heat
and protect personnel against
burns. Example
Consider a steam system that returns an additional 10,000 lbs/hr of condensate at 180°F
due to distribution modifications. Assume this system operates 8,000 hours annually with
an average boiler efficiency of 82%, and make-up water temperature of 55°F. The water
and sewage costs for the plant are $0.002/gal, and the water treatment cost is $0.002/gal.
The fuel cost is $3.00 per Million Btu (MMBtu). Assuming a 12% flash steam loss*, calculate
Steam Tip Sheet information the overall annual savings.
adapted from material provided
by the Industrial Energy Annual Water, Sewage, and Chemicals Savings = (1 – Flash Steam Fraction) x (Condensate
Extension Service of Georgia Load in lbs/hr) x Annual Operating Hours x (Total Water Costs in $/gal) ÷ (Water Density
Tech and reviewed by the in lbs/gal)
Technical Subcommittee. For (1 - 0.12) x 10,000 x 8,000 x $0.004
additional information on steam = = $33,760
system efficiency measures, 8.34
contact the OIT Clearinghouse
at (800) 862-2086. *When saturated condensate is reduced to some lower pressure, some condensate flashes off to steam again.
This amount is the flash steam loss.


Annual Fuel Savings = (1 – Flash Steam Fraction) x (Condensate Load in lbs/hr) x Annual
Operating Hours x (Makeup Water Temperature rise in °F) x (Fuel Cost in $/Btu) ) ÷ Boiler
Efficiency
(1 - 0.12) x 10,000 x 8,000 x (180 – 55) x $3.00
= = $32,195
0.82 x 106
Total Annual Savings Due to Return of an Additional 10,000 lbs/hr of Condensate
= $33,760 + $32,195 = $65,955 BestPractices is part of the Office of

manufacturers.
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
The Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT), through partnerships with industry, Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
Fax: (360) 586-8303
Energy Efficiency
Management.” Available technical publications range from case studies and tip
sheets to sourcebooks and market assessments. The Energy Matters newsletter, for
DOE/GO-10099-953
Web site at www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices or by contacting the OIT Clearinghouse at Revised June 2001
800-862-2086 or via email at clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov. Steam Tip Sheet #8

Minimize Boiler Blowdown

Automatic Blowdown Minimizing your blowdown rate can substantially reduce energy losses, as the temperature
Control Systems of the blown-down liquid is the same as that of the steam generated in the boiler. Minimizing
blowdown will also reduce makeup water and chemical treatment costs.
These systems optimize surface
blowdown by regulating water As water evaporates in the boiler steam drum, solids present in the feedwater are left behind.
volume discharged in relation to The suspended solids form sludge or sediments in the boiler, which degrades heat transfer.
amount of dissolved solids present. Dissolved solids promote foaming and carryover of boiler water into the steam. To reduce
Conductivity, TDS, silica or chlorides the levels of suspended and total dissolved solids (TDS) to acceptable limits, water is
concentrations, and/or alkalinity periodically discharged or blown down from the boiler. Mud or bottom blowdown is usually
are reliable indicators of salts and a manual procedure done for a few seconds on intervals of several hours. It is designed to
other contaminants dissolved in remove suspended solids that settle out of the boiler water and form a heavy sludge. Surface
boiler water. A probe provides or skimming blowdown is designed to remove the dissolved solids that concentrate near
feedback to a controller driving a the liquid surface. Surface blowdown is often a continuous process.
modulating blowdown valve. An Insufficient blowdown may lead to carryover of boiler water into the steam, or the formation
alternative is proportional control of deposits. Excessive blowdown will waste energy, water, and chemicals. The optimum
—with blowdown rate set blowdown rate is determined by various factors including the boiler type, operating
proportional to makeup water flow. pressure, water treatment, and quality of makeup water. Blowdown rates typically range
from 4% to 8% of boiler feedwater flow rate, but can be as high as 10% when makeup
water has a high solids content.
Cycles of Concentration
“Cycles of concentration” refers to Example
the accumulation of impurities
in the boiler water. If the boiler Assume that the installation of an automatic blowdown control system (see sidebar) reduces
water contains ten times the level your blowdown rate from 8% to 6%. This example assumes a continuously operating
of impurities in the makeup natural-gas-fired, 150-psig, 100,000-pound-per-hour steam boiler. Assume a makeup water
water, it is said to have ten cycles temperature of 60°F, boiler efficiency of 82%, with fuel valued at $3.00 per million Btu
of concentration. (MBtu), and the total water, sewage and treatment costs at $0.004 per gallon. Calculate the
total annual cost savings.
100,000
Boiler Feedwater: Initial = = 108,695 lbs/hr
(1 - 0.08)
100,000
Final = = 106,383 lbs/hr
(1 - 0.06)
Steam Tip Sheet information

adapted from material provided Makeup Water Savings = 108,695 – 106,383 = 2312 lbs/hr
Enthalpy of boiler water = 338.5 Btu/lb; for makeup water at 60°F = 28 Btu/lb
Extension Service of Georgia
Tech and reviewed by the Thermal Energy Savings = 338.5 – 28 = 310.5 Btu/lb
Technical Subcommittee. For 2312 lbs/hr x 8760 hrs/yr x 310.5 Btu/lb x $3.00/MBtu
Annual Fuel Savings = = $23,007
additional information on steam 0.82 x 106
contact the OIT Clearinghouse 2312 lbs/hr x 8760 hrs/yr x$0.004/gal
at (800) 862-2086. Annual Water and Chemical Savings = = $9,714
8.34 lbs/gal
Annual Cost Savings = $23,007 + $9,714 = $32,721


Suggested Actions
Review your blowdown practices to identify energy saving opportunities. Examine operating
practices for boiler feedwater and blowdown rates developed by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Considerations include operating pressure, steam purity, and
deposition control. Consider an automatic blowdown control system (see sidebar).
References and Footnotes

1. “Consensus Operating Practices for Control of Feedwater/Boiler Water Chemistry in Modern BestPractices is part of the Office of
Industrial Boilers”, published by the ASME, 1994. Industrial Technologies’ (OIT’s) Industries
2. “Recommended Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers”, Section VI of the ASME Boiler country’s most energy-intensive
and Pressure Vessel Code, 1995. industries improve their competitiveness.
3. “Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers”, Section VII of the ASME Boiler and available and emerging technologies
Pressure Vessel Code, 1995. improving energy efficiency, environmental

manufacturers.
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
The Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT), through partnerships with industry, Fax: (202) 586-6507
Fax: (360) 586-8303
Energy Efficiency
for industry. You can access these resources and more by visiting the BestPractices DOE/GO-10099-954

Recover Heat from Boiler Blowdown

Blowdown Energy Heat can be recovered from boiler blowdown by using a heat exchanger to preheat boiler
Recovery makeup water. Any boiler with continuous blowdown exceeding 5% of the steam rate is
a good candidate for the introduction of blowdown waste heat recovery. Larger energy
Blowdown waste heat
savings occur with high-pressure boilers. The following table shows the potential for
can be recovered with a heat
heat recovery from boiler blowdown.
exchanger, a flash tank, or
flash tank in combination with
Recoverable Heat from Boiler Blowdown
a heat exchanger. Lowering the
pressure in a flash tank allows Blowndown Heat Recovered, Million Btu per hour (MMBtu/hr)
a portion of the blowdown to Rate, Boiler Operating Pressure, psig
be converted into low pressure % Boiler Feedwater 50 100 150 250 300
steam. This low pressure steam
2 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.65 0.65
is most typically used in
deaerators. Drain water from 4 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.3
the flash tank is then routed 6 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0
through a heat exchanger.
8 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.7
Cooling the blowdown has the
additional advantage of helping 10 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.3
to comply with local codes 20 4.4 5.0 5.6 6.4 6.6
limiting the discharge of high Based on a steam production rate of 100,000 pounds per hour, 60°F makeup water, and 90% heat
temperature liquids into the recovery.
sewer system.
Example
In a plant where the fuel cost is $3.00/MMBtu, a continuous blowdown rate of 3,200 pounds
per hour (lbs/hr) is maintained to avoid the buildup of high concentrations of dissolved
solids. What are the annual savings if a makeup water heat exchanger is installed that
recovers 90% of the blowdown energy losses? The 82% efficient boiler produces 50,000
lbs/hr of 150-psig steam. It operates for 8000 hours per year. The blowdown ratio is:
3200
Blowdown Ratio = = 6.0%
3200 + 50,000
From the table, the heat recoverable corresponding to a 6% blowdown ratio with a
Steam Tip Sheet information 150-psig boiler operating pressure is 1.8 MBtu/hr. Since the table is based on a steam
adapted from material provided production rate of 100,000 lbs/hour, the annual savings for this plant are:
Extension Service of Georgia Annual
Tech and reviewed by the 1.67 MMBtu/hr x (50,000 lbs/hr/100,000 lbs/hr) x 8000 hrs/yr
Energy = = 8146 MMBtu
DOE BestPractices Steam Savings 0.82
contact the OIT Clearinghouse Annual Cost Savings = 8146 MMBtu/year x $3.00/MMBtu = $24,438
at (800) 862-2086.


Suggested Actions
If there is a continuous blowdown system in place, consider installing a heat recovery
system. If there is a non-continuous blowdown system, then consider the option of
converting it to a continuous blowdown system coupled with heat recovery.


manufacturers.
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
The Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT), through partnerships with industry, Fax: (202) 586-6507
Fax: (360) 586-8303
Energy Efficiency
for industry. You can access these resources and more by visiting the BestPractices DOE/GO-10099-955

Tip Sheet #15 • December 2000 Steam Motors Compressed Air
Effective Cost of Steam Benchmark the Fuel Cost of Steam

The effective cost of steam Generation
depends on the path it follows
from the boiler to the point of
use. Take a systems approach Benchmarking the fuel cost of steam generation ($/1000 lbs of steam) is an effective way to assess
and consider the entire boiler the efficiency of your steam system. This cost is dependent upon fuel type, unit fuel cost, boiler
island, including effect of blow- efficiency, feedwater temperature, and steam pressure. This calculation provides a good first
down, parasitic steam consump- approximation for the cost of generating steam and serves as a tracking device to allow for boiler
tion, deaeration, etc. Further performance monitoring. Table 1 shows the heat input required to produce one pound of saturated
complications arise due to the steam at different operating pressures and varying feedwater temperatures. Table 2 lists the typical
process steam loads at different energy content and boiler combustion efficiency for several common fuels.
pressures, multiple boilers, and
waste heat recovery systems. To Table 1. Energy Required to Produce One Pound of Saturated Steam (Btu)*
determine the effective cost of Operating Feedwater Temperature, °F
steam, use a combined heat and
Pressure, psig 50 100 150 200 250
power simulation model that
150 1,178 1,128 1,078 1,028 977
includes all the significant effects.
450 1,187 1,137 1,087 1,037 986
Multi-Fuel Capability 600 1,184 1,134 1,084 1,034 984
* Calculated from steam tables based on the difference between the enthalpies of saturated steam and feedwater.
For multi-fuel capability boilers,
take advantage of volatility in
fuel prices by periodically analyz- Table 2. Energy Content and Combustion Efficiency of Fuels
ing the steam generation cost and Fuel Type (sales unit) Energy Content Combustion
use the fuel that provides the (Btu/sales unit) Efficiency (%)
lowest steam generation cost. Natural Gas (therm) 100,000 81.7
Natural Gas (cubic foot) 1,030 81.7
Higher Versus Lower Distillate/No. 2 Oil (gallon) 138,700 84.6
Residual/No. 6 Oil (gallon) 149,700 86.1
Heating Values
Coal (ton) 27,000,000 87.6
Fuel is sold based on its gross or Note: Combustion efficiency is based on boilers equipped with economizers and air preheaters and 3% oxygen in flue gas.
higher heating value (HHV). If,
at the end of the combustion Data from the above tables can be used to determine the cost of usable heat from a boiler or
process, water remains in the other combustion unit. The calculations can also include operating costs of accessories such
form of vapor, the HHV must be as feedwater pumps, fans, fuel heaters, steam for fuel atomizers and soot blowing, treatment
reduced by the latent heat of chemicals, and environmental and maintenance costs.
vaporization of water. This
reduced value is known as the
lower heating value (LHV). Example
A boiler, fired with natural gas costing $0.30/therm, produces 450 psig saturated steam and is
supplied with 230°F feedwater. Using values from the tables, calculate the cost of producing
steam.
0.3 ($/therm) 100
Steam Tip Sheet information has Steam Cost = x 1000 x 1006 (Btu/lb) x = $3.69/1000 lbs
100,000 (Btu/therm) 81.7
been reviewed by the DOE
BestPractices Steam Technical
Subcommittee. For additional Suggested Actions
information on industrial energy
efficiency measures, contact the • Determine your annual fuel costs based on utility bills.
OIT Clearinghouse
• Install a steam flowmeter in your facility and calculate your steam generation cost. Compare
at (800) 862-2086.
this with the benchmark value.
• Using a systems approach, do a thermoeconomic analysis to determine the effective cost of
steam. (See sidebar: Effective Cost of Steam)



• Agriculture • Forest Products • Mining
rewind motors (MotorMaster+), assess the efficiency of pumping systems (PSAT), BestPractices focuses on plant systems,
and Advanced Management of Compressed Air Systems,” and “Motor System provide comprehensive industrial energy
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
OIT Clearinghouse
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (360) 586-8303


www.oit.doe.gov

Energy Efficiency
Washington, D.C. 20585
DOE/GO-102000-1115
December 2000
Steam Tip Sheet #15

Multiple Boiler Operations Minimize Boiler Short Cycling Losses

The most efficient boilers should
be brought on-line as loads Boiler "short cycling" occurs when an oversized boiler quickly satisfies process or space heating
increase, with less-efficient units demands, and then shuts down until heat is again required. Process heating demands can change
taken off-line first as loads drop. over time. Boilers may have been oversized for additions or expansions that never occurred.
Subject to emissions, operations, or Installing energy conservation or heat recovery measures may also reduce the heat demand. As a
firing rate limits, shift loads from a result, a facility may have multiple boilers, each rated at several times the maximum expected
boiler where steam production is
load.
expensive to one where it is less
expensive.
Boilers used for space heating loads are often oversized, with their capacity chosen to meet total
building heat losses plus heating of ventilation and infiltration air under extreme or design-basis
Use automatic controllers that
determine the incremental costs temperature conditions. No credit is taken for thermal contributions from lights, equipment, or
(change in steam cost/change in people. Excess capacity is also added to bring a facility to required settings quickly after a night
load) for each boiler in the facility, setback.
and then shift loads accordingly.
This maximizes efficiency and Cycling Losses
reduces energy costs. If possible,
schedule loads to help optimize A boiler cycle consists of a firing interval, a post-purge, an idle period, a pre-purge, and a return to
boiler system performance. firing. Boiler efficiency is the useful heat provided by the boiler divided by the energy input (use-
Powerhouses containing multiple ful heat plus losses) over the cycle duration. This efficiency decreases when short cycling occurs or
boilers that are simultaneously when multiple boilers are operated at low-firing rates.
operated at low-fire conditions
This decrease in efficiency occurs, in part, because fixed losses are magnified under lightly loaded
offer energy-saving opportunities
conditions. For example, if the radiation loss from the boiler enclosure is 1% of the total heat input
by using proper boiler allocation
at full-load, at half-load the losses increase to 2%, while at one-quarter load the loss is 4%. In addi-
strategies.
tion to radiation losses, pre- and post-purge losses occur. In the pre-purge, the fan operates to
force air through the boiler to flush out any combustible gas mixture that may have accumulated.
Boiler Downsizing The post-purge performs a similar function. During purging, heat is removed from the boiler as
Fuel savings can be achieved by the purged air is heated.
adding a smaller boiler sized to
meet average loads at your facility, Example
or by re-engineering the power
plant to consist of multiple small A 1,500 hp (1 hp = 33,475 Btu/hr) boiler with a cycle efficiency of 72.7% (E1) is replaced with a 600
boilers. Multiple small boilers hp boiler with a cycle efficiency of 78.8% (E2). Calculate the annual cost savings.
offer reliability and flexibility to
operators to follow load swings
without over-firing and short Fractional Fuel Savings = (1 – E1/E2)
cycling. Facilities with large season-
al variations in steam use operate = (1 – 72.7/78.8) x 100 = 7.7%
small boilers when demand drops
rather than operating their large
boilers year-round. If the original boiler used 200,000 MMBtu of fuel annually, the savings from switching to the
smaller boiler (given a fuel cost of $3.00/MMBtu) are:
Steam Tip Sheet information has Annual Savings = 200,000 MMBtu x 0.077 x $3.00/MMBtu = $46,200
BestPractices Steam Technical
Subcommittee. For additional
information on industrial energy Suggested Actions
efficiency measures, contact the • Determine the efficiency and operating cost of each of your boilers and adopt a control
OIT Clearinghouse
strategy for maximizing overall efficiency of multiple boiler operations. (See sidebar)
at (800) 862-2086.
• Avoid short cycling by adding small boilers to your boiler facility to provide better
flexibility and high efficiency at all loads. (See sidebar: Boiler Downsizing)



rewind motors (MotorMaster+), assess the efficiency of pumping systems (PSAT), BestPractices focuses on plant systems,
P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
OIT Clearinghouse
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (360) 586-8303


www.oit.doe.gov

Energy Efficiency
DOE/GO-102000-1116
December 2000
Steam Tip Sheet #16

Additional Benefits Deaerators in Industrial Steam Systems

Deaerators provide the water storage
Deaerators are mechanical devices that remove dissolved gases from boiler feedwater.
capacity and the net positive suction
Deaeration protects the steam system from the effects of corrosive gases. It accomplishes
head necessary at the boiler feed
this by reducing the concentration of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide to a level where
pump inlet. Returned condensate is
corrosion is minimized. A dissolved oxygen level of 5 parts per billion (ppb) or lower
mixed with makeup water within the
is needed to prevent corrosion in most high pressure (>200 psig) boilers. While oxygen
deaerator. Operating temperatures
concentrations of up to 43 ppb may be tolerated in low pressure boilers, equipment life is
range from 215 to over 350°F,
extended at little or no cost by limiting the oxygen concentration to 5 ppb. Dissolved
which reduces the thermal shock
carbon dioxide is essentially completely removed by the deaerator.
on downstream preheating equip-
ment and the boiler.
How They Work
Insulation
The design of an effective deaeration system depends upon the amount of gases to be removed
The deaerator section and storage and the final gas (O2 ) concentration desired. This in turn depends upon the ratio of boiler
tank and all piping conveying feedwater makeup to returned condensate and the operating pressure of the deaerator.
hot water or steam should be
Deaerators use steam to heat the water to the full saturation temperature corresponding to
adequately insulated to prevent
the steam pressure in the deaerator and to scrub out and carry away dissolved gases. Steam
the condensation of steam and loss
flow may be parallel, cross, or counter to the water flow. The deaerator consists of a deaeration
of heat.
section, a storage tank, and a vent. In the deaeration section, steam bubbles through the
Function Clarification water, both heating and agitating it. Steam is cooled by incoming water and condensed at
the vent condenser. Non-condensable gases and some steam are released through the vent.
The deaerator is designed to remove
Steam provided to the deaerator provides physical stripping action and heats the mixture of
oxygen that is dissolved in the
returned condensate and boiler feedwater makeup to saturation temperature. Most of the
entering water, not entrained air.
steam will condense, but a small fraction (usually 5 to 14%) must be vented to accommodate
Sources of “free air” include loose
the stripping requirements. Normal design practice is to calculate the steam required for
piping connections on the suction
heating, and then make sure that the flow is sufficient for stripping as well. If the condensate
side of pumps and improper
return rate is high (>80%) and the condensate pressure is high compared to the deaerator
pump packing.
pressure, then very little steam is needed for heating, and provisions may be made for
Pressure Fluctuations condensing the surplus flash steam.
Sudden increases in free or
“flash” steam can cause a spike in Deaerator Steam Consumption
deaerator vessel pressure, resulting The deaerator steam consumption is equal to the steam required to heat incoming water
in re-oxygenation of the feedwater. to its saturation temperature, plus the amount vented with the non-condensable gases, less
A dedicated pressure-regulating any flashed steam from hot condensate or steam losses through failed traps. The heat
valve should be provided to balance calculation is made with the incoming water at its lowest expected temperature.
maintain the deaerator at a The vent rate is a function of deaerator type, size (rated feedwater capacity), and the
constant pressure. amount of makeup water. The operating vent rate is at its maximum with the introduction
of cold, oxygen-rich makeup water.
Steam Tip Sheet information has
BestPractices Steam Technical Suggested Actions
Subcommittee. For additional
• Deaerator steam requirements should be re-examined following the retrofit of
information on industrial energy
efficiency measures, contact the steam distribution system, condensate return, or heat recovery energy conservation
Information Clearinghouse at measures.
(800) 862-2086. • Install continuous dissolved oxygen monitoring devices to aid in identifying
operating practices that result in poor oxygen removal.



strategy called Industries of the Future (IOF). IOF focuses on the following nine BestPractices is part of the Office of
energy- and resource-intensive industries: of the Future strategy, which helps the
• Agriculture • Forest Products • Mining
• Aluminum • Glass • Petroleum BestPractices brings together the best-
• Chemicals • Metal Casting • Steel available and emerging technologies
OIT and its BestPractices program offer a wide variety of resources to industrial improving energy efficiency, environmental
partners that cover motor, steam, compressed air, and process heating systems. performance, and productivity right now.
For example, BestPractices software can help you decide whether to replace or BestPractices focuses on plant systems,
rewind motors (MotorMaster+), assess the efficiency of pumping systems (PSAT), where significant efficiency improvements
compressed air systems (AirMaster+), steam systems (Steam Scoping Tool), or and savings can be achieved. Industry
determine optimal insulation thickness for pipes and pressure vessels (3E Plus). gains easy access to near-term and
Training is available to help you or your staff learn how to use these software performance of motor, steam, compressed
programs and learn more about industrial systems. Workshops are held around the air, and process heating systems. In
country on topics such as “Capturing the Value of Steam Efficiency,” “Fundamentals addition, the Industrial Assessment Centers
Management.” Available technical publications range from case studies and tip manufacturers.
Web site at www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices or by contacting the OIT Clearinghouse at F OR A DDITIONAL I NFORMATION ,
800-862-2086 or via email at clearinghouse@ee.doe.gov. P LEASE C ONTACT:
Peter Salmon-Cox
Phone: (202) 586-2380
Fax: (202) 586-6507
OIT Clearinghouse
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (360) 586-8303


www.oit.doe.gov

Energy Efficiency
DOE/GO-102000-1118
December 2000
Steam Tip Sheet #18

Steam Generation - Efficiency Improvements

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Improving

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

Deborah Bloom, ONDEO-Nalco

Prepared for: The United States Department of Energy

Prepared by: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

i Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #3 • June 1999 Steam Motors Compressed Air

Exhaust Gas Use Feedwater Economizers for Waste

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 67

About DOE’s Office of Industrial Technologies

Please send any comments,

Visit our home page at

Office of Industrial Technologies

68 Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #4 • June 1999 Steam Motors Compressed Air

Flue Gas Analyzers Improve Your Boiler’s Combustion Efficiency

On well-designed natural gas-fired systems, an excess air level of 10% is attainable. An

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 69

About DOE’s Office of Industrial Technologies

Please send any comments,

Visit our home page at

Office of Industrial Technologies

70 Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #7 • Revised June 2001 Steam Motors Compressed Air

Clean Boiler Waterside Heat Transfer

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 71

BestPractices focuses on plant systems,

72 Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #8 • Revised June 2001 Steam Motors Compressed Air

Return Condensate to the Boiler

condensate return and treatment 20 hc = enthalpy of condensate at 180°F = 148 Btu/lb

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 73

BestPractices focuses on plant systems,

74 Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #9 • Revised June 2001 Steam Motors Compressed Air

Minimize Boiler Blowdown

Steam Tip Sheet information

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 75

References and Footnotes

BestPractices focuses on plant systems,

76 Improving Steam System Performance

Recover Heat from Boiler Blowdown

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 77

BestPractices is part of the Office of

BestPractices focuses on plant systems,

78 Improving Steam System Performance

Tip Sheet #15 • December 2000 Steam Motors Compressed Air

Effective Cost of Steam Benchmark the Fuel Cost of Steam

OFFICE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES

A Sourcebook for Industry 87

About DOE’s Office of Industrial Technologies

Please send any comments,

Visit our home page at