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RF POWER AMPLIFIERS

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NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

1
 CLASS C RF
POWER AMPLIFIERS

C205
 STUDY SCHEDULE

D I. Introduction Pages 1-3

Here you get abrief look at how power amplifiers are used and
learn how to calculate their efficiency.

2. RF Power Amplifier Fundamentals Pages 4-12

This section discusses the basic class C amplifier.

3. Vacuum Tube RF Power Amplifiers Pages 13 -27

Here you learn about practical class C amplifiers using vacuum
tubes.

D 4. Transistor Power Amplifiers Pages 28 -36

In this section, circuits which illustrate the important features
of transistor rf amplifiers are discussed in detail.

5. Adjusting Class C Amplifiers Pages 37 -41

Here a typical adjustment procedure for both avacuum tube
and atransistor class C stage is given.

6. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 42 -43

7. Answer the Lesson Questions.

8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1970 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

KL3M774 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

-

A radio transmitter is a device for tained on all radio transmitters under its
converting some form of intelligence into jurisdiction.
electrical impulses suitable for trans- The next stage, called a frequency
mission through space. In its simplest multiplier, produces an output whose
form, atransmitter consists of asource of frequency is some multiple of the input
rf energy, called the master oscillator, and frequency. The presence of this stage
one or more stages of rf power amplifi- permits the master oscillator to be oper-
cation. ated at a frequency lower than the
In practical transmitters, such as the transmitted frequency. It is much easier
one shown in block diagram form in Fig. to design highly stable oscillator circuits
1, there are a number of stages between at the lower radio frequencies; therefore,
the master oscillator and the antenna. one or more frequency multiplier stages
Since each stage is a form of rf power are an essential part of most radio trans-
amplifier, let's briefly discuss the partic- mitters.
ular role each one plays in the overall The driver and power output stages
operation of the transmitter. provide the remaining amplification nec-
Immediately following the master essary to supply power to the antenna.
oscillator is a stage called the buffer This output power may range from less
amplifier. Its purpose is to present alight than 100 watts to 1 million watts,
constant load to the oscillator, which depending on the transmitter type and
helps maintain a stable oscillator fre- the purpose for which it is to be used. In
quency. The FCC requires that very close recent years low power circuits, which
control of output frequency be main- formerly used vacuum tubes, have been

1
 MASTER ,1•1
BUFFER - FREQUENCY - DRIVER 11
POWER ,immoll.

OSCILLATOR (I ST AMPLIFIER) MULTIPUER OUTPUT

Fig. 1. Block diagram of abasic transmitter. All the stages are operated class C.

redesigned to use economical, efficient power tetrodes have the highest power
transistors. In many low to medium gain of any other conventional vacuum
power mobile transmitters, transistors are tube type. For this, as well as other
used in all stages delivering as much as 75 reasons, the beam power tetrode is the 9.
watts of rf output power at 175 MHz. In most commonly used tube in modern ..
other transmitters, all but the driver and transmitters. The power gain of tran-
final amplifier (power output) stages have sistors does not compare favorably with
been replaced by transistors. There is that of vacuum tubes at higher radio
every reason to suppose that this trend frequencies. This limitation may be par-
will continue as the high-frequency power tially overcome by adding more stages or
handling capability of transistors is using more than one transistor in each
improved. stage.
The vacuum tube, however, is still used The efficiency of an amplifier, ex-
in high power stages of transmitters pressed as apercentage, is the amount of
which are employed in the AM, TV and dc input power to the stage actually
FM broadcast fields. It will no doubt converted to rf energy at the output. In a
remain so for quite some time to come. vacuum tube stage, the power input is the
Very large vacuum tubes are required to product of the plate supply voltage times
handle the enormous power outputs of the average current. For example, sup-
these transmitters. There are three charac- pose the plate supply voltage is 3000
teristics of all rf power amplifiers, tran- volts, the plate current 450 milliamps,
sistors or vacuum tubes which are of and the power output of the stage 1000
concern to us. They are linearity, power watts. The de input power to the stage is:
gain, and efficiency.
The linearity of an amplifier is a P=EXI
measure of how closely the amplified
output follows the input; in other words, P=3000 X .45 = 1350 watts
a measure of how much distortion is
introduced into the output signal by the The efficiency of the stage can then be
amplifier. Linear amplifiers, which intro- found by using the following formula:
duce very little distortion into the signals
Power Out
»
they amplify, are asubject in themselves % Efficiency — X 100
and will be considered in alater lesson. Power In
The power gain of an amplifier, usually
expressed in db, tells us how much the 1000
% Efficiency — X 100 = 74%
power level of the input signal is 1350
increased by the amplifier. Power gain
depends on circuit design and the tube or In a previous lesson, you learned that
transistor type used in the circuit. Beam class C amplifiers give the highest practi-

2
 cal efficiency, ranging up to 75%. This is nonlinearity of the class C amplifier is
compared to efficiencies of 35% to 50% effectively eliminated when a single if
for class B and as little as 30% to 35% for frequency (a sine wave) is to be ampli-
class A. However, the high efficiency of fied. This, along with the class C ampli-
class C amplifiers is obtained at the fier's high efficiency, makes it suitable to
expense of linearity. As you'll remember, many rf power amplifier applications.
output current flows for less than half the In the next section we'll discuss class C
input cycle in a class C amplifier. This rf amplifier fundamentals. The infor-
output current pulse bears little resem- mation presented in this section applies
blance to the input signal which produced to both vacuum tubes and transistors.
it and is therefore highly distorted. Later, we'll discuss specific applications
• If the output circuit of the class C of vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers.
amplifier is aresonant tank, this current In the final section, we'll talk about the
pulse shock-excites the tank so that a various adjustments which may be made
complete sine wave is produced. Thus the to both types of amplifier circuits.

3
RF Power Amplifier Fundamentals
In any amplifier, heat is generated by CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
the current flow through the internal RELATIONSHIPS
resistance of the stage. The power used to
generate this heat represents wasted The graph in Fig. 2shows the output
energy and subtracts from the power that current pulse produced by an input signal
could go to the output. The high effi- at various dc bias levels. Look first at the
ciency of aclass Camplifier is due largely signal at bias level 1. This signal is below
to the fact that current flows for a the cutoff value of the amplifier for all
relatively short portion of the input of the negative half-cycle and nearly all of '
cycle. It is only during this short con- the positive half-cycle. Output current
ducting period that power-wasting heat is flows only for the time the input voltage
generated within the amplifier. To begin goes above cutoff. Now look at the signal
our discussion of class C amplifiers, we'll at bias level 2. It has the same amplitude
consider the relationships between the as the first signal but, because we've
current conducting time and the signal increased the bias, this signal exceeds the
voltage waveforms in an operating class C cutoff level for a shorter period. As a
amplifier. result, the output current pulse produced

IOut

i
E,
-.4 T
, -*1T2 r•- 1 te-

I
I
I
I
I
I
1
-J

Fig. 2. Output current pulse produced by input signals at various amplitudes and bias levels.

4
 also flows for a shorter period and is degrees the output current flows in aclass
lower in amplitude. Increasing the ampli- C amplifier is called the conduction angle
tude of the input voltage has the same or operating angle of the stage. As you've
effect as decreasing the bias. That is, the seen, the operating angle depends on both
output current flows for alonger time. the dc bias and the amplitude of the
Another way of looking at these basic driving signal. Although amplifier effi-
relationships is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3A ciency is higher at the smaller operating
shows two basic class C amplifiers; one angles, the power output is less because
uses a vacuum tube, the other a tran- the output current pulse is reduced in
sistor. Fig. 3B shows the voltage and amplitude and flows for ashorter period.
current waveforms appearing at the Therefore, the operating angle must be a
• inputs and outputs of the amplifiers. compromise between maximum effi-
Again notice that output current flows ciency and the highest power output. In
▪ only during the period when the input making this compromise, the driving sig-
signal exceeds the cutoff level of the nal is maintained at a level sufficient to
amplifier. The output voltage waveform drive the stage into saturation while the
Eout is produced by the flywheel action bias is adjusted for the correct operating
of the resonant output circuit. angle.
Conduction Angle. There are 360 elec- Driving Power. To drive avacuum tube
trical degrees in one complete cycle of a amplifier into saturation requires that the
sine wave. The number of electrical grid be driven positive. The positive grid

vCC

INPUT VOLTAGE

CUT-OFF LEVEL

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

OUTPUT CURRENT
B
OR
vCC

Fig. 3. Basic relationships between current and signal voltages in aclass C amplifier.
 draws current, causing power to be con- This is especially true for transistor rf
sumed in the grid circuit. Likewise, in a power amplifiers. These amplifiers are
transistor amplifier, base current flows very often designed to operate from
during the time the driving signal automotive type battery supplies, thus
forward-biases the emitter-base junction. limiting collector supply voltages to the
The result of this base current flow is that 12 to 28 volt range. With the load
power is consumed in the base circuit. matched to the internal impedance of the
The power consumed in the input amplifier, there may be insufficient col-
circuit of a class C amplifier, called the lector current flow to give the required
driving power, must be supplied by the power output. Using a value of load
previous stage. Thus the input circuit of resistance lower than the input imped-
one class C amplifier represents the load ance of the stage results in a greater
on the stage which comes before it. collector current flow and higher power
Furthermore, this load presented by the output. Therefore, in some cases power
input circuit varies over the period of an gain must be sacrificed for power output.
operating cycle, reaching a maximum Factors Affecting Impedance. Since
when the input signal causes maximum the output tank circuit must offer the
current to be drawn. As we'll see later, we correct load impedance for the class C
can use this current flow in the input amplifier, let's look at some of the factors
circuit to develop bias for the stage. which affect this impedance. We know
that to be resonant, the L and the C of
TANK CIRCUITS the tank circuit must offer equal reac-
tances at the operating frequency. If we
The resonant circuit in the output of a increase the value of L, the value of XL
class C amplifier has several important will increase. To maintain resonance, we
jobs to do. We've already mentioned the must increase Xc by decreasing C. Having
most basic of these, that of changing the increased the value of XL and Xc by
output current pulse into acomplete sine equal amounts, we have increased the
wave. This resonant circuit is also total impedance of the circuit without
required to present the proper load affecting the resonant frequency.
impedance to the stage, and to suppress Any resistance present in the tank acts
the undesired harmonics generated within to decrease the total impedance of the
the stage. Let's discuss these last two in circuit. The values of C, L, and R are
detail. related to total impedance by the follow-
Load Impedance. In order to obtain ing formula:
the maximum power gain from aclass C
amplifier, or any other amplifier for that L
Z =—
matter, the impedance of the load must
CR
match the internal impedance of the
amplifier. However, do not confuse From the formula, you can see that
power gain with power output. It is quite increasing the ratio of L to C in the tank
possible that an amplifier operating with causes the impedance to increase. Increas-
a matched load, for maximum power ing the resistance in the tank causes
gain, is not delivering its maximum out- impedance to decrease. This leads us to a
put power. discussion of tank circuit Q.

6
 Circuit Q. The Q of a coil, as you
know, is the ratio of its reactance to its
resistance or:

XL
Q =—
R

A capacitor also has aQ, but its value is

very large due to the capacitor's low
8+
internal resistance. The Q of a tank
circuit, therefore, is equal to the Q of the
coil.
Fig. 4 shows an amplifier with a
parallel-tuned tank circuit in its output.
At the operating frequency of this ampli-
fier, let's assume the XL of the coil is
6000 ohms and its resistance (Rs) is 20
ohms. The Q of this unloaded tank circuit
then is:

XL 6000
300 Fig. 5. Tank circuit coupled to a load and its
Rs 20 equivalent circuit.

The Q of unloaded tank circuits in series with the resistance of the coil. The
practical transmitters may range from exact value of RL'depends on the value
200 to 800. Fig. SA shows the same of the load resistance as well as the
amplifier of Fig. 4inductively coupled to coupling to the load. We'll assume avalue
aload. This load might be atransmission of 380 ohms for our discussion. The Q of
line, an antenna, or another rf amplifier. the tank now becomes:
The effect of this load is to reflect an
XL 6000
additional resistance into the tank circuit. Q— — = 15
The equivalent circuit, shown in Fig. 5B, RL,+Rs 400
contains this reflected resistance (
RL') in
Thus, the Q of the tank circuit went
from an unloaded value of 300 to the
loaded value of 15 due to the resistance
reflected into the tank circuit by the
XL
600011 load. From the previous discussion of
tank impedance, you know that this
additional resistance in the tank also
R S
2011. decreases the impedance of the tank.
Tank Q and tank impedance are closely
related quantities. Factors which change
one will also change the other in the same
Fig. 4. Amplifier with a parallel tuned output direction.
tank showing impedances at resonance. Let's see now why this is important.

7
 You know that only the resistance in a later in this lesson, this fact enables us to
circuit consumes power. Inductive and operate a class C stage as a frequency
capacitive reactances, under conditions of multiplier. The output tank circuit offers
resonance, merely transfer energy back maximum impedance at the frequency to
and forth between themselves. Therefore, which it is tuned. Harmonic frequencies,
when the tank is loaded, all of the power seeing a relatively lower impedance, are
in the circuit is consumed by the resis- not developed across the tank circuit in
tances Rs and RL '. The power consumed any great magnitude. The circuit which
in RL 'represents power consumed by the couples the tank to its load is usually
load, while that consumed by Rs is designed with harmonic suppression in
dissipated as heat in the tank circuit. mind. Sometimes, special traps must be
From Ohm's Law we derive that P= 1 2R, used in output coupling networks which
so the power consumed by the load far either shunt the harmonics to ground or
exceeds that lost as heat in the tank. This block their passage to the antenna.
is because of alarger value of RL'. We can An additional precaution against har-
actually calculate the efficiency of the monic radiation is to use an electrostatic
tank circuit by the formula: shield between two inductively coupled
circuits. A shield of this type, called a
QL Faraday screen, is shown in Fig. 6.
Eff = (1 - - ) X 100
Qu The Faraday screen consists of anum-
ber of wires fastened together at one end
In our example, the unloaded Q (Q u )was and open at the other. The ends of the
300, and the loaded Q ( QL)was 15. wires that are connected together are
Therefore:
grounded. Capacitively coupled harmonic
15 currents will flow to the screen wires
Eff = (1 - -) X 100
300 rather than to the pickup coil. At the

Eff = (1 - .05) X 100 =95% OUTPUT PICKUP

TANK COIL

Suppose we increased the coupling to

the load and reflected a larger value of
resistance into the tank. This would FARADAY
o
SCREEN
decrease QL without affecting Qu, result-
ing in ahigher tank circuit efficiency. But
remember, tank impedance is dependent NO CONNECTION HER
on the resistance in the tank, so changing

o
the coupling to the load changes the tank
impedance. Since the stage is designed for
best operation at aparticular tank imped-
.../- ALL WIRES CONNECTED
ance, there is only one correct value of TO HERE
GROUND
loading on the tank.
Reducing Harmonics. The output pulse F. 6. An electrostatic shield or Faraday screen
of aclass C amplifier contains, in addition between the output tank and the antenna pick-
to the fundamental, numerous harmonic up coil is used to prevent harmonic currents
frequency components. As you'll learn from flowing through the capacity between the
coils.

8
same time, because the wires do not form amplifier stages inductively coupled
closed circuits, there can be no voltage together. In this circuit, the resistance
induced in them by the magnetic field. reflected into the output tank for ampli-
Therefore, they do not interfere with the fier 1is adjusted by varying the spacing
inductive coupling between the output between the coils. Varying this spacing
tank and the link coil. This method is also adjusts the drive to amplifier 2. The
very effective in reducing the trans- circuit is designed to reflect the correct
mission of harmonics from an output resistance and provide the proper drive at
tank circuit to an antenna or transmission the same setting.
line. A variation of inductive coupling is
COUPLING METHODS shown in Fig. 8. This method is called
link coupling. It consists of acoil with
The resonant tank in the output of a only a few turns of wire inductively
class C amplifier forms the basis of the coupled to an output tank. Asimilar coil
coupling circuit to the amplifier's load. is inductively coupled to the load. The
We know that the impedance presented connection between the two coils is
to the stage by the output tank circuit usually by means of shielded coaxial
depends, to a large measure, on the cable, so it may run some distance with
equivalent resistance in the tank. We also very little loss. Link coupling may also be
know that the value of this equivalent used between the final power amplifier in
resistance is primarily that reflected into atransmitter and alow impedance trans-
the tank by the load. To obtain the mission line. As in the conventional
correct tank impedance for the amplifier, inductive coupling already discussed, the
the coupling must reflect acertain value coupling is adjusted by varying the
of resistance into the tank. In most cases, spacing between one of the link coils and
the actual value of the load resistance the tank. Sometimes the link itself is
connected directly across the tank would tuned by avariable reactance. When this
not reflect the correct resistance into the is done, the tuned link provides addi-
tank. Therefore, the coupling method tional suppression of harmonics generated
must give an impedance transformation. in the previous stages.
The simplest way to accomplish this Notice that the method of applying B+
impedance transformation is to use a to the stage in Fig. 8differs from that of
transformer as a method of inductive Fig. 7. In Fig. 8, this voltage is applied
coupling. through a radio frequency choke (rfc).
Inductive Coupling. Fig. 7 shows two The rfc offers avery high impedance at
the operating frequency, so it keeps the
OUTPUT signal voltage out of the power supply.
When the power supply, the tank circuit,
and the stage are connected in series, as in
Fig. 7, the amplifier is said to be series-
fed. When the power supply, tank circuit,
and stage are in parallel (or shunt), as in
Fig. 8, the amplifier is said to be shunt-
B+
fed.
7. Irulucli%e coupled ;unpliliers. Tapped Tank Circuits. Another

9
 OUTPUT

LINK 3

8+

Fig. 8. Link coupled amplifiers.

method of obtaining an impedance trans- required impedance transformation. For

formation is to connect the load across now, it is enough for you to know
only a portion of the tank coil. Such a
method is shown in Fig. 9A. The value of
resistance reflected into the tank is
dependent on the position of the tap. In
Fig. 9B, the tank capacitor is split to
provide the impedance transformation.
The values of CI and C2 determine the
value of load resistance seen by the tank
(reflected resistance).
8+
The methods shown in Figs. 9A and 9B
may be combined as shown in Fig. 9C.
With this circuit arrangement, the internal
impedance of the stage, as seen by the
tank, is transformed to ahigher value by
the tapped coil. Using this method the
required value of loaded Q in the tank
may be maintained in spite of low values
of internal impedance (such as found in
transistor stages). The values of C1 and 8+

C2, as before, determine the value of load

resistance seen by the tank.
Network Coupling. Fig. 10 shows three
types of networks frequently used to
couple class C amplifiers to their loads.
The various arms of each are shown as
impedances in the figure. In practical
networks of this type these impedances
will be combinations of L and C compo-
nents. Later on in your course you'll 8+

learn to calculate the reactance values for

Fig. 9. Tapped tank circuits used for impe-
the arms of these networks to give a dance transformation.

10
0---. z1

Z2

o 1 o
L NETWORK

O 41r Z2 o ®

z1 z3

o
TT NETWORK

z1 Z2
1
0----.

Z3

o 1 o
T NETWORK

Fig. 10. Networks used to couple an amplifier

to its load.

that they fulfill all the requirements of a Fig. 11. Amplifiers using L, ir, and T network
tank circuit and can provide impedance coupling to load.
transformations over avery wide range of
values. In addition, these circuits can be
easily designed to attenuate undesired ance, and therefore a greater load, to
harmonic frequencies. an amplifier than the input circuit of
Fig. II shows an example of how each another amplifier.
of these networks (L, ir, T) is used to
couple an amplifier to its load. The SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
network used in any particular appli-
cation depends on the magnitude of the (a) What is the primary reason class C
impedance levels to be transformed. The amplifiers operate at higher effi-
networks themselves may be coupled ciencies than class A or class B
together in avariety of combinations to amplifiers?
provide the proper load to the amplifier (b) What two factors affect the oper-
and greater harmonic attenuation. It is ating angle of aclass C amplifier?
important to remember in the examples (c) Is impedance matching between an
of this section that RL may represent the amplifier and its load always desir-
input of another amplifier, atransmission able? Why?
line, or an antenna. The only difference (d) Suppose we wanted to increase the
between these three types of loads, as far impedance of a parallel-tuned tank
as the amplifier is concerned, is the without changing the coupling or
impedance level. An antenna or trans- the resonant frequency. What com-
mission line usually offers alower imped- ponents in the tank should be

11
 changed and in what direction? Is amplifier 1 (shown in Fig. 6)
(e) If the coupling to atank is adjusted series-fed or shunt-fed?
to increase the load on the tank, In a transistor rf power amplifier,
what would happen to the loaded the internal resistance of the stage is
Q? The unloaded Q? The efficiency found to load the output tank so
of the tank? heavily that ahigh enough loaded Q
If the loaded Q of atank decreases, cannot be obtained. If the amplifier
what would happen to the tank is connected to the tank as shown in
impedance? Fig. 6, what change could be made
How does the output tank circuit in the circuit to increase the loaded
reduce the harmonics present in the Q of the tank?
output of aclass Camplifier? (k) Normally, which would more heav-
How would you increase the cou- ily load a class C amplifier: an
pling between two inductively cou- antenna or another class C ampli-
pled amplifiers? fier?

12
Vacuum Tube RF Power Amplifiers

Now that you have a basic under-

standing of rf power amplifiers, let's take
a detailed look at some applications
which use vacuum tubes. In the first
section we'll discuss methods of obtaining
the class C bias necessary to get the
proper conduction angle from the ampli-
fier. Then we'll look at some of the
methods employed to insure stable ampli-
fier operation. Finally, we'll take alook
at some practical rf amplifier circuits, Fig. 1213. Grid-leak bias.

including frequency multipliers.

Grid-Leak Bias. In Fig. 12B, grid-leak
bias is used. With this method of biasing,
BIAS METHODS
the grid current that flows during the
crest of the positive half of the cycle of
Some typical class C bias methods are the incoming signal charges capacitor C1
shown in Fig. 12. The three most com- to a high negative value. During the
mon biasing methods are shown at A, B, interval between grid current pülses, the
and C. capacitor discharges through grid-leak
External Bias. In Fig. 12A, the bias is resistor Rg. The discharge current de-
obtained from an external bias supply velops a steady negative voltage across
and is coupled through an isolating rf Rg.The value of this voltage depends
choke to the grid of the stage. The rf upon the value of Rg and on the current
choke acts as a high impedance and through it. One advantage of this circuit
prevents the power supply circuit from is that the bias adjusts itself when the
acting as ashunt for the radio-frequency driving power is changed. Increasing the
energy. driving power increases the grid current
and therefore increases the voltage drop
across Rg. Thus, with grid-leak bias,
changing the driving power does not
appreciably change the operating angle.
A disadvantage of using grid-leak bias
alone is that if there is a failure in the
preceding stage, so that no excitation is
supplied to the grid of the amplifier,
there will be no bias developed. Excessive
plate current will then flow, and if the
circuit is not suitably protected, the tube
and its associated components will be
Fig. 12A. External bias. damaged.

13
 maximum safe plate dissipation of the
tube. The disadvantage of cathode bias is
that part of the power supplied to the
plate circuit of the tube is wasted in the
cathode resistor. In large high-power
stages this might be asubstanial amount.
Variations. The circuits in Figs. 12A
through 12D show the basic class C bias
methods. There are also some minor
variations of these circuits.

Fig. 12C. Combination external and grid-leak

bias.

Combination External and Grid-Leak

Bias. To protect the tube against loss of
bias, acombination of external and grid-
leak bias, shown in Fig. 12C, is often
used. This circuit has the self-adjusting
features of the circuit in Fig. 12B, and at Fig. 12E. Variation of circuit shown in Fig. 12A.
the same time provides enough bias to
protect the tube if there is afailure in the
preceding stage.
Cathode Bias. The tube can also be
protected against the loss of excitation by
using the cathode bias combination,
shown in Fig. 12D. The amount of
protective bias, in either Fig. 12C or Fig.
12D, is chosen so that the plate current
through the tube multiplied by the plate
voltage is equal to or less than the

CI =
Fig. 12F. Variation of circuit shown in Fig. 12C.

For example, the circuit shown in Fig.

CATHODE
12A may be rearranged as in Fig. 12E,
BIAS
RESISTOR eliminating the if choke and coupling ca-
pacitor. The circuit in Fig. 12C may be
rearranged as in Fig. 12F. Perhaps we
should remind you that you will find
Fig. 12D. Cathode bias. minor variations in many circuits.

14
 Do not conclude that a circuit is ages and load would cause it to go into
necessarily different from the basic cir- oscillation.
cuit you have studied just because it has The feedback signal in atriode ampli-
been changed slightly. Study the circuit fier must be neutralized to prevent oscil-
carefully and you will probably find that lation. The stage is neutralized by feeding
the method of operation is basically the asecond signal back into the grid circuit.
same. This second signal must be of opposite
AMPLIFIER STABILITY polarity and of the same amplitude as the
signal fed into the grid circuit through the
Class C amplifiers using triode tubes grid-plate capacity of the tube in order to
will go into self-oscillation easily because cancel the feedback.
of feedback between the input and out- The most basic method of neutral-
put circuits. As you will learn in alater ization is shown in Fig. 13.1n this circuit,
lesson, atuned-grid, tuned-plate oscillator acoil is inserted between the grid and the
is simply an unstable class Camplifier. plate. In series with the coil is ablocking
The feedback path in a triode is capacitor, which keeps the dc plate volt-
through the grid-to-plate capacity. Since age off the grid of the tube. It has no
this capacity is quite large in a triode other effect on the neutralizing circuit.
tube, enough energy from the plate cir- The value of the coil is chosen to resonate
cuit can be fed back to the grid to with the grid-to-plate capacity at the
overcome the grid-circuit losses and cause frequency to which the amplifier is
the stage to oscillate at afrequency near tuned.
the resonant frequency of the tuned The current through the coil lags the
circuits. voltage 900; the current through the
Oscillation will not take place if the capacity leads the voltage 90°.Therefore,
plate tank circuit is tuned precisely to the currents through the coil and the
resonance; the tank circuit must be capacity are 180° out-of-phase and cancel
slightly detuned to sustain oscillation. each other. The disadvantage of this
Precise adjustment, however, is very diffi- simple and basic method of neutralization
cult. Even if you were able to make such is that it must be retuned when the
an adjustment, the amplifier would be operating frequency is changed. Let's
unstable. Slight changes in supply volt- look at other methods of neutralization.

BLOCKING CAPACITOR

RFC

c- B+

Fig. 13. Neutralization for a triode tube stage.

15
 shown in Fig. 15B. The voltage is applied
to terminal A from the plate of the tube.
The voltage applied to terminal B is the
voltage induced in the lower half of the
coil in the plate circuit of the tube. We
have labeled this half of the coil L2,and
the upper half LI.Terminal C of the
bridge is connected to the grid of the
tube and terminal D is grounded. Li is
made equal to L2 by center-tapping the
coil. When Cn is adjusted to equal Cgp

Fig. 14. Plate or "Hazeltine" neutralization. the ratio of L1 to L2 will be equal to the
ratio of Cgp to Then the bridge will
C.

Plate Neutralization. Fig. 14 shows a be balanced, so there will be no voltage

plate or "Hazeltine" neutralization. In fed back to the grid circuit from the
this circuit arrangement, the coil used in output circuit.
the plate tank circuit is tapped, and the With this type of circuit, once the stage
tap on the coil is operated at rf ground is neutralized it will remain neutralized
potential by grounding it through the over a reasonably wide frequency range,
capacitor C. if the coil is exactly center-tapped, so
A signal voltage is developed between that L1 is exactly equal to L2.If L1 is
ground and the bottom end of the coil not exactly equal to L2,the stage can still
that is out-of-phase with the voltage at be neutralized simply by making the ratio
the plate end of the coil. By connecting
A
the bottom of the tank circuit to the grid
of the amplifier through the capacitor Cn,
which is called the neutralizing capacitor, Z3
we can get asignal at the grid that will
cancel the feedback from plate to grid
through the tube capacity. Capacitor Cn
is adjustable so that we can apply the
exact amount of signal needed to cancel
out the signal fed back through the tube.
The plate neutralization system can be
A
considered as abalanced bridge circuit. A
bridge circuit is shown in Fig. 15A. The
input voltage is applied between terminals
A and B and the output voltage is taken
off between C and D. If the ratio of
impedance Z1 to impedance Z2 is equal
to the ratio of Z3 to Z4,the voltage
between terminals C and D will be zero,
and we say the bridge is balanced.
The plate neutralization system in Fig. Flu.. I5. Equivalent bridge arrangement of
14 can be redrawn as abridge circuit as plate neutralization circuit.

16
of the impedance of Cgp to the imped-
ance of C„ equal to the ratio of the
impedance of L, to the impedance of L2.
If there is an appreciable difference
between the values of L, and L2 , the
frequency range over which the stage will
remain neutralized becomes limited.
Another circuit for plate neutralization
is shown in Fig. 16. In this circuit the
center tap on the coil is not operated at rf
ground potential; it is connected to B+
through an rf choke. The ground point is
taken at the rotors of asplit-stator tuning
capacitor. A split-stator capacitor is a C- 8+
variable capacitor with one set of rotor
Fig. 17. Grid or "Rice" neutralization.
plates and two sets of stator plates that
are insulated from each other. The volt-
circuit. The rf ground connection is made
ages at the two ends of the coil are equal
to the center tap on the grid coil. The
and of opposite phase. The circuit in Fig.
polarity of the feedback signal, intro-
16 can be shown as abalanced bridge by
duced through the neutralizing capacitor
substituting the sections of the split-
C„ to one end of the grid coil, is in phase
stator tuning capacitor for coils LI and
with the signal that is fed directly to the
other end of the grid coil through the
plate-grid capacity.
By properly adjusting the neutralizing
capacitor C„, voltage fed through it can
be made equal to the voltage fed through
the tube capacity. These two voltages will
cause equal currents to flow through the

Fig. 16. Another plate neutralization circuit.

L2 in Fig. 15B. The rf ground in both

circuits is made through a capacitor

(marked Cin Fig. 16).
Grid Neutralization. The tapped-grid
circuit arrangement shown in Fig. 17 can
RFC
also be used for neutralization. This is
referred to as grid neutralization or Rice
neutralization. The neutralizing signal is
C- B+
taken from the plate and applied to one
end of a tapped coil in the grid-tuned riu. I. Split-stat..r 21 -id nelitraiirtatiOn.

17
 type of oscillation. Long leads, tube
interelectrode capacities, rf chokes, and
bypass capacitors are the major inductive
and capacitive elements that cause para-
sitic oscillations.
Parasitics may exist at low or high
frequencies, or at both low and high
frequencies at once. They cause low
operating efficiency and instability in the
stage, erratic meter readings, radiation of
improper carriers and sidebands, dis-
tortion, overheating of the amplifier tube,
and premature breakdowns in the circuit
parts. If grid-leak bias is used in the stage,
C- B+ parasitics will also cause changes in the
Fig. 19. Inductive neutralization. grid bias.
Fig. 20A shows a typical class C
grid coil in opposite directions. These amplifier stage. At the operating fre-
currents will induce new voltages in the quency, the grid and plate circuits are
grid coil which will tend to cancel the tuned by the coil and capacitor combi-
voltage fed through Cn and Cgp.A nations L, -C, ,and L2-C4 .The stage is
split-stator version of grid neutralization prevented from oscillating at the oper-
is shown in Fig. 18. Its operation is ating frequency by the signal fed back
essentially the same as that of Fig. 16. through neutralizing capacitor C.
Inductive Neutralization. Still another Fig. 20B shows what the effective
method of neutralization is shown in Fig. circuit would be if this stage were pro-
19. This is referred to as inductive neu- ducing low-frequency parasitic oscil-
tralization, because the neutralizing signal lations. The grid circuit is now tuned by
is obtained by inductive coupling the parallel combination of the grid
between the plate and grid-tuned circuits. choke, RFC,, and the grid bypass capaci-
The signal induced in the grid circuit by tor, C2. Since these oscillations usually
the inductive link is opposite in polarity take place at frequencies below 200
to the feedback signal, and gives feedback kilohertz, coil L, has very little reactance
cancellation. and serves merely as a connecting lead
Parasitics. Neutralization of an ampli- from the grid to the junction of C2 and
fier is used to prevent oscillation at the RFC,. This places the rf choke and grid
frequency to which the grid and plate bypass capacitor in parallel between grid
circuits are tuned, in other words, at the and ground.
signal frequency. Some amplifiers go into The tuned circuit in the plate at the
oscillation at frequencies far removed low frequencies is the plate bypass C3
from the desired signal frequency. Oscil- and the plate rf choke. Here, too, the
lations of this type are called "parasitic regular tank coil L2 has practically no
oscillations" or "parasitics." reactance at the oscillation frequency,
The neutralization circuits we have just and serves simply as aconnecting lead.
studied can do nothing to prevent this The neutralizing capacitor C„ is now

18
 C3

RFC
C2
C6

C— C+ B— B+

RFC I RFC 2

LEAD INDUCTANCE LEAD INDUCTANCE

Fig. 20. A typical class C stage is shown at A; the effective circuit that produces low-frequency
parasitics is shown at B; the effective circuit that produces high-frequency parasitics is shown at C.

effectively in parallel with the tube grid- C4 are so high that they act only as

plate capacity and increases rather than connecting leads in the inductive circuit.
reduces feedback. Coils L1 and 1,2 do Capacitors C2 and C3, which are even
have a slight reactance at the parasitic larger in size, have practically no reac-
frequency, so tuning capacitors C1 and tance at this frequency. The neutralizing
C4 can make slight changes in the para- capacitor C. now appears between grid
sitic oscillation frequency. and ground and is effective in deter-
The effective circuit for the stage, if it mining the frequency of the grid circuit.
were producing high-frequency parasitic Feedback is through the capacity
oscillations, is shown in Fig. 20C. In this between grid and plate.
case, the grid and plate circuits are tuned Preventing Parasitics. In the effective
by the inductance of the leads between circuit of either Figs. 20B or 20C, para-
the tube elements and the tank circuits sitic oscillation can be prevented by
and the grid-to-cathode capacities. At the making the resonant frequency of the
high frequencies, the capacities of C1 and grid circuit higher than that of the plate

19
circuit. This may be done in Fig. 20B by occur if parts are replaced by those of a
making capacitor C2 smaller than C3 or different make. Whenever modifications
by making RFC' smaller than RFC2. are made in an amplifier stage, that stage
The most satisfactory method for sup- should be checked for both high and
pressing very high-frequency parasitic low-frequency parasitics. Low-frequency
oscillations in aclass C amplifier stage is parasitics will sometimes be evident as
by using parasitic suppressors. The pur- sidebands of the carrier frequency. The
pose of these parasitic suppressors is to most common indication of high-
increase the circuit losses at the parasitic frequency parasitics is an unusually high
frequency. Examples of these suppressors plate current and low output.
are shown in Fig. 21.
The suppressors are low resistances, MULTIELEMENT TUBE
usually around 100 ohms, in parallel with STAGES
small rf chokes. At the normal operating
frequency, these small coils, L1 and L2 In aprevious lesson you learned about
have very low inductive reactances, and the characteristics of screen grid,
the signal frequency can pass through pentode, and beam-power tubes. Let us
them with no loss. At the frequency of review briefly their characteristics with
the parasitic oscillation, however, these respect to their use as class C amplifiers.
coils have very high reactance and force If atetrode or pentode tube is used in
the parasitic signal to flow through resis- the stage, the screen grid of the tube acts
tors R1 and R2. The loss of parasitic as an electrostatic shield between the grid
signal in the two resistors is great enough and plate, which reduces the grid-to-plate
to prevent the tube from going into capacity. Therefore, tetrode and pentode
oscillation at these high frequencies. tubes are less susceptible to feedback and
Although a commercially manu- self-oscillation, and usually do not require
factured transmitter should be free of neutralizing.
parasitic oscillations, occasionally a new Multielement tubes have a higher
transmitter being tuned up for the first power gain than triodes. In other words,
time will have them. Parasitics can also for the same amount of grid driving

RFC

B+

Fig. 21. Parasitic suppression methods.

20
power, you can get ahigher power output they control the electrons flowing
from a stage using amultigrid tube than between the cathode and the plate of the
from one using atriode. This means that tube. Proper shaping of the electrodes
fewer stages are needed to get the desired sets up apotential barrier between screen
power output. It also means that better and plate to suppress secondary emission.
shielding must be used between input and You will find many multielement tubes
output circuits to prevent external feed- used in transmitter equipment because of
back. Even a very small amount of their higher power gain and simplicity of
feedback from the output of astage back neutralization. Beam-power tetrodes are
to the input can cause oscillation. Also the most common.
because of the higher power gain, para- In many circuits using multielement
sitic oscillations are more common in tubes, no neutralization is used. However,
tetrode and pentode stages than in triode the power gain of these tubes is so great
stages. that only asmall amount of feedback will
In screen-grid (tetrode) class C ampli- set up instability and oscillations. Keep-
fiers, the minimum plate voltage must not ing feedback below the level that will
be allowed to swing lower than the screen cause instability or oscillation is a real
voltage because the screen then offers a problem. Even if astage does not oscillate
greater attraction to the electrons than when it is first manufactured, there is no
the plate. The secondary emission effect, guarantee it will not be unstable when the
due to electrons bouncing off the plate tube in the stage is replaced. To overcome
and being pulled to the screen instead of these problems, manufacturers often
falling back onto the plate, determines neutralize stages using multielement
the minimum the plate voltage can swing tubes.
to. The grid excitation is adjusted so that In aclass C stage using amultielement
the grid swings far enough positive so that tube, the screen voltage has as much
the tube draws maximum permissible control, or more, on the plate current and
peak plate current without exceeding the power output as the actual value of the
dissipation rating of the plate and grid plate supply voltage. The plate supply
electrodes. voltage, however, must be high enough to
A pentode tube permits agreater plate obtain the necessary plate voltage swing
voltage swing and, therefore, an even across the plate-tuned circuit. Because the
higher power gain. It does so by using a screen grid has so much control, the
suppressor grid at cathode potential power output in some transmitters is
between the plate and screen grid to controlled by varying the screen grid
prevent secondary electrons from moving voltage.
to the screen grid. Thus, the plate current The correct voltage must be applied to
remains independent of plate voltage to a the plate of amultigrid tube at all times.
much lower value of plate voltage. The If the plate voltage drops to zero or is
suppressor grid forces the secondary elec- lower than normal, the screen grid may
trons coming off the plate to return to be damaged. Under these conditions the
the plate. screen current may be so high that it
A beam-power tube has characteristics exceeds the safe dissipation factor.
similar to those of a pentode. The tube Screen voltage and current also vary
elements are shaped in such a way that with the grid excitation, particularly if

21
the screen voltage is obtained through a stage, two tubes can be connected in
dropping resistor. An increase in grid parallel, or in push-pull. For very high
excitation will cause the screen current to power, tubes are operated in push-pull-
rise and the screen voltage to fall. A parallel; that is, two sets of parallel-
decrease in excitation will have the oppo- connected tubes are operated in push-
site effect. pull.
When a tetrode or pentode stage is Parallel Operation. Fig. 22 shows a
being tuned and loaded, the plate and stage with two tubes connected in par-
screen voltages should be reduced. Most allel. In parallel operation, the output
transmitters using tetrode or pentode power is approximately twice that from a
power stages have provisions for reducing single tube, if the correct driving power is
these voltages during tuning. A non- applied and the circuit components and
resonant or unloaded plate tank causes electrode voltages have the correct values.
the minimum plate voltage to drop below The grid current is doubled, because
the screen voltage. Under these con- with two tubes the grid impedance is
ditions, the screen draws excessive cur- approximately halved. The driving power
rent. This may destroy high-power tet- needed for the parallel amplifier is twice
rodes in amatter of afew seconds. After that needed for asingle tube.
the tuning and loading are roughly When grid-leak bias is used with the
adjusted, full voltage can be applied to class C stage, the value of the grid resistor
the tube and the adjustments carefully must be cut in half to get the same grid
peaked. bias at twice the grid current.
The internal or plate resistance is also
halved because of the parallel connection
MULTITUBE STAGES and doubling of the peak plate current.
Thus, the same tuned circuit voltage is
To get a higher output from aclass C developed with twice the plate current. It
is the higher amplitude plate current
pulses exciting the tuned circuit that
develop the added power delivered to the
load in parallel operation.
Push-Pull Operation. A push-pull
amplifier is shown in Fig. 23. The input
excitation is applied with equal amplitude
but opposite polarity to the grids of the
push-pull stage. The ground point of the
circuit is at the center of asplit-stator
variable capacitor.
As in the case of parallel tube oper-
ation, the grid and plate currents drawn
are twice as great as those drawn by a
single tube. To retain balanced operation
B+
of the push-pull stage where each tube
performs an equal share of the work, the
Fig. 22. Class C amplifier with two tetrodes
connected in parallel. supply voltages are applied at the mid-

22
 Fig. 23. Push-pull class C amplifier using tetrodes.

points of the coils so as not to imbalance pliers can be used to generate signals of
the stages. even higher multiples of their input signal
Balanced operation is necessary to pre- frequency, but the higher the multipli-
vent possible overloading of one of the cation the lower the output. Thus, you
tubes because of any uneven dissipation can expect less output from atripler than
of power by the grid or plate. Imbalance from adoubler using the same tube type.
can be caused by tubes that are not A multiplier generating asignal four times
exactly matched or by a mismatch the frequency of the input signal would
between the grid or plate circuit compo- have an even lower output than atripler
nents. Thus, both the circuits and the using the same tube.
tubes must be matched and balanced to When a tank circuit is shock-excited
get proper operation of the stage. into oscillation by asingle current pulse,
the circuit will continue to oscillate for a
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS number of cycles. The number of cycles
will depend on the losses in the circuit.
A frequency multiplier stage is aclass Each cycle will be lower in amplitude
C amplifier that is used to generate an than the preceding one because of these
output signal whose frequency is some losses. With a high Q circuit, when the
multiple of the applied signal frequency. losses are low, there will be many cycles
For example, the frequency of the output before the oscillation drops to zero.
of adoubler stage is twice the frequency In a frequency multiplier we take
of the input. The frequency of the output advantage of the fact that oscillation,
of atripler is three times the frequency of once started, will continue for many
the input. A doubler with an input cycles in atank circuit. By using atank
frequency of 10 MHz would have an circuit in the plate circuit of the tube that
output signal of 20 MHz. A tripler with is resonant at some multiple of the input
an input frequency of 10 MHz would frequency, we can start the oscillation by
have an output signal of 30 MHz. Multi- feeding an rf signal to the grid. This will

23
produce a plate current pulse that starts Fig. 25. Fig. 25A shows the waveforms
the tank circuit oscillating at its resonant for a fundamental class C amplifier. The
frequency which may be two or three plate current pulse flows during part of
times the frequency of the input signal. each cycle of the incoming signal. The
This oscillation would soon die out, flywheel action of the tank circuit devel-
except on the second cycle, in the case of ops the fundamental sine wave output,
adoubler, or the third cycle in the case of shown by the dashed curve.
a tripler, where the grid of the tube will Fig. 25B shows the waveforms for a
be driven positive again by the rf signal. single-tube doubler circuit. The tube is
This produces another plate current pulse
which adds to the energy in the tank
circuit and supplies the power needed to 0

0
STRAIGHT
make up the circuit losses, so the oscil- THROUGH
AMPLIFICATION
lation in the plate circuit continues. Now
let's look at some typical frequency
9
multiplier circuits.
Single-Tube Multipliers. The circuit of
afrequency multiplier is very simple; one
is shown in Fig. 24. It is even simpler
than a regular class C amplifier. No

TUNED TO
TUNED TO HARMONIC
FUNDAMENTAL
\ C
/
L1
0 DOUBLER
ACTION

Fig. 24. Basic frequency-multiplier stage.

neutralization is needed, even when the

tube used is a triode, because self-
oscillation occurs only if the input and o TRIPLER
ACTION

output circuits are tuned close to the

same frequency. In adoubler the output
tank circuit is tuned to twice the fre-
quency of the input circuit, in atripler it
is tuned to three times the frequency, etc.
The current waveforms in the tank
circuit of aclass Camplifier are compared Fig. 25. Waveshapes of frequency multipliers
with those in a frequency multiplier in compared to the "straight-through" amplifiers.

24
operated with a higher bias, so the plate "SQUARE « TOP
FROM
_.1 ,801._ SATURATION
current pulse flows during asmaller part
r— ecc I /
of each cycle of the incoming signal, and
the flywheel action of the resonant cir-
cuit carries through that cycle and
TIME — 4.

another cycle before the next plate cur- .191..41.

rent pulse arrives. Since the plate current
flows only on alternate cycles of the
4
e I
t OPERATING ANGLE
output, the power output and efficiency DURING WHICH
PLATE CURRENT
of the stage are lower than for funda- FLOWS

mental operation. The efficiency is usu-

ally less than 50%.
The higher the harmonic signal to
which the tank circuit is tuned, the lower
the obtainable power output and effi-
OUTPUT OPTIMUM
ciency of the class C stage. Fig. 25C FRED OPERATING ANGLE (En

shows the waveforms for a tripler. The 21 9e-120*

tube is biased so that the plate-current 31 130.—loo-
flows a still smaller part of the cycle of 41 7e-50.
51 60-- 70 °

the incoming signal, and the resonant

circuit carries through three cycles before Fig. 26. Multiplier operating characteristics.
the next pulse arrives. Losses in the
circuit cause the amplitude of each suc-
ceeding cycle to decrease. The efficiency The plate tank circuit of frequency
of atripler stage is even less than that of a multipliers can usually be tuned over a
doubler. The efficiency of amultiplier is wide enough range to resonate at more
kept as high as possible by using the than one harmonic of the signal at the
proper values of L and C in the tank cir- grid. Therefore it is important that you
cuit and correctly shaping the plate cur- check the output frequency to be sure
rent pulse. you have the correct harmonic. You can
The best pulse shape is a square top do this with an absorption wavemeter.
pulse like the ones shown in Fig. 26. This You'll learn more about this instrument
pulse shape can be obtained by operating later in the lesson.
the stage with ahigh bias and then driving Two-Tube Multipliers. A special higher
the stage to plate-current saturation. For powered and somewhat more efficient
best doubler operation, the angle of doubler can be obtained by using the
current flow, indicated by the Greek push-push arrangement shown in Fig.
letter 0 (theta), should be somewhere 27A. In this circuit, the grids are supplied
between 90 and 120 degrees. With this with signals in push-pull and the plates
angle of flow, the plate current pulse has are connected in parallel.
a suitable and effective second harmonic The tubes are connected so that one
content. For tripler operation, the angle will conduct on the positive alternation
of current flow is reduced to less than 90 of the incoming signal, shown in dashed
degrees, and the third harmonic com- lines in Fig. 27B, and the other tube will
ponent is emphasized. conduct on the negative alternation.

25
 ® Since the doubler is the most fre-
quently used type of frequency multiplier
stage, let us list some of its character-
istics:
INPUT

n
f
1. The plate tank circuit is tuned to
twice the grid circuit frequency.
2. It does not have to be neutralized.
3. The operating angle of the plate cur-
rent pulse is approximately 90 °.
4. The dc bias is about 10 times the
plate current cutoff value.
5. The plate current pulse has agreater
harmonic content.
C- C+ B- B+ 6. It requires a very large grid-driving
signal.
®
GRID
EXCITATION 7. It has a low plate efficiency com-
VOLTAGE f PULSE
FROM pared to afundamental class Camplifier.
V2 As you can see, some of these charac-
teristics vary widely from those of aclass
C amplifier operating as a fundamental
frequency amplifier.
PULSE
FROM
VI DOUBLED
FREQUENCY
OUTPUT 2f SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Fig. 27. Push-push doubler for even harmonics. What is the disadvantage of using
only grid-leak bias in a class C
Thus, plate current pulses are fed to the amplifier?
output circuit once during each alter- What is the feedback path for oscil-
nation of the doubled frequency. The lations near the operating frequency
efficiency and power output are higher in atriode class Camplifier?
than for asingle-tube doubler. What is the main advantage of plate
The push-push frequency multiplier neutralization over the method of
stage in Fig. 27A operates well on even connecting a coil and blocking
harmonics, but not on the fundamental capacitor from plate to grid?
or odd harmonic frequencies. Frequency In Fig. 16, what is the phase rela-
doublers are used more often in trans- tionship between the signal fed
mitters, especially low-frequency trans- through CN and the signal fed back
mitters, than the higher harmonic gen- through grid-plate capacitance?
erators because of the higher output and What inductive components in the
efficiency. The grids are connected in grid circuit form part of the low-
push-pull, so they must be fed with frequency parasitic resonant circuit?
balanced signals to get the proper output What might be the cause of unusu-
signal. ally high plate current and low rf

26
output from atransmitter? similar single tube circuit operating
What two characteristics of tetrodes at the same frequency?
make them more useful as class C How is balanced operation obtained
amplifiers than triodes? in apush-pull stage?
What characteristic of tetrodes make In general, which multiplier would
them more susceptible to parasitic have ahigher output, adoubler or a
oscillation than triodes? tripler?
How would the values of Land.Cin Why are neutralization circuits
a tank used in a parallel-connected unnecessary in atriode operated as a
stage compare with those used in a frequency multiplier?

27
 Transistor Power Amplifiers
In their present state of development, bias for class C operation are shown in
transistors cannot amplify high-frequency Fig. 28. The circuits illustrated employ
signals to high power levels as well as NPN transistors; PNP devices could just as
vacuum tubes. However, power outputs well have been used (with all polarities
greater than 100 watts or frequencies reversed, of course).
much above 400 MHz are seldom In Fig. 28A, reverse bias across the
required in many communications appli- emitter base junction is developed by the
cations. Chief among these is commercial R1-C 1 network in the emitter circuit.
mobile radio. In this application, the When the input signal to the stage goes
transistor's small size, low operating volt- sufficiently positive, base and collector
age, extreme ruggedness, and high overall currents flow over the paths indicated by
efficiency make it ideally suited for use in the solid lines. Both these currents flow
mobile radio equipment. through the emitter resistor, dropping a
The common emitter circuit is almost voltage of the polarity indicated. Capaci-
universally used for transistor rf power tor C1 charges to the peak value of this
amplifiers because of its greater stability voltage drop. During the time between
at radio frequencies. This circuit arrange- positive-going portions of the input
ment is often compared with the signal, C1 slowly discharges through R1
grounded cathode triode. As you might
expect, it has much in common with the
triode circuits you previously studied.
With transistor amplifiers we are con-
cerned with the biasing, efficiency, and
stability, just as we were with the triode.
In this section, we'll look at some typical
circuits which illustrate the important
features of transistor rf power amplifiers.

BIASING METHODS

You have learned that class C oper-

ation of apower amplifier results in the
highest percentage of input power being c
converted to useful if energy at the
output. In the case of atransistor, where
high-frequency power handling is alimi-
tation, we are especially interested in
getting the highest efficiency obtainable
from the stage. It is not surprising, then,
that most transistor if amplifiers are
operated class C. Fig. 28. Methods of obtaining emitter-base
Two practical methods of obtaining reverse bias.

28
as indicated by the dashed line. The very small discharge current to flow.
values of R1 and C 1 are such that Ci Notice that the polarity of the charge on
does not discharge appreciably before the C1 is such that it subtracts from the
input signal again swings positive, thereby positive-going portion of the input signal.
recharging C1 .The emitter is thus main- This means that the input signal voltage
tained slightly positive with respect to the must exceed the voltage across C 1 before
base by the charge across C 1.Collector the emitter base junction becomes
current does not flow until the input forward-biased, allowing collector current
signal drives the base more positive than to flow.
the emitter. The two circuits shown in Fig. 28
Reverse bias for the circuit of Fig. 28B depend on the presence of an input signal
is developed in the base circuit, again by a to develop bias. With no input signal
parallel combination of R1 and C1.The present, zero bias is developed. Unlike
base current drawn during the positive- vacuum tubes, however, transistors do
going portion of the input signal not conduct under zero bias conditions
(indicated by the solid line) drops a and are therefore self-protecting.
voltage across R I as shown. C 1 charges to Not only are transistors non-
the peak value of this voltage drop and conducting under zero bias conditions,
essentially maintains its full charge during but also a small forward-biasing voltage
the time between positive-going portions must exist across the emitter base junc-
of the input signal. This is possible tion before collector current begins to
because the discharge path for C1 (shown flow. Fig. 29 shows collector current
by the dashed line) is through RI,the plotted against emitter-to-base voltage for
value of which is chosen to permit only a atypical rf power transistor.

500

400

30 0

200

100

.2 .4 .6 .8 10 12

Vb e

Fig. 29. Collector current plotted against (ginner -

to-
base ‘oltage of a typical RF power transistor.

29
 As you can see from the graph, col- Recalling that P= El, you can readily
lector current does not begin to flow see that the driving power to the stage is
until the emitter-base voltage reaches accounted for primarily by the high
approximately .6 volts. When we operate current flow which develops only asmall
a power transistor with zero bias, then, voltage across the low input impedance.
we are actually biased about .6 volts It follows, then, that a reverse-biased
below collector current cutoff. emitter-base junction is not always neces-
Fig. 30 shows the graph of Fig. 29 with sary for class C operation.
an input signal of 1volt peak amplitude
applied. Collector current flows only MULTITRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
during the time the input signal is above
.6 volts. The conduction angle here would As mentioned earlier, the power
be about 120° of the input cycle, well obtainable from a transistor used as an rf
within the class C operating range. Input amplifier is rather limited as compared to
signal levels of such low amplitude are vacuum tubes used in similar circuits.
not unusual in power transistors because When more power is required than can be
of the transistor's low input impedance. obtained from a single transistor, several
Input impedances actually range from transistors can be arranged in push-pull or
several ohms to less than 1 ohm. With parallel. In a push-pull arrangement, an
such a low input impedance, arelatively input transformer is required to feed the
large input current is permitted to flow transistors out-of-phase signals. This
when the base-emitter junction of the transformer is also required to match the
transistor is driven positive. relatively high output impedance of the

I
c

—e b 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 I0 I2 +e b

Fig. 30. Curve of Fig. B with signal applied showing collector current pulse.

30
driver to the very low input impedance of lector or emitter circuit of each transistor
the push-pull stage. Such atransformer and adjust R1 and R2 for equal currents.
capable of operation at high frequencies With the currents balanced, each tran-
is very expensive to build. For this sistor will be handling half of the power
reason, multiple transistor stages are delivered to the output coupling network.
nearly always parallel-connected. C4 is a coupling capacitor and may be
Fig. 31 shows atwo-transistor parallel. considered ashort circuit at the operating
connected rf amplifier stage. C 1 and L1 frequency. The output coupling circuit is
form an L network which provides the a pi network consisting of C5 , L2, and
proper impedance match between the C6. Cs and C6 are adjusted to provide the

source and the input to the stage. The proper collector load and circuit Q for
input signal is developed across RFC 1, the transistors.
amplified by the transistors, and applied Another circuit employing transistors
to the load through the output coupling in parallel is shown in Fig. 32. Besides
network. Notice that we can vary the containing three transistors instead of
operating bias of the two transistors by two, this circuit differs from the one in
adjusting R I and R2. These adjustments Fig. 31 in two other important respects.
are necessary so that the two transistors First of all, load balancing is obtained by
will share the load equally. In practice we adjusting Li,L2, and 1.,3 in the base
would insert a rnilliammeter in the col- circuits. These adjustments vary the rf

C2

o
+28V
Fig. 31. Two-transistor parallel-connected RF amplifier.

31
 Fig. 32. Three-transistor parallel-connected RF amplifier.

drive to the transistors and equalize the transistors. First, each transistor is series-
load currents as previously discussed. fed, thus eliminating the losses and other
Secondly, each of the three transistors in problems of an rf choke. Second, the dc
Fig. 32 has aseparate output tank circuit collector currents are entirely separate so
connected to a common load as in Fig. each transistor can operate essentially
31. independent of the other transistors.
The tank circuit for Q1 is made up of Thus, if some trouble developed in Q1,
L4, L7 and stray capacity. Ls and L8 are this stage could be disconnected and the
the tank inductances for Q 2 ; L6 and L9 amplifier could continue to operate at a
are the tank inductances for Q3.These lower power level. Directly paralleled
tank circuits are also tuned by stray stages would have to be completely
capacity. The right-hand ends of L7, L8 retuned if one stage were to be removed.
and L9 connect to C4 which, along with Many rf power transistors have their
Cs, varies the coupling from the three emitters internally connected to the tran-
tank circuits to the load RL . sistor case. This is done to eliminate the
There are two reasons why separate stray inductance of the emitter lead.
tank circuits are used for the three When the case is connected to ground, as

32
it would be in a circuit such as that R1 and C1 develop a relatively high
shown in Fig. 32, current could not be reverse bias across the emitter base junc-
conveniently measured in the emitter tion. The high reverse bias results in a
circuit. The use of separate collector narrow conduction angle and collector
loads, however, enables convenient moni- current pulses with a high harmonic
toring of collector current. In Fig. 32, the content. The collector tank is tuned to
jacks labeled J1 through J3 are provided the third harmonic, 3F0 ,and offers a
for this purpose. high impedance only at this frequency.
The symbol used to represent C1 Signals at the fundamental, as well as
through C3 may be unfamiliar to you. those at other harmonics, are bypassed to
This is aspecial type of capacitor called a ground by C2 and C3. The signal at the
feed-thru and is often used for bypassing frequency 3F, is inductively coupled into
in high-frequency circuits. As the symbol the base circuit of Q2. Reverse bias for
suggests, one plate of the capacitor com- Q2 is developed by the driving signal in a
pletes a dc path in the circuit; the other manner similar to that described for Q1.
plate, usually connected to ground, sur- The collector tank for Q 2 is tuned to 6F,
rounds the first much like the braided and inductively couples the signal at this
shield in apiece of coaxial cable. frequency into the load. Undesired signals
are again bypassed to ground, in this stage
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS by Cs and C6.
While individual stages are seldom
Fig. 33 shows two transistor frequency designed for frequency multiplications
multiplier stages coupled together. The greater than three, any desired total
output of the tripler, Q1,feeds adoubler, multiplication may be obtained by con-
Q2, to give a total frequency multipli- necting multipliers together. The usual
cation of six. The input signal, which arrangement in atransmitter is astraight.
we've designated as Fo ,is applied to the through class C amplifier following each
base of Q1.With the drive signal present, one or two multiplier stages. In this

DOUBLER
TRIPLER

Fo

+VC

Fig. 33. Two frequency multiplier stages coupled together.

33
manner, the relatively low output from has insufficient gain to overcome the
the multiplier is built up before being circuit losses and sustain oscillations.
applied to the next multiplier. The On the other hand, the power gain of a
straight-through amplifier also offers transistor is higher at the lower fre-
additional suppression to the undesired quencies. To illustrate this, let's assume
harmonics generated in the multiplier we have an if power amplifier operating
stage. at 175 MHz. A typical transistor oper-
ating at this frequency might have a
AMPLIFIER STABILITY power gain of 5db. This same transistor
could have again as high as 30 db at 10
You learned that, in the triode power MHz. In other words, the power gain of
amplifier, in-phase feedback through the device is over 300 times greater at 10
plate-to-grid interelectrode capacitance MHz, the parasitic frequency, than at 175
could cause the amplifier to oscillate. To MHz, the operating frequency. Con-
prevent these oscillations from occurring, sequently, the most common cause of
components were added to feed back an instability in these power amplifiers is
out-of-phase voltage of equal amplitude parasitic oscillation below the operating
and thus "neutralize" the interelectrode frequency.
capacitance of the tube. The amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 34
A similar capacitance exists between illustrates anumber of techniques used to
the collector and base of a transistor. prevent low frequency parasitics. These
However, the value of this collector-to- are discussed in the following paragraphs.
base capacitance in power transistors is The rfc connected between base and
voltage-dependent. That is, as the reverse ground (1) will at some frequency form a
bias across the collector base junction parallel-resonant circuit with the emitter
varies (which it normally does over the base capacitance. To decrease the effi-
period of an operating cycle) the ciency of this parasitic tank circuit, the
collector-to-base capacitance also varies. rfc is designed to have avery low Q (high
To be effective, aneutralizing circuit for effective series resistance). Often this rfc
apower transistor would have to contin- is nothing more than awire-wound resis-
uously adjust itself to this variation. tor.
Because of this requirement, neutral- The emitter bypass capacitor (2) used
ization of a transistor rf amplifier is is the smallest value which will provide
normally not practical. Instead, the need effective bypassing at the operating fre-
for neutralization is usually eliminated by quency. At frequencies below the oper-
careful circuit design using transistors ating frequency, the reactance of this
with low values of interelement capaci- capacitor increases, resulting in degen-
tance. erative feedback at these lower fre-
Parasitics. In the radio frequency quencies. This degeneration reduces the
range, the power gain of atransistor falls gain of the amplifier to low frequency
off rapidly as frequency increases. This parasitics.
characteristic of transistors works to The output coupling network is
advantage in preventing parasitic oscil- designed to include a portion of the
lations above the operating frequency. At network inductance in the collector dc
these higher frequencies, the transistor supply line (3). With this arrangement, no

34
Fig. 34. Transistor power amplifier showing components used to prevent low frequency parasitics.

rfc is required in the collector circuit. be manufactured with comparatively

Elimination of the collector rfc is desir- small values of capacitance, hence the
able because this component can form a need for the more conventional larger
parallel-resonant circuit with the output capacitor for the low-frequency bypass.
capacitance at some relatively low fre- Fig. 35 summarizes what we have said
quency, thus becoming apossible source about power supply bypassing. Shown in
of low-frequency parasitics. the figure are the equivalent bypass cir-
In addition to the feed-thru capacitor cuits for both the high operating fre-
designed to bypass the power supply at quency and the low parasitic frequency.
the operating frequency, asecond capaci- At the operating frequency, the larger
tor of larger value (4) provides ashort
circuit to ground at lower frequencies
where parasitics usually occur. You might
wonder why a larger capacitor; since it
bypasses well at lower frequencies,
wouldn't provide an even better bypass at
the operating frequency where its Xc
would be even less. The reason is that at
higher radio frequencies the inductive
reactance of the capacitor's leads
becomes significantly large. The capaci-
tor, instead of being a short circuit to
ground, becomes an impedance to ground
at these higher frequencies. The feed-thru
capacitor, because of its physical con- HIGH FREQUENCY LOW FREQUENCY
struction, has very low lead inductance, EQUIVALENT EQUIVALENT
and therefore provides an effective short
circuit to ground at the high operating Fig. 35. Equivalent circuits for the power
frequency. Feed-thru capacitors can only supply bypassing arrangement shown in Fig. 33.

35
capacitor appears as an inductive reac- low signal voltage developed in the
tance, ZL ,and the feed-thru as an ac input circuit?
short circuit to ground. At alow parasitic (ab) Why is a parallel connection of
frequency, the feed-thru appears as ahigh transistors favored over apush-pull
capacitive reactance, Zc and the larger connection?
capacitor provides the ac short to ground. (ac) What are two advantages of having
separate collector tank circuits for
a parallel-connected transistor if
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS amplifier?
(ad) Why are feed-thru capacitors used
Which transistor circuit config- for bypassing in high-frequency cir-
uration has the greatest stability at cuits?
radio frequencies? (ae) What characteristic of power tran-
What happens when loss of drive sistors makes neutralization im-
causes the bias on a transistor rf practical?
amplifier to drop to zero? (af) What is the most common form of
Is reverse bias on the emitter base transistor rf amplifier instability?
junction necessary for class C oper- (ag) Why is an additional capacitor
ation in atransistor rf amplifier? placed in parallel with the feed-
What characteristic of transistor rf thru capacitor bypassing the power
power amplifiers accounts for the supply in Fig. 32?

36
 Adjusting Class C Amplifiers
Adjustments to class C amplifiers in adjustments such as those described in
transmitter stages are performed fol- this section may be performed only by a
lowing repairs, or routinely to compen- person having the necessary authority. To
sate for normal circuit aging. The adjust- obtain this authority, he must hold the
ment procedures for all class C stages, proper class of FCC license or be under
either frequency multipliers, intermediate the diect supervision of another person
amplifiers, or power output stages are who does.
basically the same. There are variations,
of course; when you tune a frequency THE VACUUM TUBE STAGE
multiplier, for example, you must make
certain that the plate circuit is tuned to Fig. 36 shows a typical class C ampli-
the desired harmonic frequency. fier circuit. Notice that there are current
In this section, we will go through the meters in the grid and plate circuits and
complete adjustment procedure for both that voltmeters are used to measure the
a vacuum tube and a transistor class C bias, filament, and plate supply voltages.
amplifier stage. You should realize that A power output stage using ascreen-grid

.„
•

o *1( )1-•
o
C
iIC
2

AC +3000
Fig. 36. Typical class C amplifier.

37
tube often has a current meter and
voltmeter in the screen circuit. In some rf
output stages, particularly in the low
power exciter stages, only one voltmeter
and one or perhaps two current meters
are used. These meters are switched into
the various stages to check the perfor-
mance of the stage during operation or
during the adjustment procedure.
Neutralization. The first step in the
adjustment procedure is to insure that the
amplifier is properly neutralized. Always
check for neutralization with all inter-
Fig. 37. Simplified schematic diagram of a
stage shields in place. If the amplifier is
wavemeter.
enclosed in aseparate shield box within
the transmitter cabinet, check it with the
shield box closed. There will probably be Any energy coupled into the tank circuit
stray magnetic or electrostatic coupling is rectified by the diode and causes the
between output and input circuits unless meter to deflect. In use, the wavemeter is
all shields are in place and closed. inductively coupled to the plate tank
Neutralization can correct only for circuit of the stage to be checked.
capacitive coupling directly from the grid With plate voltage removed and grid
to the plate of the tube. The simplest drive applied to the stage, there should be
indication which can be used to deter- no indication on the meter as the tuning
mine correct neutralization is the grid knob is adjusted near the operating fre-
current meter. With B+ removed from the quency. An indication on the meter
stage, the need for neutralization will be indicates the presence of rf in the plate
indicated by a dip in the grid current tank. This rf could only have come from
when the plate tank is tuned through the grid circuit — coupled through inter-
resonance. The grid current dips because element capacitance to the plate tank.
the power loss in the resistance of the Hence, the stage must be neutralized.
plate tank is greatest at resonance. Since The procedure to be used in neutral-
this power is fed into the plate tank izing an amplifier is as follows:
through the grid-plate capacitance, it sub-
tracts from the grid current and causes a 1. Remove the B+ from the stage.
dip. Never attempt to neutralize an amplifier
A second, more sensitive, method of with tbe plate voltage connected.
checking for correct neutralization is by 2. Set the neutralizing capacitor for
use of awavemeter. As shown in Fig. 37, minimum capacity.
this simple device consists of a parallel 3. Apply filament power and bias to
L-C circuit connected to adiode and dc the stage, and apply filament power, bias,
milliammeter. The variable capacitor, and B+ to all stages ahead of the stage
which is calibrated in units of frequency, being neutralized.
may be adjusted to make the circuit 4. Tune the grid circuit to resonance
resonant over awide range of frequencies. as indicated by maximum grid current.

38
 5. Tune the plate tank circuit to reso- the plate tuning change the amount of
nance while watching the neutralization feedback and, therefore, affect the grid
indicator. If it is agrid meter, it will dip; tuning.
if you are using awavemeter, it will peak. A regenerative amplifier is an unstable
6. Increase the capacity of the neutral- amplifier. A slight increase in filament
izing capacitor slightly. Check grid and current or plate voltage may cause it to
plate resonance; changing the neutralizing go into steady oscillation. Reducing the
capacitor will sometimes detune both grid load at the output will also cause oscil-
and plate circuits. lation.
7. Continue to increase the neutral-
In a keyed transmitter, a regenerative
izing capacitance in small steps until there
amplifier will cause damped oscillations
is no dip in the grid meter or no
every time the key is closed. As aresult
indication of power in the plate tank. The undesirable signals are generated. In a
transmitter is then correctly neutralized. phone transmitter, an unstable amplifier
causes still other effects.
As you come closer and closer to Perfect neutralization of an amplifier is
neutralization, make smaller and smaller absolutely necessary. It takes time to do
changes in the neutralizing capacitor. it right, but it does not have to be done
There is only one correct setting; too often.
much and too little capacitance are After you have completed the neutral-
equally bad. Remember to retune both izing procedure, apply alow plate voltage
grid and plate each time you change the to the stage. Tune the plate tank capaci-
neutralizing capacitor. If the transmitter tor to resonance as indicated by mini-
uses inductive link neutralization, start mum plate current readings. You will
with maximum coupling to this link. notice that the plate current will dip
Then reduce the coupling in small steps sharply because the output tank circuit is
until you find the correct coupling. not delivering power to the load. This is
Neutralization must be made as accu- shown by the solid curve in Fig. 38.
rately as possible. Although steady oscil-
lation will take place only when enough
PLATE CURRENT-e.

power is fed back from the output to

overcome the input circuit losses, smaller
amounts of feedback, which are not
enough to cause steady oscillation, can LOADED TANK
still affect the operation of the stage. An
amplifier operating like this is said to be
"regenerative."
Several characteristics of an amplifier UNLOADED TANK
change when it is regenerative. One of the
most pronounced is an increase in input
TUNING CAPACITY -SI>
impedance. This increase in impedance
causes the Q of the grid and plate tuned Fig. 38. How plate current dips as tank capaci-
tor is tuned through resonance; the unbroken
circuits to increase also. The increase in Q
line shows the sharp dip that occurs if the tank
makes the circuits selective and hard to
is not loaded; the dashed line shows the broad
tune. To make matters worse, changes in dip that occurs if the tank is loaded.

39
 The grid current meter will indicate from the operating frequency. The most
maximum at resonance. Retune the grid practical way to locate the oscillations is
tank capacitor, and increase the exci- to reduce the bias of the stage so that the
tation until the grid draws the rated tube is no longer operated beyond plate-
current. current cutoff. Then reduce the plate
Increase the loading in the plate tank voltage so that the maximum plate dissi-
circuit until any increase in loading causes pation of the tube is not exceeded.
the current through the antenna meter to Disconnect the output and remove the
drop. Increase the loading in steps. Check drive from the stage. These changes make
the plate circuit tuning for resonance the circuit most favorable for the gen-
each time you increase the load. Now eration of parasitic oscillations.
apply the plate voltage and adjust it to With the wavemeter inductively cou-
the rated value. pled to the circuit suspected of oscil-
Retune the plate tank to resonance, lating, the wavemeter tuning knob is
and then advance the loading until the varied over its range. A meter deflection
tube draws the rated plate current. The not only indicates parasitic oscillation,
minimum plate current point will not be but the frequency may be approximately
as sharp because the tuned circuit is now determined by the position of the tuning
loaded and more power is being fed into knob. Knowing the frequency at which
the load circuit. The loaded plate current parasitics are occurring often provides a
tuning curve is shown by dotted lines in clue to their origin.
Fig. 38. Adjust the grid tank and exci-
tation until the rated grid current is THE TRANSISTOR STAGE
drawn.
Make final fine adjustments to the The transistor power amplifier,
plate tuning and antenna loading. Be although used to some extent in low-level
certain all meters show the recommended fixed station and broadcast transmitters,
values for proper operation of the stage. finds its widest application in low-
The output is indicated by the current powered mobile transmitting equipment.
readings on the rf antenna current meter. Since these units are operated largely by
As the stage is resonated and the loading non-technical people working under less
is increased, the antenna current than ideal conditions, the emphasis in
increases, indicating power is being deliv- their design is on simplicity and reli-
ered to the antenna. The antenna meter is ability. Because of this emphasis, adjust-
just as important as the plate ammeter ment procedures for transistor class C
when tuning. If the output current does amplifiers are usually simple and straight-
not increase when the plate current forward. The complete transmitter align-
increases, the plate circuit is not tuned to ment of many of these units consists in
resonance or is overloaded. Reduce the its entirety of peaking the indication on a
coupling and retune the plate tank. power output measuring device with as
Parasitics. It is interesting to note that few as two transmitter adjustments.
the wavemeter is also useful in detecting Even in the more elaborate trans-
the presence of parasitics in the operating mitters you'll seldom find more than one
amplifier. As you know, these oscillations meter built into the equipment. This
take place at a frequency far removed single meter is switched into the various

40
points in the circuit where current or base drive to the transistors using L1 and
voltage is to be measured. Sometimes, all L3 to obtain equal collector currents at
the monitoring points in the circuit are the rated value. This completes the pre-
connected to a multipin jack on the liminary adjustment of the stage. Since
transmitter chassis. When transmitter there is some interaction between the
adjustments are to be made, an external various adjustments, recheck the setting
meter equipped with aselector switch is of L2,L4 ,and C1.At all times maintain
plugged into this jack for monitoring. the collector currents at or below the
Fig. 39 shows aparallel-connected out- rated value by adjusting LI and L3.
put stage such as might be found in one In conclusion, the adjustments we've
of the higher powered transistor trans- discussed in this section should not be
mitters. We have shown separate meters considered as a procedure to be memo-
at the various monitoring points for rized and followed in any specific case.
clarity. Before applying power to the They are presented here to illustrate the
amplifier, L1 and L3 should be adjusted basic approach to power amplifier adjust-
for minimum drive to the transistors ment. Before attempting any adjustment
(adjusted for maximum inductance). With to a power amplifier, carefully consult
this accomplished, apply power and and follow the manufacturer's literature.
adjust the collector circuit of Q1 to In making the adjustments, both the
resonance. This is done by adjusting L2 procedure and the sequence in which the
for adip on MI. steps are performed are of the greatest
In like manner, adjust the collector importance. An expensive tube or tran-
ircuit of Q2 to resonance using 1
4 and sistor may be destroyed as aresult of any
M2.Next adjust the coupling to the load adjustments performed without complete
using C1 to obtain the rated load current knowledge of the correct procedure.
as measured on M3.Finally, adjust the
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

(ah) How may a vacuum tube stage be

checked for proper neutralization
using the grid current meter as an
indicator?
(ai) Why must B+ first be removed
from a stage before checking the
plate tank for the presence of rf?
(aj) What are some indications of a
regenerative amplifier?
(ak) What tuning defect is indicated if
the antenna current does not
increase with an increase in plate
current?
(al) Why is the drive to the transistor
amplifier in Fig. 39 adjusted for
minimum before collector power is
Fig. 39. Parallel-connected transistor stage. applied.

41
 Answers to Self-Test Questions
(a) Because output current flows in (1) If the drive to the stage is lost, no
the amplifier only during the rela- bias will be developed, allowing the
tively brief conducting period. tubes to conduct heavily. This
(b) Both the bias level and the ampli- heavy conduction could damage
tude of the driving signal affect the the tube.
operating angle. (m) Through the plate-to-grid capaci-
(c) No. Sometimes, high power gain in tance.
an amplifier, obtained with a (n) Plate neutralization is effective
matched load, must be sacrificed over a range of frequencies,
for greater power output. whereas the blocking capacitor and
(d) The value of L and C would both coil arrangement is effective only
have to be changed. L would be at one frequency.
increased and Cdecreased. (o) 180°.The signal fed back through
(e) The loaded Q would decrease. The aneutralizing circuit will always be
unloaded Q would be unaffected. 180° out-of-phase with the signal
The efficiency of the tank would fed back through the grid to plate
increase. capacitance.
(f) If the loaded Q decreases, the (p) The radio frequency choke.
reflected resistance in the tank (q) Parasitic oscillations in the ampli-
must have increased. The increased fier.
reistance in the tank causes tank (r) Their higher power gain and
impedance to decrease. reduced grid-to-plate capacitance.
(g) By offering ahigh impedance only (s) Their higher power gain. Even a
at the resonant frequency. very small amount of feedback
(h) By decreasing the spacing between may cause the tetrode to oscillate.
the coils. (t) The value of Lwould be lower and
(i) Since the power supply, the tank, the value of C higher. This would
and the stage are in series, the provide the lower value of tank
amplifier is series-fed. impedance necessary for the paral-
(j) The output connection to the tank lel connected tubes.
could be tapped down on the tank (u) By connecting the supply voltages
coil, as is shown in Fig. 9C. This to the midpoints of the tank coils.
causes the internal resistance of the (v) The doubler. In general, the greater
stage to appear to the tank as a the frequency multiplication in a
higher value. This higher resistance stage, the lower the power output.
seen by the tank reflects a higher (w) Since the output frequency is dif-
resistance into the tank which ferent from the input frequency,
increases the loaded Q. any signal fed back would not add
(k) An antenna usually loads apower to the input signal.
amplifier more heavily than the (x) The common emitter.
input circuit to another class C (y) The transistor stops conducting.
amplifier. (z) Not always. A zero-biased tran-

42
 sistor is already several tenths of a tion, feed-thru capacitors cannot
volt below collector current cutoff. be manufactured with high values
(aa) The low input impedance of the of capacitance. Proper bypass at
amplifier. low parasitic frequencies requires a
(ab) Because of the expense of the large capacitance, so another type
transformer required to drive a must be connected in parallel with
push-pull stage. the feed-thru.
(ac) RF choke losses are eliminated and (ah) With plate voltage removed, a dip
tlie transistors are electrically in grid current when the plate tank
independent. is tuned through resonance indi-
(ad) Because they have avery low lead cates the need for neutralization.
inductance. (ai) With the B+ on the stage, rf in the
(ae) The collector base capacitance tank circuit is anormal indication.
varies over the period of an opera- (aj) Changes in plate tuning affect grid
ting cycle. Thus avarying amount tuning. Also, oscillations occur
of signal is fed back to the input. with reduced loading or slight
(af) Low-frequency parasitics. The changes in operating voltages.
power gain of atransistor increases (ak) The pLte tank is not tuned to
rapidly as frequency decreases. For resonance or is too heavily loaded.
this reason, atransistor amplifier is (al) To prevent possible excessive col-
most susceptible to low-frequency lector current flow due to the low
parasitic oscillations. impedance offered by the detuned
(ag) Because of their physical construc- output circuit.

43
NOTES
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet C205.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grades as soon as possible, so they mail their set of
answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the next lesson within afew days,
send in two sets of answers at atime. Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't
hold your answers too long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than
two sets at atime, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What is the primary purpose of abuffer stage?

2. What is the efficiency of atransmitter output stage if the plate supply voltage is 2000
volts, the plate current is 330 ma, and the measured power output of the stage is 500
watts?

3. What is the probable cause of trouble if the plate current of aclass C stage using
grid-leak bias alone rises to a very high value and the grid and output currents
decrease?

4. Why is neutralization necessary in atriode amplifier?

5. Why are transistor rf amplifiers more susceptible to low-frequency parasitics than to

those at higher frequencies?

6. Why does ascreen-grid tube usually not require neutralization?

7. (A) If the master oscillator in atransmitter using asingle doubler stage operates at
7.6 MHz, what is the transmitter output frequency?
(B) If a transmitter output frequency of 26.4 MHz is obtained by using a single
tripler stage, what is the frequency of the master oscillator?

8. What is the purpose of aFaraday screen?

9. What precaution should be taken when tuning the output of afrequency multiplier
stage?

10. In adjusting aclass C transmitter stage, what direction (upscale or downscale) would
you expect the pointers on the following dc current meters to deflect to indicate
resonance: (A) the plate current meter; (B) the grid current meter?
 THE VALUE OF KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge comes in mighty handy in the practical affairs of
everyday life. For instance, it increases the value of your daily work
and thereby increases your earning power. It brings you the respect of
others. It enables you to understand the complex events of modern life,
so you can get along better with other people. Thus by bringing skill
and power and understanding, knowledge gives you one essential
requirement for true happiness.
But what knowledge should you look for? The first choice naturally
goes to knowledge in the field of your greatest interest—electronics.
Become just alittle better informed than those you will work with, and
your success will be assured.
It pays to know—but it pays even more to know how to use what
you know. You must be able to make your knowledge of value to
others, to the rest of the world, in order to get cash for knowledge.
The NRI Course gives you knowledge, and in addition shows you
how to use what you learn. Master thoroughly each part of your
Course, and you'll soon be getting cash for your knowledge.
.„

•
Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-305
 .11
-t

OSCILLATORS FOR
4 d
e,
COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

rià lI 1111

l%ar C206

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

 OSCILLATORS FOR
COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT
C206
 STUDY SCHEDULE

D 1. Introduction Pages 1-7

A review of resonant circuits and the flywheel effect, which
are basic to L-C oscillators.

2. The Basic Oscillator Pages 8-17

You study L-C oscillators and see how feedback is used to
sustain oscillation. You learn the factors that determine
oscillator frequency and stabilities, and see how some types
are self-regulating.

3. Practical Oscillator Circuits Pages 18 -28

You learn about tube and transistor versions of the Hartley,
Colpitts, and electron-couplèd oscillators. You also study
phase-shift and Wien-bridge R-C oscillators.

4. Crystal Oscillators Pages 29 -45

You learn how crystals can be used in oscillators to replace
L-C circuits. You learn about overtone operation and study
some simple frequency synthesizers.

5. Nonsinusoidal Oscillators Pages 44 -47

In this section you study various pulse oscillators such as
multivibrators and blocking oscillators and see how they are
used.

6. Answer Lesson Questions.

7. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1970 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

KL2M172 1972 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 OSCILLATORS FOR
COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT
One of the most important circuits in work. R-C oscillators are oscillators in
electronics is the oscillator. If it were not which resistance and capacitance are used
for the oscillator, radio and television and in the frequency-determining network.
many industrial electronics applications Both types of oscillators work on the
would not be possible. An oscillator is an same general principle, that of feeding
amplifier which generates an ac signal. some of the signal from the output circuit
The frequency of the signal is determined back into the input circuit. This feedback
by the value of the components in the signal enables the oscillator to go on
oscillator circuit. generating its own signal. The amount of
In this lesson you will begin with a signal that must be fed back into the
study of the basic oscillator circuit. You input depends upon anumber of things,
will learn the characteristics of an oscil- but in general it must be enough to
lator and how the basic oscillator works. overcome the losses in the input circuit of
Then, you will study applications of the the oscillator.
oscillator, learning the details of oper- Perhaps one of the most important
ation of various oscillator circuits. From considerations in an oscillator circuit is
there you will go into methods of con- how the energy is fed from the output
trolling oscillator frequency. The lesson circuit back into the input circuit. Al-
will conclude with abrief description of though it is important to feed enough
nonsin uso idal oscillators. signal back into the input circuit, it is
There are many different types of even more important for the signal fed
oscillator circuits. For convenience in from the output back into the input to be
studying them, we will divide them into of the correct phase. If the phase of the
two types: L-C oscillators and R-C oscil- feedback signal is not correct, instead of
lators. L-C oscillators are oscillators in aiding the input signal, it will oppose it,
which inductance and capacitance are and the oscillator will not oscillate.
used in the frequency-determining net- Sometimes an oscillator is considered

1
as aconverter circuit. In other words, it At the instant the switch is closed,
converts dc into ac. The dc is supplied by electrons flow from the negative terminal
the power supply to the tube or transistor of the battery into side A of the capaci-
used in the oscillator circuit, which tor. At the same instant, electrons will
changes this dc energy to ac energy. flow out of side Bof the capacitor to the
Oscillators are the only practical means positive terminal of the battery. If the
of generating high-frequency radio waves. resistance in the circuit, which includes
In the early days of radio, before practi- the battery resistance, is very low, the
cal oscillators were developed, rf signals capacitor can charge up almost instantly
were generated by means of high- to avoltage equal to the battery voltage.
frequency generators called alternators. Thus, terminal A of the capacitor will be
However, there is a limit to how high a negative and terminal B will be positive.
frequency a rotating machine such as an At the same time, when the switch is
alternator can develop, and hence most closed, there will be some tendency for
radio transmission was carried out on current to flow through the coil from
very low frequencies. terminal C to terminal D. However, you
The most important part of the oscil- will remember that one of the character-
lator is the resonant circuit, so before we istics of a coil or inductance is that it
begin let's review it. In aprevious lesson, opposes any rapid change in the current
you learned that the resonant tank in a flowing through it. The instant before the
tuned amplifier biased class C could be switch is closed, the current flowing
made to store energy and to deliver that through the coil is zero. The coil would
energy during periods when the tube or like to keep it that way. When the switch
transistor was cut off. Oscillators is closed, the inductance of the coil tries
function similarly to class C rf amplifiers to prevent acurrent from building up in
in that the tank circuit must continue to the coil. Actually, there will be some
supply an output once the input signal is small current flowing through the coil
removed. from terminal C to terminal D, but if the
One characteristic of aresonant circuit switch is closed only for an instant, the
that we have not discussed is its ability to current will not be able to build up
produce adamped wave when it is shock- appreciably. Therefore, at the instant the
excited. We will now see what we mean switch is opened again we have the
by a damped wave and see how it is capacitor charged, as shown in Fig. 2A,
produced by aresonant circuit.
SWITCH

DAMPED WAVES

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1. A

coil and capacitor are connected in paral-
lel and connected to abattery through a
switch. For our discussion we must
assume that the switch can be opened and +T
closed instantaneously. Now let's see
what happens when we close the switch Fig. 1. A simple method of producing a
for an instant. damped wave.

2
 A - Ai Al_
BT+ BT— NI
L,.....

® ®

U C
)- .----
A + A _

BT+
D

® o
Fie 2. How oscillation takes place in aresonant circuit

and a small current flowing through the in the same direction as before. This
coil as indicated. continued current causes electrons to
When the switch is opened and we have flow onto plate B of the capacitor, giving
the situation shown in Fig. 2A, we have a the capacitor acharge opposite to what it
capacitor that is charged, and immedi- had at the start. This condition is shown
ately starts to discharge. As a result, a in Fig. 2C.
current flow will be set up in the circuit After the field around the coil has
as shown in Fig. 2B. Now remember that collapsed, there is no emf to hold the
a coil opposes a change in the current charge on the capacitor. The capacitor
flowing through it. Therefore the capaci- now begins to discharge back through the
tor cannot discharge instantly through coil as shown in Fig. 2D. The flow of
the coil, but rather must build up a current caused by the discharge of the
current in the coil which will build up a capacitor builds up a magnetic field
magnetic field about the coil. Eventually, around the coil until the capacitor is fully
the capacitor will build up acurrent flow discharged; the magnetic field collapses
in the coil and enough electrons will leave and keeps the current flowing. This
I plate A to get to plate Bto discharge the current flow charges the capacitor with
capacitor. the same polarity it had at the instant the
The discharge of the capacitor removes switch was opened. This is shown in Fig.
the voltage that caused current to flow 2E.
through the coil. The magnetic field Again, the current will eventually drop
around the coil now collapses. The col- to zero, and then the capacitor will once
lapsing field generates an emf in the coil, again begin to discharge through the coil
which tends to keep the current flowing in the opposite direction, this time with

3
electrons flowing from plate A to plate B the switch in Fig. 1 for just an instant
as shown in Fig. 2F. when plate A of the capacitor reaches its
Notice that in Fig. 2F we have the maximum negative charge, we could
same situation as we had in Fig. 2B. In supply a small amount of energy to the
other words, we have gone through a resonant circuit to make up for losses in
complete cycle of events. The capacitor the circuit. If we continue to supply this
was charged with one polarity. This pro- small amount of energy once each cycle,
duced a current flow through the coil, then the resonant circuit will continue to
which eventually charged the capacitor oscillate indefinitely, and we could use it
with the opposite polarity. The capacitor as a source of ac power. This is what an
then began to discharge through the coil oscillator does, it supplies a pulse of
in the opposite direction, which built up energy at the correct time to make up for
acharge on it having the same polarity as losses in the resonant circuit. We'll see
the original charge placed on the capaci- how this is done later, but let's learn
tor. Once again this charge on the capaci- more about resonant circuits first.
tor began the cycle of events all over
again by attempting to discharge through FACTORS AFFECTING
the coil. RESONANT CIRCUITS
You might think that this oscillation,
or backward and forward flow of current There are several additional important
through the coil to charge and discharge things we should know about resonant
the capacitor would continue indefi- circuits. For example, we should know
nitely. Indeed, if we had a perfect coil the frequency at which oscillation takes
and a perfect capacitor, once the oscil- place in aresonant circuit. We should also
lation was started, it would continue know what factors affect the loss of
indefinitely. However, there is no such energy from cycle to cycle, in other
thing as a perfect coil or a perfect words, how rapidly the wave train will die
capacitor. There will be some losses in out.
both parts, so instead of having an oscil- Another term that we frequently en-
lation which continues indefinitely, we counter when dealing with resonant cir-
will have what is called adamped wave. cuits is "period". We will now learn
The damped wave of voltage across the something about these factors.
capacitor is shown in Fig. 3. Frequency. The frequency at which a
The important thing to notice in this resonant circuit oscillates will depend
damped wave is that the amplitude of upon the inductance and capacitance in
each cycle is just alittle bit less than the the circuit. We already know that reso-
amplitude of the preceding cycle. In nance occurs when the inductive reac-
other words, the wave is slowly dying out tance of the coil is exactly equal to and
because of losses in the resonant circuit.
The lower the losses in the circuit, the
greater the number of cycles that will
occur before the wave disappears. On the
other hand, the higher the losses in the
circuit, the fewer the number of cycles. Fig. 3. Voltage across the capacitor.
If we could find some way of closing

4
 1
canceled by the capacitive reactance of f=
the capacitor. In other words, at reso- 277 ,/cc
-
nance: You should remember this formula
because it is very important; but even
XL= Xe more important, remember what the for-
mula tells you. The formula says that the
We know that the inductive reactance of frequency of a resonant circuit varies
acoil, XL, is given by the formula: inversely as the square root of the L-C
product. Now remember as we mentioned
XL= 6.28 X fX L before, when one factor varies directly
with another, making one bigger makes
and the capacitive reactance of acapaci- the other bigger, and when two things
tor is given by the formula: vary inversely then we have the opposite
1 situation; making one bigger makes the
XI other smaller. Here we have asituation
—6.28 X fXC
where the frequency varies inversely as
the square root of the GC product. This
Now, since resonance occurs when XL
means that increasing the size of either L
= Xe, let's substitute the values for XL
or C will reduce the frequency at which
and Xe and we will get:
the resonant circuit oscillates, and re-
ducing the size of either L or C will
XL= Xe increase the frequency at which the reso-
nant circuit oscillates. We can express this
simply by saying: Larger L or C, lower
1 frequency; smaller Lor C, higher frequen-
6.28 X fX L cy.
6.28 XfXC
In using this formula, the frequency of
oscillation will be given in cycles per
and this can be manipulated to give us:
second and the value of L and C used
1 must be in henrys and farads respectively.
f
2
6.28 2 X LXC Period. The period of aresonant circuit
is the time it takes the resonant circuit to
and now if we take the square root of go through one complete oscillation.
both sides of the equation we get: Thus, if we have acircuit that is resonant
at afrequency of 1000 cycles per second,
1
f= its period would be 1/1000 of asecond,
6.28 X Nir
..>.(
—C
and if we have a resonant circuit that is
resonant at a frequency of 1,000,000
For convenience in expressing formulas cycles per second, the period would be
of this type, the times sign is usually 1/1,000,000 of asecond.
omitted, and in place of 6.28, the term The period of a resonant circuit is
27r is often used, so you will usually see given by the formula:
the formula for the frequency at which a
1
resonant circuit will oscillate expressed =-
as:

5
where P represents the period of the The Q of a coil is expressed by the
resonant circuit in seconds and f the formula:
frequency in cycles per second.
Since in electronics we are usually Q=.
R
dealing with comparatively high frequen-
cies, it follows that the period of most
and we can express XL as equal to:
resonant circuits will be only avery small
fraction of asecond. As amatter of fact,
6.28 X fXL
the period of many resonant circuits will
be only asmall fraction of amillionth of
and substituting this in the formula for
a second. Therefore, to simplify things,
the Q of acoil we get:
the microsecond is frequently used in
electronics work as a unit of time. A 6.28XfXL
Q
microsecond is 1/1,000,000 (one mil- R
lionth) of a second. Thus if aresonant
circuit has aperiod of 5/1,000,000 (five If we examine this formula, we see that
millionths) of asecond we can say that its the Q varies directly as the frequency and
period is 5 microseconds, or if another inductance and inversely as the resistance.
resonant circuit has a period of Therefore, you might think that in-
1/10,000,000 (one ten millionth) of a creasing the frequency of the resonant
second, we can say this period is one- circuit by using a smaller capacitor in
tenth of amicrosecond. conjunction with the coil will result in a
In order to show the cycle-time rela- higher Q. This will often happen, but the
tionship, the frequency of a circuit is increase in Q is not as great as might be
measured in units called HERTZ. One expected, because the resistance of the
Hertz being equivalent to one complete coil is the ac resistance rather than the dc
cycle in one second, 1,000 cycles in one resistance. The ac resistance of a coil
second would then be 1,000 Hertz (Hz) actually represents ac losses in the coil
or one kilohertz (kHz). 1,000,000 cycles and this varies directly as frequency
in one second would be one megahertz varies. Therefore, increasing the frequen-
(MHz). These terms are replacing the cy of the resonant circuit increases the
older terms of kilocycles (kc) and mega- inductive reactance of the coil, but at the
cycles (mc) still used in many publica- same time it increases the losses so that
tions. the Q normally does not increase as fast
The Q Factor. The number of cycles as we might expect.
that will occur when aresonant circuit is In aresonant circuit with ahigh Q coil
shock-excited depends almost directly there will be alarge number of cycles in a
upon the Q of the coil. The higher the Q, damped wave train set up by shock-
the more cycles will occur. exciting the resonant circuit. In other
The Q of acoil tells us essentially how words, the amplitude of one cycle will be
good acoil we have. A coil that has ahigh very little less than the amplitude of the
Q has a high inductive reactance com- preceding cycle. However, if the Q of the
pared to the resistance of the coil. A coil coil is low, then the losses in the coil will
with a low Q has high resistance com- be quite high so that the amplitude of
pared with the inductive reactance. each cycle will be substantially less than

6
the amplitude of the preceding cycle. amount of energy in order to keep the
This means that the oscillation will be oscillation going.
damped out quite rapidly and the number
of cycles that occur when the circuit is SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
shock-excited will be somewhat limited.
In most oscillator circuits acompara- (a) What type of feedback is used in
tively high Q coil is used. The reason for oscillator circuits?
this is that if the coil has ahigh Q, then (b) If the inductance of an L-C circuit is
only a small amount of energy must be increased, what happens to the fre-
supplied by the tube or transistor in the quency?
oscillator circuit in order to sustain oscil- (c) If the Q of the resonant circuit is
lation. On the other hand, if the coil has a increased, what happens to the
low Q, the losses in the resonant circuit damped wave train?
will be quite high, with the result that the (d) If the resonant frequency of an L-C
tube or transistor used in the oscillator circuit is 2000 kHz, what is the
circuit must supply acomparatively large period of one cycle?

7
 The Basic Oscillator
The function of the switch in Fig. 1is battery or the dc output of asuitable
to supply energy of the proper phase and power supply. If we can momentarily
at the proper time to sustain oscillations close the switch, we will charge the
in the resonant circuit. At radio frequen- capacitor C1 and produce oscillation in
cies it would be impossible for amechani- the parallel resonant circuit consisting of
cal switch to do this. Therefore, we must C1 and LI.However, this oscillation will
use an electronic switch such as avacuum die out after anumber of cycles because
tube or transistor. of the losses in aresonant circuit, unless
we can find some way of supplying
THE ELECTRONIC SWITCH additional energy to the resonant circuit
to make up these losses. If we could close
In order to see how the vacuum tube the switch at the right instant each cycle,
can be used as an electronic switch, let's we could recharge capacitor C1 once each
go back to the basic circuit we had in Fig. cycle and keep the oscillation going.
1. We have repeated this circuit as Fig. However, if the resonant frequency of the
4A. It is exactly the same as Fig. 1except circuit is several hundred Hertz or higher,
we have simply indicated where the bat- it would be impossible to close the switch
tery voltage is to be connected instead of manually at the correct instant to keep
actually showing the battery in the cir- the oscillation going. As amatter of fact,
cuit. In practice, we could use either a it would be difficult to do this mechani-
cally except at avery low frequency.
In Fig. 4B, we have replaced the switch
with avacuum tube. The cathode of the
vacuum tube is connected to the negative
side of the power supply or battery, and
the plate of the tube is connected to the
resonant circuit. Between the cathode
and the grid of the tube, we have con-
nected abattery that will place anegative
voltage on the grid of the tube. The

IN battery voltage in the grid circuit is high

enough to bias the tube beyond cutoff.
Thus, with the circuit exactly as shown in
- Fig. 4B, the bias on the tube is so high
Cl that there will be no current flowing
+
through the tube and hence no way to
L1 L2
charge capacitor C1 and start the reso-

© nant circuit oscillating. We have in effect

the same situation as we have in Fig. 4A
Fig. 4. Using a tube as an electronic switch with the switch open.
to supply the losses in a resonant circuit. Now let's look at the circuit shown in

8
Fig. 4C. Here we still have the tube the burst of electrons flowing through the
connected in the circuit in exactly the tube.
same way except that we have added a In Fig. 5, we have shown anumber of
coil, L2, between the negative terminal of sine-wave cycles such as the oscillation
the grid battery and the grid of the tube. that might occur in the L1-C 1 resonant

This coil is placed near Li so that it will circuit. The shaded pulses represent the
be inductively coupled to LI. Thus, .if bursts of current flowing through the
there is any change in the magnetic field tube that will reinforce the oscillation
about LI,the changing flux will induce a and keep it going. Notice in Fig. 5 that
voltage in L2. the burst of current flowing through the
Now let's consider what will happen if tube occurs at the correct instant to aid
we momentarily short the plate and the oscillation. Also, notice that the
cathode of the tube together. If we do current burst occurs for only a small
this, capacitor C1 will be charged. As fraction of acycle. The current does not
soon as we remove the short, C 1 will start flow through the tube during the entire
to discharge through L1 and in doing so cycle.
will build up a magnetic field about LI. For several reasons the oscillator cir-
The changing lines of flux will cut L2 and cuit shown in Fig. 4C is not a practical
induce avoltage in it. This voltage in L2 circuit. For one thing, the battery used to
will be in series with the battery voltage provide the negative bias on the grid is
applied between the cathode and grid of somewhat cumbersome. If we were using
the tube. If the end of L2 that connects a power supply to furnish the voltage to
to the grid of the tube is negative, and the operate this oscillator from apower line,
other end positive, then the voltage in- we would not want to be bothered with a
duced in L2 will add to the grid bias, separate battery to supply the grid bias.
biasing the grid still further negative so Furthermore, with this type of arrange-
that no current can flow from the cath- ment, it would be possible to pick up
ode to the plate of the tube. However, if such a high voltage pulse in L2 that the
the voltage induced in L2 has apolarity tube would pass an extremely high
such that the end of L that is connected current when it was driven in apositive
to the grid is positive, and the other end direction. As the grid bias battery aged
is negative, then this voltage will oppose and the voltage from this battery
the battery bias voltage and reduce it so dropped, an even higher current pulse
that the total grid bias will be reduced would flow through the tube. As amatter
below the point where the plate current is of fact, the pulse might be so high that
cut off, and current can flow through the the tube could be damaged.
tube. Therefore, by connecting L2 with
the proper polarity, we can arrange the
circuit so that when the plate side of
capacitor C 1 reaches its negative peak,
the tube will conduct, and a burst of
electrons will flow through the tube,
charging C 1 still further. Thus, any loss in
Fig. 5. The oscillator pulse is timed to occur at
the charge across C 1 due to losses in the the peak of the oscillation in the tank circuit
resonant circuit will be made up for by to reinforce the oscillation.

9
 Both of these objections can be over- current will start to flow through L1 and
come by modifying the circuit as shown there will be arapid change in the lines of
in Fig. 6. Let's look at Fig. 6A first. In flux about this coil. The changing mag-
Fig. 6A, you will see that we have netic lines will cut L2, and induce a
replaced the battery in the grid circuit by rather high voltage in it. Coil L2 is
a resistor, RI,with capacitor C2 con- connected so that the grid of the tube
nected across it. In other respects the will be driven in a positive direction,
circuit is identical to the circuit shown in which will result in astill further increase
Fig. 4C. in current flowing from the cathode to
Let's see exactly how this circuit the plate of the tube, which will charge
works. When voltage is first supplied to CI still further.
this circuit, there will be no grid bias on Since the grid of the tube will be
the tube. The tube starts to conduct and driven in a positive direction, it too will
charges capacitor CI.Electrons will flow attract electrons, and electrons will flow
into the side of this capacitor that con- from the cathode of the tube to the grid,
nects to the plate of the tube and out of through 1.2,and then through R1 back to
the other side. At the same instant, the cathode of the tube. In flowing
through RI,they will set up avoltage
C2 drop across it and charge capacitor C2
with the polarity indicated on the dia-
gram.
Eventually the rate at which the flux
lines are cutting L2 will decrease, so the
voltage induced in coil L2 will drop. The
voltage across R1 will cut off the flow of
plate current in the tube. Capacitor C2
starts to discharge through R1 and keeps
the grid of the tube at a high enough
negative potential to keep it cut off.
When this happens, we have opened the
switch as in Fig. 1 and an oscillation
starts in the tank circuit. The capacitor
and coil begin exchanging energy back
and forth. At the correct instant, once in
C2
each cycle, the grid of the tube will be
driven positive by the voltage induced in
L2 by the changing flux from L1 so that

the tube will pass aburst of electrons to

Cl recharge C1 and make up any energy lost
Li L2 in the tank circuit.
The oscillator we have been discussing
— +
is called atuned-plate oscillator. In actual
practice, the circuit is modified and you
will usually see it like Fig. 6B. Notice that
Fig. 6. A tuned-plate oscillator. the position of the grid resistor and grid

10
capacitor, R1 and C2,have been changed that the net drive voltage applied to the
with reference to L2 . In other words, grid remains almost the same. Thus, even
tracing from the grid of the tube, we though something might cause the voltage
come to the grid resistor and grid capaci- developed in L2 to increase, the tube will
tor first and then through L2 to ground. compensate for this change by developing
However, regardless of how the resistor an increased bias so that the burst of
and capacitor are connected in series with plate current flowing through the tube
1.2,the action of the circuit is the same. will remain essentially constant.
This type of oscillator has several
disadvantages that can be eliminated by
OSCILLATOR-AMPLIFIER
different circuitry. However, since it is a
basic circuit and enables us to see exactly
how the tube is acting as aswitch, it is a Up to this point, we have been con-
good circuit to start our study of oscil- sidering the tube as aswitch that closed
lators with. at the proper instant to replenish the
losses in the resonant circuit. We can also
SELF-REGULATION consider the tube as an amplifier that is
amplifying part of its own output. For
The oscillator circuits shown in Fig. 6 example, L1 and 1.2 in Fig. 6B are
are self-regulating. This means that they inductively coupled together. Part of the
tend to control the flow of current output produced across L1 is coupled to
through the tube themselves. For L2,where it is fed back into the input
example, suppose the amplitude of the circuit. This signal fed into the input
pulse picked up by L2 should increase for circuit is then amplified by the tube and
any reason; if this happens, the pulse will fed to the resonant circuit L1-C 1 in the
drive the grid even more positive than output. The cycle then continues, with
normal. With ahigher positive voltage on part of the output being coupled to 1.2
the grid, a greater number of electrons and once again being fed back to the
will be attracted to it. An increase in the input. Thus, the oscillator can indeed be
number of electrons reaching the grid will considered as an amplifier that feeds part
mean that more electrons must flow of its own output signal back to the
through RI.The voltage developed across input, where it is amplified once again.
R1 depends upon two things: the size of Of course, the signal fed back to the
the resistor and the number of electrons input must be of the proper phase to
flowing through it. Therefore, if the sustain oscillation. The signal must drive
number of electrons flowing through R1 the grid in apositive direction when the
increases, the voltage developed across it plate current flowing through the tube
will increase. should increase. Feedback of this type is
Notice the polarity of the voltage called regenerative feedback. In some
across RI.The grid end of this resistor is amplifiers asmall amount of regenerative
negative, so this bias voltage tends to feedback is used to improve the gain of
reduce the flow of current through the the amplifier. However, in an oscillator,
tube. Therefore, the increase in negative enough regenerative feedback is used to
voltage across RI will subtract from the start the stage oscillating, and to keep it
increase of positive voltage across L2 SO oscillating.

11
 OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY time, the plate resistance of the tube will
be reasonably high so the term R/Rp will
You already know that the resonant be small and w will be almost equal to
frequency, f
o ,of a circuit containing L wo .However, the fact that R and R do
P
and C is: enter into the frequency means that if
1 either of these values change, the oscil-
fo ' lator frequency will change. Thus, oscil-
2/r N.5.7C
lator stability depends not only on keep-
ing the values of L and C in the resonant
The resonant frequency is also often
circuit constant, but also the value of R
expressed in terms of resonant angular
and R must be kept constant.
frequency, wo : P

1 OSCILLATOR STABILITY
co °= \Fir
One of the most important consi-
derations in oscillator circuits is the
where wo = 2.7r X f
o.This expression stability of the oscillator — in other
comes from the fact that there are 2.7r words, how stable the oscillator frequen-
radians in 360 °.A radian is an angular cy is. The output frequency of a radio
measurement equal to approximately transmitter is controlled by the oscillator,
57°.Since there are 2/r radians in 360 °,a and if the oscillator frequency does not
vector rotating at f
o Hertz travels through remain constant, the transmitter output
2ir X fo radians per second. frequency will not be constant.
You might at first expect an L-C We have already pointed out that the
oscillator to operate at exactly co o ,the oscillator frequency depends not only
resonant frequency of the L-C circuit. upon the inductance and capacitance in
However, there is always some resistance the resonant circuit, but also on other
in the circuit that affects the oscillator factors such as the resistance of the
frequency. Furthermore, the plate re- oscillator coil and the plate resistance of
sistance of the tube affects the oscillator the oscillator tube. Now, let us consider
frequency so that the actual frequency of each of these factors to see exactly what
the oscillator, co, is: effect each has on the oscillator frequen-
cy.
Tank Inductance and Capacitance. The
R ) inductance in the oscillator tank circuit is
w = wo (1+—
R, made up of the inductance of the oscil-
lator coil, plus any stray inductance in
the circuit. The capacitance in the oscil-
where co o is the angular resonant frequen- lator tank circuit is made up of the
cy of the L-C circuit, R represents the capacity connected across the oscillator
resistance in the resonant circuit, and Rp coil plus any tube capacity that may be in
is the plate resistance of the tube. parallel with the coil and capacitor, and
In most oscillator stages the value of R the distributed wiring capacity in the
will be small, because the Q of the circuit. The inductance in the circuit
oscillator coil will be high. At the same consists of the oscillator coil, the induc-

12
tance of the leads connecting the coil to Changing atube in the oscillator circuit
the tube and other parts in the circuit, can result in a change in oscillator fre-
and any inductance that other parts in quency. The input capacity of the tube
the circuit may have. The capacity in the used in the oscillator circuit makes up
circuit consists of the capacity of the part of the oscillator tank circuit. The
variable capacitor across the oscillator input capacity of different tubes of the
coil, the input capacitance of the tube, same type may vary appreciably, so
the stray wiring capacity in the circuit, putting a new tube in this or any other
plus any stray capacity the coil may have. oscillator circuit may change the tank
This total inductance plus this total ca- circuit capacitance, and hence the fre-
pacity are the major factors that deter- quency. Therefore, if you replace the
mine the oscillator frequency. oscillator tube in a transmitter you
When an oscillator is first turned on, should check the output frequency.
the values of the inductance and capaci- Tank Losses. Earlier we pointed out
tance in the tank circuit will usually that the angular resonant frequency, wo,
change as the tube and other parts in the of the oscillator tank circuit is given by:
circuit heat. Therefore, the oscillator 1
stability is usually measured in terms of =
V LC
the oscillator's ability to maintain acon-
stant frequency after enough time has
been allowed for the tube and parts to and at the same time, the actual
reach normal operating temperature. It is frequency at which the oscillator oscil-
common practice in some transmitters to lates is given by:
leave the oscillator on at all times to
avoid any frequency drift during the
w =6) 0(1 +—R )
warmup period. In some transmitters, the Rp
oscillator coil and capacitor are placed in
an oven that is kept at a constant
temperature by a thermostatically con- where R is the resistance in the tank
trolled heater to minimize changes in circuit and R the plate resistance of the
P
inductance and capacity due to tempera- tube.
ture changes. In some oscillators, special The term R represents the ac resistance
temperature compensating capacitors are of the tank circuit, and as such represents
connected across the oscillator tank cir- all the losses in the tank circuit. Thus,
cuit to minimize frequency drift due to this term includes such factors as coil
temperature changes. These capacitors resistance and losses from the oscillator
usually have a negative temperature co- circuit due to loading of the circuit.
efficient. This means that their capacity Therefore, any change in the oscillator
decreases as the temperature increases. By coil resistance will result in achange in
using a capacitor of this type with the oscillator frequency. Similarly, achange
correct temperature coefficient, it is in the loading on the oscillator will result
possible to compensate for any increase in achange in oscillator frequency. Thus,
in inductance or capacitance in other for maximum stability, the oscillator
parts in the circuit as the temperature should be lightly loaded and the load on
increases. the oscillator must remain constant.

13
 The Plate Resistance. Since the plate R changed because of changing voltages
P
resistance of the tube enters into the on the tube, the oscillator might drift 50
frequency of the oscillator, any change in kHz or more above or below this frequen-
plate resistance will produce achange in cy.
the oscillator frequency. The plate re-
sistance of the tube will change if either TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS
the plate or grid voltage is changed in the
case of atriode, and if the grid or screen Of the three basic transistor configu-
voltage (and to some extent the plate rations, the common emitter is the most
voltage) is changed in the case of a frequently used in rf oscillator circuits.
pentode. Thus, it is important that the There are several reasons for this. The
voltages supplying the oscillator be kept power, current and voltage gains of the
constant. These voltages must also be free common-emitter configuration are all
of hum, which actually is a changing greater than one, and the highest possible
voltage superimposed on the dc supply power gain can be had. Also in the
voltage, because the hum voltage could common-emitter circuit, moderate input
produce a constantly changing plate re- and output impedances make less power
sistance which will result in afrequency- necessary for feedback. In the common-
modulated signal being generated by the base configuration, low input and high
oscillator. output impedances inherent in the cir-
Changes in loading on the oscillator cuit cause a mismatch in the feedback
may affect the bias developed on the grid circuit, producing greater losses and re-
of the tube. When this happens, the grid quiring more feedback. The current gain
voltage will change, causing the plate in the common-base circuit is less than
resistance and hence the frequency to one, even though voltage and power gains
shift. are greater than unity. A somewhat
Looking at the expression for the similar condition exists in a common
oscillator angular frequency, we see that collector circuit where high input and
the frequency is equal to the angular moderate output impedances exist. Volt-
frequency of the tank circuit times one age gain is less than unity, but current
plus a fraction. Thus, the oscillator fre- and power gains are greater than one.
quency will be higher than the resonant Transistor oscillators may be designed
frequency of the tank circuit. Also, if the to operate class A, B or C depending on
term R/R is small, which it usually is, the desired efficiency. Since rf oscillators
P
the oscillator frequency will differ from are also amplifiers, bias supply and tem-
the tank frequency by only a small perature stabilization are similar to rf
percentage. However, at high frequencies, amplifiers discussed in aprevious lesson.
this small percentage or fraction can A combined voltage divider and feed-
represent a great enough frequency back type biasing arrangement is often
change to cause concern. For example, if used because it helps produce oscillation
the resonant frequency of atank circuit is and at the same time establishes astable
10 MHz and the value of RJRp is only dc bias point. Emitter biasing with a
.01, .01 X 10,000 kHz represents 100 bypass capacitor is also used, the opera-
kHz so the oscillator frequency would be tion being similar to grid leak biasing.
10,101 kHz, or 10.1 MHz. If the value of Usually the amplitude is regulated by

14
driving the transistor into saturation or common supply. Since an increase in
by using special diode limiting circuits. collector voltage tends to increase oscil-
Either shunt or series type collector feed lator frequency and an increase in emitter
may be used, the shunt type being pre- voltage decreases oscillator frequency, the
ferred for greater output efficiency. use of acommon bias source for both the
Frequency stability of the transistor collector and emitter helps stabilize the
oscillator is equivalent to, and sometimes frequency. By using a common bias
greater than the electron tube oscillator. source, a change in one is somewhat
The use of lower voltages, currents and counteracted by the change in the other.
power, permits construction of better The three basic transistor configura-
tank circuits. In particular, the low power tions used for oscillators are shown in
used with transistors aids in stability due Fig. 7. Bias and feed arrangements are
to the decrease in heat. One major dis- omitted for simplification. Although any
advantage of transistors is their critical of the three basic transistor configura-
operating point. A slight bias change can tions can be used, generally only two, the
cause alarge shift iii frequency. common-emitter and common-base, are
The collector-to-emitter capacitance of used in actual practice. The common-
the transistor also affects frequency sta- emitter configuration offers the advan-
bility. This internal capacitance will vary tages of easily matched input and output
with changes in collector or emitter volt- impedances and its close parallel to thé
ages and with temperature. In high fre- electron tube.
quency oscillators it is sometimes neces- The major advantage of the common-
sary to place aswamping capacitor across base circuit is that at high frequencies
the collector to emitter leads. The total collector-emitter capacitance helps feed-
capacitance of the two in parallel results back an in-phase voltage independently of
in a circuit which is less sensitive to tickler coil LI,and oscillation is more
voltage changes. The added capacitor may easily obtained. In the common-emitter
be apart of the tuned circuit. circuit, this capacitance feeds back an
Partial compensation of voltage out-of-phase voltage which requires addi-
changes may be obtained by use of a tional feedback from the tickler coil to

COMMON BASE 0 COMMON EMITTER 0 COMMON COLLECTOR

Fig. 7. Tickler coil oscillators.

15
overcome it. In both the common-base The discharge of the tank capacitor
and common-emitter circuits, oscillation through L2 will cause the voltage applied
is easily sustained. This is the result of to the emitter to rise from areverse-bias
feedback provided by voltage induced to forward bias condition. Emitter and
through the mutual inductance of L1 and collector current start to increase and the
L2. In the common-collector circuit, the cycle repeats itself.
voltage gain is always less than unity, The transistor oscillator circuit that
therefore feedback tends to be insuffi- most closely resembles the tuned-plate
cient for stable oscillations at the lower vacuum tube oscillator is the tuned-
frequencies. At the higher frequencies it collector oscillator. This circuit is shown
is assisted by the collector-emitter capaci- in Fig. 8.
tance. Sometimes, an external capacitor is Notice that in this circuit the resonant
added between the collector and emitter circuit consisting of C1-L 1 is in the
to give additional feedback. collector circuit of the transistor. L2 is
Operation of the L-C circuit is similar inductively coupled to L1 so energy is fed
to that of the electron tube circuit. As from L1 to L2.The signal developed in
the oscillator is switched •on, current L2 is fed back to the base of the
flows through the transistor as deter- transistor.
mined by the biasing circuit. Initial cur- In the operation of this oscillator,
rent produces afeedback voltage between resistor R1 and capacitor C2 develop a
the collector and the emitter which is bias voltage sufficient to cut off the
in-phase with the input circuit. As emitter transistor. The signal needed to overcome
current increases, collector current in- this cutoff bias is induced in 1.2 and
creases and additional feedback between applied between the base and the emitter.
L1 and L2 causes the emitter current to Since this is aPNP transistor, the signal in
increase until saturation is reached. When 1.2 must make the base negative and the

saturation is reached, emitter current is emitter positive at the instant that apulse
no longer changing (increasing), and the of current is needed from the collector in
induced feedback voltage is therefore order to sustain oscillation in the reso-
reduced. At this time the collapsing field nant circuit consisting of L1 and C1.
around the tank and tickler coils induce a
reverse voltage into the emitter circuit
which causes a decrease in the emitter
current, thus causing adecreasing collec-
tor current. The decreasing current then
induces a greater reverse voltage in the
feedback loop driving the emitter current
toward cutoff.
Although the emitter is cut off, asmall
reverse (leakage) current flows. This cur-
rent has no effect on the operation of the
circuit but it does represent aloss which
lowers the efficiency. In this respect the
transistor differs from the electron tube,
which has zero current at cutoff. . Fig. 8. A tuned-collector oscillator.

16
 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS quency drift due to changes in tem-
perature in aresonant circuit.
(e) Describe the phase relationship (h) In high frequency transistor oscil-
between the plate current wave lators what is sometimes used to
shape and the voltage wave shape compensate for collector-to-emitter
developed across L2 in Fig. 4C. capacitance?
(t) What makes the oscillator in Fig. 6B (i) In the oscillator circuit in Fig. 8,
self-regulating in regard to the ampli- where is the bias developed and
tude of the grid signal? what component develops the signal
(g) List three methods of reducing fre- that overcomes this bias?

17
 Practical Oscillator Circuits
The oscillator circuits we have dis-
oscillator works. Let's first look at the
cussed up to this point weren't very tuned-grid oscillator.
practical. They were used to illustrate
Tuned-Grid Oscillator. Two versions of
some of the basic characteristics of oscil-
the tuned-grid oscillator are shown in Fig.
lators. Let us now look at some practical
9. The circuits are basically the same; the
circuits actually found in communication
only electrical difference is in the con-
equipment. These oscillators are grouped
nection of the grid resistor R I. In the
according to the type of resonant circuit
circuit shown in Fig. 9A, R1 is connected
used, inductance-capacitance (L-C) or
directly across the grid capacitor C2›
resistance-capacitance (R-C).
whereas in the circuit shown in Fig. 9B,
R1 is connected between the grid and the
L-C OSCILLATORS
cathode of the tube. The action of R1 is
the same in both cases; it provides apath
The L-C oscillators can be placed into
for the electrons striking the grid of the
one of two classifications: those using tube to get back to ground or the cathode
inductive feedback and those using capac-
itive feedback. The inductive feedback
oscillator uses inductive coupling to L2
return a portion of the output back to + RI _
the input. The capacitive feedback circuit
uses capacitive coupling to accomplish
this. Although there is some difference C3
LI
in the circuitry involved, both types are
L-C oscillators, and the net result is
essentially the same.
B—
OSCILLATORS USING
INDUCTIVE FEEDBACK

One of the most important and most

widely used oscillators in electronics
work is the Hartley oscillator. This oscil-
lator uses inductive feedback. The reso-
nant circuit is placed in the grid circuit of
the tube or the base circuit of the
transistor instead of in the output circuit
as in the case of the tuned-plate and
tuned-collector oscillators. However,
before we look at the Hartley oscillator
let's look at another oscillator which will
help you understand how the Hartley Fig. 9. Tn o ‘ersions of the tuned-grid oscillator.

18
of the tube. In the circuit of Fig. 9A, happens, the plate current flowing
when C2 discharges through R1 to through L2 will no longer change. We will
develop negative bias for the tube, there no longer have voltage induced in LI,and
is no discharge through the tank circuit. C1 will begin to discharge through LI,
In Fig. 9B, when C2 discharges through setting up an oscillation in the L-C
RI, the discharge current also flows circuit. As soon as this happens, the
through the tank circuit. positive voltage on the grid end of C1
Actually, the biggest difference be- begins to disappear, and the plate current
tween this oscillator and the tuned-plate will be cut off by the negative voltage
oscillator that you already studied is that across C2.The L-C circuit is now free to
the resonant circuit is in the grid circuit oscillate as though the tube were removed
instead of the plate circuit. With this from the circuit. C2 meanwhile starts to
circuit, when the power is turned on, discharge through RI, setting up the
changes in plate current will set up a voltage drop across it as shown on the
changing magnetic field about L2.L2 is diagram. During the next half cycle when
inductively coupled to L1 so the changing the voltage on the grid end of C1 again
magnetic field about L2 will induce a becomes positive, it will drive the grid in
voltage in LI. The induced voltage a positive direction enough to let some
charges capacitor C1,starting the oscil- plate current flow through the tube; this
latory discharge in the tank circuit con- will result in achange in the field about
sisting of L1-C 1.The voltage across C1 L2 which will induce a voltage in L1
becomes the grid voltage because the which drives the capacitor and the grid
value of C2 is large enough so that its voltage still further in apositive direction.
reactance is so small at the frequency of The important point to remember
oscillation, that the grid is, in effect, about this oscillator is that the energy
connected directly to C1. needed to sustain the oscillation in the
Now since the increasing plate current tank circuit, consisting of L1 and C1,is
causes the end of C1 that is connected to inductively coupled to L1 from L2.This
the grid through C2 to swing in apositive energy comes from the plate of the tube
direction, the grid of the tube is driven in in the form of bursts of plate current
a positive direction. Driving the grid which produce achanging magnetic field
positive produces two effects; it increases about L2 .These bursts of current are the
the plate current, causing C1,and hence result of the grid of the tube being driven
the grid, to be driven still further in a positive by the voltage across C1 swinging
positive direction, and it causes grid positive once each cycle.
current to flow, which charges C2 with The Hartley Oscillator. Two Hartley
the polarity shown on the diagram. oscillators are shown in Fig. 10. The
Now if the plate current of the tube circuit shown in Fig. 10A uses avacuum
could keep on increasing indefinitely, the tube, whereas the one shown in Fig. 10B
grid end of C1 would be driven more and uses atransistor. Although the operation
more positive. However, there is alimit to of the two circuits is so similar that if you
how high the plate current can become, understand one, you will understand the
because a balance will be reached be- other, we will go through both circuits in
tween the positive voltage across CI and considerable detail.
the negative voltage across C2.When this Notice the difference between the

19
 coil between terminals 2 and 3. This
voltage will charge capacitor C1 with the
polarity such that the end of the capaci-
tor that connects to the junction of C2
and R1 is positive. Again since the value
of C2 is chosen so that its reactance is
practically zero at the oscillation frequen-
cy, the grid of the tube is in effect
connected directly to C1.This means that
the increase in plate current will drive the
grid of the tube in apositive direction,
causing a still-stronger burst of current
through the coil. This in turn causes still
higher induced voltage between terminals
2and 3which again charges capacitor CI
still further. At the same time when the
grid is driven positive, it will attract
electrons, and C2 will be charged with the
polarity shown.
As in the tuned-grid oscillator, the
point is eventually reached where there is
a balance between the positive voltage
applied to the grid by C1 and the negative
Fig. 10. Typical Hartley oscillators; a vacuum
tube Hartley oscillator is shown at A, and a voltage applied to the grid across C2 and
transistorized one at B. R1 so that there is no further increase in
plate current. This means that the mag-
Hartley oscillators and the tuned-grid netic field produced by the current flow-
oscillators. The tuned-grid oscillator has ing between terminals 1and 2 becomes
two coils, whereas the Hartley oscillator constant and no further voltage will be
uses only a single tapped coil. In the induced in the coil. CI starts to discharge
circuit shown in Fig. 10A, the cathode of through the coil, and the oscillating cycle
the tube is connected to the tap, and in is started. Furthermore, the positive volt-
the circuit shown in Fig. 10B, the emitter age on the end of C1 that connects to the
of the transistor is connected to the tap. grid of the tube through C2 disappears,
In the circuit shown in Fig. 10A, when and the tube stops conducting.
the plate current starts to flow through Again, the tube will be biased beyond
the tube, current must flow through the cutoff by the discharge of C2 through
lower half of the coil between terminals I RI.These electrons charge C2 during the
and 2. Since the entire coil is wound on a portion of the cycle when the grid is
single form, all the various turns of the conducting. When grid current stops flow-
coil are inductively coupled together. ing, C2 will discharge through RI,setting
Therefore the increasing plate current up avoltage drop across it such that the
flowing between terminals 1and 2 will grid end is negative. This voltage across
produce achanging magnetic field which R1 maintains the bias on the grid of the
will induce avoltage in the portion of the oscillator tube.

20
 In some cases you will see slight causing the base of the transistor to be
variations of the Hartley oscillator circuit. driven still further in anegative direction.
In some instances, R1 may be connected In this circuit when the number of
between the grid and cathode or from the holes flowing from the emitter to the
grid of the tube directly to ground. In collector increases, terminal 3of the coil
another variation the cathode connects will be driven in anegative direction, and
directly to ground, R1 connects between when the holes flowing from the emitter
the grid of the tube and ground, and then to the collector decrease, terminal 3will
the plate of the tube connects directly be driven in apositive direction. Remem-
back to terminal 1of the oscillator coil. ber that in aPNP transistor, driving the
The B+ voltage is then applied to terminal base in a negative direction causes the
2 of the coil. This is simply amodifica- holes moving through the transistor to
tion of the Hartley oscillator circuit; it increase, whereas driving it in apositive
works in exactly the same way as the direction causes the number of holes
Hartley oscillator shown in Fig. 10A. flowing from the emitter to the collector
In the circuit shown in Fig. 10B we to decrease. The burst of hole movement
have aPNP transistor. When holes begin through the transistor causes the electron
to travel from the emitter to the collec- movement from terminal 2to terminal 1
tor, electrons will flow from the emitter of coil L1 to flow through the coil in
through R2 to terminal 2 on the coil. burst, and this burst of energy makes up
From terminal 2 they will flow through for any losses in the resonant circuit
consisting of L1 and C1.
the coil to terminal 1 and back to the
positive terminal of the battery. The It is interesting to note the similarity
between the circuits shown in Fig. 10A
electrons, in flowing through the coil
from terminal 2to terminal 1, will build and Fig. 10B. Although we have avac-
up afield about this part of the coil. This uum tube used in one circuit and a
field will be a changing field as the transistor in the other, there is agreat
current builds up, and this will induce a deal of similarity between the two cir-
voltage in the portion of the coil between cuits and the way they work. In each case
terminals 2 and 3. This induced voltage we have energy lost in the resonant
will charge C1 with the polarity such that circuit being replaced by bursts of energy;
the end connecting to terminal 3of the from the tube in one case and from the
coil is negative and the other end is transistor in the other case. Also notice
positive. This negative voltage on one end that the energy is fed across only part of
of C1 will be applied to the base of the the coil in each case, but the voltage
transistor through capacitor C2 because induced in the entire coil is enough to set
C2 has a low reactance at the frequency
up a current flow that will replace the
of oscillation. The negative voltage on the capacitor charge that is lost because of
base of the transistor will increase the resistance or other losses in the resonant
forward bias across the emitter-base circuit.
junction, causing an increase in the
OSCILLATORS USING
number of holes flowing from the emitter
CAPACITIVE FEEDBACK
to the collector. This causes astill further
increase in the electron movement from There are a number of different oscil-
terminal 2 to terminal 1 of the coil, lator circuits in which capacitive feedback

21
rather than inductive feedback (as in the ber that when we have two capacitors
preceding examples) is used to sustain connected in series they will act like one
oscillation. Let's look at some of them capacitor insofar as the coil is concerned,
now. and the circuit will start to oscillate. The
Colpitts Oscillator. Perhaps the most voltage developed across C1 is the feed-
important of the oscillators using capaci- back voltage. It is applied between the
tive feedback is the Colpitts oscillator grid and the cathode in the circuit shown
shown in Fig. 11. The one in Fig. 11A in A and between the emitter and the
uses avacuum tube while the one in Fig. base of the circuit shown in B. When this
11B uses atransistor. voltage swings in adirection that makes
The operation of the two oscillators is the end of C1 connected to C3 positive
quite similar. When the equipment is first and the other end negative, it will in-
turned on, current flows through L2, crease the current flowing through the
which is the small rf choke used to tube or transistor, causing an increase in
complete the cathode circuit in Fig. 11A current flow through L2, which charges
and the emitter circuit in Fig. 11B. C2 still further. When the polarity of the

Current flowing through the coil pro- voltage across C1 reverses, the voltage will
duces avoltage drop across the coil, and oppose the current flow and in Fig. 11A
this charges capacitor C2. The charge on simply add to the bias between the grid
capacitor C2 will start an oscillation in and the cathode, reducing the plate cur-
the tank circuit, which consists of coil L1 rent to zero; or in Fig. 11B, put areverse
and two capacitors, C1 and C2. Remem- bias across the emitter-base junction, re-
ducing the current flowing through the
C3
transistor to practically zero.
The amount of feedback voltage ap-
plied to the input of the circuit depends
upon the ratio of C1 to C2. If C1 is large
compared to C2, the reactance of C1 will
-r 2 f-2) C4
be low and the reactance of C2 will be
high. Most of the voltage developed
across the capacitors will be developed
o
8+ across the higher reactance, in this case
C2. This means that the feedback voltage

R2 applied to the input will be low. How-

C3 ever, if C1 is small compared to C2, the
reactance of C1 will be high compared to
the reactance of C2 and the feedback
voltage supplied to the input of the
circuit will be high.
2 r The ratio of CI and C2 can be altered
•41
E_4
to provide the required feedback to the
input circuit to sustain oscillation. If the
value of C1 is increased and the value of
C2 decreased by the correct amount, the
II. Tr.() Colpitts oscillators. total capacity in the circuit formed as the

22
 result of two capacitors in series remains
the same, and hence the resonant circuit
of the oscillator does not change. L2
In some Colpitts oscillators an addi- RFC
tional capacitor is connected directly
across LI.This is done to provide some
means of changing the resonant fre-
quency so we can vary the frequency at
which the oscillator oscillates. It is im-
practical to try to vary both C 1 and C2 at Fig. 12. A variation of the Colpitts oscillator.
the same time, but an additional capaci-
tor placed directly across the coil can be
varied, and this will change the resonant In this oscillator when the plate cur-
frequency of the oscillator. At the same rent increases there will be a voltage
time, since C1 and C2 Will still form a developed across the rf choke, L2,in the
voltage divider, part of the total voltage plate circuit of the tube, and this voltage
developed across the two capacitors in will charge C3.Once this capacitor is
series is fed back to the input circuit; this charged, oscillation starts in the circuit
part can still be controlled by the proper just as in the Colpitts oscillators shown in
selection of C 1 and C2. Fig.11.
There are anumber of variations of the The Ultra-Audion Oscillator. Another
Colpitts oscillator circuit. It is sometimes oscillator that uses capacitive feedback is
found in radio transmitting equipment the ultra-audion oscillator shown in Fig.
that must be designed so that its fre- 13A. When this type of oscillator was
quency can be varied. The Colpitts oscil- first developed, it was considered as a
lator can be designed with excellent new type of oscillator. However, with
frequency stability. By this we mean that careful analysis, we can see that it is
once the oscillator is adjusted to operate actually a Colpitts oscillator, practically
at a certain frequency it will not drift identical to the oscillator shown in Fig.
from that frequency very much. Some 12. We have used the same designations
oscillators, on the other hand, do not to identify the parts in the circuits shown
have good frequency stability and will in Figs. 12 and 13. As you can see, the
drift appreciably. parts are all the same except for C2 and
Another variation of the Colpitts oscil- C3,which Fig. 13A does not seem to
lator circuit is shown in Fig. 12. Here we have. However, in Fig. 13B we have
have the capacitor C1 connected across shown these two capacitors. C2 is the
L1 in addition to the voltage divider grid-to-cathode capacity of the tube, and
1 C3 is the plate-to-cathode capacity of the
capacitors C2 and C3.
Notice that in this circuit the plate of tube. When we consider these two capaci-
the tube is fed back directly to LI ,C1, ties, we have acapacitive voltage-divider
and C3 and that the choke coil L2 has network just like the one in Fig. 11. C2 in
been moved from the cathode circuit to Fig. 13B is between the grid and the
the plate circuit of the tube. The cathode cathode of the tube. Notice that C2 in
in this oscillator circuit is connected Fig. 12 also is in effect connected be-
tween the grid and the cathode of the
directly to ground.

23
 The Electron-Coupled Oscillator. So
far all of the vacuum tube oscillators we
have discussed have been triode oscil-
2 lators. These oscillators are widely used in
receiving equipment and are sometimes
found in transmitters and other rf power-
generating equipment. However, they
have some disadvantages, one of which is
the direct coupling between the output
and input circuits through the grid-to-
plate capacity of the tube. Loading the
output circuit of the oscillator has an
effect on the input circuit and hence
often results in an appreciable shift in the
frequency at which the oscillator is oscil-
2 lating. The net result is that triode oscil-
lators are not stable enough for some
purposes.
An oscillator that overcomes this diffi-
culty is the electron-coupled oscillator. In
this circuit atetrode or apentode tube is
used so that the only coupling between
the input and output circuits is in the
Fig. 13. The ultra-audion oscillator. electron stream flowing from the cathode
to the plate of the tube. Schematic
tube. C2 and C3 are in series in both diagrams of two electron-coupled oscil-
circuits and they are connected across the lators are shown in Fig. 14. The circuit
tank circuit. C3 connects directly to the shown in Fig. 14A is for an electron.
lead going from the plate of the tube to coupled Hartley oscillator and the one
one side of the resonant circuit, and C2 shown in Fig. 14B is for an electron-
connects through capacitor C4 to the coupled Colpitts oscillator.
resonant circuit. Therefore, this oscillator The operation of these oscillators is
is simply another form of Colpitts oscil- similar to the operation of the triode
lator. oscillators, except that in the electron-
This type of circuit is frequently used coupled oscillator the screen grid of the
in the vhf oscillators in the tuners of tube acts like the plate of atriode tube.
television receivers. Of course, it is usu- In other words, insofar as the oscillator
ally shown in the schematic in the form action is concerned, we have three ele-
shown in Fig. 13A. Manufacturers seldom ments in the tube to be concerned about,
draw in the distributed capacities; they the cathode, the grid and the screen grid.
expect the technician to know enough The screen grid acts like the plate of the
about oscillator circuits to recognize this oscillator tube. The oscillation is set up in
as the ultra-audion oscillator and to know this circuit by these three tube elements.
that this is simply a modified form of However, the electron stream flows from
Colpitts oscillator. the cathode of the tube to the plate of

24
 oscillators you'll find that it is tuned to a
frequency equal to twice or three times
the frequency to which the resonant
circuit in the grid circuit of the tube is
tuned. If we tune the resonant circuit in
the plate circuit of the tube to twice the
frequency of the resonant circuit in the
grid circuit of the tube, we will have a
frequency doubler. The resonant circuit
in the plate circuit of the tube is set into
oscillation by the burst of plate current
flowing through the tube. However, since
the resonant frequency of this circuit is
twice the resonant frequency of the input
circuit, the circuit in the plate circuit
begins to oscillate at afrequency equal to
twice the frequency being generated in
the grid circuit. The oscillation in the
plate circuit therefore goes through two
complete cycles before asecond pulse is
received from the plate of the tube. This
is called a frequency-doubler circuit. If
the resonant circuit in the plate circuit is
tuned to three times the frequency of the
Fig. 14. Electron-coupled oscillators; the circuit
at A is aHartley oscillator. input circuit, the oscillation set up in the
plate circuit will go through three com-
the tube, and it is controlled by the grid. plete cycles before it receives an addi-
Since the grid is biased beyond cutoff tional pulse from the plate of the tube.
during most of the rf cycle, but receives a This is called afrequency tripler. Now,
strong positive pulse during aportion of you might expect this to result in a
the cycle, the plate current flowing damped wave, with the amplitude of the
through the tube flows in the form of cycles which do not receive areinforcing
pulses, which flow only when the grid of pulse from the plate of the tube being
the tube is driven in apositive direction. considerably less than the amplitude of
In the plate circuit of both oscillators the particular cycles during which the
we have shown an rf choke and acapaci- pulse is received. Of course, there will be
tor through which the oscillator can be some loss in the resonant circuit and
coupled to the following stage. In some there will be some change in amplitude.
electron-coupled oscillators you will find However, by the use of ahigh Q resonant
aresonant circuit in the plate circuit of circuit in the plate circuit, the change in
the tube instead of the rf chokes shown amplitude that occurs each cycle is very
in Fig. 14. In some oscillators, this small and for all practical purposes all the
resonant circuit will be tuned to the same cycles of the sine wave produced in the
frequency as the resonant circuit in the resonant circuit will have essentially the
grid circuit of the oscillator, but in other same amplitude.

25
 R-C OSCILLATORS works, the losses of the total feedback
circuit will decrease and aless amount of
Resistance-capacitance (R-C) oscil- phase shift will occur in each section of
lators use the charging and discharging the feedback loop. For this reason some
action of acapacitor and aresistor in the oscillators use five or six R-C sections. In
feedback path to cause oscillation. The Fig. 15 each section produces a60 degree
R-C oscillator is used in audio and low rf phase shift. The reactance of the capaci-
ranges. They offer an inexpensive method tors is inversely proportional to the fre-
of obtaining a fairly stable sine wave quency; therefore, only one frequency
within the range of their operation. Al-
though many variations of the R-C oscil-
lators exist, there are only two basic
types, the phase shift and the bridge.
The phase shift uses a series of R-C
phase shifting circuits between the output
and the input to produce a feedback
in-phase with the input. The bridge cir-
cuit usually uses an additional tube or
transistor to obtain the phase shift and a
bridge type circuit to control the feed-
back at the proper frequency.
Phase Shift. The phase shift oscillators
in Fig. 15 consist of a conventional
amplifier and a phase shift feedback
circuit. As in L-C oscillators, the feedback
must be positive. In the circuits in Fig.
15A and B, the output signal will be 180 °
out-of-phase with the input signal. There-
fore the phase shift network must shift
the phase of the feedback signal 180
degrees. This phase shift is provided by
C1 ,C2,C3 and RI,R2,R3.One section,
C1-R 1,of the feedback loop is shown ANGLE OF PHA SE SHIFT
separately in Fig. 15C. The impedance of DETERMINED
the circuits is capacitive and the feedback BY RC RATIO

voltage, ef, produces acurrent, i, through

C1-R 1 which leads Cf. The angle of the CI
current lead is determined by the ratio of
the reactance of C1 to the resistance R I.
As the value of R1 is reduced, the circuit
will become more capacitive and more
current will lead the voltage up to a
maximum of 90 °. If resistance is in-
creased the current lead will decrease.
©
By increasing the number of R-C net- Fig. 15. Phase shift oscillators.

26
will pass through the feedback loop. change in collector current develops an
Normally the output is fixed in frequency output voltage across R6 which is 180 °
due to the constant value of the capaci- out-of-phase with the original change in
tors. A variable output may be obtained base voltage. Part of the signal developed
by using ganged variable capacitors or across R6 is returned to the base shifted
resistors since an increase in the value of 180 degrees by the R-C network. The
either R or C will decrease the frequency. shift in phase through the R-C network
Let us examine the operation of the causes the feedback to aid the output,
circuit in Fig. I5B. R3 and R4 establish resulting in positive feedback.
the base bias while Rs and C4 furnish With fixed values of R and C, the 180
thermal stabilization and furnish an rf degree phase shift occurs at only one
ground to the emitter. R6 is the load frequency, therefore, the output is asine
across which the output is taken and C5 wave of fixed frequency. At all other
is the coupling capacitor. frequencies, the reactance either increases
Once power is supplied, operation is or decreases, causing a variation in the
started by any raldom noise in the power phase relationship resulting in degener-
source or the transistor. This noise causes ative feedback.
a change in base current which causes a The Bridge Oscillator. The Wien-bridge
large change in collector current. This oscillators shown in Fig. 16 consist of low

( C5

OUTPUT

Fig. 16. Wien-bridge oscillators.

27
gain amplifier stages and a resistive- the output by Cs,and afeedback signal is
capacitive bridge circuit. The feedback is coupled through C4 to Qi.
taken from the second amplifier and We have not covered all of the various
returned to the bridge circuit. Since there L-C and R-C oscillator circuits you are
are two 180 degree phase shifts between likely to encounter. There are many
the input of the first amplifier and the different variations of the circuits we
output of the second amplifier, the feed- have discussed, and some entirely differ-
back will be positive. The resistive- ent circuits. However, most of the circuits
reactive bridge circuit is designed to be you are likely to encounter will be one of
balanced at the operating frequency; the circuits we have discussed in this
therefore, only feedback of the desired section of the lesson or avariation of one
frequency reaches the input of the first of these circuits. If you come across a
stage. Let's examine Fig. 16A and see circuit you do not recognize immediately,
how this works. first determine whether it is R-C or L-C
The voltage divider, R2 and R5 supply and, in the latter case, whether capacitive
base bias for Qi and R7,and R8 fur- or inductive feedback is used. Once you
nishes bias for Q2.Thermal stabilization have decided on the type of feedback
is provided by R4 and Rg.R3 and R4 that is used, you should be able to figure
form aresistive leg of the bridge which is out how the oscillator circuit works if
in shunt with the output of Q2. A you keep in mind that its operation is
portion of this output coupled by C4 and similar to one oscillator we have de-
R3 appears across R4 as negative feed- scribed in this lesson.
back. Since R4 is not frequency sensitive,
the negative feedback is constant regard-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
less of the frequency of the output. At
frequencies other than the operating fre-
quency, the negative feedback furnished When plate current increases in the
by R4 will prevent oscillation. At the tuned grid oscillator (Fig. 9B), what
frequency of operation, which is con- happens to the voltage at the
trolled by the bridge reactive leg of junction of R1 and C2?
R1-C 1 and R2-C 2,the positive feedback Where is the feedback voltage devel-
to the base of Q1 is maximum. This oped in the Colpitts oscillator (Fig.
in-phase feedback signal is applied to the 11B)?
base of Q1 and is of sufficient amplitude The ultra-audion oscillator is amod-
to overcome the negative feedback across ification of what type oscillator?
R4 .The total feedback is therefore posi- How is the Ise phase shift in
tive at the operating frequency. feedback voltage accomplished in
The amplified output of Q1 is coupled the phase shift oscillator?
to the base of Q2 by C3 and R7.Q2 What component(s) develops the
further amplifies the signal and the volt- feedback voltage in the Wien-Bridge
age developed across R1O is coupled to oscillator (Fig. 16)?

28
 Crystal Oscillators

Although L-C oscillator circuits have how the crystal is used in oscillator
been developed that have very good circuits, and finally we will discuss some
frequency stability characteristics, the of the most-used crystal oscillator cir-
master oscillators in most transmitters cuits.
still use crystals. Better frequency stabil-
ity is the main reason for using crystals THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
instead of L-C resonant circuits in master
oscillators. The frequency tolerance al-
lowed by the FCC for most transmitting A quartz crystal exhibits a property
services is very small. The tolerance of a called the piezoelectric (pronounced pi-
transmitter operating in the broadcast ee-zo) effect when it is compressed me-
band, for example, is afrequency devia- chanically or when acurrent is applied to
tion of only 20 Hertz from the assigned it. To illustrate this effect, suppose we
frequency. Some services are permitted have a small crystal wafer with leads
slightly more frequency tolerance, but in attached to its two surfaces. If we
all cases, the tolerance is rather strict. squeeze the wafer or bend it in some way,
This restriction is necessary to keep the avoltage will appear between the leads.
large number of stations operating in the If, on the other hand, we apply asmall
frequency spectrum from interfering with voltage across the leads, the crystal slab
each other. will bend, expand, or contract, depending
Several types of materials can be used on the polarity of the applied voltage and
for crystals. These include quartz, the crystal type. These two effects are
Rochelle salts, and tourmaline. The most used in many types of electronic equip-
often used crystal material for generating ment.
radio frequency signals is quartz. A crystal wafer has adermite mechani-
Rochelle salts work better in low- cal resonant frequency at which it will
frequency applications, such as in loud- vibrate most readily. This resonant fre-
speakers and microphones. Tourmaline quency is determined by the physical
will work as well as quartz, but because it dimensions of the wafer, particularly the
is asemiprecious stone, it is more expen- thickness. The thinner the wafer, the
sive. higher the resonant frequency. Thus,
The assembly usually referred to as a when an ac voltage, whose frequency is
crystal is composed of asmall piece of near the crystal resonant frequency, is
crystal material mounted in aholder. The applied, the crystal will vibrate the great-
crystal material is in the form of asmall est amount and produce the greatest
slab or wafer cut from alarger crystal. output. Because of the large amount of
The way in which the wafer is cut from vibration at the resonant frequency, there
the natural crystal determines many of its is alimit to how thin the wafer can be
electrical characteristics. In this section, before it becomes too fragile for practical
we will find out how the crystal works, use.

29
 CRYSTAL CUTS

The natural quartz crystal, as shown in

Fig. 17, is said to have 3 major axes at
right angles to each other. These axes,
called the X, Y, and Zaxes, are shown in
the illustration. The X axis is called the
electrical axis; the Y axis is called the
X- CUT--
mechanical axis; and the Z axis is called
the optical axis. The way that the crystal
wafers are cut with respect to these axes
determines many electrical character- Y-CUT--
istics, including the frequency range in
which the crystal will oscillate and the
amount that the resonant frequency will
change with change; in the temperature
(the temperature coefficient).
If the crystal wafer shown by the
shaded section in Fig. 17 is cut so that its
face is perpendicular to the Y axis, it is
called aY-cut crystal. Similarly, if its face
Y
is perpendicular to the X axis it is called
an X-cut crystal. Crystal wafers cut per-
pendicular to the Z axis have no piezo-
electric properties.
Crystal cuts can be made at different
angles to the major axes to produce
Fig. 17. Major axes quartz crystal.
crystals having slightly different electrical
characteristics. The type of cut depends
on the purpose for which it is to be used. of a4-MHz crystal might increase by 400
One of the most important character- Hertz for each degree of temperature
istics of aquartz crystal used in oscillator change. Because of this rather high tem-
circuits is the amount the crystal fre- perature coefficient and also because
quency varies with variations in tempera- Y-cut crystals have atendency to oscillate
ture. We call this the temperature co- at a second frequency near the design
efficient of the crystal. Y-cut crystals frequency, they are seldom used.
have a range of about —25 to +100 X-cut crystals have a range of about
Hertz/ °C/MHz (Hertz per degree centi- —10 to —25 Hertz/ °C/MHz. The minus
grade per MHz). In other words, aone- sign means that the crystal frequency
degree centigrade increase in temperature decreases with an increase in temperature.
may cause the frequency to decrease as We call this a negative temperature co-
much as 25 Hertz, or increase by as much efficient. Even though the frequency vari-
as 100 Hertz for each MHz of the ation is less, close temperature control is
frequency for which the crystal is ground. still required to keep the crystal oscil-
To take an extreme case, the frequency lating at the correct frequency.

30
 As an example of how temperature the AT-cut crystal, and about 45 ° to the
affects the crystal frequency, consider an Z axis in the case of the BT-cut crystal.
X-cut crystal that has an operating fre- Notice that the angle of the AT-cut
quency of 4650 kHz at 50 ° C. If it has a crystal is opposite to that of the BT-cut
temperature coefficient of —20 Hertz per crystal with respect to the Z axis. The
degree centigrade per MHz, let's deter- temperature coefficient of these cuts is
mine what its operating frequency would about ±2 parts per million at atempera-
be if the temperature changes ten degrees. ture of 40°C to 50 °C. Thus, the angle cut
practically cancels the effects of tempera-
4650 kHz =4.65 MHz ture variation on the frequency of oscil-
lation if it is operated within the tempera-
therefore the change in frequency per ture range.
degree centigrade is: Other angular cuts can be made to get
other electrical characteristics and effects.
4.65 X 20 =93.00 Hertz Some examples are the CT and DT cuts
used for lower frequency operation below
The change in frequency with atempera- 500 kHz. A CT-cut crystal is cut perpen-
ture change of ten degrees will be: dicular to the BT-cut crystal, and the DT
cut crystal is cut perpendicular to the AT-
93 X 10 =930 Hertz cut crystal. Another cut is the GT cut.
and 930 Hertz = .930 kHz

Thus we see that with a temperature

change of only 10 degrees, the frequency
will change almost 1 kHz. With a 20-
degree change, the frequency change
would be almost 2 kHz. If the tempera-
ture increases 10 °,the frequency will
decrease to about 4649 kHz (4649.07 BT-CUT
kHz), and if the temperature drops 10 °,
the frequency will increase to almost
4651 kHz (4650.93 kHz). Where there AT-CUT
are many stations operating on fre-
quencies close together, this shift in
frequency could be enough to cause
interference.
We can reduce the temperature effect
on the resonant frequency of the crystal
by cutting the crystals at angles to the
major axes. Examples of such crystal
cuts, called the AT-cut and the BT-cut,
are shown in Fig. 18. These crystals are
IZ
really Y-cut crystals with the face of the
wafer at an angle of about 39 ° to the Z
F. 18. AT-ait and BT-cut crystals are cut
axis instead of parallel to it in the case of on an angle to the Z axis as shown.

31
 30 metallic film with solder having a low
20 AT ...." melting point. The leads are attached to a
10 - ,... ...-•'
-..... •,..› GT node or non-oscillating portion of the
.e..... -••.- _...•• elle.......„
0 b' I
crystal. The node can be either in the
IO /
\CT center of the crystal face or at an edge
I

-20 I
/
\ where inhibiting the vibrations will do no
I
30 r \ harm.
\
-40 • Another method of mounting the
50
20 40 60 80 I
crystal in aholder is to arrange it so that
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES C it is pressed between two metal plates.
The metal plates make electrical contact
Fig. 19.Frequency changes of different crystal with the crystal surfaces. Another type
cuts with changes in temperature. uses an air gap .001 to .005 inch thick
between the crystal and the upper plate.
This air gap produces adamping effect on
This crystal is cut on an angle of about the amount of crystal vibration. Often,
45 ° to either the CT- or DT-cut crystals. however, the crystal holder is evacuated
Fig. 19 illustrates the variation of the so that the damping will be reduced.
resonant frequency with temperature for Regardless of the type of mounting
various crystal cuts. Notice that the fre- used, the holder itself is designed to keep
quency of the GT-cut crystal is practi- the crystal free of grit, dirt, and oil film.
cally constant from 0° to about 100° Even aspeck of dirt or agreasy film can
This cut, therefore, is the best to use in change the characteristics of the crystal.
equipment that will be subjected to wide Therefore, the crystal holder should never
temperature variations. The other cuts be opened, nor should the crystal be
have zero temperature coefficients at or handled. If it is ever necessary to take one
near specific temperatures. apart, the crystal may be cleaned with a

CRYSTAL HOLDERS

After the crystal has been ground, or

etched by means of chemicals, until it is
of the proper thickness, it is placed in a
holder. The holder is then sealed so that
no air, dirt, or oil can reach the crystal
wafer. These can cause erratic operation
of the crystal. A crystal in its hermeti-
cally sealed holder is shown in Fig. 20.
There are two ways of mounting the
crystal in the holder. In one way, avery
thin film of metal is formed directly on
the surface of the crystal by spraying or
firing. The metal can be either silver,
gold, or aluminum. The crystal is sup-
ported by flexible wires fastened to this Fig. 20. A quartz crystal in its holder.

32
good nonflammable commercial cleaner. late more vigorously at its natural reso-
The crystals should be handled with nant frequency than at any other fre-
clean, lint-free cloths, not with bare quency. This is true. When an ac voltage
fingers (bare fingers leave traces of perspi- is applied to its electrodes, the crystal
ration on any object they touch). generates an alternating potential of its
Equivalent Circuit. The symbol in Fig. own.
21A is used in schematic diagrams to Because of its electrical characteristics,
represent the crystal in its holder. The the crystal can be used in an oscillator
equivalent electrical circuit of the crystal circuit. The electrical properties of the
and holder assembly is shown in Fig. 21B. crystal are somewhat different from those
As you can see, we have here aseries- of a typical coil and capacitor. The
parallel circuit composed of the series mechanical properties of the crystal pro-
components L, R, and C1 shunted by duce avery high apparent inductance, L
capacity C2. The crystal, therefore, acts Also, since the mechanical losses during
electrically as an L-C circuit; as an induc- vibration are small, the electrical equiva-
tance at frequencies above the resonant lent resistance is also very small. When we
frequency and as a capacitance at fre- have an L-C circuit containing a large
quencies below resonance. The apparent inductance and avery low resistance, the
inductance L is due to the mass of the Q of the circuit will be very high. This is
crystal, resistance R is the result of the case with the crystal used in oscillator
internal mechanical losses, and capacity circuits.
C1 is the stiffness (piezoelectric proper- Practical crystals have effective Q
ties) of the crystal. Capacity C2 is the values which are about 100 times as great
capacity between the electrode plates, as that ordinarily obtainable with the
with the quartz crystal acting as the usual inductance coil and tuning capaci-
dielectric. tor. Crystals, therefore, have extremely
Since the crystal acts as an electrical good frequency selectivity. The higher
resonant circuit, we would expect it to be the Q, the better the frequency stability.
frequency selective; that is, it will oscil- Thus, if we substitute acrystal for the
ordinary L-C tank circuit, we can make
an oscillator that has good frequency
stability.

CRYSTAL OVENS

The purpose of a crystal oven is to

maintain the crystal at aconstant temper-
ature to prevent frequency drift. Some
2 time ago, it was common practice to put
the crystal, the entire master oscillator of
the transmitter, and often even the buffer
stage in aheat-controlled chamber. This
Fig. 21. The schematic symbol for a quartz
crystal in its holder is shown at A. The
prevented temperature variations from
equivalent electrical circuit of a quartz crystal affecting the physical dimensions of the
is above at B. coil and capacitor in the plate circuit, and

33
 CERAMIC METAL SUPPORT
CRYSTAL HOLDER

THERMOSTAT

FACTORY
FREQUENC
ADJUSTMENT

TEMPERATURE
ADJUSTMENT

2—WATT
HEATER

Fig. 22. A cut-away view of acrystal oven.

thus changing the oscillator frequency. thermostat attached to the metal support.
This is seldom done in modern trans- When the temperature of the support
mitters; generally only the crystal is drops avery small amount, the thermo-
temperature-controlled. stat contacts close, and current is applied
A typical modern crystal oven is shown to the heater. When the support reaches a
in Fig. 22. The overall unit is about the certain temperature, the thermostat con-
size of a metal receiving tube —about 4 tacts open. The difference between the
inches high and 1-1/4 inches wide. on and off temperatures of the thermo-
Smaller units are also available. The stat is very small; that is, the temperature
crystal oven unit fits into an octal tube must drop only a small amount before
socket. The unit in Fig. 22 is guaranteed current is again applied to the heater coil.
to hold the transmitter frequency within The crystal frequency and thermostat
10 Hertz at any point on the broadcast temperature adjustments shown in Fig.
band. 22 are set at the factory when the unit is
The crystal is contained in aceramic assembled. It is impossible to change the
holder attached to acopper support. The adjustments because the unit is hermeti-
heater is also wrapped around this sup- cally sealed. Thus, when ordering such a
port. Thus, the metal support conducts crystal unit, you must specify the exact
the heat to the crystal and maintains it at crystal frequency you want and the cir-
aconstant temperature. cuit in which the crystal will be used.
The heat is controlled by abimetallic Crystal manufacturers will not guarantee

34
the operating frequency of a crystal
unless the crystal is adjusted in the circuit
in which it will be used.

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

To help see how the crystal oscillator

works, let's look at another L-C oscil-
lator. This oscillator is shown in Fig. 23,
and is called a tuned-grid, tuned-plate
oscillator. It is easy to see where this a+
oscillator gets its name, since there are Fig. 24. A simple crystal-oscillator circuit.
resonant circuits in both the grid circuit
and the plate circuit of the tube.
The tuned-grid, tuned-plate oscillator measure plate current. Actually almost all
works because of the capacity between oscillators have some provision made for
the plate and grid of the triode tube. measuring plate current.
When the resonant circuit in the plate Since the crystal is the equivalent of
circuit of the tube is tuned to afrequency the circuit that has been removed, the
slightly lower than the operating fre- crystal oscillator operates in exactly the
quency, it will act like an inductance. same way as the resonant circuit in the
Under these conditions, the phase of the grid of the tuned-grid, tuned-plate oscil-
signal voltage fed from the plate of the lator. The plate circuit must be tuned so
tube back to the grid of the tube is that it presents an inductive load, and
correct to aid the ac grid voltage, and energy will be fed from the plate of the
oscillation occurs. tube back to the grid in the correct phase
The crystal oscillator shown in Fig. 24 to aid the ac grid voltage so oscillation
is simply amodification of the tuned-grid will occur.
tuned-plate oscillator shown in Fig. 23. In the input circuit, the rf current
Here a crystal has been substituted for flowing through the crystal itself is
the resonant circuit in the grid circuit of limited only by the resistance of RI.This
the oscillator and amilliameter is shown resistance is usually low enough to result
in the plate circuit of the stage to in a fairly high crystal current. If the
resistance is made too high, the crystal
may be somewhat erratic as it starts to
oscillate when power is applied to the
stage. On the other hand, if the current
becomes higher than about 100 milli-
amperes, the crystal vibrations may be so
violent that the crystal may shatter, and
thus destroy itself. Of course, the thinner
the crystal and the higher its resonant
frequency, the lower the safe current
B+ limit becomes.
Fig. 23. lulled-grid, tuned-plate oscillator. Many transmitters have an rf current

35
meter in series with the crystal to indicate
this current. To prevent possible damage
to the crystal, the amplitude of oscil-
lation in a crystal oscillator circuit must
be kept at a safe level. Usually this is
accomplished by keeping the plate volt-
age on the oscillator tube low. This low
plate voltage reduces the maximum out-
put power that can be obtained from
such oscillators.
Pierce Oscillator. It is possible to place
the crystal between the plate and grid
B+
circuits, as shown in Fig. 25, instead of
between the grid and cathode. In this case Fig. 26. Crystal oscillator using apentode tube.
the circuit is similar to the ultra-audion
circuit. This circuit is called the Pierce
oscillator. ty than do triodes, and therefore, there is
Notice that the circuit contains no less feedback current to the grid when
tank inductance or tuning capacity. The they are used as crystal oscillators. The
amount of feedback and the grid excita- lower feedback means that these tubes
tion can be controlled to some extent by can be operated at ahigher output power
adjusting the capacity of C1.The larger than atriode without excessive rf crystal
this capacity, the less the feedback. The current.
exact capacity of CI in most cases is not A crystal oscillator using a pentode
critical. Usually, when the best value is tube is shown in the diagram of Fig. 26.
determined, crystals of slightly different Because of the limited amount of plate-
frequency can be switched into the cir- grid feedback, the plate voltage can be
cuit without further adjustment. Again considerably higher than for the triode
the plate voltage must be low to prevent oscillator. This, of course, increases the
damaging the crystal. output power. The circuit may also be
Crystal Oscillators Using Multi-Grid used for high-frequency crystals having
Tubes. Tetrode and pentode tubes also fundamental resonant frequencies of
may be used in crystal-oscillator circuits. about 10 MI-Iz. The output in this case
These tubes have less plate-to-grid capaci- can be high, but the small amount of
current through the crystal protects it
from excessive vibration. Sometimes
extra feedback is needed to produce
oscillation in the circuit. This is done by
connecting a small capacitance between
the plate and the control grid.
Crystal Control Transistor Oscillators.
A transistor tickler coil oscillator using a
crystal to control feedback is shown in
Fig. 27. Positive feedback from collector
Fig. 25. The basic Pierce oscillator. to base is provided through the mutual

36
 OVERTONE OPERATION
—V

Most crystals will oscillate not only at

their fundamental resonant frequencies,
but also at odd overtones of the funda-
mental. A crystal with afundamental of 4
MHz, for example, will oscillate also at
frequencies near 12 MHz, 20 MHz, 28
MHz, etc. The oscillation frequency will
not be an exact multiple of the funda-
mental oscillation frequency. Exact mul-
tiples would mean harmonic operation
rather than overtone operation. Thus, if
you use a crystal designed for funda-
mental operation as an overtone crystal,
Fig. 27. Crystal tickler coil oscillator. you can use the frequency markings on
the crystal holder only to get an approxi-
mate idea of the actual frequency at
inductance between the windings of T.. which the oscillator is working. To deter-
This provides the 180° phase shift neces- mine the exact frequency, you will have
sary to sustain oscillation. In this circuit, to measure it with afrequency meter.
the crystal acts as a series resonant Although any crystal can be used in
circuit. At frequencies other than the overtone operation, it is best to use one
resonant frequency the crystal acts as a that has been ground specifically for this
high impedance, blocking the feedback purpose. The ordinary fundamental type
path. At the resonant frequency the of crystal is somewhat unstable and hard
crystal offers minimum impedance to the to adjust when operated on an overtone.
feedback signal. The operating frequency Most of the overtone crystals are designed
may be varied by the use of different
crystals and tuning the tank to the —V
frequency of the crystal with C1.
The crystal oscillator shown in Fig. 28
is avariation of the Colpitts oscillator. In RFC
this circuit the crystal acts as aparallel
1( co
tuned circuit and replaces the L-C tank.
C3
7 F.-
Operating frequency is determined by the
crystal and the capacitance in series with
c 2 cpuT
-
T
it. At the resonant frequency, the crystal
and capacitors in parallel with it form a -1-. YI
high impedance tank circuit. Capacitors
C1 and C2 form avoltage divider that is E
center-tapped to ground. The voltage
developed across C1 is applied between
the base and ground providing a 180°
phase shift in the feedback path. Fig. 28. Colpitts crystal oscillator.

37
to operate on the third overtone; opera- having afundamental frequency of about
tion at higher overtones is possible, but 8 MHz to give a 24 MHz output when
the stability and ease of adjustment be- operated on the third overtone.
comes more critical at the higher over- In Fig. 29, the circuit made up of C1
tones. and the upper end of L1 is resonant at 24
The chief advantage of overtone opera- MHz. The tap on L1 is held at rf ground
tion is that we can generate frequencies in potential by C2. The lower end of L1 is
the vhf range without the use of doubler inductively coupled to the upper end
stages. The highest fundamental oscil- (usually this is asimple one-tapped coil)
lation frequency of acrystal is about 10 so energy is fed from the plate circuit
MHz. If one is ground to operate on a back to the grid circuit to sustain oscil-
higher frequency then it is so thin that it lations. The rf signal fed back to the grid
breaks easily. Thus, by operating it on the circuit will cause the crystal to oscillate
third or fifth harmonic, we get a much on its third overtone frequency. Output
higher frequency than we could on the from the oscillator is taken from the plate
fundamental. Another advantage of over- circuit through C3.
tone operation is that no frequencies are Modern overtone crystals are capable
generated that can cause interference of oscillating as high as 100 MHz on
with other channels. Because the number higher order harmonics, so the output of
of frequency multiplier stages is reduced a crystal oscillator could be up in this
or completely eliminated, overtone region. However, when such high fre-
crystals are used often in mobile, marine, quency signals are needed, you will often
and aircraft transmitters in which com- find a crystal oscillator operating at 50
pactness is important. MHz followed by a doubler to increase
The oscillator circuit using an overtone the frequency to 100 MHz, or an oscil-
crystal is similar to an ordinary crystal lator operating at about 33.3 MHz follow-
oscillator circuit of the type you will ed by atripler.
study later. The overtone at which the An oscillator circuit that can be used
crystal will operate is determined by the to generate both even and odd harmonic
plate circuit resonant frequency. The frequencies of the fundamental is the
circuit of an overtone oscillator is shown tri-tet circuit shown in Fig. 30. The
in Fig. 29. The oscillator uses a crystal output signals are harmonics rather than
overtones.
C3 The tri-tet circuit is actually the crystal
version of the electron-coupled circuit
described earlier in this lesson. The
crystal and the resonant tank L1-C 1 are
connected to the control grid, the cath-
ode, and through C4 to the screen grid
(which acts as the oscillator plate), to
form a modified tuned-plate, tuned-grid
oscillator. The cathode tank circuit
L1-C 1,therefore, must be tuned to a
B+
frequency slightly lower than that of the
Fig. 29. An overtone oscillator circuit. crystal in order to be inductive.

38
 C3 CRYSTAL-OSCILLATOR
ADJUSTMENT
OUT-
PUT The tuning procedures for crystal oscil-
I XTAL lator circuits of all types are similar. The

93 RFC L
2 curves in Fig. 31 show how the plate
current of an oscillator tube varies with
changes in the tuning capacity. The solid
•
curve is for an unloaded oscillator circuit,
and the dashed curve represents the cir-
cuit loaded.
5 When you adjust a triode or Pierce
oscillator like those shown in Figs. 24 and
C
4 26, begin first with the plate tank capaci-
T T B+ tor in the minimum capacity position.
Then rotate the capacitor toward the
F. 30. The tri-tet oscillator circuit. maximum capacity position. As soon as
oscillation begins, the plate current will
Since the screen grid is bypassed to begin to decrease. It will decrease more
ground by capacitor C4 , there is very and more, going through points 3 and 2
little direct coupling between the actual in Fig. 31 as oscillation becomes stronger.
tube plate and the oscillator portion of If the plate capacitor is turned too far,
the circuit. The electron stream reaching however, oscillations will stop abruptly as
the plate, however, arrives in the form of at point 1in Fig. 31. In practice, it is best
pulses that contain relatively large not to approach point 1 too closely
amounts of harmonic energy. If we tune because minor voltage or current vari-
the plate tank circuit L2-C 2 to a fre- ations may stop the oscillator. Instead,
quency twice that of the crystal, acon- adjust the plate tuning capacitor so that
siderable amount of output power at the operation will be somewhere in the stable
second harmonic frequency will be ob- region between points 2and 3.
tained. Even if the plate is tuned to a
OSCLLATION IDEAL OPERATING
frequency three times that of the crystal STARTS CONDITIONS
we will get a fair amount of third
harmonic output power.
OSCILLATION
Therefore, the tri-tet circuit not only STOPS
behaves as acrystal-controlled oscillator,
but also performs as afrequency doubler
or tripler at the same time. The additional
feature of the electron coupling prevents
load variations from reaching the crystal
and influencing the oscillator frequency.
A disadvantage of this circuit is that both
MIN TUNING CAPACITOR MAX.
sides of the crystal are above if ground
potential. Another is the fact that a Fig. 31. Curves showing how the plate current
cathode coil is needed. in acrystal-oscillator circuit varies with tuning.

39
 When aload is placed on the oscillator Finally adjust the cathode tank capaci-
circuit, the plate current dip of the tor C1 for maximum harmonic power
oscillator will not be as pronounced. It output which will be indicated by a
will follow the dashed curve in the maximum current flow in the following
diagram. As before, however, too much amplifier grid current. Also watch the
capacity will cause the oscillator to stop. crystal current to be sure that it does not
The operating point again should be rise above the safe limit.
somewhere between points 2and 3.
The transistor oscillator in Fig. 27 FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS
would be adjusted in asimilar manner, C1
being tuned to apoint where the current In order for atransmitter to be versa-
through the tank is between points 2and tile, it must be capable of operating on
3 in Fig. 31. C1 is first tuned for more than one frequency. In the crystal
minimum capacitance. Then the capaci- oscillators discussed previously we have
tance is increased until current is between to change the crystal each time the
the stable points of operation. frequency is changed. Thus for each
When adjusting the tri-tet circuit in channel the equipment is operated on, we
Fig. 30, rust set the cathode tank capaci- need aseparate crystal. Transmitters that
tor C1 to a frequency higher than are operated on only afew channels use
resonance (minimum capacity) so that separate crystals for each channel. How-
oscillations will occur. In this circuit, the ever, this arrangement is not completely
usual parts values are such that oscillation satisfactory when the transmitter must be
will be maintained over a fairly wide capable of operating on alarge number of
range of C1 adjustment. However, the channels. The frequency synthesizer is
crystal current increases very rapidly as one solution to this problem.
the capacity is increased. Start tuning Ci A frequency synthesizer is basically a
for the minimum capacity position and circuit in which harmonics and sub-
progress only to the point of normal harmonics of one or more crystals are
crystal current. Usually an if milli- combined to provide avariety of output
ammeter is placed in series with the signals. The same principle is used that
crystal to measure this current. The cur- you studied earlier in the basic superhet-
rent should be kept below 100 milli- erodyne receiver. You will recall that in
amperes. the mixer stage of that receiver the
With no load connected, the plate tank incoming signal was beat with the local
capacitor C2 should be adjusted for a oscillator to form two new frequencies.
minimum value of plate current as indi- These new frequencies were equivalent to
cated by asharp dip in the meter reading. the sum and the difference of the in-
Now, connect the load to the circuit. This coming signal frequency and the local
is usually the grid of the following buffer oscillator frequency.
amplifier stage. With the load attached, Fig. 32 shows one type of frequency
capacitor C2 may need readjustment to synthesizer. Circuit details have been
bring the plate current back to minimum. omitted for simplicity. Two oscillator
This time, however, the current value will circuits are used with amixer which will
be somewhat higher because of the load- beat the outputs of the oscillators to-
ing. gether and produce an output equal to

40
 SI OSCILLATOR

OFF
-I- -I- -I- -I- -I- -I-
T TTT TTT
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
kHz kHz kHz kHz kHz kHz kHz kHz kHz

MIXER •OUTPUT
Fi+F2

F2

S2 OSCILLATOR
2

1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

kHz kHz IkHz kHz kHz

Fig. 32. Multiple crystal frequency synthesizer.

the sum of the two frequencies. Each of switches, the output can be varied from
the oscillators is tunable to different 1000 kHz to 1490 kHz in 10 kHz steps.
frequencies of aselected band by switch- In this manner, a total of 50 different
ing the crystals in the oscillator circuit. frequencies can be generated from only
Oscillator number 1 has 9 crystals in 14 different crystals.
the input. Each crystal is resonant at a This type of synthesizer has the advan-
different frequency, enabling the output tage of less crystals than a conventional
of oscillator number 1to be varied in 10 oscillator with similar frequency cover-
kHz steps from zero to 90 kHz. The tenth age.
position of switch S1 disables the oscil- Let's look at a block diagram of a
lator. Oscillator number 2 has 5crystals transceiver and see another use for fre-
which vary its frequency over a500 kHz quency synthesizers.
band in 100 kHz steps. The transceiver is a compact radio
With S1 and S2 in the positions shown, station that uses some of the components
oscillator 1 is operating at 60 kHz and for both transmitting and receiving. These
oscillator 2 at 1100 kHz. The mixer units usually transmit and receive on the
receives both outputs and beats them to same frequency.
form a1160 kHz output. If S2 was left in Fig. 33 is a block diagram of atrans-
this position and S1 moved, the output of ceiver. The upper channel is the receiver
the mixer could be varied from 1100 kHz section while the lower channel is the
(when S1 is in the off position) to 1190 transmit section.
kHz in 10 kHz steps. By moving both Incoming rf is coupled from the an-

41
 RECEIVED
FREQUENCY 10MHz IF

AUDIO
_I
COUPLING _41 RF fl MIXER IF H AUDIO AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT S AMPLIFIER NO.2 AMPLIFIER DETECTOR AND
a OUTPUT
F•TRANSM1T FREQUENCY
10MHz
PLUS 10 MHz
1

MIXER LOCAL ISYNTHESIZER

NO .1 OSCILLATOR SECTION

H
RF
TRANSMITTER
POWER MULTIPLIER BUFFER
AMPLIFIER OSCILLATOR
AMPLIFIER
L
[TRANSMIT
FREQUENCY

MODULATOR

Fig. 33. Block diagram of abasic transceiver.

tenna to the rf amplifier. This amplified coming rf. Let's assume in this example
rf is then heterodyned in mixer number 2 that we desire a 10 MHz i -f. In that case
with a signal from mixer number 1. We our local oscillator frequency to mixer
will discuss the signal from mixer number number 2 must be 10 MHz above the
1 shortly. The difference frequency is incoming rf. Since the transmitted rf and
detected and sent through the i -f ampli- received rf must be the same frequency
fiers to the audio detectors and output for stations to communicate with each
section. other, a separate oscillator is required to
The transmit channel gets its frequency generate the local oscillator frequency.
from the transmitter oscillator. After If .
a synthesizer were not used, the
being multiplied to the proper frequency, local oscillator crystal would have to be
the rf is fed to the power amplifier. In the changed each time the transmitter oscil-
power amplifier the modulating signal is lator crystal was changed in order to keep
applied to the rf. The rf, now containing the local oscillator 10 MHz above the
the intelligence, is coupled from the transmitter frequency. The synthesizer
power amplifier to the antenna. however, uses a very stable constant
Notice that between the multiplier and frequency oscillator operating at the 10
the power amplifier, the transmitter fre- MHz i -f. The transmitted rf is fed to
quency is fed to mixer number 1. This is mixer number 1of the synthesizer where
part of the frequency synthesizer. it is mixed with the 10 MHz signal. The
You recall that the i-f is the difference sum of these two frequencies is then used
between the local oscillator and the in- as the local oscillator frequency. In mixer

42
number 2 the local oscillator frequency is fundamentals of any frequency synthe-
mixed with the incoming rf and the sizer you encounter.
difference (10 MHz) is used as the i
-f.
SELF—TEST QUESTIONS
In this manner the local oscillator
frequency to the receiver is changed each Why is plate voltage kept low in the
time the transmitter frequency is Pierce oscillator?
changed. Therefore the local oscillator Describe how frequency is con-
frequency is always 10 MHz above the trolled in the oscillator in Fig. 27.
received frequency. This eliminates the What is the advantage of overtone
need to use a different crystal in the operation?
receiver local oscillator each time the In the multiple crystal frequency
transmitter frequency is changed. synthesizer in Fig. 32, what is the
There are many types of frequency output of the mixer if S1 is in the
synthesizer circuits in modern communi- 80 kHz position and S2 is in the
cation equipment. They all operate on 1300 kHz position?
the same principle of combining two or (s) In addition to performing as an
more frequencies to generate an output oscillator, what other function is
frequency. From this discussion you accomplished by the tri-tet oscil-
should be able to understand the basic lator?

43
 Nonsinusoidal Oscillators
The oscillators you have studied up to coupled to the input of the first stage.
this point have all been sine wave oscil- Since the signal in the collector circuit of
lators; that is, their output is asine wave. acommon-emitter amplifier is reversed in
In this section we will look at non- phase with respect to the input signal, a
sinusoidal oscillators. There are many portion of the output of each stage is fed
circuits that can be classed with this to the other stage in-phase with the signal
group of oscillators but we are primarily at the base. This regenerative feedback
interested in only two; the multivibrator with amplification is required for oscil-
and the blocking oscillator. After we lation. The output of this multivibrator is
complete our study of the basic circuits, asquare wave whose frequency is deter-
we will see how these circuits are used in mined by the R-C time constant in the
communication equipment. feedback loops.
An oscillator circuit in which the out- Forward bias for the base of Q1 is
put is a nonsinusoidal waveform is gen- obtained through the low resistance
erally classified as arelaxation oscillator. emitter-to-base junction in series with R2
The relaxation oscillator uses a regen- across the power supply. In a similar
erative circuit in conjunction with an R-C manner, bias for the base of Q2 is
circuit to provide aswitching action. The obtained through the emitter-to-base
charge and discharge time constants of junction and R3.When the power supply
the R-C components are used to control is first energized the current that flows
the shape and frequency of the output through each collector load resistor, R1
waveforms. and R4, is determined by the effective
resistance of Q1 and Q2 for agiven value
THE MULTI VIBRATOR of base bias voltage. Due to slight differ-
ences in the transistors, more current will
The multivibrator is essentially anon- flow in one transistor than in the other.
sinusoidal two-stage oscillator in which For the purpose of this explanation,
one stage conducts while the other is cut
off until a point is reached at which the
stages reverse their conditions. This oscil- +VCC

lating process is normally used to produce

ALTERNATE
a square wave output. A multivibrator
OUTPUT
that operates continuously with first one
*
-- 1
stage conducting and then the other is
called a free running or astable multi- Uill

vibrator. i
I
The multivibrator in Fig. 34 is atwo
stage R-C coupled, common-emitter am-
plifier with the output of the first stage
coupled to the input of the second stage
and the output of the second stage Fig. 34. Astable multivibrator.

44
assume that initially more collector cur- negative potential at the junction of C1
rent flows through Q1 than Q2.Thus as and R3,starts to discharge through R3 at
collector current in Q1 increases, the atime constant of R3-C 1.
voltage at the junction of R1 and CI As C1 discharges, the voltage at the
decreases. In other words, the collector of base of Q2 becomes less and less negative
Q1 becomes less positive. This negative until apoint is reached where reverse bias
going pulse is coupled through capacitor is no longer applied and 02 goes into
C1 to the base of Q2.As the collector conduction.
current in Q1 continues to increase, the When Q2 starts to conduct, collector
signal coupled to the base of Q2 con- current begins to flow through R4,collec-
tinues to become more negative. As this tor voltage at Q2 decreases, and anega-
negative signal overcomes the positive tive going pulse is coupled through C2 to
bias established by the emitter-to-base the base of Q1. As C1 continues to
junction and R3,collector current in Q2 discharge, collector current in Q2 con-
starts to decrease. tinues to increase and the pulse coupled
With collector current in Q2 de- to the base of Q1 goes more negative. As
creasing, the voltage at the junction of C2 this negative signal increases, Qi de-
and R4 starts to increase. This positive creases its conduction. This results in a
rise in voltage is coupled to the base of rise in collector voltage which is coupled
Q1 through capacitor C2.The positive to the base of Q2,aiding the forward bias
going pulse at the base of Q1 aids the on Q2.
foward bias already established by R2 This regeneration continues until Q1
and the emitter-to-base junction of Q1. cuts off and Q2 saturates. When Q1 cuts
This causes collector current in Q1 to off, C 1 no longer couples apositive signal
continue to increase. This regenerative to the base of 02.C2 starts to discharge
process continues until Q1 is driven into through R2 at a rate equal to R2-C2.
saturation and Q2 is cut off. When C2 is sufficiently discharged to
When Q1 is saturated, its collector remove the reverse bias on the base of
current no longer increases but becomes a Q1,the transistor again starts to conduct.
constant value, therefore, there is no This action wili continue as long as the
further change in collector voltage to be power supply voltage is present; the
coupled through C1 to the base of Q2.In discharge of C1 controlling the time that
asimilar manner, Q2 is cut off so there is Q2 remains cut off and C2 controlling the
no further change in its collector voltage time that Q1 is cut off. In this manner, C1
to couple through C2 to the base of Q1. and C2 control the width of the output
With no positive pulse coupled from pulses.
Q2 to Q1,the base of Q1 is only afew While we explained the various things
tenths of a volt positive. C2 quickly happening that caused one transistor to
charges through the low resistance of the switch from saturation to cutoff, you
base to the emitter junction of Q1 and might have thought this action takes
R4 to apotential approximately equal to quite some time. Actually, the switching
the power supply voltage. The heavy action is very fast. For example, with Q1
conduction of Q1 places its collector conducting and Q2 cut off, once the
voltage at nearly ground potential. C1, reverse bias on Q2 disappears and Q2
which was previously charged with a begins conduction, current rises to satura-

45
tion in Q2,and Qi is cut off almost THE BLOCKING OSCILLATOR
instantly. The result is the output from
the multivibrator is essentially asquare Blocking oscillators are atype of oscil-
wave. The square wave output is taken lator used for generating pulse waveforms
from the collector of Q2 through C3. A of short time duration followed by a
second output, reversed in phase, is avail- period of no output. Similar to multi-
able at the collector of Q1. vibrators, blocking oscillators may be
The output of the multivibrator will be either free running or driven. Let's first
symmetrical, that is the two half cycles look at afree running blocking oscillator,
will be the same if the time constant of then we will examine apractical applica-
C1 and R3 is equal to the time constant tion of the circuit.
of C2 and R2. However, if we change the Fig. 35 shows the basic free-running
time constant of either R-C circuit, the blocking oscillator. Transformer T1 pro-
output will no longer be symmetrical. In vides the necessary regenerative feedback
other words, if we shorten the time from the collector to the base of Qi
constant of the C1-R 3 network by re- Terminals 1and 2are the primary wind-
ducing the value of C1,it will take C1 less ing and connect the collector to the
time to discharge through R3. As aresult, power supply. Terminals 3and 4are the
Q2 will be cut off for a shorter period secondary and furnish feedback to the
than Q1 and the two halves of the square base. The output is taken across the third
wave will no longer be equal. winding at terminals 5and 6. Notice the
There are two major variations of the phase inversion between the different
astable multivibrator, the monostable and windings.
the bistable. The bistable is amodifica- When the power supply is first ener-
tion of the astable and can be used as a gized, asmall amount of collector current
switching circuit. Basically it is the same will flow through the primary of T1.This
circuit as the astable but provision has current flow induces avoltage in the base
been made to control the change of the winding (terminals 3and 4). The induced
condition of the transistors with an input voltage causes C1 to charge through the
signal. Upon receipt of an input the low forward resistance of the base-to-
transistors in the bistable multivibrator
will change state and remain in their new
-Vcc
condition until another input pulse is
received.
The monostable multivibrator, like the
bistable, is a modified astable circuit.
Monostable multivibrators have only one
stable state and the transistors remain in
their respective states (saturated and cut
off) until an input pulse is received. At
that time the transistors change states and
remain in their new state alength of time
determined by the R-C components in
the circuit. At the end of this R-C time
they return to their stable condition. Fig. 35. Free running blocking oscillator.

46
emitter junction. This couples the in- pulse width. However, if C1 is small
duced voltage to the base of Q1. enough so that the capacitor can charge
Since collector current now is in- rapidly during pulse time, there will be a
creasing, the voltage at terminal 1will be decrease in pulse width.
less negative or going in a positive di- The frequency of the blocking oscilla-
rection. The induced voltage in the base tor in Fig. 35 is determined by the value
winding is of opposite polarity; therefore, of RI-C 1.Compared to RI,the resistance
anegative going signal is coupled to the of the base winding has little effect on
base of Q1.This increase in forward bias the discharge time of C1.
aids collector current and regeneration Resistor R2 is adamping resistor con-
continues rapidly until the transistor be- nected across the output winding of T1
comes saturated. to reduce the implitude of the reverse
When Q1 reaches saturation, the cur- voltage, sometimes called the overswing,
rent is no longer changing; therefore, caused by the collapsing magnetic field
there is no voltage induced in the base about Ti at the end of the output pulse.
winding. C1 begins to discharge through If it were not for R2,the amplitude of
the resistor RI, holding the base-to- the reverse voltage pulse could exceed the
emitter junction forward biased. As the breakdown voltage of Q1 and damage the
charge on C1 bleeds off, the forward bias transistor. In another type of damping
on Qi decreases. circuit aclamping diode is placed across
As the forward bias of Q1 decreases the collector winding or across the output
and collector current is reduced, the winding. The diode would then shunt any
magnetic field about the primary winding reverse voltage present in these windings.
(terminals 1 and 2) collapses. The Tube type multivibrators and blocking
collapsing magnetic field induces avolt- oscillators were once widely used, but in
age in the secondary (terminals 3and 4) modern equipment they are generally
which is positive at terminal 3. This being replaced by transistors. The opera-
induced voltage, coupled through CI tion of the older vacuum tube units is
drives Qi to cutoff. essentially the same as the modern tran-
Due to the reverse bias, Q1 remains cut sistor units.
off until CI discharges through R1 and Both oscillators with asine wave out-
T1 to a point where the base of Q1 is put and those with apulse type output
returned to a forward bias condition. are widely used in communications equip-
When the forward biased condition is ment. Be sure you understand how both
reached, conduction begins and the cycle types work before leaving this lesson.
repeats.
The output pulse width depends
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
mostly on the inductance of T1.The
smaller the inductance, the more rapidly
the collector current must increase to (t) In the astable multivibrator shown
maintain amagnetizing current in T1,the in Fig. 34, what components control
faster the collector current will reach the length of time Q2 iS cut off?
saturation, and the shorter the pulse (u) What type output is obtained from
width. Usually, C1 has little effect on the the blocking oscillator?

47
 Answers to Self-Test Questions
(a) Regenerative or positive feedback. If A swamping capacitor is placed
positive feedback is not present, os- across collector-to-emitter junction.
cillations will be damped. R1 and C2 develop the negative bias.
(b) Decrease. Frequency is equal to: L2 develops the signal.
It goes positive. The reactance of C2
1 is small at the resonant frequency of
2ir Nri---
_,C the tank; therefore, the positive volt-
age induced in the tank by L2
Therefore: if inductance increases, (voltage across C1)is coupled to the
the frequency will decrease. grid.
(c) There will be more cycles in the (k) C 1 develops the feedback voltage. It
wave train. Losses in the coil of a is applied to the base through C3
high Q circuit are low so more cycles and across R I .
occur before the wave train is The ultra-audion oscillator is amodi-
(
1)
damped. fication of the Colpitts circuit.
(d) .0000005 seconds or .5 micro- (n) Through the R-C phase shift net-
seconds. The formula is: work in the grid. Each pair of R-C
components shift the phase adefi-
P= I/F
nite number of degrees. Total shift
1 through all stages must equal 18e.
P= (n) R2 and C2 develop the feedback
2,000,000 voltage.
(0 ) To prevent damage to the crystal.
P= .0000005 seconds.
(I)) Frequency is controlled by the
(e) They are in-phase. The voltage devel- crystal, Y 1. At the resonant fre-
oped across L2 is the fcedback quency, Y 1 offers minimum imped-
voltage and must aid plate current. ance to the feedback voltage. At
(f) The bias voltage developed across other frequencies, impedance in-
R I . If the oscillator output in- creases.
creased, C2 would be charged to a (q) A higher frequency can be obtained
higher potential on positive peaks without the use of frequency multi-
and would produce a larger bias pliers.
voltage across R I . The larger bias (r) 1380 kHz.
would reduce the amplitude of the (s) The tri-tet oscillator functions as an
oscillator output. oscillator and a frequency multi-
(g) 1. Oscillator remains energized at all plier.
times. (t) C1 and R3.Q2 remains cut off until
2. Oscillator coil and capacitor are the charge on C1 leaks off enough
placed in an oven. for Q2 to become forward biased.
3. Temperature compensating ca- (u) A pulse output followed by aperiod
pacitors are placed across the tank. of no output.

48
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet C206.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grades as soon as possible, so they mail their set of
answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the next lesson within afew days,
send in two sets of answers at atime. Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't
hold your answers too long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than
two sets at atime or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. If the operating voltage on an oscillator tube is changed so that the plate resistance of
the tube increases, what will happen to the oscillator frequency?

2. When adjusting the capacitance of the tank circuit in a crystal oscillator, what
happens to the tank current as oscillations start?

3. What component of the blocking oscillator has the most effect on the output pulse
width?

4. For what part of the cycle does current flow through the oscillator tube in an L-C
oscillator circuit?

5. What is the advantage of a frequency synthesizer over the normal local oscillator
circuit in atransceiver?

6. What will the frequency be at 65 °C of acrystal oscillator using an X-cut crystal that
operates at 5250 kHz at 50 °C, if the temperature coefficient is —20 Hz per degree
centigrade per MHz?

7. What controls the amount of feedback applied to the base of the transistor in a
transistor Colpitts oscillator?

8. In atuned L-C circuit, if capacitance is increased while inductance is held constant,

what will happen to the output frequency?

9. How is positive feedback attained in the Wien-bridge oscillator?

10. How is frequency multiplication obtained in the tri-tet oscillator?

 Take The Middle Course

Most of us realize the necessity for moderation in eating and

drinking, but we often overlook the fact that moderation in all things is
essential to happiness.

Consider, for example, the simple matter of opinions. If aman can

see only his own opinions, and is unwilling to recognize that other
people may also have good ideas, he is opinionated. A man with this
fault is often unhappy, because he doesn't get along very well with
other people. On the other hand, if aman yields his ideas to another's
too readily, he is weak-kneed -and also unhappy.

If you can give and take -if you are open to reason -if you steer a
middle course, you will be liked, people will be comfortable in your
company, and you will be following one rule of happiness.

Let "moderation in all things" be one of the guiding principles of

your life.
a

a
Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-306
RADIO • TELEVISION COMMUNICATIONS
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LINEAR RF POWER AMPLIFIERS

2ICC
 STUDY SCHEDULE NO. 21

Introduction Pages 1-2

A brief discussion of why linear amplifiers are used to amplify the modulated
signal at the transmitter.

O 2. The Class B Linear Amplifier Pages 2-9

You learn how linearity is achieved and study the requirements for the driver
stage and the plate circuit, and the power considerations for a linear class 13
amplifier.

• 3. Adjusting aLinear Amplifier Pages 9-12

You learn how to interpret meter readings and study step-by-step adjustment
procedures.

• 4. Variations in Linear Amplifiers Pages 13-20

You study push-pull, multi-grid and grounded-grid amplifiers, and the high
efficiency Doherty amplifier.

D 5. Outphasing Modulation System Pages 21-28

Here we take up a system of modulation, which by using phase differences,
eliminates the necessity of operating the amplifiers following the modulator in a
linear manner.

E 6. Answer Lesson Questions.

D 7. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1960 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

MP3M269 1969 EDITION Printed in U.S.A.

 LINEAR RF
POWER AMPLIFIERS

MODULATED
AMPLIFIER
DRIVER

MODULATOR

A you have learned, in amplitude

modulation, the amplitude of
the carrier signal is made to vary
each positive alternation of the input
signal, which would distort the modu-
lated signal waveform. They could be
according to the amplitude variations operated in class A, in which case,
of the intelligence signal. In some the output signal would be an exact
AM transmitters, the modulation duplicate of the input signal. How-
takes place in the plate circuit of the ever, we want high power output from
final power amplifier stage where the a transmitter as well as an undis-
power level is high, so the modulated torted signal. A stage operated in class
signal is fed directly to the trans- A has very low efficiency and very
mitting antenna. This is called "high- low power output.
level" modulation. The modulation It is most satisfactory to operate
can also take place in an intermedi- the power-amplifier stages following
ate class C power amplifier stage. the modulated stage in class B. This
Then, the power of the modulated gives an undistorted output signal,
signal is increased by additional and more power output than for class
power amplifiers. This is called "low- A. The class B amplifier stage is op-
level" modulation, because it takes erated on the straightest part of its
place at a lower power level. The transfer characteristic curve, so that
modulated signal must not be dis- there is a linear relationship between
torted by stages following the modu- the amplified output voltage and the
lated stage. The signal that is fed to exciting voltage applied to the input.
the transmitting antenna must be a That is, the output voltage developed
faithful copy of the output signal across the load is proportional to the
from the modulator, or the demodu- grid voltage. An increase or decrease
lated signal from the receiver will in the excitation voltage will produce
also be distorted. a corresponding increase or decrease
The stages that amplify the modu- in the output voltage.
lated signal cannot be operated in As you will learn in the following
class C, because a class C stage is section, linearity is obtained by
driven to saturation at the peak of proper adjustment of the grid bias
1
and the load impedance. All the stages class B linear amplifier is that its
following the modulated stage must efficiency is lower than that of a class
be operated as class B linear ampli- C amplifier. However, it is possible to
fiers. get higher efficiency by redesigning
There is an exception to this, and the stage. An example of a high-effi-
that is in a system of modulation ciency amplifier is the Doherty linear
called "outphasing modulation." With amplifier, which we will discuss.
this system of modulation, the rf Linearity in a transmitter can be
power amplifiers following the modu- improved by using feedback between
lator do not need to be linear. You the final linear amplifier output and
will see why in the last section of the the speech amplifier section. Feedback
lesson. will also reduce distortion and im-
First, you will find out how high- prove frequency response and sta-
power linear amplifiers work, how bility in the transmitter stages. We
they are adjusted, and what their will also take up feedback circuits.
advantages and disadvantages are. First let us find out how the class B
One of the chief disadvantages of the linear amplifier works.

The Class B Linear Amplifier

A schematic diagram of a class B exactly at cut-off, the non-linearity
linear amplifier stage is shown in in this part of the curve would cause
Fig. 1. This stage has tuned resonant the signal I o be distorted. Therefore,
circuits in the input and output, and the bias is set alittle above the actual
is neutralized in the same way as a cut-off point on the curve, so that
class C power amplifier. the tube will operate only on the
The basic difference is that the straight or linear part. This point is
linear amplifier is biased as a class B called "extended cut-off," and is
stage. The tube, however, is not biased shown in Fig. 2. The extended "cut-
exactly to plate-current cut-off. The off" point is found by extending the
transfer characteristic curve of a straight part of the transfer curve
vacuum tube is shown in Fig. 2. until it crosses the current axis. This
Notice that the lower end of the curve is the point at which plate-current
bends and is very non-linear before cut-off would occur if the lower end
the plate-current cut-off point is of the curve were linear.
reached. If the stage were biased With the grid bias set to the ex-
tended cut-off point, the plate current
flows for slightly more than 180° of
the input signal cycle. In class C, as
you learned, the plate current flows
OUTPUT for 120° to 150° of the cycle.
MODULATED
The linear power amplifier can be
operated in class AB, or class A13 2
AMPLIFIER
DRIVER

instead of in class B. You will re-

member that a class AB stage is a
[MODULATOR Ell AS
stage that is biased between class A
and class B conditions. In class AB,
FIG. 1. Basic class B linear
splifier system. operation, the input signal never

2
 The operation of the linear ampli-
fier can be demonstrated by using the
waveform illustrations in Fig. 3. With
the grid bias set at the extended cut-
off point, a small plate current will
flow when no excitation is applied to
the input. When a signal is applied
to the grid, on the negative alterna-
tions the grid is driven below plate
current cut-off, so no plate current
flows. On the positive alternations,
the input signal voltage subtracts
from the grid bias, reducing the nega-
EXTENDED
CUT-OFF tive bias on the tube, and the plate
current flows for slightly more than
FIG. 2. A tube's e,-i, curve, showing the
the entire positive half cycle. The
extended cut-off point.
plate current is in the form of pulses
as shown in the diagram.
drives the grid positive. In class AB, For distortionless output, the am-
operation, the signal voltage on the plifier must operate over the straight
grid drives the grid slightly positive portion of the characteristic curve.
on a part of the positive cycle. Class In other words, the highest peak grid
AB, operation delivers more power voltage must not swing the plate cur-
than class AB, but less power than rent beyond point A. As you have
class B.
learned, on 100% modulation, the

o DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTIC

SATURATION LEVEL

PLATE CURRENT
PULSES IN
LINEAR
"••••
AMPLIFIER
EXTENDED

¡lit
CUT- OFF
BIAS

GRID BIAS -e g
Awed!
GRID BIAS +e g
ZERO
MODULATION

INPUT SIGNAL FROM CL ASS C MODULATED

STAGE SUPERIMPOSED ON GRID BIAS

100 %
MODULATION

FIG. 3. Class B operation of an amplifier.

3
 TAM( CURRENT the energy-storing (flywheel) action
CAUSED BY

ZERO
PLATE CURRENT of the tank circuit is shown in dashed
PULSES
MODULATION lines.
Thus, the output signal fed to the
antenna or load circuit is acompletely
modulated signal, even though the
class B rf amplifier tube feeds power
to the load for only half of the input
signal cycle.
TAM( CURRENT The circuit shown in Fig. 1 is a
FROM FLYWHEEL
EFFECT single-ended stage. In your study of
audio stages, you learned that for
FIG. 4. The flywheel effect of the plate audio frequencies aclass B stage must
tank circuit in a class B amplifier sup- be operated in push-pull, or the sound
plies the missing half-cycles of plate will be highly distorted and contain
current. many harmonics. However, this is not
true at rf frequencies; a class B stage
using a resonant circuit in the plate
peaks are twice the unmodulated car-
circuit can be single-ended because
rier value. In the diagram, the current
the resonant circuit restores the miss-
value at point B is slightly more than
ing parts of the modulated signal
half the current value at point A.
wave-form. The resonant circuit also
Thus, if the unmodulated carrier ex-
eliminates many of the undesired
citation is set at point B, the positive
harmonics.
peak at 100% modulation will swing
the rf excitation to point A. During
HOW LINEARITY IS ACHIEVED
the modulation troughs when the
modulation amplitude is least, the
The proper operation of a class B
plate current will be driven near point
linear stage is determined by its grid
C. For most efficient linear operation
bias, grid drive, plate voltage, load
of the amplifier, the grid bias must be
impedance, plate and grid currents,
set properly so that point B is mid-
and the power relationships in the
way between points A and C, and the
input signal must have a high enough
amplitude to swing the plate current
over the entire linear portion of the
characteristic curve between points A
MEDIUM LOAD
and C. IMPEDANCE
The plate current pulses supply
energy to the plate tank on the posi- HIGH LOAD
tive half cycles, just as in a class C IMPEDANCE

amplifier. Then, on the negative half

cycles when the plate current is cut
off, the energy stored in the tank is
fed back into the circuit to form the
negative alternations of the output
signal. This is shown in Fig. 4. The GRID VOLTS
upper half of the output signal wave-
form, shown in solid lines, is the part FIG. 5. Linearity curves for a class B
contributed by the plate current amplifier using various values of load
pulses. The lower half, produced by impedance.

4
 grid bias affects the linearity of the
stage. Fig. 6shows the dynamic char-
acteristic curves for various values of
grid bias. With a low grid bias, the
lower part of the curve is linear, but
it soon folds over. If a modulated
signal were applied to the input, the
peak of the modulation envelope
would be compressed, and the signal
would be distorted.
R.F. GRID VOLTS With high grid bias, the curve is
flat or compressed at the bottom, and
FIG. 6. The effect of various grid bias a modulated signal would again be
values upon the linearity of a class B
amplifier. distorted. A medium value of bias is
best for linear operation. There is a
slight bend near the bottom of the
input and output circuits. The linear- medium bias curve which is kept at a
ity in the stage depends primarily on minimum by operating the tube at
the grid bias and the load impedance. the extended cut-off bias as discussed
The plate load impedance must be previously.
chosen to get high power output and The grid bias for the linear ampli-
efficiency as well as good linearity. fier must be supplied from a separate
Load Impedance. Fig. 5shows the low-impedance power supply. Grid-
effect of various load impedances on leak bias, which is used in class C
a tube operating in class B. The in- stages, cannot be used in a class B
stantaneous grid voltage, made up of linear stage, because the excitation to
the bias voltage and the rf excitation the linear amplifier is not constant;
signal, is plotted along the horizc,ntal the grid current flow is small for low
axis. The plate current, or propor- modulation and very high for 100%
tional tank current, is plotted along modulation. Thus, the grid-leak bias
the vertical axis. As you can see, the itself would vary over the modula-
curve is not linear for low impedance tion cycle and cause distortion.
but is quite linear for high impedance. Sometimes a cathode bias resistor
The low impedance is not satisfac- is used, because the average cathode
tory, because the output would be current in a linear amplifier is con-
distorted, although it is ideal for class stant and does not vary during the
C operation because it has high power modulation cycle. However, a cathode
output. The high impedance is not bias resistor wastes too much power
satisfactory either, because the plate for use in a stage other than a low
current swing would be small and the power stage, so fixed bias is more
power output very low. often used.
Proper loading of alinear amplifier The power supply that provides
must be acompromise between linear- the bias voltage must be a low-im-
ity and power output. The medium pedance supply, because if the im-
load impedance curve in Fig. 5 is the pedance is low, the variation in the
one that is usually chosen. For a grid current due to the input signal
triode tube, the best value of the load will have little effect on the de bias
impedance is equal to about twice the voltage. Also, by using a separate
plate resistance of the tube. bias source, the bias can be easily
Grid Bias. Now let us see how the adjusted to get the exact value re-

5
quired for the most, linear operation The positive peaks of excitation will
of the stage. be flattened out as shown in Fig. 7.
Excitation. The excitation must When this happens, we say the driver
be carefully set to prevent distortion has poor regulation. In Fig. 7, the
during modulation peaks, because re- excitation of the grid of the class B
gardless of what load impedance or amplifier from a poorly regulated
grid bias is used, an excessive grid driver is shown in heavy lines. For
excitation will cause the plate current comparison, a perfect sinusoidal ex-
to swing into the curved portion of citation voltage is shown in dashed
the characteristic curve. At the same lines. Obviously, even though the
time, the excitation must be high amplifier is operating over a perfectly
enough to operate the class B stage linear dynamic characteristic curve,
with reasonable efficiency. Thus, the excitation such as that in Fig. 7 will
driver stage must be operated prop- cause serious distortion.
erly to get undistorted linear output. To minimize this grid-loading effect,
the driver regulation must be made
REQUIREMENTS OF THE
as good as possible. This is usually
DRIVER STAGE done by designing the driver stage so
Now let's consider the require- that it is capable of delivering two or
ments of the stage that drives the three times as much power as that
class B amplifier. Because grid cur- required to drive the grid of the am-
rent flows in the class B amplifier plifier. This keeps the impedance of
during the part of the cycle that the the driver down. In addition, the input
grid is driven positive, power is being tank of the amplifier is shunted by a
dissipated in the grid circuit. This relatively low resistance. This re-
power must be supplied by the driver sistance, shown as R in Fig. 1, ab-
stage. The higher the grid current, the sorbs considerable driver power, but
lower the impedance presented by the reduces the wide fluctuations in grid
amplifier, and the more power the circuit impedance. With this resistor,
driver stage must supply. the input circuit impedance can
During an rf cycle, the grid im- change from afew hundred ohms only
pedance of the amplifier may change up to the value of the shunting re-
from an infinite value for negative sistance. Thus, the driver works into
grid potential to only a few hundred a more nearly constant load.
ohms for a high positive potential.
POSITIVE VOLTAGE
This varying impedance places a EXGITATION LOSS
7
varying load on the driver with the
'ejes"

result that the driver output voltage, A

which is fed to the amplifier to drive

it, will vary. For no grid current and
,4;
alight load, the driver voltage will be
high; for high grid current and a
heavy load, the driver voltage will
be reduced. If the output impedance
of the driver is too high, this effect
becomes worse and the driver output
voltage may become so low when the
amplifier grid is drawing current, that
FIG. 7. How poor voltage regulation of
the grid is not driven far enough posi- the driver stage causes distortion of the
tive to drive the stage. class B amplifier excitation.

6
 The grid-loading resistor may not amplifier has a decided influence on
be required if aspecial zero-bias tube the power output. It must be high
is used in the class B stage. The oper- enough for maximum linear output
ating bias for these tubes is very low, without causing excessive plate dissi-
usually from 5 to 10 volts. The grid pation. Naturally, the maximum rf
loads the circuit at all times, during peak voltage that can be developed
the positive half of the input cycle across the load impedance is some-
so the impedance remains nearly con- what less than the B supply voltage.
stant during this half of the cycle. With 100% modulation, during the
Since this is the only half of the input negative half of the cycle of the rf
cycle we are interested in, it does not exciting voltage, the tube is driven
matter that the impedance changes beyond cut-off, and the voltage de-
during the negative half cycle. veloped across the load impedance is
Another way of assuring proper equal to the B supply voltage. During
drive to the linear amplifier is to oper- the positive half of the input cycle,
ate the amplifier as aclass AB ampli- when the tube is driven up close to
fier. If the amplifier is operated in the saturation point, maximum plate
class AB„ the grid is not driven posi- current flows, the tube plate resistance
tive, so no grid current flows. The drops to a low value, and the plate
grid circuit impedance remains con- voltage is very low. The maximum
stant, and furthermore the driver change in plate voltage is between
needs to supply only an exciting volt- this low value and the actual value
age—it does not have to supply any of the B supply voltage. This maxi-
power because no grid current flows. mum change occurs only during 100%
Since the efficiency of a class AB, modulation; for lower percentages of
stage is low, a compromise arrange- modulation, the plate voltage change
ment is to operate the stage as aclass is not as great.
AB, amplifier. Here the grid is driven The changes in the grid excitation
positive during only part of the posi- voltage and in the output voltage are
tive half cycle, and the power re- linear. In other words, a variation in
quirements are less than for class B the rf voltage applied to the grid will
operation. This enables us to get bet- cause acorresponding variation in the
ter driver regulation and hence a plate voltage. This linear relationship
more linear output. Some modern depends upon the grid bias value. In
linear amplifiers using tetrode tubes a class C stage, the plate is driven to
are operated as class AB amplifiers, saturation in order to get a higher
usually class AB,. Reasonably good plate efficiency. In the saturation re-
efficiency can be obtained from these gion, the excitation voltage and the
stages and the driving power require- plate voltage are no longer linear. To
ments are low. Good efficiency can be avoid the distortion that would result
obtained from class AB, tetrode from this non-linearity, a linear am-
stages because tetrode tubes have a plifier is never driven into the satura-
high power sensitivity, that is, they tion region.
can develop a high power output in If the amplifier has a truly linear
the plate circuit with a low power characteristic, the plate current in-
input in the grid circuit. crease during the modulation crest is
PLATE CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS equal to the plate current decline dur-
ing the trough. Hence, the average
As in class C operation, the plate plate current read on a de plate cur-
voltage in iclass B or class AB linear rent meter is constant and should not
7
change from no-modulation to 100% of an amplifier, the higher the power
modulation. The average plate cur- output.) When the stage is fed with
rent will be equal to the peak plate an unmodulated carrier, its efficiency
current with no modulation when a is 30% to 35%. For full 100% modu-
linear amplifier is used to amplify a lation its efficiency increases to 60%
carrier and two modulation sidebands. to 70%. The plate input power divides
In a later lesson you will see that in between the tube and the output load.
some applications of linear amplifiers With no modulation, two-thirds of
the plate current does change with the input power must be dissipated
modulation. by the tube plate; at 100% modula-
tion, only one-third must be dissipated
POWER CONSIDERATIONS
by the tube plate. This shows that
In an earlier lesson you learned the linear amplifier tube runs cooler
that the output power from a class C when it is delivering the most power
stage is proportional to the square of output (high modulation percentage).
the plate voltage; in other words, if Since the modulation peaks of
you double the plate voltage, the out- speech and music are often 10 to 20
put power will increase four times. times as great as the average signal
This relationship exists because the level, the average grid excitation must
signal applied to the grid drives the be kept low. The average efficiency of
tube from cut-off all the way to plate a typical linear amplifier is usually
current saturation on every cycle. In not over 40%.
a class B or a class AB linear ampli- The power gain, which is the ratio
fier, the output power is proportional of the output power to the driving
to the square of the exciting signal power, of a linear amplifier is usually
voltage. With a constant load resist- between 5 and 10 with triode tubes,
ance, if the input signal voltage is and between 20 and 50 with tetrode
doubled, the output power will in- and pentode tubes. The gain is low
crease four times because both the when triode tubes are used because
signal voltage and signal current de- triode tubes require a substantial
veloped in the output will double. driving power because of their low
Thus, the input signal has direct con- power sensitivity and also because
trol over the output power. the losses in the grid circuit are often
The linear amplifier has a constant quite high.
plate voltage and, when operating cor- If a stage has a power sensitivity
rectly, functions with aconstant aver- of 10, we will need a driving power
age plate current. Hence, it draws a equal to 1/10 of the power output.
constant amount of power from the For example, if the power output of a
high-voltage supply. linear amplifier with no modulation is
In your study of amplitude modu- 10 kw (10,000 watts) and the stage
lation, you learned that with 100% has a power sensitivity of 10, the
modulation, at the peak of the modu- driving power needed would be 10
lation the power of the carrier is four kw 10 = 1kw. If the efficiency of
times the power without modulation. the linear amplifier is 33 1/3%, the
You have also learned that the plate input power to the stage would be 30
input power of a linear stage remains kw; 10 kw would be useful output
constant whether or not modulation and the other 20 kw would be dissi-
is applied. Therefore, the amplifier pated as heat by the tube. If the
must have higher efficiency during driver is a plate-modulated class C
modulation. (The higher the efficiency amplifier with an efficiency of

8
66 2/3%, the plate input to the driver would require 7.5 kw of audio power.
would be 1.5 kw (1500 watts). To This is ten times the power needed
plate modulate the driver we would for 100% modulation when we modu-
need approximately 750 watts of lated the driver and operated the
audio power. Thus, we can 100% power output stage as a linear am-
modulate the 10 kw output of the plifier. Thus, the poor efficiency of the
linear amplifier with only 750 watts linear amplifier is compensated for by
of audio power. the lower audio power needed for
On the other hand, if we tried to 100% modulation. In high-power
plate modulate an amplifier with an transmitters it is more economical to
output of 10 kw we would need much modulate one of the low power driver
more audio power. If the efficiency of stages and then amplify the signal
the stage is 66 2/3% (a class C with linear amplifiers than it is to try
stage), the power input would be 15 to plate modulate a high power class
kw and to 100% modulate the stage C amplifier.

Adjusting a Linear Amplifier

Fig. 8 shows the schematic diagram link-coupled to the grid of the ampli-
of atypical single-ended class B linear fier from the plate circuit of the
stage. Notice the similarity between modulated stage. Thus, the modulated
this circuit and the conventional class stage acts as the driver.
C amplifier stage. The plate and grid Resistor R1 connected across tun-
resonant circuits and neutralizing ing capacitor C2 and part of coil L2
method are identical to those used for is the grid-loading resistor. It is used
class C. The modulated rf signal is to prevent wide impedance variations
TO PLATE CIRCUIT
OF MODULATED
R.F: AMPLIFIER
L

FIG. 8. A typical single-ended class I3 linear rf amplifier.

9
in the amplifier grid circuit, and thus 100% sine-wave modulation.
present a more constant load to the With voice or music modulation,
driver stage. The bias voltage for the the grid current reading will rise and
grid is obtained from a separate low- fall with the peaks of the modula-
impedance supply. tion. The antenna current meter will
As shown in Fig. 8there are current also fluctuate, but the plate current
meters in the circuit to indicate the should never vary from its normal
operation of the amplifier. Meter MA, steady reading.
indicates the grid current, meter MA, Since the average power contained
indicates the plate current, and meter in voice and music is low, the antenna
MA, indicates the load current. The or load current will rise only a few
meters in the grid and plate circuit percent higher than with no modula-
are shunted by capacitors to prevent tion. There will be a sharp rise in the
rf currents from damaging them. load current value only on loud sus-
tained passages.
INTERPRETING METER
The grid, plate, and output meter
READINGS
readings can also be used to localize
From the readings on the grid cur- defects and causes of distortion. The
rent, plate current, and output cur- modulated signal fed to the linear
rent meters you can determine amplifier stage must be free from dis-
whether or not the amplifier is oper- tortion. Therefore, when checking any
ating correctly. If the amplifier has linear amplifier circuit, almost the
been adjusted correctly and is being first test to make is to see that the
driven by a well regulated driver, the input signal itself is linear and un-
meter readings should be as follows: distorted. If it is distorted, check the
With no modulation on the carrier, modulated amplifier and the modu-
the grid current will be small and lator stages. Be sure that their oper-
steady. The plate current will also ating voltages and drive are correct,
be constant and its value should be that the class C amplifier is not being
that recommended for the rated over-modulated, and that the tuning
power output. The reading on an and loading are correct for the stages.
antenna current meter should be con- If the input signal is not distorted,
stant. Its exact value of course will incorrect meter readings may indicate
depend on the power output of the defects in the linear amplifier itself.
stage, the type of transmission line Suppose the plate current reading in-
used to connect the amplifier to the creases and the pointer on the antenna
load, and on how well the line is current meter "kicks up" sharply
matched to the load. For the present, when modulation is applied. A rise in
all you need be concerned about is antenna current is normal; the meter
that with no modulation the meter pointer, however, should not swing up
reading should be constant. or down sharply. (You may not notice
On 100% sine-wave modulation, the abrupt changes in meter readings if a
grid current reading should rise thermocouple meter is used.) This in-
sharply to a maximum value. The dicates a positive carrier shift (up-
plate current, however, should not ward modulation). The plate and
change and will not if the amplifier is antenna current increase can be due
truly linear. Any change in the plate to excess bias on the grid, which
current reading is an indication of causes the tube to operate further
nonlinearity. The output load current down on the knee of the characteristic
in MA, should increase 22.5% with curve. This will cut off the trough of

10
the modulated signal, causing the Thus, to get an undistorted output
average plate current to rise. Parasitic signal from a class B linear amplifier
oscillations, incomplete neutralization stage, the operating voltages, grid
of the amplifier, and improper tuning drive, and loading must be correct.
and loading of the stage can also Also, the stages preceding the linear
cause positive carrier shift. amplifier must be operating properly
Negative carrier shift (downward to produce an undistorted signal of
modulation) occurs when the average the correct amplitude to the stage.
plate current and the antenna (out- Usually the recommended operating
put) current decrease with modula- voltages are applied to the stage and
tion. This is due to a defect that cuts then the grid bias and the load are
off or distorts the peaks of the modu- varied slightly on either side of the
lated signal. If an excess amount of recommended values to get the great-
excitation is applied to the grid, the est undistorted power output at the
tube will be driven to saturation, and best efficiency. This is a part of the
the positive peaks will be distorted. adjustment procedure; let us go
Poor regulation in the bias or high- through the complete procedure now.
voltage power supplies can also cause
ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES
negative carrier shift because the
grid or plate voltages are not high Before the class B stage itself can
enough to provide the peak values of be adjusted, the preceding stage must
the amplified waveform.
be adjusted, and the class C modu-
Also, if the load that the linear lated stage and the class B stage itself
amplifier presents to the driver stage must be neutralized. During adjust-
varies widely during the input signal ment the grid bias and plate voltages
cycle, the peaks of the modulated are not set to their full final values
waveform at high modulation levels to be sure tubes and other parts are
will be cut off. The output signal will not damaged, and to prevent the pos-
be distorted, as indicated by a de. sibility of interfering with other
crease in the antenna meter reading. broadcast stations. The procedure for
The purpose of the shunt resistor adjusting a class B stage using triode
across the coil in the grid circuit is to tubes is as follows:
prevent the load on the driver stage 1. Apply grid bias of one-half its
from varying. A higher than normal final intended value.
load impedance for the class B linear 2. Apply a low-amplitude unmodu-
stage or incorrect tank circuit tuning lated rf signal to the input.
will also cause the modulation peaks 3. Increase the level of the un-
to be cut off, and cause the readings modulated rf signal by tightening the
on the plate and antenna current coupling between the driver and the
meters to decrease. amplifier until there is grid current
A decrease in the grid and plate flow.
current meter readings over a period 4. Readjust the plate tank circuit
of time could indicate a loss of effi- of the driver stage, and the grid tank
ciency in the driver amplifier or some circuit of the amplifier stage to reso-
defect earlier in the transmitter, caus- nance by tuning each for maximum
ing a loss of excitation power to the grid current.
linear amplifier. Also, a gradual de- 5. Apply plate voltage of one-half
crease in the grid and plate current the final intended amplitude.
meter readings is often an indication 6. Quickly tune the plate tank to
of a weakening linear amplifier tube. resonance as indicated by a dip to
11
minimum in the plate current. The grid current meter reading should
7. Couple the load circuit to the change rapidly with modulation, and
amplifier by increasing the coupling the plate current meter should remain
between the output tank circuit and steady. The load current meter read-
the coupling network to the antenna ing will increase very slightly with
or the next stage; as coupling is in- normal modulation. However, with
creased, readjust the tank capacitor sustained 100% sine-wave modula-
to resonance. Continue increasing the tion, the load current reading should
coupling until the plate current mini- rise 22.5%.
mum is approximately three times the You can also use an oscilloscope to
minimum without a load. check the linearity of a linear ampli-
8. Apply normal plate voltage and fier system. To do so. you first observe
extended cut-off grid bias to the stage. the modulation envelope at the output
9. Check the plate current and the of the driver to make certain that an
output current readings. If they are undistorted signal is being applied to
both too high, reduce the excitation the linear amplifier. Then, you use
to the stage. If the plate current is the oscilloscope to check the per-
high and the output current is low, formance of the linear amplifier itself,
reduce the excitation and increase the with 100% sinusoidal modulation ap-
load coupling; then, increase the ex- plied. The major advantages of oscil-
citation again. If the plate current is loscopic checks are that they are in-
still too high, the grid bias may be stantaneous and do not require a
too low. In this case, to get the best tedious step-by-step measurement
possible linearity, it may be neces- procedure. The oscilloscope can be
sary to vary the bias slightly above used to monitor the output of the
or below the value recommended by transmitter during normal operation,
the transmitter manufacturer. to provide an immediate indication of
If you get good linearity for a bias any non-linearity. You will receive
voltage near the recommended value, detailed instructions on how to use
and the input and output power are the oscilloscope in alater lesson.
correct with full excitation, the am- The adjustment procedure for a
plifier is properly adjusted. class B linear amplifier using pentode
If the plate current is still too high or tetrode tubes is the same as for
or the plate input power and the out- triode tubes, except that some load
put power are below normal, the load should be connected to the stage be-
impedance is too high. Readjust the fore plate and screen voltages are
load coupling and make a new set of applied to the stage. If you attempt
linearity checks. to tune a pentode or tetrode rf stage
10. Make a final check of all meter without a load connected to it you
readings with modulation applied. may destroy the tube.

12
 Variations in Linear Amplifiers
So far, we have been discussing to those for asingle-ended stage.
single-ended linear amplifiers. Linear Advantages. The push-pull class B
amplifiers may also be operated in linear amplifier in Fig. 9 has some
push-pull and can use multi-grid advantages over the single-ended
tubes as well as triodes. There are type. Twice as much power can be
differences in the operation of single- obtained from a push-pull stage, and
ended and push-pull stages, but the the Q of the tank circuit can be lower
basic characteristics and the purposes than in a single-ended stage, if the
for which they are designed are the push-pull tubes are properly balanced.
same. We will show several examples. The Q of the tank circuit of the sin-
gle-ended stage must be higher, be-
PUSH-PULL LINEAR cause the single-ended class B stage
AMPLIFIERS depends upon flywheel effect in its
plate tank circuit to establish one
A class B push-pull stage using alternation of the rf output cycle. If
triode tubes is shown in Fig. 9. Re- the Q is too low, the flywheel effect is
sistors Rl and R2 load the grid and inadequate and the modulation enve-
establish proper driver regulation. lope is distorted. This means that the
The two radio-frequency chokes second harmonic content becomes
shunting the loading resistors provide high and filters must be used to re-
low resistance de paths for the grid duce second harmonic radiation.
current so there will not be any un- Hence, a compromise must be made
wanted grid-leak bias. Regular push- in asingle-ended stage between power
pull cross neutralization is used, and output (which depends on the circuit
the metering arrangements are similar loading) and the tank circuit Q.

MODULATED RF
SIGNAL INPUT

CI

BIAS

FIG. 9. Push-pull class B linear amplifier.

13
 In a push-pull elass B stage, one amplifier in which the load impedance
tube supplies energy during the posi- is four times the plate resistance of
tive half-cycle. Its plate current then one of the tubes.
falls to zero, and the other tube sup- Adjustments. The adjustment pro-
plies energy for the negative half- cedure for the push-pull class B linear
cycle. Consequently, each tube con- stage is similar to that described for
tributes one-half or 180° of the com- the single-ended stage. The prelimi-
plete rf cycle. Since the tubes supply nary adjustments are made, as de-
energy to the tank circuit for the en- scribed previously, and then the grid
tire signal cycle, the tank circuit fly- and plate voltages are set to half
wheel effect is not essential. The load their normal values. After the class B
can be coupled into the tank circuit stage adjustments are completed, full
for optimum power output and effi- normal operating voltages are ap-
ciency and for the best linearity. plied. Usually small touch-up adjust-
Thus, the power output is higher and ments are required for best operation.
the harmonic distortion is less for
push-pull class B operation. LINEAR AMPLIFIERS
The circuit Q is still important in USING MULTI-GRID TUBES
a push-pull stage. A low Q tank cir- Tetrode, pentode, and beam-power
cuit will pass a considerable amounb tubes are also used in linear ampli-
of harmonics, but by balancing the fiers. Multi-grid tubes give better
tubes properly, much of the even- power gain, and less driving excita-
harmonic energy can be eliminated. tion is required for agiven power out-
A low Q circuit will reduce the tank put. Also, the additional electrodes
circuit losses and raise the efficiency. give better shielding, so neutralization
In a high power transmitter even a is not as much of a problem.
5% loss in output power is a con- However, to prevent non-linearity,
siderable amount, when it just heats the voltage applied to the screen grid
the coil. must be very well regulated. Varia-
There is also less sideband clipping tions in screen voltage as the modula-
in a push-pull stage than in a single- tion changed would have the same
ended stage. In a single-ended stage, effect as variations in grid bias in a
to maintain an adequate flywheel triode linear amplifier. Variations in
effect, the Q of the tank circuit must screen voltage would cause the plate
be quite high and sharp. Thus, some current and power output of the am-
of the higher frequency sidebands plifier to change in a non-linear man-
may be clipped off. With push-pull ner, causing a distorted modulation
operation, the Q can be considerably envelope. In low-powered amplifiers,
less, and therefore, the tank circuit it is common to use small voltage-
response is broad and sideband clip- regulator tubes, and in higher-pow-
ping is less likely to occur. ered amplifiers, the screen voltage is
The load impedance in the push- obtained from an extremely well-regu-
pull stage must be chosen correctly to lated power supply.
get the best linearity, power output, The multi-element tubes are often
and efficiency. For astage using triode operated in class AB, or AB,. An
tubes, the load impedance is about advantage of AB, operation is that no
twice the plate resistance of one of driving power is needed because the
the amplifier tubes. This is consid- tubes will not draw grid current.
erably less than the load impedance Driver regulation is much less of a
required for a push-pull class B audio problem because the grid circuit in-
14
 MODULATED
RF INPUT

B+

FIG. 10. A class AB, linear amplifier using tetrodes.

put impedance does not vary as in a pends upon the loading, biasing, and
class B linear amplifier, which draws excitation.
a very high grid current. A class AB, The screen voltage is obtained from
amplifier draws some grid current, a voltage-regulated supply.
but not as much as class B.
The class AB, linear amplifier may GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER
have two tubes in push-pull, or four A linear rf amplifier may also tse
or eight tubes in a push-pull parallel a grounded-grid circuit, as shown in
combination. Fig. 10 shows a linear Fig. 11. The grounded-grid circuit
amplifier with two tubes in push-pull gives somewhat better linearity than
operated in class AB,. Resistors R1 a grounded-cathode circuit.
and R2 in the grid circuit load the The exciting voltage is applied be-
input, increase the circuit bandwidth,
tween the cathode and ground. The
and broaden the response bf the input
input of the grounded-grid amplifier
resonant circuit so that the input does
presents alow impedance load for the
not have to be tuned. Thus, capacitors
driver. Thus, it is not necessary to
Cl and C2 can be fixed rather than
variable capacitors. C3

Neutralization of the multi-grid

tubes is not exacting, and two small
VTI

fixed capacitors, such as those labeled

C„ in Fig. 10, are often used.
MODULATED
The output circuit has parasitic RF FROM
DRIVER SAFETY
chokes and a split-stator tuning ca- RESISTOR

pacitor, making it similar to most

e*
push-pull class C amplifier output BIAS

circuits. The class AB, operation de- FIG. 11. A grounded-grid linear amplifier.

15
use a tuned circuit in the input. The shunt the signal to ground.
driver can be connected directly be- The stage requires more power from
tween the cathode and ground, if a the driver than does agrounded-cath-
capacitor is used for proper de isola- ode stage. This additional power,
tion between the driver and the linear however, does not represent a loss,
amplifier. The cathode resistor is in- because the extra power actually ap-
serted to prevent a high voltage from pears in the plate circuit of the stage.
appearing between the cathode and Thus, the output power comes partly
ground in case an open develops be- from the driver and partly from the
tween the driver and the cathode cir- amplifier itself.
cuit of the amplifier.
A grounded-grid amplifier is very DOHERTY AMPLIFIER
stable; much more stable than a con-
ventional grounded-cathode amplifier. We have learned that the average
The control grid is at rf ground po- efficiency of a conventional linear
tential and acts as both a control amplifier is seldom better than 40%.
element and a screen between the With 100% modulation, we can get
cathode and plate. Therefore, the an efficiency of about 70% on modu-
stage usually does not have to be lation peaks, because then the ampli-
neutralized. This stage also operates fier is operated near saturation. Tf we
better at frequencies above 50 mc could operate the amplifier near satu-
than the grounded-cathode amplifier ration at all times, its efficiency would
does. If it is used at these high fre- be high, but then, on modulation
quencies, the inductance of the leads peaks, the mitput would be distorted,
in the input and output circuit and because the peaks would be flattened
the grid-to-plate capacity can pro- out—the amplifier would not be able
vide enough feedback to cause insta- to supply the additional power de-
bility and perhaps oscillation. In this manded of it on peaks.
case, the stage must be neutralized. It is possible to get an average
When filament-type tubes are used, efficiency of from 60% to 65% by
the grounded-grid amplifier requires using a two-tube circuit like that
a special filament transformer that shown in Fig. 12. This amplifier is
has a very low capacity between the called the Doherty amplifier. The cir-
primary and secondary windings. The cuit is arranged so that the unmodu-
capacity between the windings will lated signal from the driver drives

PEAK
CARRIER TUBE
TUBE
MODULATED
RF INPUT

B+

BIAS BIAS
VI V2

FIG. 12. A basic Doherty system.

16
 one tube, called the carrier tube, to impedance" or "characteristic imped-
saturation while the other tube, called ance." It depends on the size of wire
the peak tube, passes little or no plate used, the spacing between the wires,
current. Thus we have one tube oper- and the material between the wires.
ating at peak efficiency and the other The characteristic impedance is rep-
tube wasting little or no power. resented by the symbol Zo.When a
The two tubes are of the same load Z, is connected across one end
types, and therefore will have almost of aquarter-wave line, the impedance
identical characteristics. The carrier that is seen at the other end, which
tube is biased at the extended cut-off we will call Z. is given by the for-
value as a true class B linear ampli- mula:
fier. The peak tube has about twice
as much bias applied to it so that it 7 02
Zs = 7
operates more as a class C amplifier -L
z

than a class B amplifier. When the

unmodulated signal from the driver is If we make the characteristic imped-
fed to this tube it barely drives it ance of this line equal to the load
into the conducting region. that the tube should work into for
The load on both tubes is the paral- normal class B operation (Z 1), and
lel resonant circuit made up of C. the actual load equal to half the nor-
and L, and the load connected to it mal class B load, then the impedance
through L.. The output of the peak looking into the line from VI becomes
tube, V2, is connected directly to this
load. The parallel resonant circuit is
designed so that. the load impedance
will be about half what would nor-
mally be used for one of the tubes
operated in the normal way as aClass
B amplifier. Thus, if the load should
be ZL,the load impedance that V2
will see will be ZL/2. Thus, the load impedance into which
V1 is working is equal to twice the
The load the carrier tube, VI, will normal load for class B operation.
see will be quite different. VI is con- Another characteristic of a trans-
nected to the load through a network mission line is that it delays a signal
consisting of C„ L„ and C . This net-
2
traveling through it. With a quarter-
work is called an artificial transmis- wave line between VI and the load
sion line because it acts like a trans- there will be a one-quarter cycle de-
mission line. By selecting the values lay. We refer to this as a 90° delay
of C„ L„ and C2,we can make the or a 90° phase shift. One other char-
network act like a transmission line acteristic of a quarter-wave line is
one quarter of a wavelength long. that it inverts any change in the load
(The symbol that you see on the connected across the output. If the
diagram is the Greek letter Lambda, impedance of the load is increased,
and is used as an abbreviation for at the input the line acts as if the
wavelength.) You will study trans- impedance had been reduced, and if
mission lines in detail later; for the the impedance of the load at the out-
present you need know only a few put is reduced, at the input it acts as
things about them. if it had been increased. Now let's
Transmission lines have a charac- go ahead and see exactly how this
teristic which is known as the "surge amplifier works.
17
 When an unmodulated signal is fed pedance is only 1 /
2 the normal value
from the driver to the amplifier, the of ZL,it will supply twice the power
signal does not drive the grid of V2 it would if it were operated at satura-
hard enough to cause this tube to tion with the normal load impedance.
conduct any appreciable amount of This power supplied to the load
plate current. The signal from the causes the voltage across it to increase
driver is fed to the grid of V1 through so that the value of the load imped-
a phase-shifting network that ad- ance connected at the end of the
vances the signal phase so that the quarter-wave transmission line ap-
signal applied to the grid of V1 leads pears to have doubled. This means
the signal fed to the grid of V2 by 90°. that it is now equal to Z. The im-
This signal drives the grid of VI hard pedance at the other end of the line,
enough to drive this tube to plate- to which V1 is connected, becomes:
current saturation. Thus the tube
operates with good efficiency. How-
Z.= Z L 2 Zi.
ever, because the load impedance is
twice the normal class B load imped-
ance, the power output will be only Therefore VI is now working into the
about half of what would be obtained load impedance it should work into
with the correct load impedance. The for normal class B operation, and the
output from VI is fed through the power output from it will be twice
artificial line, which delays it 90°, to
the value with no modulation. Thus
the load. Since the signal has been
both V1 and V2 are supplying twice
advanced 90° and then retarded 90°, the power to the load that V1 sup-
the two phase shifts cancel, so the plied to it with no modulation, so the
signal reaching the load from V1 will
power output has increased four
be in phase with any signal reaching
times, as it should with 100% modu-
it from V2.
lation.
When the driving signal is modu- You might wonder how we can say
lated and its amplitude starts to in- that the efficiency of this amplifier is
crease, V2 begins to conduct. This re- good when with no modulation one
sults in an increase in the signal volt- tube is supplying only half the nor-
age across the load because the load mal class B power to the load and the
current increases. The quarter-wave other tube none at all. You must re-
transmission line, which is also con- member that efficiency is not a meas-
nected to the load, sees this higher ure of the amount of power output.
voltage. Since the extra current is not If the ratio of the power output to the
coming from this line, the higher power input is high, the stage is effi-
voltage across the load has the same cient regardless of how much power
effect on the line as an increase in it actually delivers to the load. The
load impedance. The quarter-wave efficiency simply tells you how much
transmission line inverts this change of the power that the stages take from
so that at ite input the impedance the power supply is converted into a
decreases. This means that the im- useful output signal. If the efficiency
pedance of the load that V1 is work- is 75% then 75% of the power input
ing into goes down, and VI supplies is converted t3 useful output and only
more power to the load. 25% wasted. If an amplifier with 75%
With 100% modulation, the ampli- efficiency has a power input of 100
tude of the driving signal will drive watts, the output will be 75 watts;
V2 to saturation. Since its load im- the wasted power 25 watts. On the
18
other hand, a 1000-watt amplifier circuit are that it presents a varying
with an efficiency of 30% would put load to the preceding amplifier, and
out 300 watts of useful power, which the circuit is very difficult to adjust.
is more than the preceding example, For these reasons, the Doherty ampli-
but in doing so would waste 700 watts. fier is no longer being manufactured.
Although the efficiency of the However, you may find them still in
Doherty circuit is high, it has some use in some broadcast stations.
important disadvantages. At high fre- The class B linear circuits that we
quencies, the capacity in the phase- have discussed in this section are
correcting circuit and the quarter- typical of those found in both low-
wave line is so small that even the power and high-power transmitters.
stray capacity in the wiring and the The power output, of course, depends
tube capacities can affect the opera- on the tube type, the component rat-
tion of the stage. Also, as the operat- ing, and the operating voltages and
ing frequency increases, it becomes currents used in the stage.
more and more difficult to maintain
the proper phase relationships in the FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
circuits.
Distortion will occur when a signal You have already studied both re-
with a low modulation percentage is generative and degenerative feedback.
amplified by the Doherty system, be- You will remember that when a sig-
cause the peak tube then operates nal is fed from the output of one
near cut-off where the characteristic stage back to the input of the stage,
of the tube is the most non-linear. or to apreceding stage, we have feed-
Operating the carrier tube near satu- back. If the polarity of the signal
ration can also produce distortion. that is fed back is such that it aids
Other disadvantages of the Doherty the original signal, we have regenera -

OSCILLATOR BUFFER CLASS C

AMPLIFIER

MIKE

D SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
MODULATOR
DRIVER
MODULATOR

RF
FILTER

RECTIFIED (AUDIO) FEEDBACK VOLTAGE

FIG. 13. Over-all rf to af feedback that reduces distortion, hum, and noise in the
modulated class C and class B amplifier stages as well as in the audio-frequency
amplifiers on the modulator.

19
 C402
lated signal, demodulates it, and fil-
0401
ters out the rf. The demodulated sig-
nal, which is made up of the original
POWER audio signal plus any noise or distor-
OUTPUT
STAGE tion that has been added is then fed
back to the speech amplifier or modu-
lator of the audio system. It is re-
inserted 180° out of phase with the
original signal.
In this system, noise or distortion
originating in the modulator and its
FIG. 14. The Collins rf feedback associated driver and amplifier stages,
arrangement. and distortion components contributed
by the modulation process can be
Live feedback, and if it opposes the reduced to very low values.
original signal we have degenerative Fig. 14 shows a system in which rf
feedback, which we usually call in- or carrier feedback is used. This is
verse feedback. Regenerative feed- the Collins KWS-1 transmitter.
back is used in oscillators. Inverse RF energy is fed back through
feedback is used to help reduce noise, capacitor C402 to the cathode circuit
hum, or distortion produced in ampli- of the driver. Notice that the driver
fiers. consists of two tubes, V206 and V207,
Inverse feedback systems are used connected in parallel. The feedback
in transmitters to reduce noise and voltage developed between the cath-
distortion. A feedback system used in odes of the driver and ground is 180°
a transmitter is shown in Fig. 13. out-of-phase with the driver input
This feedback will reduce noise and signal. Hence, the feedback link in-
distortion produced in the modulator cludes the dr;ver and the linear am-
driver, the modulator, the modulated plifier output stage. The feedback not
class C stage and in the linear ampli- only corrects distortion, but also im-
fier. proves the driver regulation, insuring
In this system there is a small a more linear operation.
resonant circuit that is tuned to the The amount of feedback depends on
output frequency of the transmitter the relative reactance of capacitors
and loosely coupled to some portion C402 and C714. Coil L706 is a radio
of the output system such as the final frequency choke that provides a de
tank circuit, or the transmission line, return for the cathodes. It is loaded
or picks up radiation directly from by resistor R708 to prevent oscilla-
the antenna. It picks up the modu- tion.

20
 Outphasing Modulation System
A system of modulation in which BASIC SYSTEMS
linear amplifiers are not required has
recently become more widely used. It Fig. 15A shows two ac generators
is called the "outphasing" system or connected in series across a load. If
"phase-to-amplitude" modulation sys- the two generators are exactly in
4
- tem. phase, the two voltages they produce,
As you have learned, in low-level E, and E2,will add. For example, if
modulation systems, the rf power am- each one is 10 volts, the total output
plifier stages must be operated will be 20 volts. This is shown by the
linearly or the output will be dis- vector diagram in Fig. 15B. The
torted. However this is not the most Greek letter phi (0) is used to mean
efficient form of operation. In high- phase angle. Here it is shown as 0°.

o
El E2
E• 20 V
Cp.. 0'

El

•120°
•180* E•0 E 10V

E2

FIG. 15. Two generators connected in

series across a load as in A, will produce
varying voltages across the load, depend-
ing upon their phase relationship. B
shows the output if they are in phase;
C shows them 180° out of phase; and
D shows them 120° out of phase.

level modulation systems, the carrier If E, and E, are exactly opposite

is amplified before it is modulated, in phase, the voltages will cancel as
which eliminates the need for linear shown in Fig. 15C. The phase angle
amplifiers, but much more audio is 180°, and the output voltage E is 0.
power must be supplied to the class C If the phase angle is anywhere be-
stage to modulate it. Therefore, in tween 0 and 180°, the output voltage
low-level systems it costs more to will be somewhere between 0 and 20
amplify the carrier; in high-level sys- volts. For example, if the phase angle
tems it costs more to develop the is 120° as shown in Fig. 15D, the
high audio power required. The out- output voltage will be the vector sum
phasing system combines some of the of E, and E , or 10 volts. If the phase
2

advantages of each. Let us see how. angle is varied, the output will also

21
 E
1 E1 For example, if the amplifiers are

1E
50° i30° operated with a phase difference of

'N120°E
150° without modulation (30° away
from 180°), and 100% modulation is
applied, the output will vary as shown

2 E2 o E
E 2
in Fig. 16. The length of E indicates
the amplitude of the output. When
e no modulation is applied, the carriers
are 150° out of phase, and the output
FIG. 16. Vector diagram showing how is equal to their vector sum, as shown
the combined output of two amplifiers in Fig. 16A.
depends upon the phase relationship
On one half of the audio cycle, the
between them.
pitase difference will increase 30°, or
vary in the same manner. up to 180°. The two carriers will can-
The generators in Fig. 15A can be cel, and the output will be zero, as
replaced by vacuum tube amplifiers shown in Fig. 16B. On the other half
operating on the same frequency but of the audio cycle, the phase differ-
out of phase by some value between ence is decreased by 30°. This ap-
90° and 180°. If the amplifiers are proximately doubles the output as
then modulated with an audio signal shown in Fig. 160.
that increases and decreases this Fig. 17 shows a block diagram of
phase difference between them in pro- such a system. The output of an rf
portion to the amplitude of the audio source is split between two amplifier
signal, and if their outputs are then branches. A phase shift of less than
combined, the signal obtained across 180° is introduced into one branch so
the output of the two amplifiers will that the carrier will not be completely
be proportional to the modulating cancelled. The first tube in each string
voltage. We will have 100% modula- is a phase modulator. It is designed
tion if the modulating signal varies so that when an audio voltage is
the phase of the carrier by the amount applied, the phase of its output will
of the original phase shift away from vary in step with the amplitude vari-
ations of the audio voltage. You will

PHASE
180°.

15SHIFTER
0° PHASE MODULATOR AMPLIFIER F
P.-
180°SHIFTERPHASE COMBINED
RF SOURCE OUTPUT
AUDIO
SOURCE
PHASE
MODULATOR AMPLIFIER
FIG. 17. Block diagram of basic outphasing modulation systems.

22
 AMP A AMP A • --Obi AMP
+90°
BAL.
MOD.
180°
h_e.

AUDIO LOAD
OSC. BUFFER -
90°
—111.

HPHASE
AMP BSHIFT AMP H

FIG. 18. Another basic outpliaeng modulation system.

learn how this is done in alater lesson cancel each other. After amplifica-
on phase modulation. The audio volt- tion, the two carriers are combined in
ages fed to the two phase modulators the output. Since they are almost 180°
must be 180° out of phase with each out of phase with each other, the re-
other, or their effects would cancel. sultant carrier will be almost 90° out
The outputs of the two phase modu- of phase with the carrier in each
lators are amplified, and the ampli- branch. Since the modulation side-
fied outputs are combined. bands were shifted 90° in phase at the
The modulation envelope will not output of the balanced modulator,
be distorted, regardless of whether they will be practically in phase in
the amplifiers are linear or not, be- the output of the amplifier. Thus the
cause it is the phase not the ampli- original modulation appears in the
tude of the signal that is varying in
accordance with the audio, and the
linearity of an ampljfier does not
A
affect the phase of the output.
Fig. 18 shows another arrangement
for outphasing modulation. Here we
have an rf source consisting of an
oscillator and buffer stage. The out-
put is fed to two amplifier strings,
180° out of phase. The audio signal
ALMOST
90°
is fed to a balanced modulator, which
produces a double-sideband signal
that is substantially free of carrier.
The output of the modulator is di-
ALMOST
90°
vided between the two amplifier
branches. One part is shifted +90° in
phase and combined with the output
of amplifier A, and the other part is
shifted —90° in phase and combined

BI
with the output of amplifier B.
A small phase shift is introduced
in the lower branch so that the car-
FIG. 19. Relationship of carriers
riers in the two branches will not in Fig. 18.

23
 CHANNEL -7;
CHANNEL 4".

DC 7400 7400 MOD TERmEDIATE TEAMMATE Pc,ER

740D A ^NIP No AMP No AMP NC 3 AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AV IE R
5693 5693 5693 5693 4 -25D 6076 671

CARRIER SET 15. POWER ••••••

OUTPUT CONTROL
GANGED EL MOTOR
DRIVEN FOR REMOTE
CONTROL
5692 THIS STAGE ON
__J
r—
SEPARATE CHASSIS
807

osc BuF FER

5693
AUDIO
INPUT
DRIVE
REG
I I 262
POW
51 o ER
SUPPLY
6-8
0 e
v PO WER

SUP
V

56P LY
3-
OUTPUT
NETWOR
AM
OUTPUT

I
L

I
C 7400 740D MOD 1NTERmEDIATE INI/RmEDIATE POWER
74013 B AMP NO I AMP NO 2 A7P NO 3 Amyl. IF 1ER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
5693 5693 5693 5693 4 -250 60 76 5671

CHANNEL « 13 -

E,rCITER - MODULATOR
Courtesy RC A

FIG. 20. Block diagram of RCA Ampliphase transmitter.

 1
TO DC MOD. A

OSC. AT BUFFER
OPERATING 180"

1
AMPLIFIER PHASE
FREQUENCY
DIFFERENCE

.-TO DC MOD. B
Courtes y RCA
FIG. 21. Exciter-modulator circuit of Fig. 20.

output. Fig. 19 shows the vector dia- So that the phase difference will be
gram for the carriers. A is the original less than 180°, the first stage in each
carrier fed to amplifier A. B is the amplifier is an adjustable phase-shift
original carrier fed to amplifier B. amplifier. These are de modulator A
B, is the carrier in the lower branch and de modulator B in Fig. 20. A
after being shifted slightly in phase. simplified diagram of the circuit is
C is the resultant carrier in the out- shown in Fig. 22. The values of L„
put. As you can see, it is almost 90° C„ and R, are chosen so that when
different in phase from the carriers in R, is set to one end of its range, there
the two amplifier branches. will be a phase shift of +25°, and
when it is set to the other end of its
THE RCA AMPLIPHASE
range, there will be a phase shift of
TRANSMITTER
—25°. Setting the phase-shift ampli-
A modern commercial transmitter fier in one chain for a +22.5° phase
that uses this "phase-to-amplitude" shift, and the phase-shift amplifier in
system of modulation is the RCA the other chain for a —22.5° phase
50-kw "Ampliphase" transmitter. A
block diagram of this transmitter is
shown in Fig. 20. Its operation is
essentially similar to that of the cir-
cuits we have studied..
The output of asingle crystal oscil-
lator is fed to a buffer amplifier with
a push-pull output tank, as shown in
Fig. 21. Thus, the carrier wave is
split between two rf amplifier chan-
nels, and the signal supplied to one
chain is 180° out of phase with that
supplied to the other. Since these two CARRIER
signals are 180° out of phase, no out- SET
put would be obtained if they were
impressed on a common load. How-
ever, if the phase difference is made «mom

less than 180°, some output will be COUrteav RCA

obtained, the amount depending upon FIG. 22. Simplified diagram of the
the phase angle. adjustable phase shifter.

25
 providing isolation and drive to the
first intermediate power amplifiers.
The signals are further amplified and
then combined in the output to give
an amplitude-modulated output. Fig.
24 shows a simplified diagram of the
power amplifier output circuit.
2 The relationship between the car-
riers in the two channels is shown in
vector form in Fig. 25. The two vec-
tors A, and B, show the relationship
of the carriers in the two branches
without modulation. C, represents the
output with no modulation. Vectors
A and B show the carriers during the
modulation troughs with 100% modu-
+B lation, and A2 and B2 show the car-
riers on the peaks of 100% modula-
tion. On the troughs the output is
AUDIO zero, and on the peaks, the output is
INPUT doubled, as shown by C.
A very important consideration in
designing transmitters is the amount
of time a transmitter must be off the
air if anything goes wrong. To mini-
mize this time, the RCA Ampliphase
transmitter is designed with two com-
plete oscillators and two complete
Courtesy RCA
exciter-modulator sections. Either of
FIG. 23. Simplified dicgram of the
modulated amplifier and modulator. these can be switched in with only a

shift will give a total phase shift of

45°, and the two carriers will be 135°
apart in phase instead of 180°.
The next three stages in each chan-
nel are called modulated amplifiers.
They are quite similar to the adjust-
able phase-shift stages, except that
instead of a variable resistor in the
plate tank circuit there is a triode
tube, as shown in Fig. 23. The triode
tube acts as a variable resistance
when an audio signal is applied to its
grid. The audio signal applied to each
modulator tube produces a phase-
modulated signal in the tank circuit
of its corresponding modulated ampli-
fier.
Courtesy RCA
Following the modulated amplifiers FIG. 24. Simplified diagram of the
there is aconventional amplifier stage power amplifier output circuit.

26
 current, output plate voltage, driver
plate voltage, carrier level, and both
output cathode currents are repeated
at the remote control point.
Broadly tuned band-pass coupling
circuits are used to insure stability.
A special transformer-type of neutral-
ization circuit is used to make the
135° final amplifiers completely broadband.

"Ci LOOKING AHEAD

/ C2

Class B linear amplifiers are im-

portant because they are used in
many AM radio broadcast stations.
They are used because it is more eco-
nomical to modulate a low-power
class C stage and then amplify the
82 MODULATION PEAK modulated signal than it is to modu-
late a high power class C stage.
Bi NO MODULATION Remember that class B linear am-
plifiers are operated at extended cut-
MODULATION TROUGH
off bias. If the amplifier is properly
FIG. 25. Relationship of the carriers in adjusted, the plate current will not
the two amplifier channels of Fig. 20 for change when the amplifier is modu-
no modulation and 100% modulation.
lated. If there is ameter in the trans-
mission connecting the transmitter to
momentary loss of carrier, and with- the antenna, the current reading on
out cutting off the de supply to the this meter should increase 22.5% with
transmitter. Fig. 26 shows the switen- 100% modulation.
ing arrangement. Distortion will be produced in a
Provision is also made for remote linear amplifier that is overdriven be-
control of the transmitter. Because of cause the plate current is not able to
the extra oscillator and exciter-modu- follow the grid voltage variation if
lator sections that can be switched in the tube is driven beyond saturation.
at a moment's notice, one of the big Distortion may also be due to im-
disadvantages of remote control oper- proper bias on the linear amplifier,
ation is eliminated, that is, of having or poor driver regulation.
to lose time on the air while a main- Most linear amplifiers that you en-
tenance man is sent to the trans-
mitter.
Switching from local to remote con-
trol is accomplished with a single
transfer switch. A safety feature is
that this switch can be operated only
at the transmitter. This eliminates
the possibility that someone working
on the equipment will be endangered
by someone operating it from the FIG. 26. Arrangement for switching in
remote point. extra oscillator or exciter-modulator in
Meter readings for the total plate Fig. 20.

27
counter in AM broadcast work will not remain constant when they are
be class B amplifiers. However, class modulated.
AB linear amplifiers are also used, One method of getting around the
particularly in single sideband appli- necessity of using linear amplifiers is
cations. You will study these ampli- to use a combination of phase and
fiers later, and also class B amplifiers amplitude modulation, as in the Am-
for TV. When you study these ampli- pliphase system. You will learn more
fiers, you will find that the plate about phase modulation in a later
current of these linear amplifiers does lesson.

28
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet 21CC.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers
too long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than
two sets at a time or you may run out of lessons before new ones can
reach you.

1. Why can't class C amplifiers be used to increase the power of the modu-
lated signal from an AM transmitter?

2. What TWO operating adjustments on a properly tuned linear stage have

most effect on the linearity?

3. What makes it possible to use asingle tube in aclass B rf linear amplifier,

when two tubes in push-pull are needed in aclass B audio amplifier?

4. How does the plate current meter reading in a class B linear amplifier in
an AM broadcast station react when modulation is applied?

5. In which of the following operating conditions is less power dissipated in

the class B linear tube: (a) with modulation (b) without modulation?

6. If the final class B linear amplifier stage in a transmitter has an output of

50 kw and an efficiency of 40%, how much power must be dissipated by
the tubes?

7. List three causes of positive carrier shift in a linear amplifier stage.

8. Why are the grid and plate voltages in a linear amplifier set to one-half
their normal values during adjustment?

9. What is the output voltage when two generators generating equal voltages
180° out of phase are connected in series?

10. When the output of an Ampliphase system is at its maximum, will the
phase difference between the two amplifier signals be (a) maximum or
(b) minimum?
 THOROUGHNESS
Whatever you do, do well if you would stay on the
straight road to success. The habits of carelessness
and slipshod work are all too easy to acquire; beware
of them as you would the plague. Men who are
thorough in their work cannot remain undiscovered
for long, because the demand for such men is greater
than the supply.

Thoroughness is just as important in study as it

is in work; what you get out of alesson depends upon
how completely you master the material presented
in it. Some books, as fiction, are read hurriedly and
only once, then cast away; the enduring works of
literature are carefully read and reread many times
but always essentially for the pleasure they give;
textbooks, however, must be read quickly to get the
basic ideas, then carefully many times until every
important principle has been mastered.

Thoroughness in study habits leads to thorough.

ness in work habits, and eventually to a thorough
success.

771
I
CURRENT, VOLTAGE
AND RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS

22 CC
 CURRENT, VOLTAGE, AND
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

22CC
 STUDY SCHEDULE NO. 22

• 1. Introduction Pages 1-3

Here you get a general idea of how meters are used, meter accuracy, and why
meters are shielded

O 2. Bask Meter Movements Pages 3-8

You study the three basic types of meter, the d'Arsonval, the moving vane, and
the dynamometer.

• 3. DC Measurements Pages 8-18

First we take up direct current measurements then dc voltage measurements.

ID 4. AC Measurements Pages 19-25

We take up alternating current measurements then ac voltage measurements.

D 5. Resistance Measurements Pages 25-32

We discuss series and shunt ohmmeters, meggers, and multimeters.

D 6. Power Measurements Pages 32-36

Here you learn how dc power, 60-cycle power, and af and rf power are measured.

El 7. Answer Lesson Questions.

ET 8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1960 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

M P2M469 1969 EDITION Printed in U.S.A.

 CURRENT, VOLTAGE, &
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
arrangement of the meter circuit and
m
ETERS play an important part
in all phases of electronics. They the way in which the meter is con-
are used to find out what is going on nected that determines the type of
in an electronic circuit, for making measurement that will be made.
operating adjustments, in checking We will discuss only meters that do
performance, and in troubleshooting. not use vacuum tubes as part of their
In communications work you will deal circuits here. In alater lesson we will
with meters that are wired right into take up vacuum-tube voltmeters and
transmitter circuits to indicate oper- other instruments using vacuum tubes.
ating conditions, and also with port- Most meters used in electronics
able test instruments. Sometimes, you rely on the principles of electromag-
may want only ageneral indication of netism. That is, when current flows
current, voltage, or resistance; some- through a coil of wire, a magnetic
times you may have to take very ac- field is produced around the coil that
curate measurements, but whether the is proportional to the amount of cur-
measurement is general or very exact, rent flowing. This principle is used in
its usefulness depends on how well the three most common types of
you understand your instrument. If meters: the d'Arsonval, the magnetic
you misuse a meter, you will get in- vane, and the dynamometer. We will
accurate readings, and may damage discuss these three types. No matter
the meter. which type it is, the moving element
In this lesson, we will discuss meters is made as light as possible. Because
used to measure current, voltage, re- the moving element is light it will
sistance, and power. You will learn move quickly and have atendency to
that the same types of meter are used oscillate somewhat back and forth
in all measuring circuits. It is the through the correct reading. There

1
must be some means of bringing the
pointer to rest quickly without oscil-
lation after the meter has been ener-
gized, and to keep it from swinging
back and forth after it is brought back
to zero. This is called "damping." It
can be accomplished either electri-
cally or mechanically. You will see
examples of both systems.

ACCURACY

Although it is possible to make

highly accurate meters (within one-
quarter of 1% or better) by hand-
calibrating them with a standard
meter, they are large and very ex-
pensive. For general communications
work, meters having an accuracy of Courtesy Weston Electrical instrument Co.

2% are satisfactory. These meters are FIG. 2. A portable de voltmeter. The

dark arc below the scale is a mirror t3
mass-produced, with printed scales,
make it easier to read the meter accu-
and are adjusted internally at the rately.
time they are manufactured to the
required accuracy. the meter pointer is at the tenth divi-
The accuracy of ameter movement sion (1/5 of full scale), the reading
is generally expressed as apercentage may still be in error by one division;
of the full-scale reading. For example, this would be an error of 10%. Most
if a meter with 50 scale divisions has instruments used in communications
2% accuracy, it is accurate within work have a 2% accuracy at full
one scale division at the full-scale scale, but not as much error as 10%
reading. This does not indicate the per at the low end of the scale.
cent of accuracy on the rest of the Reading the Meter. In order to get
scale, because it may be off as much an accurate reading from a meter,
as one scale division at any other part you must look at it squarely, not from
of the scale also. For example, when an angle, because in order to swing
freely, the pointer must be a little bit
RIGHT-e, POSITION e4\, above the scale. As shown in Fig. 1,
WRONG 'WRONG if you look directly down on the meter
,/POSITION
PO SITION
you will get one reading, for example,
10. However, if you look at it from
GLASS-0.
one side, you might think the reading
METER POINTER
SCALE was 9, and from the other, you might
think the reading was 11.
FIG. 1. When reading a meter, always
look at it directly to get an accurate To help avoid this, many meters
reading. have a mirror under the pointer. The

2
dark area under the scale in the meter
shown in Fig. 2is such amirror. When
you read the meter, you move your
eye until the reflected image of the
pointer disappears, and you know you
are looking directly at it.
Shielding. It is sometimes desirable
to shield the meter elements, because
external magnetic fields produced by
nearby current-carrying conductors or
by the earth itself can react with EXTERNAL MAGNETIC SHIELD
FIELD
them and affect the readings. There
is no known insulator for magnetic FIG. 3. A meter can be shielded from
lines of force, so the undesirable stray an external magnetic field by encasing
it in iron, which bypasses the field around
fields must be bypassed around the
the meter movement.
meter elements by a shield made of
iron, which is a good conductor of
magnetic lines of force. Such an ar- types of meters, and then see how
rangement is shown in Fig. 3. they are used to measure current,
Now, let's take a look at the basic voltage, resistance, and power.

Basie Meter Movements

The three types of meters we will ments; however, the d'Arsonval is by
discuss in this section are the d'Ar- far the most common for dc. When
sonval, the magnetic vane, and the the d'Arsonval is used to measure ac,
dynamometer. All three types can be it must be used with a rectifier to
used for both ac and de measure- change the ac to dc. Since the d'Ar-
sonval is the most common type, let's
PERMANENT discuss it first.
MAGNET
/7 THE D'ARSONVAL METER

In an earlier lesson, we had aquick

look at the d'Arsonval meter. Let's
review its action now. As you will
remember, it works on the principle
that like magnetic poles repel each
SMALL PIVOTED
MAGNET other and unlike magnetic poles at-
tract. If a small pivoted magnet is
FIG. 4. A small pivoted magnet placed
between the poles of a large magnet as at placed between the poles of a perma-
A, will rotate until the unlike poles are nent magnet, as shown in Fig. 4A, it
opposite each other. A pivoted coil
will move in the direction of the
through which current is passed will act
in the same way, as shown at B. curved arrow.

3
 only to the point where the magnetic
MINUS JEWEL force caused by the current is exactly
TERMINAL BEARING equal to the retarding force of the
SPRING springs, and remains there as long as
the current causing the magnetic force
is applied. When current stops, the
magnetic field of the coil disappears,
and the springs move the coil back to
its original position.
Since the magnetic force causing
rotation of the coil is proportional to
the amount of current flowing through
the coil, one particular value of cur-
rent will make the coil rotate to ene
particular place. A greater current
JEWEL will rotate the coil further, and a
PLUS
BEARING
TERMINAL smaller one will rotate it less. A scale
that is marked to show the amount of
FIG. 5. How a d'Arsonval type of meter
is made. current that will cause any particular
amount of movement is placed under
Now, suppose instead of the small the pointer.
magnet we put a coil between the The permanent magnet is made
poles of the larger magnet. As you from a special steel or metal alloy,
know, when current flows through a chosen for strong magnetic qualities
coil it becomes magnetized. Therefore, and long magnetic life. The stronger
if we send current through this coil, the field of the permanent magnet,
it will act just like the small per- the more the coil will rotate for a
manent magnet in Fig. 4A. This is particular current; in other words, the
the way the d'Arsonval meter is made, more sensitive the meter will be. The
as shown in Fig. 4B. The coil is wound magnet is especially treated and aged
on a soft iron core, and placed on a until the field strength remains con-
pivot, and a pointer is attached to stant. The pole pieces are of soft iron,
the coil. When no current is applied, carefully shaped to give the desired
the coil and the pointer are in the magnetic distribution. If the meter
position shown. When current is ap- scale is to be linear (that is, adjusted
plied to the coil, it becomes magnet- so that equal increases in current will
ized and starts to rotate, moving the produce equal increases in meter coil
pointer. movement), the magnetic field must
The coil would continue to rotate be uniform throughout the gap in
until its south pole was opposite the which the coil turns.
north pole of the permanent magnet, So that it will turn easily, the coil
except for the fact that springs are is wound on avery light-weight metal
attached to the ends of the coil, as form, and the coil and the form are
shown in Fig. 5, which oppose the coil suspended between almost frictionless
movement. Therefore, the coil turns pivots with jewel bearings. The num-

4
ber of turns used in the coil depends The same action takes place when the
on the range and sensitivity desired meter is de-energized and the pointer
for the meter. is returned to zero.
The coil starts to rotate from the Another common method of creat-
same position each time. When the iiig damping is to place a resistor
coil rotates, one spring is wound while between the meter terminals. In this
the other is unwound. The springs system, there is a voltage induced in
thus oppose the coil movement in the coil as it moves through the fixed
either direction away from the start- field, which causes a current flow
ing position. through the resistor and coil that sets
Naturally, these springs will not up an opposing field similar to that
always remain perfectly balanced. produced by the current induced in
Most meters have a zero adjustment the coil form. In both cases, damping
to compensate for this. It is a small action ceases as soon as the coil stops
screw that usually protrudes through moving. The resistor value that will
the case of the meter just above or permit the most rapid coil movement
below the meter coil. Turning this without noticeable waving and still
screw moves the upper spring enough give full-scale meter reading is called
to balance the springs and bring the the critical damping value. This value
meter pointer back to the zero posi- varies widely. Some meters require
tion. 10,000 ohms, others 100 ohms. Too
The springs are also used to make small a resistor causes over-damping
electrical connections to the coil. Of and a slow movement, whereas too
course, this means that they must be large aresistor does not damp enough.
insulated from each other and from The induced current method of
the meter frame. damping does not affect the meter
Damping. In the d'Arsonval meter, range at all. The resistor method may
the damping is done electrically by or may not affect the current range of
winding the coil on an aluminum the meter, depending on the value of
frame. As the coil responds to the flow the resistance needed. You will learn
of current and starts to rotate, avolt- more about this later on in this lesson.
age is induced in the aluminum frame
as it cuts the lines of force of the THE MAGNETIC-VANE METER
permanent magnet. The induced volt-
age causes a current to flow in the Instead of having a fixed magnet
frame, which in turn produces amag- and a moving coil like the d'Arsonval
netic field opposite to that of the meter, the magnetic-vane meter has a
permanent magnet. The opposing field fixed coil and a movable iron vane. It
produces a braking action which is often called an iron-vane meter.
brings the pointer quickly to rest. One of the best of the magnetic-vane
When the coil comes to rest, no volt- meters is the book-type, shown in
age is induced in the frame. There- Fig. 6. In this meter, two iron vanes
fore, there is no field produced by the are used, surrounded by acoil of wire.
frame to interfere with the fields of When current flows through the coil,
the coil and of the permanent magnet. the vanes will be similarly magnetized

5
so they will repel each other. It makes coil may have some effect on the read-
no difference whether the energizing ing, so it is best to take a reading,
current is de or ac, the vanes will still reverse the polarity, then take another
repel each other. One vane is fixed, reading, and average the two.
and the other is pivoted and attached In addition, the meter cannot be
to a pointer. The movement produced used on high ac frequencies because
is shown on a scale under the pointer. of losses in the vanes. Both eddy cur-
Hair springs are used to control the rent and hysteresis losses become ap-
motion and return the pointer to zero preciable as the frequency increases.
when no current is being applied to In fact, these meters are usually cali-
the coil. brated for use at some specific fre-
The moving vane meter is not as quency and if measurements are taken
widely used as the d'Arsonval meter at another frequency, the percentage
for a number of reasons. The meter of accuracy of the measurements will
cannot be made as sensitive as the be somewhat less than the rated accu-
d'Arsonval meter and therefore can- racy of the meter.
not be used to measure very weak Damping. A mechanical method of
currents. Also the scale is not linear; damping is used in this meter. The
the lower quarter of the scale is usu- aluminum vane shown directly under
ally quite compressed. the pointer is used to slow down the
Furthermore, when used on dc, the movement of the pointer. This vane
polarity of the current through the fits quite snugly into the space inside
of the coil. Both ends of the opening
are closed, so the vane, in moving
through the air in the enclosed space,
is held back by the air pressure devel-
oped. This effectively damps any ten-
dency of the vane and pointer to
oscillate.
Several other types of magnetic
vane movements have been developed,
but the book type is the most sensi-
tive and the most accurate. All have
DAMPING.,,..----- similar characteristics that restrict
VANE
their use to de and low-frequency ac
measurements.

THE DYNAMOMETER

The dynamometer, or electrodyna-

mometer as it is sometimes called,
MAGNETIC operates because of the reaction be-
VANES tween the magnetic fields of a fixed
Courtesy Weston Electrical Inaniment Co. coil and amovable coil when the same
FIG. 6. A magnetic vane meter. current flows through both of them.

6
 SPRINGS

POINTER z
_
—

t-

MOVABLE
COIL
FIXED
COILS

,
L
.
; ,....144411
>

atc

Courtesy Weston Electrical Instrument Co.

FIG. 7. A dynamometer.

Actually, there are generally two fixed to align themselves. This causes a
coils and one movable coil. Fig. 7 turning force, or torque, which carries
shows this type of meter. the pointer clockwise across the scale
The fixed and movable coils are in until the restraint of the springs
series, so the same current flows equalizes the torque. The pointer then
through them. When no current is comes to rest. The deflection of the
flowing, the axis of the movable coil pointer is proportional to the square
is at right angles to the axis of the of the current. Therefore, the scale
fixed coils. This position is main- used with the dynamometer has non-
tained by control springs. linear scale divisions.
When current flows through the It doesn't make any difference
coils, it sets up magnetic fields around whether the current applied is ac or
them. Because of the physical position dc, because if it is ac it will change
of the coils, the magnetic field of the direction in the movable coil and the
movable coil is at right angles to the stationary coils at the same instant
magnetic field of the stationary coils. so that the two magnetic fields will
As you know, like magnetic poles still oppose each other.
repel and unlike magnetic poles at- Since there is no iron core to pro-
tract each other, so the two fields try duce an economical flux, the power

7
consumption of this type of meter is movement of the vanes develops a
high; that is, the power sensitivity is retarding effect that brings the pointer
poor. Also, since the movement is to a quick stop after the meter has
necessarily heavy, it is a slow-acting been either energized or de-energized.
meter compared to other types. SUMMARY
It is usually calibrated with direct
current and is often called a transfer There are three basic meter types
instrument because it can be used as commonly used in communications
a standard for calibrating other ac work. These are the d'Arsonval, the
instruments. magnetic vane, and the dynamometer.
Damping. A mechanical method of All operate because of the magnetic
damping is used in Fig. 7. It consists effect produced by current flow.
of two vanes attached to the bottom All three types require some kind
of the shaft of the moving element. of damping. Both mechanical and
The air turbulence produced by the electrical damping systems are used

DC Measurements
The three types of meters we have and the scale will be linear. Fig. 8
just discussed can all be used to make shows a meter with a linear scale.
de measurements. However, the d'Ar- Each division between the longer lines
sonval meter is the most sensitive, represents one-tenth of amilliampere.
and is itself ade meter, so it is by far Now let's see how to make de cur-
the most widely used for de measure- rent measurements.
ments. In fact, in communications MEASURING DIRECT CURRENT
work, you will probably use only
Current meters measure the flow of
d'Arsonval meters in making de meas-
urements.
Practically all de ammeters and
voltmeters using d'Arsonval move-
ments have linear scales. That is, the
spacing between scale divisions is ex-
actly the same over the whole scale.
Let's see why.
The air gap in which the moving
coil rotates is designed to give auni-
form magnetic field in all of the space
through which the coil moves. The
torque or turning force exerted by the
coil against the springs will be di-
rectly proportional to the current
flowing through the coil. Since the
Courtesy Weston Electrwai inatnsinent Co.
springs allow the coil to turn by an FIG. 8. A znilliammeter with a 1-milli
amount proportional to the current, ampere linear scale.

8
electricity in a circuit. To make the EXTENDING METER RANGES
measurement, the meter must be con-
When currents up to 5milliamperes
nected in series with the source and
are to be measured, usually a meter
the load as shown in Fig. 9. Current
having a basic range that covers the
meters that are used as operating in-
range to be measured is used. For
dicators are wired into the circuit
example, if the currents to be meas-
permanently. When acurrent meter is
ured are under 1ma, a 1-ma meter is
used as a temporary test instrument,
used. If currents up to 3ma are to be
the circuit must be broken so that the
measured, a3-ma meter is used. When
currents over 5 ma are to be meas-
ured, resistors called "current shunts"
are connected in parallel with the
meter movement to extend the range.
LOAD Suppose we have a 1-milliampere
meter and want to measure currents
up to 10 milliamperes. We can do so
by putting a resistor across the meter
FIG. 9. A current meter is connected in terminals. We choose the value of the
series with the source and load as shown
resistor so that nine-tenths of the cur-
here.
rent (9 milliamperes) coming into the
resistor-meter combination will flow
meter can be connected in series with through the resistor and one-tenth
the load.
(one milliampere) through the meter.
When making temporary measure- In other words, we use the resistor to
ments, you must be sure to use a bypass nine-tenths of the current.
meter with a high enough range. If Fig. 10 shows how this is done. Since
you are in doubt, use a very high
range, and switch to a meter with a
lower range if you find that the cur-
rent is low enough to permit you to
do so.
The amount of current flowing in
transmitter and receiver circuits var-
ies considerably, from a few milli-
amperes in some low-level stages to
several hundred amperes in the fila-
ment circuits of the final amplifier
in a high-power transmitter. FIG. 10. How a shunt is used to increase
Meters are made in a wide variety the range of a milliammeter.
of full-scale ranges, but it would not
be practical to keep on hand meters nine-tenths of the total current flows
for every conceivable range. However, through the shunt, the shunt must
it is possible to extend the range of a have a resistance that is only one-
milliammeter to measure higher cur- ninth of the resistance of the meter.
rents. Let's see how this is done. Since the meter is a 1-railliampere

9
meter, the scale will be calibrated like written:
the meter scale shown in Fig. 8. How-
ever, by connecting the shunt across R = Rin X I'
It — I.
it we have converted the meter into a
10-milliampere meter. Therefore, to If we figure all the current values in
determine the current flowing in the the same unit (amperes, milliamperes,
circuit you must multiply the meter or microamperes), the answer will
reading by 10. Thus a reading of .6 come out in ohms.
milliampere on the meter indicates a
Now, suppose the resistance of our
current of 6 milliamperes in the cir-
1-ma meter is 100 ohms; to find the
cuit. value of the shunt necessary for meas-
Since the current bypass resistor R uring 25 ma, we substitute in the
makes a parallel path around the formula as follows:
meter, it is called a shunt. The ohmic
value of R is calculated so that it will R" X I 100 X .001 — 0.1
pass a current that is the difference R = — —
It — I. .025 — .001
between the total current being meas-
ured and the amount of current the 4.166 ohms, which can be rounded off
meter needs for full-scale deflection. to 4.2 ohms with an error of less
It's easy to find the shunt resistance than 1%.
to change the current that can be We could also have calculated the
measured by a meter. For example, if resistance from the fact that the shunt
we have a 1-milliampere meter, and must pass 24 times as much current as
we want to measure currents up to 25 the meter, and therefore must have a
milliamperes, we must use a shunt resistance that is 1/24 of the resist-
that will pass 24 milliamperes. To ance of the meter. Therefore:
find its value, we use Ohm's Law, R
R 100 = 4.166 ohms.
= E/I, where Iis the current through ' 24
the shunt, E is the voltage across the
meter terminals, and R is the shunt To find the actual total current
resistance. Voltage E, which is called flowing, multiply the reading on the
the millivolt rating of the meter, is shunted meter by the ratio of the
equal to the current range of the basic current range of the meter with shunt
meter, I., multiplied by the meter to the current range without shunt.
resistance R.. Meter manufacturers In our example, a one-milliampere
give the resistance of their meters in meter was made into a25-milliampere
their catalogs and sometimes they meter so this ratio is 25/1. The meter
also mark it on the back of the meter. readings must be multiplied by 25 to
In a few cases they also give the find the actual current flow. It is im-
millivolt rating of the meter. Current portant to remember at this time that
I through the shunt equals the total the meter itself is not passing 25 milli-
current. It, minus the basic meter amperes; only 1 milliampere goes
current, I.. Therefore, by substitut- through the meter and 24 milliam-
ing Rt. X I. for E, and It — I. for I, peres go through the shunt.
our Ohm's Law equation can be You will remember that when we

10
spoke about damping we said that sistor is made up of the 20-ohm
d'Arsonval meters are sometimes resistance we connected in series with
damped by connecting a resistance the meter, plus the 5-ohm shunt.
across the meter terminals. Also we Thus, the total damping resistance is
mentioned that too low a resistance 25 ohms, which is over five times the
would result in over-damping, which value it, was with the 4.166-ohm
causes the meter pointer to move very shunt. The meter will still be over-
slowly. When we connect a shunt damped, but not nearly as much as
across the meter terminals we connect before.
it in parallel with the damping re- We mentioned before that meters
sistor. Since the shunt resistance is designed to measure currents above 5
usually less than the critical damping milliamperes are usually 5-milliam-
value of the meter we end up with an pere meters with a shunt. Thus, a
over-damped meter. This situation meter with a scale from 0-100 milli-
can be corrected to some extent by amperes consists of a 5-milliampere
connecting a small resistance in series meter as the basic meter movement,
with the meter movement. with a shunt built inside the meter
Let's consider the example we al- case. When the meter indicates a cur-
ready have discussed where we con- rent of 100 milliamperes, 5 milliam-
verted a 1-milliampere meter with a peres will be flowing through the
resistance of 100 ohms to a 25-milli- meter and 95 through the shunt. Simi-
ampere meter. We did this by con- larly in the case of a 5-ampere meter,
necting a 4.166-ohm shunt across the 5 milliamperes will flow through the
meter terminals. This shunt becomes meter and 4.995 amperes through the
the damping resistor. If the value of shunt.
damping resistor required for critical You might wonder why meters are
damping is several hundred ohms, you made this way. There are two reasons,
can see the meter will be very badly it is more practical to build one basic
over-damped. meter movement and extend its range
Suppose we connect a 20-ohm re- by shunts than to build a large num-
sistor in series with the meter lead. ber of basic meter movements. An-
Now the total resistance of the meter other reason is that if high currents
is 120 ohms. To shunt this combina- were used in the basic meter, the
tion so the meter will read full scale springs which conduct the current to
in a circuit when the current flow is the coil would be quite bulky. Also
25 milliamperes, we need ashunt that we would have to use a rather large
has a resistance 1/24 of 120 ohms. wire size to wind the coil. This would
make the moving coil assembly bulky
R = L-
20 = 5 ohms. and insensitive.
24
In small panel instruments having
Now with a five-ohm shunt con- a range of about 20 amperes or less,
nected across the meter and the 20- the shunt is contained within the
ohm resistor we added, the meter instrument. In portable instruments
range will be 25 milliamperes as be- of high accuracy and in panel instru-
fore. However, now the damping re- ments having a rating of over 20

11
amperes, an external shunt is gen- switch, as shown in Fig. 11.
erally used with the meter. Ring Shunts. Another arrangement
Most meters designed for use with of shunt resistors, called the "ring
external shunts have a sensitivity of shunt" is shown in Fig. 12A. In this
50 millivolts. You will remember that circuit, we have a meter with a 40-
we said the meter sensitivity in volts ohm, 5-milliampere movement, and a
is equal to I. X R.„ where I n is the ring shunt arranged to extend the
full-scale meter current and R. is the scale to 25 ma, 50 ma, and 250 ma.
meter resistance. Thus, the meter sen- The range switch is shown in the
sitivity simply tells us the voltage position for the 25-ma range. To find
what the total resistance would be,
we use our formula:

IMA R = X Tim
METER
The meter resistance is 40 ohms, the
meter current is 5 ma (.005 ampere),
and the total current is 25 ma (.025
FIG. II. Amulti-range switch for connect-
in g shunt resistances across ameter.

across the meter terminals at full-

scale deflection. If we have a number
of meters that are all 5-milliampere
meters and all have a 50-millivolt
sensitivity, they must all have the
same internal resistance. Thus, a
shunt designed to work with one of
these meters could be used with any
of them. You will find shunts made
for use with meters of this type. They
are usually labeled 50 millivolts and
are also labeled with the current range
to which they extend the meter. For
example, a shunt marked 50 milli-
volts-20 amps, is designed for use
with any 5-milliampere meters that
have a sensitivity of 50 millivolts.
When it is connected across the meter
terminals, the meter range will be
extended to 20 amperes.
Many meters have several ranges,
each with aseparate shunt resistance.
The shunts are connected into the
circuit by means of a multi-range FIG. 12. How a ring shunt works.

12
ampere), so we have: The circuit with the switch in the
50-ma position can be redrawn as
R R. X I. shown in Fig. 120. Now the meter
— resistance R. is equal to 40 ohms plus
40 X .005 .2 R3, which is equal to 50 ohms minus
10 ohms.
.025 — .005 = .02 = the resistance of R1 and R2, so we
can find the combined resistance, R,
We could also have determined the
of R1 and R2 as follows:
value of R using all currents in milli-
amperes. Thus it would work out: (50 — R) X .005
R =
.05 — .005 —
R = 4° X 5 = — = 10 ohms.
25 — 5 20 .25 — .005R
.045
Now we know that the total re- .045R = .25 — .005R
sistance of R1 + R2 + R3 is 10 ohms .05R = .25
and the meter resistance is 40 ohms, R = 5 ohms.
so the total resistance in the circuit is
Now we know that R1 + R2 equals
50 ohms, and we want to find the
5 ohms; since R1 equals 1 ohm, R2
values of the individual resistances.
must equal 4 ohms; and since the
Let's find the value of R1, first.
total of all three resistors equals 10
With the switch in the 250-ma posi-
ohms, R3 must equal 5ohms.
tion, the circuit could be redrawn as
The ring shunt has two advantages
shown in Fig. 12B. Now the resistance
over the circuit shown in Fig. 11. For
of the meter is equal to 40 ohms plus
one thing, the values of the resistors
the resistance of R2 and R3, or in
on the high ranges do not need to be
other words, it is equal to 50 ohms
as low. If we used the same basic
minus the resistance of Rl. The shunt
5-ma, 40-ohm meter in an arrange-
is resistance R1 and its value can be
ment like Fig. 11, we would have to
calculated using the same formula as
have a resistor of only a fraction of
before. Now for R. we substitute
an ohm on the 250-ma range. The
(50 — R1) which is equal to the total
other advantage is that the total re-
resistance in the meter circuit, 40 +
sistance across the meter itself is the
R2 + R3. I., the current through the
same on all ranges, and can therefore
meter, is 5 milliamperes (.005 amps)
be used to provide damping.
as before, and It is 250 milliamperes
(.250 amps). So in our formula, we MEASURING DC VOLTAGES
have:
The meter in avoltmeter is actually
R1 = (50 — R1) X .005 amilliammeter or microammeter. The
.250 — .005 — most commonly used meter in making
.25 — .005R1 de voltage measurements is the d'Ar-
.245 sonval meter, which as you know, is
.245R1 = .25 — .005R1 a current-operated meter. Voltage is
.25R1 = 25 measured by sending current througb
R1 = 1 ohm. a known resistance.

13
 For example, if a 10,000-ohm re- we want to use it to measure voltages
sistor is connected across a source, from 0-1 volt. We find the value of
and we connect a milliammeter in resistance needed to limit the current
series with the resistance and it indi- flow in the meter circuit to 1 milli-
cates that a current of 1 ma flows ampere when the voltage across it is
through it, you can calculate the volt- 1volt by using Ohm's Law, R = E/I.
age from Ohm's Law, E = IR. The The voltage range we want is 1volt,
voltage across the resistor must be and the current is 1 ma or .001 am-
E = .001 X 10,000 = 10 volts. If we pere, so we have R = 1/.001 = 1000
reduce the voltage, and the current ohms. This is the total resistance in
drops to .5 milliamperes, (.0005 the circuit; it includes the resistance
amps), we know the voltage must be of the meter plus the resistance of the
multiplier. In the example, if the
E = .0005 X 10,000 = 5 volts meter has a resistance of 55 ohms,
then the multiplier should have a re-
Using this principle, a resistor, sistance of 945 ohms.

SERIES
RESISTOR

CURRENT
METER
MOVEMENT

FIG. 13. How voltage can be measured

by connecting a current meter and a
series resistor across the source.

called a "multiplier resistor" is con- Let's take another example, sup-

nected in series with a milliammeter pose we want to use a50-microampere
and the combination is connected meter that has a resistance of 2000
across the voltage source to be meas- ohms to measure voltage up to 10
ured as shown in Fig. 13. The scale, volts. Using Ohm's Law to find the
of course, is calibrated to show the resistance we get:
voltage rather than the current. We
can do this because the current will 10
depend directly on the voltage. It = = 200,000 ohms.
.00005
The value of resistance needed to
be able to measure a certain voltage, So the total resistance needed is 200,-
depends upon the current range of 000 ohms. We can ignore the meter
the meter and the resistance of the resistance in this example because it
meter itself, and upon the range of is so small, and simply connect a
voltage to be measured. For example, 200,000-ohm resistor in series with
suppose we have a 1-ma meter, and the meter. When 10 volts is applied to

14
the series combination, the meter will Thus, a voltmeter built with a 50-
read full scale. When 5 volts is ap- microampere meter and suitable mul-
plied, it will read half scale. tiplier resistors will be more sensitive
Voltmeter Loading. As we have and load the circuit only 1/20 as
said, the meter is always placed much as a similar voltmeter made
across the line to measure voltage, with a 1-milliampere meter.
rather than in series with the line as Instead of giving the sensitivity of
when current is being measured. As meters in terms of the current needed
you can see, a certain amount of cur- for a full-scale meter deflection,
rent must flow through the meter and manufacturer's rate them in ohms per
its series resistor. We say that the volt. Let's see what this rating means.
meter is loading the circuit. Because A 1-milliampere meter requires a
of this, in a low-current circuit, we current of 1 milliampere to give a
must use a meter with high sensi- full-scale deflection. To convert this
tivity, or it will not indicate circuit meter to avoltmeter with a full-scale
conditions accurately. For example, a range of 1 volt, we connect a multi-
1-ma meter will draw 1 ma of cur- plier resistor in series with the meter.
rent. If the normal circuit current is 1 The value of this resistor is
ampere, the additional 1 ma, which
is .001 amp, drawn by the meter will
= 1000 ohms.
be an insignificant amount. However, .001
if the normal circuit current is only
half a milliampere, then the addi- If we wanted to make a 2-volt meter,
tional 1 milliampere that the meter we would need a resistor
draws represents an increase in the
2
total circuit current of 200%. This R. = = 2000 ohms.
.001
increase in total current will upset a
high-impedance circuit and the volt- Notice that this is twice 1000 ohms.
age indicated on the meter will be If we wanted a 10-volt meter we
substantially less than the voltage would need 10,000 ohms, which is ten
that is normally present in the circuit. times 1000 ohms, and if we wanted a
An indication of how much ameter 100-volt meter, we would need a 100,-
will load the circuit is given by the 000-ohm multiplier, which is 100 times
sensitivity of the meter. A meter with 1000 ohms. Thus we say the sensi-
ahigh sensitivity requires less current tivity of the meter is 1000 ohms per
to operate it than one with low sensi- volt. From this figure we can imme-
tivity and hence loads the circuit less. diately tell what the total resistance
For example, a50-microampere meter of the voltmeter is.
is more sensitive than a 1-milliampere For example, if we have a 50-volt
meter. It requires only 50 microam- meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms
peres to give a full-scale deflection. per volt, we know that the total re-
A 1-milliampere meter, on the other sistance of the meter plus its multi-
hand, requires a current of 1 milli- plier is 50 X 1000 ohms, which is
ampere, which is 20 times 50 micro- 50,000 ohms. Notice that this figure
amperes to give a full-scale reading. is based on the full-scale range of the

15
meter and not the voltage being meas- We can convert a one-milliampere
ured. The resistance of the meter is full-scale d'Arsonval meter to a two-
50,000 ohms whether the voltage being scale voltmeter by connecting the
measured is 50 volts, 40 volts, 25 proper value multiplier resistors in
volts, or any other value. series with the instrument, as shown
You can determine the ohms-per- in Fig. 14. Remember that to get an
volt sensitivity of any meter if you indication of 1volt on a1-milliampere
know the current required for a full- meter, the series resistance must be
scale deflection, or, if you know the 1000 ohms. If we wish to increase the
ohms-per-volt sensitivity of a meter full-scale reading to say 150 volts, we
you can determine what current it merely multiply 1000 by 150, which
draws at full scale. gives 159,000 ohms as the value of the
For example, if we have a 50- series resistor between terminals A
microampere meter used in a volt- and B.

150,000n. I50,000.n.

150V 300V

FIG. 14. How a 1-ma meter can be con-

verted to a two-scale voltmeter.

meter, its sensitivity is To increase the full-scale reading to

300 volts, we add another 150,000-
1
R = — 20 000 ohms. ohm resistor, giving atotal of 300,000
.00005 —
ohms. In both cases, 1milliampere of
Thus its sensitivity is 20,000 ohms current flows through the meter, and
per volt. If the meter has a full-scale the instrument has a sensitivity of
voltage of 150 volts, its total resist- 1000 ohms per volt on either scale.
ance will be 20,000 X 150 = 3,000,- In Fig. 14, the resistance of the
000 ohms. 1-milliampere movement, 40 ohms, is
If you have a meter rated at 10,000 negligible when compared with the
ohms per volt and want to know what value of the multiplier resistances.
current is required for a full-scale Thus, the meter resistance can be
deflection, you use Ohm's Law: ignored. However, we would have to
consider the meter resistance if we
E
I= calculated the multiplier to make the
meter read 1volt full-scale deflection.
1 The total meter circuit resistance
I— 10.000 = .0001 amps
would be 1000 ohiiis: 40 ohms in the
= 100 microamps. meter, and 960 ohms in the multiplier.

16
Neglecting the meter resistance and meter before turning the power back
using a 1000-ohm resistor would cause on.
a4% error in meter readings.
However, on the 150-volt range, PROTECTING THE METER
neglecting the meter resistance and
using a 150,000-ohm resistor would In communication circuits, special
cause an error of only .02%. The per- care must be taken to keep rf fields
centage of error caused by neglecting from affecting the meters. A strong
the meter resistance will be approxi- field will induce rf currents in the
mately equal to the meter resistance meter wiring, which will affect the
divided by the multiplier resistance accuracy of the meter. High rf volt-
times 100. Although the percent of ages may also cause the insulation to
error decreases as the voltage range break down. This can be avoided in a
increases, the meter will always read de meter in three ways: (1) connect-
low. ing it so that it is at ground potential
Meters with more sensitive move- with respect to rf; (2) shunting it by
ments will place less load on low- an rf bypass capacitor; (3) putting
current circuits because of the much an rf choke in series with it. Fig. 15A
higher resistances used with them. shows an example of the first method.
For example, a .1-milliampere meter The meter is at the point of lowest
has a sensitivity of 10,000 ohms per rf potential in the cathode circuit.
volt. To extend its range to 150 volts, Although capacitor Cl does shunt rf
the resistor would be 10,000 X 150, currents to ground, it is not placed
or 1.5 megohms. in the circuit specifically to protect
When measuring voltage, as when the meter. Its primary function is to
measuring current, if you are not sure prevent degeneration in the circuit.
what range to use, always use a high Fig. 15B shows the second method.
one, then switch to a lower one if the This is used when a meter must be
voltage to be measured is covered by
the lower one.
Also, it would be very foolish to
try to measure the output voltage of
a power supply in a large transmitter
or any other high-voltage source by
holding the leads of a meter across it
—you might even be electrocuted! If
there is no permanent meter built in,
and you must measure the voltage,
first shut off the power. Then, dis-
charge the filter capacitors, connect
the meter across the output, turn on
the power, and without touching the
meter, read the voltage. Then, turn
off the power, discharge the filter FIG. 15. How to protect a de meter from
capacitors again, and disconnect the strong rf fields.

17
placed in a lead that carries rf or af manently into transmitter circuits are
currents. A bypass capacitor having not put near rf fields. However, if you
a low impedance compared to the are making measurements with a
meter impedance is used. The rf or af portable instrument, you should be
current follows the low-impedance careful not to take your measurements
path through the capacitor rather where the meter can be affected by
than the high-impedance path through rf signals.
the meter. This protection is some-
SUMMARY
times increased by adding a resistor,
as shown in Fig. 15C. The resistor, Practically all meters used in com-
besides increasing the meter imped- munications work for measuring de
ance, acts to damp out and prevent voltages and current have a basic
any resonance effects that might re- d'Arsonval movement.
sult from the parallel combination of The range of a current meter can
the inductance of the meter coil and be extended by adding shunt resistors,
the capacitance of the bypass capaci- the value depending upon the sensi-
tor. Fig. 15D shows the third method. tivity of the meter and upon the
An rf choke is placed in series with current to be measured.
the meter and within the circuit In avoltmeter, resistors called mul-
shunted by the bypass capacitor. tipliers are added in series with the
The bypass capacitor for rf circuits basic meter so the current through
may be anywhere from .001 mfd to .01 the resistor flows through the meter,
mfd. For ai circuits, the bypass ca- and the combination is connected
pacitor should be .01 mfd to 1 mfd, across the source to be measured. The
depending upon the circuit. The size meter scale is calibrated to show the
of the series resistor depends upon voltage for the amount of current
the current flowing in the circuit, but causing the pointer deflection.
it is usually approximately equal to For current measurements, the
the meter resistance. The higher the meter is always in series with the
resistor, the more it will protect the line; for voltage measurements, the
meter, but it should not be high meter is always across the line. When
enough to reduce the de current too measuring either voltage or current
much. always be sure to use a high enough
DC voltmeters that are wired per- range, or you may ruin the meter.

18
 AC Measurements
The same basic meters can be used a de meter by adding a shunt re-
to measure alternating currents and sistance across the meter. The size
voltages as are used to measure direct resistance needed to extend a meter
current and voltages. As you have range to a given value is figured in
learned, the magnetic vane meter and the same way as the dc meters, using
the dynamometer work on either ac the same shunt formula.
or de. Although they can be used with The magnetic-vane meter and the
dc the d'Arsonval meter is so much dynamometer work directly on ac,
superior for de measurements that the but when the d'Arsonval meter is
magnetic vane type and the dyna- used, there must be some means of
mometer are seldom used for de meas- converting the ac to de. One arrange-
urements. The dynamometer is the ment used particularly at rf frequen-
most accurate of the meters for meas- cies is the thermocouple. Let's see
uring alternating current and volt- how it works.
ages, so it is often used as astandard Thermocouples. The thermocouple
for calibrating other instruments. The works on the principle that when two
d'Arsonval meter can be used with dissimilar metals are joined and the
copper oxide rectifiers to measure ac. junction is heated, there will be a dc
This arrangement is primarily used voltage produced. The amplitude of
in voltage measurements rather than this voltage depends upon the amount
current measurements. The d'Arson- of temperature change at the junction.
val meter is used to measure alter- A sketch of a thermocouple junction
nating current by combining it with is shown in Fig. 16A. Here two wires
an arrangement called a thermocou- made of dissimilar metals are welded
ple, which you will study in aminute. together to form ajunction. The volt-
MEASURING ALTERNATING age produced at the junction can be
measured between the other ends of
CURRENT
the wires with a sensitive de volt-
In measuring alternating current, meter.
just as in measuring direct current, Since current flowing through a re-
the meter is connected in series with sistance produces heat, we can get an
the load. Again you must be careful indication of the amount of current
to use a high enough range so you flowing in a circuit by using a ther-
will not overload the meter. mocouple junction along with a suit-
AC meters are usually calibrated able meter as shown in Fig. 16B. The
at some specific ac frequency. If the current to be measured is sent through
frequency at which you are taking a resistance wire or heater, producing
measurements is too far removed from heat. The junction of two dissimilar
this, the readings will be somewhat metal wires is brought near or actu-
inaccurate. ally welded to this heater. The other
The range of an ac meter can be ends of the two wires are connected
extended in the same way as that of to a sensitive de meter.

19
 When current flows through the
resistance, heat will be produced. The
amount of heat produced will be pro-
portional to the power dissipated in
the resistance. Since the power dissi-
pated in the resistance will be equal
to I2R, the heat will be proportional
to the square of the current because
the value of R remains constant. This
heats the thermocouple junction, pro-
ducing a dc voltage, which causes a
dc current to flow through the thermo-
couple and through the meter.
Since the heat at the junction is
proportional to the square of the cur- Cou:tese Weston Etectrteul Instrument Co.
rent, and the generated de is propor- FIG. 17. A thermocouple meter with a
tional to the heat, the meter will have square-law scale.

what is called asquare-law scale. Fig. squared divisions, and you can meas-
17 shows an example of a thermo- ure the current required for a full-
couple meter with a square-law scale. scale deflection and then calculate
Square Law Meter Scales. Some- the current for deflections less than
times you'll have to use astandard de full scale.
milliammeter with a thermocouple or For example, assume that you have
a square law meter. In this case the a square law meter with the scale
meter will be divided into equally divided into 100 equally spaced "di-
visions." If the full-scale reading
(meter deflection of 100 divisions) is
IST 2ND
METAL METAL
10 ma, what is the current which.
WIRE WIRE corresponds to half-scale deflection
JUNCTION
JUNCTION
(50 divisions) ?To determine the un-

o o
i\AA/VV\Ai known current, use the formula:

D. Ia 2

Db = Ii,2
THERMOCOUPLE E
where I. is the unknown current, D.
o METER
is the deflection corresponding to it,
It) is the known current and Db is the

deflection corresponding to the known

current. Using values, we have:

50 12 50 1.2
DC
METER 100 102 or 100 — 100

When transposed, we get:

FIG. 16. How a thermocouple meter

50
X 100 = 50
works. — 100

20
Then, There is a thin-walled tubular heater
terminated in rather heavy copper
I = V 50
blocks, A and B, which are so large
which is approximately 7.1 ma. they will not be heated by the heater.
Current flowing through the heater
You will remember that when we will develop a temperature difference
defined the ac ampere we said that an between the center of the heater and
ac ampere is that ac current that will the blocks. The thermocouple junction
produce the same heating effect as one C is on the center of the heater. The
ampere of dc. Thus, since the rela- other ends of the wires are connected
tionship between ac and de currents to two strips called "compensating
is based on the heating effect, we can strips." These strips are insulated
calibrate a thermocouple-type meter from the blocks electrically by thin
with dc. A convenient circuit is shown layers of mica, but connected to them
in Fig. 16C. Here the de current flow thermally so the strips will be at the
can be measured on ade current meter same temperature as the blocks. The
and the reading on the meter con- heat capacity of the strips is such that
nected across the thermocouple re- the temperature difference between
corded. By adjusting the potentiome- the ends of the thermocouple and the
ter the current can be varied so the junction will always be the same as
entire thermocouple meter scale can the temperature difference between
be calibrated. Of course, thermocouple the center of the heater and blocks A
meters you buy come already cali- and B. Thus, if the temperature of the
brated, but this is how they are cali-
brated. Once they have been cali-
brated on de they are quite accurate COMPENSATING STRIPS

COPPER COPPER

on ac even up into high radio fre-

BLOCK A JUNCTION C BLOC« •

quencies. In fact, their accuracy is

generally within 5% from de up to
100 megacycles. In calibrating ather- OUTPUT LEADS
TO

mocouple with dc, two sets of readings

are usually taken, one with the cur-
rent flowing in one direction and the
other with it flowing in the opposite
direction, and the readings are aver-
aged.
The temperature difference between
the hot junction and the free ends of
the thermocouple element must not be
influenced by surrounding tempera-
ture changes. To eliminate this possi-
bility, the construction shown in Fig. Courtesy Weston Electrical Instrument Co.
18A is used. FIG. 18. The construction of a thermo-
couple junction is shown at A and its
Fig. 18B shows the schematic dia-
schematic diagram is shown at B. A vac-
gram of this type of construction. uum thermocouple junction is shown at C.

21
air surrounding the thermocouple mc may be as much as .5% at the
changes, the temperature difference temperature at which the meter was
between the blocks and the center of calibrated. Because of this accuracy
the heater and between the junction at high frequencies, the thermocouple
and the ends of the thermocouple does meter is often used as a standard for
not, so there will be no change in the calibrating instruments at frequencies
potential developed by the thermo- above those that can be measured on
couple due to this change. Conductors the dynamometer.
are fastened to the ends of the com- The meter used with a thermocou-
pensating strips to conduct the poten- ple must be very sensitive, because
tial developed by the thermocouple to the output of the thermocouple unit
the meter. If very small currents are may be only 15 millivolts.
to be measured, the thermocouple is Thermocouples in general must be
enclosed in an evacuated glass enve- handled with great care because they
lope. This is designed to protect are delicate. You must avoid over-
the elements from t7mperature loading a thermocouple because the
changes which could be produced by heater is likely to burn out if sub-
warm air circulating around the ther- jected to more than a40% overload.
mocouple junction or the ends of the
thermocouple. MEASURING AC VOLTAGES
Thermocouple meters are available
in current ranges from less than 1 All three of the basic meter types
milliampere up to about 300 amperes. can also be used to measure ac volt-
They are well suited for measuring age. Just as for measuring de voltage,
radio frequency currents because of a resistor is connected in series with
their accuracy at high frequencies. the meter and the combination is con-
Up to about 2 megacycles, there is nected across the source to be meas-
practically no error. Above 2 megs ured. The types of meters we have
the meter does have a tendency to described in this lesson are seldom
read slightly high because of "skin used to measure rf voltages. Such
effect," which is the tendency of cur- measurements will be discussed in a
rent at high frequencies to travel on later lesson.
the surface or "skin" of the conductor. The magnetic vane meter is not
This is particularly true at high cur- suitable for most voltage measure-
rents. ments in communications circuits be-
To minimize skin effect and eddy cause it is difficult and costly to make
currents, the conductors in the ther- a magnetic vane meter with a sensi-
mocouple unit are often made of thin- tivity better than about 5ma. A volt-
wall copper tubing plated with silver meter built around a milliammeter
or gold. The current flows only that required 5ma for a full-scale de-
through the plating. flection would have a sensitivity of
Although the error may increase only 200 ohms per volt. This would
slightly as the frequency rises, it is load many circuits to such an extent
usually below about 5% at 100 me. that the voltage reading on the meter
The accuracy at frequencies below 2 would be muCh lower than the voltage

22
normally present in the circuit. ode of a rectifier, and the oxide acts
A d'Arsonval meter can be used for as the anode. The lead disc is used as
ac voltage measurements by changing a means of contact with the copper
the current needed to operate the oxide.
meter to dc. One common method of The backward or reverse resistance
doing this is to use a copper oxide of the unit to the flow of current in
rectifier with the meter. We will study the opposite direction may be from
these now. 50 to 1500 times that of its forward
Using Rectifiers. The basic d'Ar- resistance or rectifying direction.
sonval meter can be used to measure Fig. 19A shows a single rectifier
ac voltages by connecting it to a connected in series with the meter.
single copper oxide rectifier as shown This is a half-wave rectifier. Its out-
in Fig. 19A, or to a bridge circuit put is a pulsating, direct current as
consisting of four copper-oxide recti- shown by the waveform. The current
fiers as shown in Fig. 19B. The recti- flow is blocked during alternate half
fier consists of a number of copper cycles.
discs. One side of each disc is covered In Fig. 19B, four copper-oxide rec-
with a film of copper oxide. Next to tifier units are connected in a full-
each disc is a lead washer, and the wave bridge circuit. When point X is
unit is held together under pressure positive, current will flow from Y
in a clamp-like arrangement. Current through rectifier C, through the meter
will flow readily from the copper to from left to right, through rectifier D
the copper oxide, but will not flow and resistor R to point X. When point
readily in the opposite direction be- Y is positive, current will flow from
cause the copper will readily give up point X through resistor R and recti-
its electrons but the copper oxide will fier A, through the meter again from
not. The copper disc acts as the cath- left to right, and through rectifier B
to point Y.
The pointer of the meter cannot
follow the pulsating direct current
that appears at the input of the meter
in either the full-wave or half-wave
rectifier circuits. In the full-wave rec-
tifier, the current that appears at the
output of the rectifier is the average
or .637 of the peak value. However,
the scale is generally calibrated to
read the rms or effective value of the
voltage. In the half-wave rectifier the
current at the output of the rectifier
is only half of .637 or .318. Again the
Y
scale is calibrated to read the effective
FIG. 19. A basic d'Arsonval meter can value of the voltage even though it is
be used to measure ac voltages by con-
taken from the half cycle. The full-
necting it to a single copper-oxide recti-
fier as at A, or to a bridge circuit at B. wave rectifier circuit is more com-

23
moniy used than the half-wave cir- will read about 5% low for each 1000
cuit. cycles above the frequency for which
In the full-wave bridge circuit, both the instrument is calibrated. The
ac and de are flowing simultaneously. scale, for all practical purposes, is
The meter movement, however, is in linear.
that portion of the circuit where prac-
tically all the flow is in one direction. CLAMP-ON METER
It is direct current resulting from
having each alternate half of the sine We have mentioned several times
wave flow through the meter element that when current is being measured,
in the same direction. the meter is connected in series with
One of the advantages of the cop- the line, and when voltage is being
per-oxide rectifier and d'Arsonval measured, the meter is connected
meter combinations for ac voltage across the line. However, there is a
measurements is that a very sensitive combination volt-ammeter that actu-
meter which takes little current from ally clamps around the line, so that
the source can be used. Another ad- the circuit need not be opened to take
vantage is that the scale is linear. current measurements.
One disadvantage is known as fre- The diagram of a clamp-on meter
quency error. Because there is ca- is shown in Fig. 20. It consists of an
pacity between the oxide-coated sides iron-core that can be opened and
and the non-oxide-coated sides of the clamped around the conductor carry-
discs in the rectifier unit, some cur- ing the current to be measured, with
rent is bypassed, resulting in an error a coil wound around it connected to
if the instrument is used at a fre- ad'Arsonval meter and bridge circuit.
quency other than the one at which The iron core and the coil form a
it was calibrated. Most instruments transformer. The core is a one-turn

CONDUCTOR IN WHICH CURRENT IS BEING MEASURED

IRON CORE

TRIGGER FOR
OPENING CORE

BINDING POSTS FOR VOLTAGE RANGES

o
RANGE SWITCH FOR CURRENT RANGES.
POSITION "V"USED FOR MEASURING VOLTAGE
Courtesy Weston Electrical burtrummat Co.
FIG. 20. A clamp-on meter.

24
primary, and the coil is the secondary. current against rated input current of
The alternating current in the con- apower supply. Care should be taken
ductor produces a varying flux in the to see that the core laminations at
core. This in turn causes current to the opening and hinged points are
flow in the secondary, which is fed to clean and sealed properly, otherwise
the bridge circuit. The direct current possible obstruction at these points
output of the bridge actuates the may cause erratic readings.
meter movement. This type of meter
SUMMARY
is, of course, usable only with alter-
nating current. The same basic meters are used for
Both the current and the voltage ac measurements as for de measure-
range are usually wide, the current ments. When the d'Arsonval meter is
range may be as high as 1000 am- used, the current fed to it must first
peres, and the voltage range as high be rectified. In current meters this is
as 750 volts. often done by means of a thermo-
This instrument is a great aid in couple. In voltage meters it is often
troubleshooting, especially to deter- done by means of copper-oxide recti-
mine current flow taking place in a fiers either singly or in a bridge cir-
circuit in intermittent service, or to cuit.
check running currents in motor cir- The meter is connected in series
cuits. It is also valuable in checking with the line to measure current and
currents in three-phase circuits, which across the line to measure voltage.
you will study later, to determine any When making measurements, it is
unbalance that may exist between the always important to be sure to use a
phases, and in checking total input high enough range.

Resistance Measurements
Now let's see how the same basic is calibrated to indicate directly the
current-operated meters can be used amount of resistance that will cause
to measure resistance. this amount of current flow. There are
We know from Ohm's Law that two general types of ohmmeter, the
R = E/I. Therefore, if we know the series type and the shunt type.
source voltage, and the current
through a resistor, we can calculate SERIES OHMMETER
the resistance. An ohmmeter does just
this. It has its own source of de volt- The simplest type of direct-reading
age. When it is connected across a ohmmeter is shown in Fig. 21A. This
resistance, current flows through the ohmmeter is made up of a battery, a
resistance. The amount of current will low-range milliammeter, and a com-
be inversely proportional to the value bination of a fixed and a variable
of the resistance (the more resistance, resistor, R1 and R2, in series.
the less current), and will determine The value of R1 plus R2 must be
the deflection of the pointer. The scale just enough so that with that par-
ticular battery voltage when the test sistance already in the meter circuit
leads of the instrument are touched (the sum of the meter resistance and
together, making a complete circuit, the resistance of R1 and R2), it will
the pointer of the current-operated double the total resistance in the
meter movement will make a full- meter circuit, so the current will be
scale deflection. For example, if it is cut in half, and the meter will read
a 1-ma meter movement there must half scale. If the resistance being
be 1milliampere of current when the measured is less than the resistance in
test leads are touched to each other. the meter circuit, the meter will read
R2 is made adjustable because the more than half scale. If the unknown
battery voltage decreases with use resistance is greater than the resist-
and hence the resistance needed for a ance of the meter circuit, the meter
full-scale deflection will vary. Two will read less than half scale.
resistors, one fixed and one variable For example, the scale in Fig. 22
are used to keep a minimum resist- is for an ohmmeter with a 1-ma meter
ance in the circuit at all times. If you movement and a 3-volt battery. This
had only the variable resistance in means that the sum of R1 -I- R2 and
the circuit and adjusted it so you had the meter resistance will be 3000
zero resistance in the circuit, such a ohms, because we need 3000 ohms in
high current would flow when you the circuit to limit the current to 1
touched the test leads from the instru- ma with a 3-volt battery. We know
ment together you could burn out the this from Ohm's Law:
meter.
When an unknown resistance is to E 3
R = = 3000 ohms.
be measured, it is connected between I — .001
the test probes as shown in Fig. 21B.
Its resistance is added in series with
R1 and R2, and the current will de-
RI
0--M,AAAAP-i\MAAA,
R2
o
crease accordingly, and there will be
less deflection of the pointer. Since
less deflection of the pointer means
more resistance, the scale is printed
with the zero at the right, which is the
opposite of the current scale. A typi-
cal series-type ohmmeter scale is
shown in Fig. 22.
To use this type of ohmmeter, the
RI R2
o
test leads are first shorted, and R2 is
adjusted for a full-scale reading (zero
on the Ohms scale). When the leads
are connected across the unknown
resistance, the current through the
meter will be reduced because of the
additional resistance. If the resistance
being measured is equal to the re- FIG. 21. A simple series-type ohmmeter.

26
This 3000 ohms might be made up of 30
R = = 30,000 ohms.
100 ohms in the meter itself, a 1000- .001
ohm potentiometer, R2, and a 1900-
To reduce the current to .5 ma, we
ohm resistor, RI. When the test leads
would need twice this resistance or
are shorted so there is no additional
60,000 ohms. Thus, center scale on
resistance in the circuit, the meter
the meter would be 60,000 ohms minus
will read full-scale (zero on the ohms
30,000 ohms (which is in the circuit
scale). If a 3000-ohm resistor is con-
at full scale) which is 30,000 ohms.
The center of the scale on the ohm-
meter would therefore be 30,000 ohms,
ten times what it was with the 3-volt
battery.
FIG. 22. A scale for a series-type ohm- With amore sensitive meter we get
meter having a 3000-ohm center-scale the same results. Let's go back to the
value.
3-volt battery and consider a 50-
microamp meter. The resistance
nected between the leads, the total
needed to limit the current will be:
resistance will have doubled, the cur-
rent will be cut in half, and the 3
pointer will be at the center of the R = = 60,000 ohms.
.00005
scale. As you can see, this is 3000 in
Fig. 22. If the resistance being meas- To reduce the current to half scale
ured is 6000 ohms, the total resistance we would need an additional 60,000
will have tripled, the current will be ohms. Thus this meter would have a
cut to one-third its full-scale value, center scale resistance of 60,000 ohms.
and the pointer will be one-third of Lower resistance values can be
the way over. Thus, because of the measured with a series-type meter by
relationship between the resistance use of a shunt. Taking our original
and the current, zero resistance is at example of a 3-volt battery and a
the right-hand end of the scale; 3000 1-ma meter, we can connect an addi-
ohms is represented by half the scale; tional resistor R3 in the circuit as
the next 3000 ohms is represented by shown in Fig. 23. Since R3 has a
only one-sixth of the scale; the next resistance of 333 ohms, which is 1/9
3000 ohms by only one-twelfth of the the resistance of RI ± R2 ± Ri,„ nine
scale, etc. times the current will flow through
Higher resistance values can be R3 that flows through the meter.
measured with a series-type ohm- Thus, with the test probes shorted
meter by using a higher battery volt- together, the meter will read full
age or a more sensitive meter. For scale, because 1ma will flow through
example, if we used a 30-volt battery it and at the same time 9ma will flow
instead of a 3-volt battery with the through 113. If we connect aresistance
1-ma meter, then the resistance between the terminals that reduces
needed to limit the current to 1 ma the total current flow from 10 ma to
when the test leads are shorted to- 5ma, we will get ahalf-scale reading
gether would be on the meter, .5 ma of the current will

27
 RI R2 tery are connected in series and form
a closed circuit even when the test
leads are apart. The resistance of R1
must be just enough so that there
will be enough current to cause afull-
scale deflection of the meter pointer
with the test leads apart (for a 1-ma
FIG. 23. Using a shunt with a series-type meter, a 1-ma current). In actual
ohmmeter to measure lower resistances. practice R1 is made up of two re-
sistors, a fixed resistor and a variable
flow through the meter to give the one to avoid the possibility of burn-
half-scale reading, and the balance of ing out the meter by setting the
the current, 4.5 ma, will flow through potentiometer so there is no resistance
R3. in series with the meter.
The resistance of R1 + R2 R. When the unknown resistance is
is 3000 ohms. This 3000 ohms is in connected between the test leads, it
parallel with 333 ohms. The resistance will be in parallel with the meter, as
of the parallel combination is 300 shown in Fig. 24B. This means that
ohms. With 300 ohms across the 3-volt part of the current will flow through
battery, we get a total current of 10 it, and part through the meter. If the
ma which, as we said, gave us a full-
scale meter reading. To cut the cur-
RI
rent in half, we need to double the
resistance or add another 300 ohms
between the test probes. Thus, with
the shunt R3 added, center scale on o
the ohmmeter becomes 300 ohms. By
adding a resistor that would permit
still more current flow around the
meter we could reduce the center scale
resistance still further. RI

Some ohmmeters are arranged so

that different values of shunt resistors
can be switched into the circuit. The
ohmmeter thus becomes amulti-range
ohmmeter.

SHUNT OHMMETER

A different type of ohmmeter cir-

cuit is used when very low resistances
are to be measured. This is the
"shunt-type" shown in Fig. 24A. In
this circuit, the milliammeter, the FIG. 24. A shunt-type ohmmeter circuit is
shown at A and B, and the scale is shown
calibrating resistor R1, and the bat- at C.

28
resistance is high, most of the current than that of the smaller one). As you
will still flow through the meter, and can see, this would not have any
the deflection will still be near full noticeable effect on the current drawn
scale. If the resistance is low, most of from the battery.
the current will flow through it, not A word of caution about the use of
much will flow through the meter, and this meter: Always turn it off when
the deflection will be slight. If the re- you are not using it, or you will drain
sistance is exactly equal to the re- the battery. You should get in the
sistance of the meter itself, half the habit of switching it off after every
current will flow through it and half measurement.
through the meter, and we will have
a center-scale reading. As you can ACCURACY
see, for low resistance values, the
pointer would be at the left, and for The accuracy of any ohmmeter is
high resistance values, it would be at limited by the stability of the battery
the right. This means that zero would terminal voltage. If the battery volt-
be at the left just as on a standard age is high, the meter will read low.
current scale. If the battery voltage is low, the
A typical scale for a shunt-type meter will read high. Practically all
ohmmeter is shown in Fig. 24C. The ohmmeters are designed to use bat-
center-scale reading is 15, which teries which are multiples of 1.5 volts;
means the resistance of the meter 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 volts, etc. Check the ohm-
itself is 15 ohms. As you can see the meter battery voltage occasionally to
scale is expanded at the low end just make sure your ohmmeter measure-
as the one for the series meter is. ments will be reasonably accurate.
The value of the resistance being You can check the accuracy of the
measured would not appreciably af- ohmmeter by measuring the value of
fect the total resistance in the ohm- a known resistance. A resistor with
meter circuit, because the value of R1 a tolerance of 1% is satisfactory.
would be so much larger than the Choose a resistance value that will
value of the meter resistance, that cause the ohmmeter pointer to indi-
for all practical purposes, it would cate somewhere near the center of the
determine the circuit current. For ex- ohmmeter scale.
ample, with a1-ma meter and a3-volt The accuracy of most ohmmeters is
battery, the resistance of R1 plus the only about 10% to 20%. That is,
resistance of the meter would be 3000 when the meter reads 100 ohms, the
ohms for full-scale deflection. Since value of the resistance being meas-
the meter resistance is 15 ohms, R1 ured may be anywhere between 80
would be 2985 ohms. The resistance and 120 ohms. However, this is usu-
of the meter and the resistance being ally as accurate as it needs to be for
measured would vary from 0 to 15 all practical purposes. If you must
ohms, depending upon the value of obtain a more accurate measurement,
the resistance being measured. (Re- there are other instruments that can
member that the resistance of two be used. You will study some of these
resistors in parallel is always less instruments later.

29
 THE MEGGER LI RI

Another resistance-measuring in-

strument you should become familiar
with is the megohmmeter, or "meg-
ger," as it is called. As its name im-
plies, it is used to measure very high
resistance such as leakage in the
insulation of cables, motor windings,
transformers, and so forth.
Instead of a battery, it has a gen- FIG. 26. Simplified schematic of the
erator operated by a hand crank that megger.

generates about 500 volts. The meter

is similar to a standard d'Arsonval when current flows through it, it will
meter, except it has two coils between tend to move the pointer to the right
(towards zero). Coil L2, which is
the poles of the permanent magnet,
wound on the same core, as shown called the potential coil, is positioned
in Fig. 25. Coil Li, which is called so that when current flows through it,
the current coil, is positioned so that it will move the pointer to the left
(toward infinity).
Fig. 26 shows a simplified sche-
matic of the megger. The pointer on
the megger is not restrained by
springs so it is free to move to any
position when the instrument is not
in use. When you begin turning the
hand crank the generator generates a
voltage and as you can see, when
nothing is connected across the ter-
minals, the circuit will be open, and
no current will flow through Ll. How-
ever, current will flow through L2 and
this current causes the pointer to
swing to infinity. When a resistance
is connected across the terminals,
current will flow through Li, and this
will tend to move the meter pointer
towards zero. The current flowing
through Li will also tend to load the
generator, which reduces the voltage
and current through L2. This reduces
the torque produced by L2 which has
a further tendency to let the pointer
move towards zero. How far it goes in
this direction depends on how low the
FIG. 25. How the "megger" le made. resistance is across the terminal. The

30
lower the resistance, the more the
pointer will move.
If there is any electrical path be- 1 RI I
o
tween the terminals, the meter will R2
indicate it—up to hundreds of meg- 20 —MAA/VV-0 2
ohms. R3
30 —WSAAA•---0 3
For example, suppose you have a
power transformer that has been sub- 40 04
jected to undue moisture. Before plac- R4
ing it in operation you want to know 50—d\AAAAA.--• o5

if the moisture has caused leakage R5

6 0--MAAAA,--• o6
between the primary and the sec-
...4F
\6
•Arix4
ondary. Connect the megger as shown 70
.,

1110 7
in Fig. 27, and turn the crank. If there R8
R7

is any resistance between the primary 8 0-0\AAAAA, e

and secondary it will be indicated on R9
o9
the meter scale. The design of the 9 0—'‘A.A.A.A.A.,

instrument is such that the speed of

o— + o
the crank has little effect on the read-
FIG. 28. Schematic diagram of a multi
ing as long as it is turned at a rea- meter.
sonable speed.
schematic diagram of such an instru-
MULTIMETERS ment.
In the position shown, which we
Since the same basic meters can be will call position 1, R1 is a voltage
used to measure current, voltage, and multiplier. It is in series with the
resistance, combination instruments, meter. In position 2, R2 will be in
called multimeters can be designed series with the meter, and in position
that will measure all three. The same 3, R3 will be in series with the meter.
meter is used; it is connected in dif- If the meter is a 1-ma meter, by
ferent ways by means of switches to selecting R1 so its resistance plus the
measure current, voltage, and resist-. resistance of the meter is 1000 ohms,
ance. Multimeters are used for gen- we could measure voltages up to 1
eral maintenance and repair of elec- volt. By making the total resistance
tronic equipment. Fig. 28 shows the of the meter plus R2 equal to 10,000
ohms we could measure voltages up
to ten volts in position 2, and by
TRANSFORMER
UNDER TEST making R3 equal to 100,000 ohms we
can measure voltages up to 100 volts
in position 3.
In position 4 the meter is used as
a 1-ma current meter. It is connected
directly to the output terminals. In
FIG. 27. How to test for leakage between
position 5, R4 is a shunt and will be
transformer windings with a megger. connected directly across the meter

31
terminals. In position 6, R5 will be switch with more positions. Some of
a shunt across the meter terminals. these positions could be for ac voltage
If the resistance of the meter is 45 measurements if we added a copper-
ohms, by making R4 equal to 5 ohms oxide rectifier.
and R5 equal to .454 ohms we can
measure currents up to 1ma in posi- SUMMARY
tion 4, up to 10 ma in position 5, and
up to 100 ma in position 6. The two main types of ohmmeters
In the last three positions, the are the series type and the shunt type.
meter is used as an ohmmeter. With Both use d'Arsonval meters. The
a 3-volt battery and R6 + R7 plus series type has the zero at the right
the meter equal to 3000 ohms, we have end of the scale; the shunt type has
a meter with a center scale resistance the zero at the left end of the scale.
of 3000 ohms. In position 8, R8 is The shunt type is used to measure
connected across the meter and R6 low resistance. Ohmmeters contain
and R7. In position 9, R9 is connected their own source of voltage, so the
across the meter and R6 and R7. If circuit in which measurements are
R8 is a 333-ohm resistor, the center being taken should be turned off.
scale resistance on this range becomes An instrument called a "megger" is
300 ohms. By making R9 equal 30.3 used to measure very high resistances.
ohms, the center scale resistance be- Instead of abattery, it has a500-volt
comes 30 ohms. generator, and will measure resist-
Thus, with this arrangement we ances up to hundreds of megohms.
have three voltage, three current, and Current, voltage, and resistance
three resistance ranges. Additional meters are often combined in one
ranges could be added by using a instrument called a "multimeter."

Power Measurements
Power is the amount of electrical into account when figuring the power
energy consumed in a circuit. It is consumption. The phase angle is taken
measured in watts, kilowatts (thou- into account by multiplying the volt-
sands of watts), microwatts (mil- age and current by a figure known as
lionths of a watt), or milliwatts the power factor, so the formula for
(thousandths of a watt). In a circuit power in an ac circuit is P=EXI
having only pure resistance, the power X PF. The value of the power factor
in watts is equal to the current in will be somewhere between zero and
amperes multiplied by the voltage in one. It is zero if the voltage and cur-
volts, or P = E X I. This is true in rent are 90° out of phase, and one
a de circuit or in an ac circuit in when the voltage and current are in
which there is only resistance. In a phase. The power factor in an ac cir-
circuit having inductance or capacity cuit is equal to the ratio of the re-
the phase angle between the voltage sistance in the circuit to the imped-
and the current must also be taken ance in the circuit. It is also equal

32
to the cosine of the phase angle be-
tween the voltage and current.
Actually, you use this same formula
for de power, but since the power
factor is always 1in a dc circuit, it is
o
ignored. Let's see how power is meas-
ured in dc circuits, in 60-cycle power-
line circuits, in af circuits, and in rf
circuits.

DC POWER MEASUREMENTS

It is easy to find the power in a de

circuit by connecting an ammeter in
series with the circuit, and a volt-
FIG. 29. Power can be measured by con-
meter across it, then multiplying the necting an ammeter in series with the
indicated current by the indicated circuit, and a voltmeter across the circuit,
voltage. For example, if the voltage then multiplying the readings. The ar-
rangement at A is best for high currents,
is 100 volts and the current is 10 and the arrangement at B is best for
amperes, the power consumed would low currents.
be 1000 watts, or 1kilowatt. (If this
continued for 1 hour, we would say simpler to measure it with a volt-
1 kilowatt-hour of power had been meter and an ammeter.
consumed).
In making power measurements in 60-CYCLE POWER
this way, the position of the two MEASUREMENTS
meters in the circuit can make a dif-
ference. If they are connected as in A wattmeter is generally used for
Fig. 29A, the current drawn by the measuring power in 60-cycle power
voltmeter flows through the ammeter. line circuits. We cannot get the true
In a circuit where the current is low, power consumed by connecting avolt-
this could add appreciably to the cur- meter and an ammeter into the circuit
rent indication, particularly if the then multiplying the effective current
voltmeter sensitivity is low. If the by the effective voltage because we
meters are connected as shown in Fig. have not taken phase difference into
29B, the voltage indicated on the consideration. The figure we would
voltmeter will be slightly higher than get by multiplying the effective cur-
the voltage across the load. If the rent by the effective voltage is known
current is very high, the drop across as the apparent power and is ex-
the ammeter may be enough to upset pressed in volt-amperes.
the calculation. At high currents the A wattmeter takes the power factor
circuit at A should be used, at low into account. A dynamometer is the
currents, the one at B. type of meter generally used as a
DC power can also be measured wattmeter. Fig. 30 shows a schematic
with a wattmeter, but it is usually diagram of a wattmeter. The line

33
 current is .1 amp, even though the
LINE -.-.....
LOAD power is only 100 watts.

AF POWER MEASUREMENTS

CURRENT COIL
(STATIONARY) Meters that are designed to meas-
ure the power output of audio-fre-
...*---- VOLTAGE COIL
(ROTATING) quency devices such as audio ampli-
fiers, radio receivers, etc. are designed
SERIES
RESISTOR
to measure the voltage across a re-
sistor. Since the voltage across a re-
FIG. 30. Diagram of an electrodyna-
mometer wattmeter. sistor and the current through it are
in phase, the power factor will be 1,
current flows through the stationary so the power will be directly propor-
coil. The movable coil is connected tional to the square of the voltage.
in series with a suitable resistance There are three general types of af
and connected across the line. The power meters: the power output
magnetic field of the stationary coil meter, the power level meter, and the
is proportional to the instantaneous VU meter.
current, and the magnetic field of the
Power Output Meter. The power
movable coil is proportional to the
output meter is a rectifier voltmeter
instantaneous voltage. The deflection
with a resistor connected across it.
of the pointer is proportional to the
The output from the device to be
product of the magnetic fields. Since
tested is applied across this resistor
it is the instantaneous values of cur-
instead of to the usual load. The
rent and voltage that determine the
power dissipated in the resistor will
deflection, it is an indication of true
be equal to E2 .÷- R. Thus, if we know
power.
the resistance, we can determine the
Wattmeters are delicate instru-
power by measuring the voltage across
ments, and should be handled with
the resistance, squaring it, and divid-
care. They have maximum voltage
ing it by the resistance. Since the
and current ratings in addition to a
resistor is always the same, the meter
maximum power rating. For example,
can be calibrated directly in watts.
a 500-watt meter should not be used
to measure power of more than 500 Power Level Meter. The power
watts. Also, if the meter is rated at a level meter is also a rectifier volt-
maximum voltage of 600 volts and a meter, but it does not have a resistor
maximum current of 1.25 amps, you built in across the meter. It must be
could overload the current coils by connected across the load of the de-
using it on a circuit when the voltage vice under test. A high resistance volt-
is 50 volts and the current 3 amps, meter is used to place as little addi-
even though the power in this circuit tional load on the circuit as possible.
is only 150 watts. Similarly, you could This type of meter must always be
overload the voltage coil by using the connected across the same value of
meter in a 1000-volt circuit when the resistance for which it was designed,

34
usually in communications work, 500 ever, the actual power is 1.73 2 ÷ 10
ohms. The power level meter is de- .3 watt! Thus, to get an accurate
signed to indicate the ratio of output reading with this instrument we must
power to a certain reference level, use it across the rated load of 500
and is therefore calibrated in decibels ohms.
(db) rather than in watts.
VU Meter. The VU meter is aleo
A common reference level in com-
used to indicate power ratios rather
munications work is 6 milliwatts of
than watts of power. The unit used
power into a 500-ohm load. This is
is called avolume unit or VU instead
called 0 db. Using the power equation
of a decibel, and the reference level
P =-- E2 R, we find that with 500 is 1 milliwatt into 600 ohms. This is
ohms and 6 milliwatts of power, the
called 0 VU. With 1 milliwatt of
voltage is 1.73 volts. Therefore, by
power and 600 ohms of resistance, the
measuring the output voltage the
voltage is .775 volts. If the voltage
meter can tell whether the power has
goes above this, the meter will indi-
gone above or below this reference
cate +VU, and if it goes below this,
level. If it is above, the meter indi-
the meter will indicate —VU. Like
cates + db; if it is below, the meter —the power level meter, it must be used
indicates — db.
across the correct load. These instru-
The advantage of this system is
ments are built using a special cop-
that it provides us with a convenient per-oxide rectifier and an extremely
method of comparing different devices
sensitive meter. They are usually
on a more or less common base.
built right into the transmitter.
For example, a manufacturer of a
Fig. 31 shows a VU meter scale. It
receiver may state in his specifica- is only accurate in transmitters de-
tions that the output of the receiver
signed so that 100% modulation is
will be 0 db with a 100%-modulated
obtained when the meter indicates 0
input signal of 1 microvolt. This im-
VU. The figures below the VU scale
mediately provides us with a means indicate the percent of modulation.
of checking the receiver performance
or comparing its rated sensitivity with
that of another receiver.
It is important that you use this
type of meter across the correct load
impedance. Remember the meter is
basically a voltmeter. It will indicate
correctly in watts only when used
across the load for which it was de-
signed. For example, 1.73 volts across
a 500-ohm load is 6 milliwatts, which
we have set as zero db. Suppose we
used this meter across a 10-ohm load.
Now if the voltage is 1.73 volts, the
meter, since it is a voltmeter, would
indicate 0 db or 6 milliwatts. How- FIG. 31. A typical VU meter.

35
 INPUT OUTPUT shows how much water flows through
THERMOMETER THERMOMETER the unit in a given length of time.
There are also thermometers that in-
dicate the temperature of the water
at the input and at the output of the
tank.
Charts are provided with this type
of measuring equipment so that you
can calculate the power from the two
temperatures and the water flow. This
FLOW METER is called the calorimeter method of
FIG. 32. How rf power can be measured measuring power.
without producing radiation.

LOOKING AHEAD
RF POWER MEASUREMENTS
In this lesson you have studied the
The radio frequency power output three basic types of meters and
of a transmitter can be measured learned how they can be used to meas-
without actually producing radiation ure current, voltage, resistance, and
as shown in Fig. 32. Here a dummy power. In later lessons you will learn
load resistor is connected to the out- about other types of instruments that
put circuit of the transmitter. This use vacuum tubes in their circuits.
resistor is in a tank through which It is very important for you to
water is circulated to absorb the heat understand how to use test equip-
developed in the resistor. The water ment, because it is of little value
also goes through a flow meter that unless you do.

36
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet 22CC.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two
sets at atime or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What type of meter is generally used for dc measurements?

2. Give two reasons why the moving vane meter is not as widely used as the
d'Arsonval meter.

3. Determine the resistance of the shunt needed to convert a 1-ma meter with
aresistance of 100 ohms to a5-ma meter.

4. If two ammeters connected in series with the same load, each indicate a
current of 8 amps, what is the current flowing in the circuit?

5. What size multiplier resistor would you need to convert a 1-ma meter to a
voltmeter with a full-scale voltage of 50 volts?

6. Find the sensitivity in ohms per volt of avol tmeter which uses a 10-micro-
ampere meter.

7. Why is avoltmeter with ahigh ohms-per-volt sensitivity more useful than

one with alow sensitivity?

8. If the reading on a 50-volt voltmeter connected across a circuit is half-

scale, indicating a voltage of 25 volts, and the meter sensitivity is 1000
ohms per volt, what is the total resistance of the meter and its multiplier?

9. Draw a schematic diagram of a series-connected ohmmeter.

10. If in a dc circuit a voltmeter connected across the load indicates 45 volts

and an ammeter in series with the load indicates 7 amps, what is the
power in the load?

37
 ÀA
'14/1

THE VALUE OF REVIEW

Man has acquired so much new knowledge in re-
cent years that it has become impossible for one
person to know everything available about even a
limited subject. Educational authorities realize this
fact, and the colleges of today consider a man well-
educated if he knows the elementary ideas and knows
where to find other information when he wants it.
The field of radio and television has outgrown the
memorizing ability of the human mind. Also, it is
such a comprehensive field that occasionally you
cannot recall important facts previously studied.
Review is obviously needed.
Time spent in review several weeks or months
after a book is studied will be far more profitable
than an equivalent amount of extra time spent on
the book initially, for your mind has then had a
chance to file and store away the information secured
from the first study. Each review results in more
information being transferred from the textbook to
your mind, and soon, with no conscious attempt to
memorize, you will find yourself able to recall an
amazing number of valuable facts.

77-7 .
f

-o

b
41e
ATTENUATORS, FILTERS,

AND EQUALIZERS

29 CC
I

4
,

ATTENUATORS, FILTERS,
AND EQUALIZERS
29CC
 STUDY SCHEDULE NO. 29

n IIntroduction Pages 1-2

The differences between attennators, filters, and equalizers are discussed.

• 2. Impedance-Matching and Power Transfer Pages 2-

6
We take up methods of measuring power, and then go into impedance-matching.

D 3. Resistive Pads and Attenuators Pages 6-21

Here we take up simple attennators, and symmetrical and non-symmetrical
attenuators.

El 4. Equalizers Pages 21 -
29
You study line equalizers, pickup equalizers, and tape-
system equalizers.

• 5. Filters Pages 29-

44
We take up different types of filter circuits, and then go into filter design.

El 6. Answer Lesson Questions.

Q 7. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1960 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

MPI M968 1969 EDITION Printed in U.S.A.

 ATTENUATORS, FILTERS,
AND EQUALIZERS

ATTENUATORS, filters, and equal-

izers are all basically classified
its operation is independent of the
frequency or the phase of the signal.
as networks. A network is an arrange- Its effect on all signals is the same at
ment of electronic components, usually all frequencies.
resistances or reactances, designed to Filters. A filter is frequency-selec-
provide some special effect. Actually, tive. A filter always contains react-
every electronic circuit is a network ances of some sort, and will respond
of some sort. However, when an engi- to different frequencies in different
neer or technician speaks of anetwork, ways. In addition, afilter will usually
he is usually referring to some special shift the phase of the signal in some
group of components within acircuit. way. By using the proper values of
Such a network might be anything circuit components and arranging
from asimple arrangement of resistors them in special ways, we can make
used for impedance matching to a networks that will have almost any
complex group of reactances provid- desired effect on the signal as it passes
ing frequency selection. through the circuit from the supply to
Networks of this sort will be found the load. Filters are used in electronic
in every field of electronics. They equipment to pass certain frequencies
provide an efficient method of con- and reject others. They are broad-
trolling signal strength, noise reduc- band devices in that they tend to re-
tion, and phase shift. They can select spond to acertain band of frequencies
one particular control signal from a rather than to a specific frequency.
number of signals being transmitted Equalizers. Equalizers are used to
simultaneously over the same control correct for any undesired frequency
line. In fact, some type of special net- discrimination or phase shift in other
work will be found in all but the very equipment or in connecting cables.
simplest of circuits. If these networks were perfect, each
Networks can be classified into would do only the job it is intended
three general types: attenuators, to do. An attenuator would simply
equalizers, and filters. change the amplitude of the signal. A
Attermators. An attenuator is a filter would pass a certain band of
network consisting of pure resistance; frequencies and reject all outside of
this band. An equalizer would correct coil resistance may become problems.
any undesired phase shift or frequency In earlier lessons, we learned about
discrimination. Actually, leakage and some of the simpler types of networks.
stray capacitance cause each to do a These consisted of voltage dividers,
little of all three. Although, in this power-supply filters, tuning circuits,
lesson, we may speak of one of these and vacuum-tube coupling circuits. In
networks as if it did its job and its this lesson, we will look at some of
job alone, you should remember that a the more complex networks. We will
certain proportion of undesired effects learn to recognize some of the basic
is unavoidable. The secret of success- network configurations and their ef-
ful design lies in holding these effects fect on a signal. We will discuss the
to a minimum. At video and rf fre- advantages and disadvantages of the
quencies, good shielding and the proper various filters and problems in design-
layout of the parts will help to pre- ing practical filter circuits.
vent trouble caused by leakage. At First, let's see what problems are
audio frequencies, the coupling be- involved in impedance-matching and
tween the cores of the coils, and the power transfer.

Impedance-Matching and Power

Transfer
In setting up and adjusting elec- ment which you will run into from
tronic equipment, impedance-match- time to time called the "neper." This
ing between stages and efficient trans- unit originated in Europe and differs
fer of power from one stage to another from the decibel in that it is based
or to an antenna are important prob- upon adifferent system of logarithms.
lems. We can tell how effectively these In computing decibels, we use the sys-
problems have been solved by meas- tem of common logarithms, with the
uring either the signal power or the base 10. In computing nepers, the sys-
signal voltage at the input or output tem used is known as the natural
of the two stages and comparing the logarithm system in which the base is
two values to see if there has been a an odd number, 2.71828. One neper
gain or a loss. equals 8.686 db, and 1db equals .1151
neper. This unit is not widely used in
UNITS OF MEASURE the United States, but you will find
it in some textbooks and reference
In an earlier lesson, you learned material.
about the unit of measurement called
the decibel and how it is used to ex- POWER MEASUREMENTS
press the ratio between input and out-
put power. You also learned that Decibel Meters. Decibel meters
voltage ratios can be expressed in have been used to read the power in
decibels, but only when the imped- the line directly in db. These are ac
ances across which the two voltage voltmeters calibrated in db units,
measurements are taken are equal. with the zero-power-level indication
There is another unit of measure- at about center scale. They are de-
2
 value very quickly, but fall off slowly.
° 1-&
VU meter scales are calibrated in
o AO b° 8° /00 se
x
s
plus or minus VU, and zero to 100%
TYPE A • 0
modulation. Two different types of
60 ep /
00 VU meter scales are shown in Fig. 1.
-à
-i-;1,(
'• The VU meter is designed to op-
0 AO
TYPE erate with a 3600-ohm external re-
sistor as shown in Fig. 2. When the
FIG. 1. Two types of VU meter scales. meter is connected across the line, it
"sees" the 600-ohm source and load
signed to be connected across a spe- impedances in parallel. Thus, the im-
cific value of impedance. Not all db pedance into which the meter is "look-
meters have the same scale markings, ing" is 300 ohms. Since the meter has
damping, or zero levels. In the past, an impedance of 3900 ohms, an ex-
different services have used different ternal 3600-ohm resistor is connected
values as the standard line-impedance in series with the 300-ohm resistance
across which the db meter is to be of the parallel-connected source and
connected and have used different load to match this impedance to that
power levels as the zero reference of the meter.
level. Sonic have used .006-watt as the The resistor is not made an integral
reference point, some .0125-watt, and part of the meter because it may be
others .001-watt. Some have used 500
ohms and some 600 ohms as standard
e
line impedances. TO 600.n. 600 .n_
LINE
When using a meter of this type, if SOURCE
the power in the line is more than the
reference value, it produces a higher
voltage across the line, and the meter 3600.n.
reads to the right of the zero mark,
showing a plus db reading. If the VU
METER
power is less than the reference value,
the voltage is less, and the needle
moves to less than center scale, indi-
cating a minus db reading.
TO 600.r-
VU Meters. Since 1940, a standard SOURCE
type of power-level meter has been
used in broadcast work and in many
other audio applications. This is an ac
volt-meter of the rectifier type called
o
the volume unit or VU meter. Unlike
db meters, all VU meters are built
T-PAD
with identical characteristics. They ATTENUATOR
are calibrated to read relative power
levels when connected across a 600-
ohm impedance line. The zero-refer-
ence level used is .001 watt (1 milli-
watt). The VU meter is essentially a
peak-reading meter, since with arela-
FIG. 2. A VU meter connected across a
tively rapid pulse or steep wave, these 600-ohm line is shown at A; a T-pad at-
meters rise to about 99% of the peak tenuator is added at B.

3
necessary to insert aT-pad attenuator ance in the source. We have assumed
in the meter circuit as shown in Fig. that our power source (let's call it a
2B. In broadcast work, a reading of generator) has an internal impedance
zero VU or 100 on the percentage scale of 50i1 and have shown this as Z/.
indicates 100% modulation. If the It is easy to see that the terminal
power required for 100% modulation voltage, ET,is going to be equal to
is greater than the one milliwatt zero the emf minus the voltage across the
reference level, the meter would, of internal impedance Z1.The value of
course, read farther upscale, and an the voltage drop across Z1will depend
attenuator called a T-pad is needed on the current flowing in the circuit as
to make the meter indicate the correct well as the value of Z1,so the terminal
percentage of modulation. Also, in voltage will vary with the current as
some applications, the power in the long as the emf and Z1 remain con-
line may be greater than the +3 VU stant. If the circuit is broken at the
at the high end of the meter scale. In switch, no current will flow, there will
these cases, aT-pad is needed to keep be no voltage drop across Z1,and Er
the meter from reading off-scale. Of will be 40 volts. Now let's connect our
course, in acase such as this, the loss generator to aload and see what hap-
introduced by the pad must be men- pens.
tally added to the meter reading. If the selector switch is at A as
shown, we will have acircuit consist-
LOAD MATCHING ing of Z/which is equal to 50 ohms in
series with ZA,which is equal to 30
One of the most important consid- ohms. This gives us atotal impedance
erations in the study of electronics is of 80 ohms being supplied by our 40-
the transfer or transmission of power. volt emf. Through Ohm's Law
In fact, the transmission and/or con- (I—E+R) we can determine that a
trol of energy in the form of electrical current of .5 amp will flow in the cir-
power is the only purpose of any elec- cuit.
tronic system. This means that we will have a
Let's look at some of the factors voltage drop of 25 volts across Z/,and
which affect this. In Fig. 3, we have a drop of 15 volts across ZA.There-
shown apower source that develops an fore, although our power supply is ac-
emf of 40 volts. Any source of power tually generating 40 volts, 25 volts are
(generator, battery, or oscillator) has dropped internally, and we have a
a certain amount of internal imped- terminal voltage, ET,of only 15 volts.
ance, which consists of the distributed If we look at the circuit from apow-
resistance, capacitance, and induct- er standpoint, we find that atotal of

ZA.3011
E•I5V
P.7.5W
I= 5A

FIG. 3. Effect of load on power generation and transfer.

4
 20 watts (40-volt emf x .5 amp) is only 2watts out of 8. However, we are
developed by the power supply. How- delivering less power to the load than
ever, 12.5 watts of this power (25 we were with circuit B when the load
volts E21 x.5 amp) is wasted internal- and source impedances were matched.
ly and only 7.5 watts is actually used Thus, it is easy to see that a situ-
by the load. This is obviously avery ation where the load impedance is
inefficient situation. If we have aload much less than the source is always
which consumes only 7.5 watts, it is a very inefficient and doesn't give much
waste of equipment and energy to de- useful power. We can also see that we
velop 20 watts to supply it. have the most power delivered to the
Let's move the selector switch to load when the impedances are
Position B and see what effect a 50- matched, but we do waste half of the
ohm resistance has in our circuit. Now, power in the process. Further, the
our 40-volt emf will be feeding atotal greatest efficiency exists when the load
resistance of 100 ohms, and our cir- impedance is much larger than the
cuit current will be .4 amp. We will source impedance although the actual
have 20 volts dropped internally, leav- power delivered to the load is less than
ing our terminal voltage at 20 volts. when we have matched impedances. It
The total power developed will be 16 is obvious that we will usually avoid
watts, and half of it, or 8watts, will having the load impedance less than
be consumed by the load. The other the source impedance.
half will be wasted internally. However, when it comes to achoice
This is an improvement over the of having either maximum power with
first circuit. First of all, we are devel- matched impedances or high efficiency
oping a total power of only 16 watts, with proper mismatching, we have to
and we are getting 8 watts of this to consider the specific application. For
our load. Thus, we have much better example, consider the circuit shown in
efficiency since we are wasting only 8 Fig 4A, where the impedances are
watts internally. mismatched. If alarge amount of pow-
We actually have more power avail- er is required to operate the 450-ohm
able in our external circuit with less load, efficiency will be the most im-
total power generated. Notice that in portant. Let's assume that we have a
this circuit the impedance of the load large power requirement and the emf
equals the impedance of the source; of the power source equals 10 kv. At
we say that they are "matched." Now, 10 kv, 20 amperes of current will flow
let's see if we can improve this still to the load, and atotal power of 200
further by moving the selector switch kw will be developed. Of this 200 kw,
to Position C. 20 kw will be wasted internally and
In this position, the total impedance 180 kw will be consumed in the load.
is 200 ohms, and the current will be In the circuit of Fig. 4B we have
.2 amp. The terminal voltage will be shown the same load, but have
30 volts, and the internal drop will be matched the impedances. Notice that
only 10 volts. The total power devel- we have not shown the impedance
oped by the generator is only 8watts. matching system, but have just repre-
Of this, 6 watts is delivered to the sented it by changing the value of the
load, while only 2watts is wasted in- load resistance. In this circuit we
ternally. Also, the voltage across the would get more power to the load but
load has been increased. We have a the energy wasted would be tremen-
much more efficient situation than we dous. Our 10 kv emf would give 100
had before because we are wasting amps of current and the total power
5
 .50.n.

FIG. 4. Greatest efficiency with mismatched impedances, A; greatest power transfer

with matched impedances, B.

developed would be 1000 kw. Of this, waste is not so expensive. Here, the
500 kw would be wasted internally and important consideration is getting
500 kw would be consumed by the enough of the available power to the
load. Although we would have 320 kw load for the equipment to operate
more power available to do work than properly. Often the available power is
we had available with the mismatched so low that unless the maximum
impedances in Fig. 4A, we would amount is transferred to the load, the
waste 480 kw more in order to get it. equipment will operate poorly or not
The cost of producing this extra at all.
wasted energy would make it imprac-
For example, a speaker or speaker
tical to match impedances. In addi-
system must be matched to the output
tion, the cost of equipment capable of
of the amplifier or it may not receive
handling 100 amperes of current would
be much greater than that needed to sufficient energy to operate properly.
handle 20 amperes. Thus, impedance Similarly, a microphone must be
matching becomes too expensive to be matched to the input circuit of an
practical when large amounts of pow- amplifier or the losses will be severe.
er must be handled. Now that we have seen the prob-
In communications and control cir- lems involved in transferring power,
cuits, however, extremely small let's look at the networks used to do
amounts of power are used, and power so.

Resistive Pads and Attenuators

Resistive pads and attenuators are duce a loss without causing an im-
used to reduce or control signal levels, pedance mismatch, it is best to ex-
to match impedances, and to reduce amine some simple circuits. In Fig.
the inductive effect of transformers 5A, we have a power source having a
coupled together through a line. Usu- constant emf of 40 volts and an in-
ally, they are used to reduce signal ternal impedance of 50 ohms supply-
levels, to match impedances, or both. ing power to a resistive load of 50
ohms. The load and source are
SIMPLE ATTENUATORS
matched and the power delivered to
To see how an attenuator can intro- the load is 8watts.

6
 Suppose we want to reduce the pow- livered to the load will again be 4
er delivered to the load from 8 watts watts (.28 x.28 x50).
to 4watts. We can do this by inserting In each case, we have delivered 4
a 43-ohm resistor in series with the watts to the load. However, the im-
load as shown in Fig. 5B. This makes pedance match is destroyed in both
a total impedance in the circuit of cases. With the series resistor, in Fig.
143 ohms (50+50+43). The current 5B, the impedance looking into the ex-
is then .28 ampere (40+-143) and the ternal circuit from terminals 1 and 2
voltage across the load is 14 volts is now 93 ohms (43 ohms and 50 ohms
(.28 x 50). This means the power de- in series). With the parallel resistor,
livered to the load is 4 watts (.28 x in Fig. 5C, the impedance seen look-
.28 x50). ing into the circuit from terminals 1
We can also reduce the power to 4 and 2 is 27 ohms (50 ohms and 58
watts by adding a 58-ohm resistor in ohms in parallel).
parallel with the load as shown in Fig. Now, let us see if we can reduce the
5C. The impedance of the parallel power delivered to the load from 8
combination will be 27 ohms, and the watts to 4watts and still keep the load
total impedance in the circuit will be matched to the source. Look at Fig.
77 ohms (50+27). The circuit current 5D. Here we have a 116-ohm resistor
will be .52 ampere, dividing through in parallel with the load, giving us a
the parallel combination so that .28 total impedance of 35 ohms for the
ampere flows through the load. The parallel part of the circuit, and a 15-
voltage across the source impedance ohm resistor in series with the 35 ohms
will be 26 volts (50 x .52), leaving 14 offered by the parallel combination.
volts across the parallel combination Now, the total impedance of the com-
(40-26). This means the power de- bination is 50 ohms, the total imped-

Z.50.n.
E.20V
I..4A Z •50.n.
P.8W
Er2ov E.20V
E. 14 V
I..28A
I..4A
P. 4V/
EME P. 8W
40V

1
o o
2

Z •43.n. I Z.50n.
Z. 50/1 1 E.6V
IE • 12 V E.20V I
E. 14 v I I..44
I..28 A II..28A I=.4A
P . 11) .3.4WIeZ.50/1 P•2.4W Z.50.,
1
5 .8W I
SE .14 v E•14V
E. 14 V
IET.20V <> I..I2A 1..28
I I I..28A
P.1.6W P.4W
EMF P. 4W
I
40v I
o
2
2

FIG. 5. Effect of dropping resistor on impedance match.

7
ance in the circuit is 100 ohms also see an impedance of 50 ohms. This
(50+50) as in Fig. 5A. The voltage is considered to be a perfect imped-
across the load will be 14 volts, the ance match because the load sees ex-
current through it will be .28 ampere, actly the same impedance looking to-
and the power to it will be 4 watts. ward the source as the source sees
The total impedance as seen looking looking toward the load.
into terminals 1and 2is still 50 ohms. Now, let's put an L pad in the cir-
Thus, the load is still matched to the cuit as shown in Fig. 6B and see what
source even though the power in the we have. First, let's look into the cir-
load has been reduced to 4 watts. cuit toward the load from terminals
A simple attenuator such as this 1and 2. Doing this, we see an imped-
that consists of one series resistance ance of 25 ohms in series with the
and one parallel resistance such as parallel branch containing two 50-ohm
those we have been discussing is called resistors, whose combined resistance is
an L pad. 25 ohms. This gives us atotal imped-
The L Pad. Although the L pad is ance of 50 ohms, which is equal to the
a definite improvement over a single source impedance, and we say that the
resistance, it has one major disadvan- load is matched to the source.
tage. This is the fact that it is unsym- However, if we look back into the
metrical. In other words, it does not circuit towards the source from ter-
have the same impedance at both ends. minals 3and 4, we do not see the same
Up until now, this has not concerned impedance. Now, we see an impedance
us because we have been concerned of 50 ohms in parallel with an imped-
only with matching aload to asource. ance of 75 ohms. This is a combined
However, in a perfect impedance impedance of 30 ohms and does not
match this is not enough. We do not equal the load impedance of 50 ohms.
have aperfect match unless the source Thus, our L pad matches the load to
sees exactly the same impedance look- the source, but does not match the
ing towards the load as the load will source to the load.
see looking back toward the source. Since an L pad is unsymmetrical, it
Looking at the circuits shown in cannot be used to provide a perfect
Fig. 6, you will see what we mean by impedance match between two equal
this. In Fig. 6A, when the source looks impedances. However, it is often used
into the circuit it sees an impedance to provide a match for two unequal
of 50 ohms. In addition, if we look impedances. Fig. 7 shows a circuit
back into the circuit from the load we where a 50-ohm load and a 70-ohm

r - I 3

Z.50.n.

o
2

Z=50 .rt Z.30 .n.

FIG. 6. Effect of unsymmetrical section on impedance match.

8
 or input impedance, and Zo load or
output impedance as before.
Let's use these two formulas to see
if the L pad we used in Fig. 7 pro-
vides the smallest possible loss. In this
circuit, our input impedance is 70
ohms and the output impedance is 50
ohms. Substituting these values in the
4
formula for obtaining the arm resist-
Z•50.n.
ance, we get:
FIG. 7. Using L pad to match unequal
impedances.
Z
RA — Z, '1— o
source have been matched by using an NI
L pad.
50
Looking into the load from ter- 70 i1—
minals 1 and 2, we see an impedance N 70
of approximately 70 ohms (37 ohms in 70 -
V1 — .72
series with the parallel combination of
94 ohms and 50 ohms). Looking back — 70 V .28
toward the load from the terminals 3
and 4, we see an impedance of almost — 70 x.53
exactly 50 ohms (94 ohms in parallel — 37 1"/
with the series combination of 70 and
37 ohms). Of course, the L pad always From this, we can see that the 37-ohm
introduces a loss in the circuit and is arm resistance which we used in the
not used to match impedance unless circuit is correct for the arm value of
the loss can be tolerated or is actually aminimum-loss pad.
desirable.
To find the correct leg value, we
Minimum-Loss Matching Pads.
substitute our 70-ohm input imped-
By using two fairly simple formu-
ance, and our 50-ohm output imped-
las, we can compute the resistances for
ance in the formula for finding RL:
an impedance-matching L pad that
will introduce the smallest possible
loss. To find the value of the series or
z.
arm resistance of the pad, we use the
following formula:

z.
RA •="
i 50
N 1— -
70
In this formula, RA arm resistance;
Z, — source or input impedance; and 50
Zo — load or output impedance.
— V1 — .71
To find the value of the parallel or
leg resistor, we use the formula: 50

z. — V .29

, 50
L JI — - .54

Here, IL — leg resistor, Zi — source — 92.5 n

9
This is equal to the leg resistor that in the circuit is known. However, in-
we used in the circuit, so we know that stead of computing the necessary cir-
the L pad used in Fig. 7 not only cuit values to obtain the power ratios
matches impedances, but it also in- in Fig. 7, we can use a more direct
troduces the least possible loss for a formula. This formula uses the input
matching pad. Remember, the two and output impedances directly, and
formulas given here are used only to can be used to determine the attenua-
determine the values of resistance for tion in decibels that will be introduced
use in a minimum-loss matching pad. by any minimum-loss pad. In this
If we are going to design an im- formula, the loss in decibels equals:
pedance-matching pad, we will also be
interested in knowing just how much db = 10 log ( Z ± — I) 2

attenuation will be introduced by our zo zo

minimum-loss pad. So far in our dis- where Z1 — input impedance and Zo
cussion of impedance matching and = output impedance.
attenuation, we have compared the Let's apply this to the circuit in Fig.
power delivered to the load with the 7 to see how much attenuation our
total power developed by our source. minimum-loss pad will introduce. Sub-
To do this, we have completely ana- stituting in the equation, we have:
lyzed each circuit component as to im-
pedance, voltage, current, and power 2
db 10 log + -
5
7 — 1)
so that you could actually see what
happened to the power and where and
why it happened. The amount of the = 101og (V1.4V1.4—l) 2
losses provided by our attenuator was
rated in watts. Although this is agood = 10 log (V1.4 + V.4) 2
approach for purposes of analysis, = 10 log (1.18 ± .63) 2
there is amuch simpler way of evalu-
ating attenuation. = 10 log (1.81) 2

Since attenuators are so much apart — 10 log 3.27

of communications systems where the
= 10 x.5145
decibel is commonly used to express
performance, it is logical that the dec- = 5.1 db loss
ibel has come to be used as ameasure
of attenuation. Actually, the decibel Thus, the minimum loss possible in
is avery convenient unit for use with an impedance-matching pad for the
circuit shown in Fig. 7 is 5.1 db. We
attenuators because we are concerned
with power ratios. As we learned in have already discovered the proper
values of arm and leg resistance for
an earlier lesson, the amount of change
in decibels in a circuit is equal to 10 this pad.
times the logarithm of the ratio of the
input power and the output power. SYMMETRICAL PADS
Thus, the attenuation or loss in acir-
cuit in decibels can be found with the Symmetrical attenuators are similar
formula: to L pads except that they have either
an extra series arm or an extra leg
db = 10 log — resistor.
Po
The T Pad. Fig. 8shows one of the
This formula can be applied to any most common types of symmetrical
attenuator quite easily when the power attenuators. This type of attenuator is
10
usually called a T pad because the db
component resistors are arranged in — .Substituting our desired attenua-
the schematic so that they form the tion of 16 decibels in the formula, we
letter T. find:
As you can see, the impedances are
perfectly matched because the load
K = log-1 — 16
sees the same impedance looking to- 20
wards the source from terminals 3and
4 as the source sees looking into the Now from our log tables, we find
load from terminals 1and 2. that the number which has .8 for a
T pads can be designed to introduce logarithm is 6.31. Thus, our reduction
any desired amount of attenuation. factor K equals 6.31.
Let's use the circuit shown in Fig. 8 Next, we use the reduction factor
as an example and see what values we K in two formulas. The first one will
need in the T pad. First of all, the give us a multiplying factor for the
power input is 40 watts, and we want arms, and the second will give us a
a power output of only 1watt. Using multiplying factor for the leg. Multi-

POWER IN POWER OUT

P
40 W IWatt
3

RA .36 RA* 36 -A-

4-1

SOURCE LOAD
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
50-n. RL.16n. 50

4j

FIG. 8. T pad providing 16-(113 attenua-

tion.

our formula we find that: plying these by either the source or

the load impedance will give us the
Pi
db = 10 log values for the arm and leg resistors.
Po
The formula for the arm factor is:
40
10 log —1 K— 1
A
K+ 1
= 10 log 40
Substituting the value of K, which is
= 10 x1.6021 6.31 in this formula, we get:
= 16 db 6.31 — 1
A=
6.31 + 1
Now we must find the reduction fac-
tor K from the following formula:
= 5.31 = 72
731 72
.
db
K = log-1 —
20
Now, by multiplying our 50-ohm im-
pedance by the arm factor A, we find
The symbol "log-" is called an
the value of the arm resistors:
antilog, which means that our answer
will be the number whose logarithm is RA AZ — .72 x50 — 36 û
11
 Thus, both arm resistors of the T
Attenn- Arm Leg
pad must be equal to 36 ohms to give ation factor factor
us an attenuation of 16 decibels while db A
maintaining an impedance match be- o 0 ce
tween a 50-ohm source and a 50-ohm 1 0.061 8.07
load. 2 .115 4.27
3 .173 2.78
The formula for the leg factor is: 4 .227 2.07
5 .280 1.64
2K 6 .333 1.33
— .382 1.11
K2 — 1
8 .432 0.942
9 .476 .812
2x6.31 10 .700
.520
— 6.31 2 — 1 20 .818 .202
30 .939 .0632
12.62 40 .980 .0200

— 39.8 — 1
FIG. 9. Table of multiplying factors for
12.62 the design of any T pad.

— 38.8 give the values for arm and leg factors

— .325 for all possible values of attenuation,
they are very handy for designing
Our leg resistor equals: most attenuators. These tables can be
RL LZ found in many reference books.
A typical example giving the at-
= .325 x50 tenuation in decibels and the arm and
16 n leg factors is shown in Fig. 9. To use
the table, we simply look down the
The resistance values for any T pad attenuation column until we find the
giving any desired value of attenua- desired loss value. Then we follow
tion between two equal impedances across the table to find the arm factor
may be obtained using these formulas. and the leg factor to use with the im-
Because of their importance in atten- pedance of our particular circuit in
uator design, we will list them again. order to compute our arm and leg re-
sistance values.
Attenuation in db: db 10 log —
Po The r Pad. Another type of sym-
metrical attenuator is shown in Fig.
db
Reduction factor K: K log- 1 10. This is call a pi pad because
the component resistances are ar-
K— 1
Arm factor A: A — K ranged like the Greek letter Ir. The
r pad in Fig. 10 is like the T pad
2K shown in Fig. 8 in that it has an at-
Leg factor L: L tenuation loss of 16 db and 50-ohm
input and output impedance.
Arm resistors RA:RA AZ Since the pi pad and the T pad have
identical behavior, we can expect a
Leg resistor RL:RL LZ
definite numerical relationship be-
For convenience in designing at- tween them. We can, for example, set
tenuators, the multiplying factors for up api network like the one shown in
many different values of attenuation Fig. 10 and determine the various re-
have been worked out in the form of sistance values by using the A and L
tables. Although these tables do not factors that we derived while design-
12
ing our T network. However, we must Our leg resistors are found from the
use them in a different way, as you formula:
will see.
The resistance of the arm of the pi RL Z/A
pad is equal to the impedance Z di-
50
vided by the T pad leg factor L. Sim-
— .72
ilarly, each leg of the pi pad is equal
to the impedance Z divided by the T — 70 n
pad arm factor A. In equation form
these are: Thus, our two legs must be 70 ohms,
rpad: RA ==. Z/L and our arm 154 ohms to provide the
same effect with a pi pad as we had
ir pad: RL Z/A with the T pad shown in Fig. 8.
It should be noted that the factors The table shown in Fig. 9 can also
A and L are exactly the same as those be used to construct pi pads. Just re-
used for the T pad design and are member to divide the impedance by
computed the same as before. How- A to find R1 and by L to find RA.In
ever, in the pi pad the factors are used ordinary use, there is no preference be-
for division instead of multiplication, tween a T pad and a pi pad. These
and L is used to find RA,and A is networks are interchangeable and the
used to find RL. type of pad used is a matter of per-
Now let's compute the resistance sonal choice. Usually, the choice will
values of the pi pad components depend upon the values of resistors
shown in Fig. 10. Our desired attenu- that can be obtained easily.
ation is 16 db, and the source and load Ganged Attenuator Pads. The in-
impedances are 50 ohms. This is the put impedance of a symmetrical pad
same requirement that we had in the is equal to its output impedance. Thus
circuit shown in Fig. 8, so we can use the input of one pad can be used as
the seine A and L factors that, we pre- the load resistance for a preceding
viously computed. For our pi-pad arm, pad. This can be kept up agreat num-
we use the formula: ber of times and the total attenuation
of the pads in tandem will be equal
RA Z/L
to the sum of the individual pad losses.
50 Thus, if we have three 50-ohm to
— 154 1)
.325 50-ohm pads (symmetrical), giving re-

AA

Rs:0154ft

4-1
SOURCE LOAD POWER OUT=
POWER IN= RL .70 R
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE W
40 W
SO A . 50it

TT(pi) Pod
F1C. 10. Pi-pad attenuator (db = 16).
13
spectively 5, 8, and 4 db attenuation, changed to the balanced version in Fig.
we can connect these in any order and 12. The balanced pi pad is sometimes
the whole combination will have an in- called an 0 pad and the balanced T
put impedance of 50 ohms. The at- pad is sometimes called an H pad, be-
tenuation will be 5 8 4— 17 db cause of their resemblance to these
when used with a 50-ohm load. letters.
This is avery convenient feature of
symmetrical pads, for it means that UNSYMMETRICAL PADS
a great number of attenuation values
can be realized with combinations of In addition to being used to provide
relatively few separate attenuators. attenuation between equal impedances,
Usually, if an attenuation of over 20 T, H, pi, and 0 pads can also be used
decibels is desired, it is better to ob- as attenuators between unequal imped-
tain it by using two or more attenua- ances. When used in this way, they
tors than by using one large-loss at- are designed to match the unequal im-
tenuator. pedances as well as provide attenua-
Balanced Attenuator Pads. All of tion. We have already studied one
the attenuator pads discussed so far type of impedance-matching pad,

RL. 70 RLs70 It-

Ryi7711

FIG. 11. Balanced pi pad—sometimes

called an 0 pad.

have been designed for use with un- which we called a minimum-loss L
balanced lines which have one wire pad. However, the purpose of the L
grounded. With balanced lines, where pad was to provide a minimum-loss
the wires are maintained at opposite matching network, and the attenua-
potentials with respect to ground, tion it offered had to be considered
these attenuators would not be suit- because it was unavoidable, although
able. The stray attenuator capacitance undesirable.
would upset the line balance and tend The purpose of the networks which
to increase noise pickup and cross talk. we will study now is not only to match
The T and pi pads, however, can be unequal impedances but also to pro-
balanced very easily. This is ac- vide more attenuation than that which
complished merely by splitting the would be provided by aminimum-loss
series resistance arms in half, and in- pad. When we studied the L pad, we
serting half of the resistance in the said it was unsymmetrical because it
upper side of the line and the other did not look the same from both ends.
half in the lower side of the line. Thus, The T and pi pads, which are used
the pi pad in Fig. 10 becomes the bal- to match unequal impedances, also
anced pi pad shown in Fig. 11. In the look different from each end and are
same manner, the T pad of Fig. 8 is called unsymmetrical T or pi pads.
14
 pad into an unsymmetrical T or pi
pad. It should be noted that, although
we can increase the attenuation above
the minimum-loss and maintain an
impedance match by using an unsym-
metrical T or pi pad, we can never de-
crease the loss below the amount in-
troduced by the minimum-loss L pad.
Therefore, one of the first things to
(lo in designing an unsymmetrical at-
FIG. 12. Balanced T pad—sometimes
called an H pad.
tenuator is to determine the minimum
possible loss. If this amount of attenu-
ation is satisfactory, we will use an L
In studying the minimum-loss L- pad as an attenuator. If we want more
type matching pad, we learned that attenuation than the L pad will pro-
there will always be acertain amount vide, we will design an unsymmetrical
of loss in aresistive matching pad. We T or pi pad. However, if the minimum
also learned how to compute the loss is more than we want, we will
amount of this minimum-loss in dec- have to decide whether it is advisable
ibels and how to determine the proper to use an attenuator and an amplifier
resistance values. The minimum-loss to match impedances or whether it is
L pad could also be considered as a better to use some other method of
modified T or ir pad, as shown in Fig. matching impedances.
13A and B. Here we have shown the L-Pad Design. Before we go into
minimum-loss L pad as a T pad in the design of an unsymmetrical T or
which one of the arms has been re- pi pad, there is one thing we should
duced to zero. It can also be considered discuss regarding the minimum-loss L
to be a pi pad in which one of the leg pad. When we considered the L pad
resistors has become so large it earlier, we studied only left-handed
amounts to an open circuit, as shown pads like the one shown in Fig. 14A.
in Fig. 13B. In this circuit, the input impedance
From this, we can see that by in- is larger than the output impedance
troducing an extra arm or leg resistor and the arm resistor is in series with
of appropriate size, and changing the the input impedance. However, in a
other resistance values, we can gain circuit like the one shown in Fig. 14B,
more attenuation and still maintain the input impedance is smaller than
an impedance match. As soon as we the output impedance, and a right-
do this, we will have changed our L- handed L pad would have to be used.

I RI.34A. R2= On. R3.34.n.

E
SOURCE LOAD SOURCE LOAD
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
IMPEDANCE R3.94 n

L
50A 70 A 50A
70.n.

J
° L R2.94n

4 2 4
2

FIG. 13. The L pad can be considered as a modified T pad, as at A, or as a modified

pad, as at B.

15
 r'
R1I75jt R2.0 I Ri.On R.175A 3

R3.57_11 R3.57.0.
INPUT LOAD SOURCE LOAD
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
zoo.n. 50.n. 50n. 200.0.

J 2
4
J
ZI>Z0 Min Loss db .10 log (/
z
z + 1 1/1:71
Zi< Zo Min Loss db.10 log ‘rzi
) 4.1Tri,H
zi

R1 =Z1 I- r 1- zr.
R2 .Z 0 ro•

zo
o o Zi

R3 .Fri

FIG. 14. Computing left -handed L pads, A; computing right-handed L pads, B.

The impedance values in the circuit ance Zo,the loss in decibels will be
shown in Fig. 14B are numerically the found from the following formula:

)2
same, but reversed in position. The
value of the arm resistor is the same Min. loss db (UZ I UZI
as it was in a left-handed pad, but — 10 log Zo V Zo
its position has changed. Because of However, when the input impedance
this, our formulas for computing right- Z1 is less than (< ) the output im-
handed L pads are slightly different pedance Zo,the loss in decibels will
from those used in computing left- be found from:

)2
handed L pads. Also, the minimum
loss in decibels will be figured alittle Min. loss db 1/Z0 1/Z0
differently. The formulas which we lo log‘ V Z, V Z1 —
have already learned for computing
left-handed L pads and their minimum Designing an unsymmetrical T or
loss are shown in Fig. I4A. pi pad is simply using the proper
formulas correctly. We will not at-
In a right-handed pad we compute
tempt to show you how the formulas
for R2 and R3 instead of RI and R3,
are derived, nor will you be expected
and the formulas are slightly differ-
to memorize them. The important
ent. Now the positions of the output
thing is that you know how to use the
impedance and the input impedances
formulas and where to find them when
in our formulas are just opposite what
they are needed.
they were for the left-handed pads.
Unsymmetrical T or 7r Pads. The
You will also notice that the imped-
formulas for computing the resistance
ance relationships have been reversed
values of an unsymmetrical T pad are:
in the minimum-loss formula.
Since computing the minimum loss 2-
VNZ I Zo
is one of the first steps in designing 113 «=. N — 1
any unsymmetrical attenuator net-
work, this change in the minimum-loss R1 --- Z1 (N , i) — R3
formula is very important. As shown,
when the input impedance, Z1 is = zo (INT + 1\ R.
112
greater than (>) the output imped- N — j
16
In the formulas, N is used to denote Now, we must find the correct value
the power ratio: P1 ±. Po.We can of N to use. By substituting N in place
find the value of N once we know our of the power ratio in our formula:
desired attenuation in decibels using
P
the formula: db — 10 log -
- we get:
i
PI Po
db = 10 log —
Po db 10 log N
Now let's use these formulas to 15 — 10 log N
compute an unsymmetrical T pad that 15
will give us an attenuation of 15 db = log N

R2 .177 It 1.5 — log N

Checking our log tables, we find that

INPUT OUTPUT
1.5 is the logarithm of 31.7, which we
IMPEDANCE IMPEuANCE
zoon.
can round off to 32.
50

Now, using our formula for the leg

resistor 11, 3,we find:

FIG. 15. Unsymmetrical T pad. 2VNZ I Zo

"3 N— 1
as shown in Fig. 15. The first thing
we must do is determine whether or 2V32 X 50 X 200
not an attenuation of 15 db with 32 — 1
matched impedances is possible in this
2/32 X 10,000
circuit. To do this, we compute the
31
minimum possible loss for matched
impedances. Since our input imped- 2 X 100 V32
ance is less than our output imped- 31
ance, we use the formula:
200 X 5.65
Min. loss db L
Z3_
3 i/Zo -
1) 2
31
= 10 log V Z/ ' V Z, 1130

= 10 log (1/ 2
— -
°7
)-+1/ 2" — 1)2
50 50 = 36

= 10 log (Vi V4 — 1) 2 Next, our arm resistor R1 is:

= 10 log (2 ± V3 2 iN ± 1\ R
R1 — Z1
‘N — 1j — 3
= 10 log (2 + 1.73) 2
50 (32 ± 1) 36
10 log 3.73 2
= 10 log 13.9
1650
36
= 11.43 db 31
Since our desired attenuation of 15 53 — 36
db is more than this minimum of
— 17 ft
11.43 db, we know that it is possible
to construct the desired attenuator. And our other arm R2 is:

17
 1 33 1
N — 1 274
33 1
— 200 32 ± 1 — 36
.=•1550 — 274
33 — .0213 — .0036 = 0177
200 X — 36
31
1
If l
¡Ii = .0177, then R1 =
6600
36
— 31
— 57 1
2
-

— 213 — 36 — 177 SI The leg R2 is:

If we prefer, we can use a pi pad
1 1(N + 1\ 1
R3.274n zo N — 1) itT3
1 33 1
•200 31 — 274
INPUT , OUTPUT 33 1
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
50.n. 20011 •6200 — 274
R2.588ri
= .0053 — .0036
= .0017

FIG. 16. Unsynunetrical pi pad. 1 1

If —
R2 = .0017, then R2 =
.0017
as shown in Fig. 16. The following
formulas are for computing unsym- — 588 i/
metrical pi pads. Thus, we can construct either a T
The arm R3 is: or a pi pad that will match unequal
N — 1 /Z 1 Zo impedances and give us 15 db attenua-
R3 =
2 V N tion. A balanced T (H) pad or abal-
anced pi (0) pad could be constructed
32 — 11/ 50 X 200 by splitting the arm resistors and
2 V 32 dividing them between the upper and
31 10,000 lower lines.

VARIABLE ATTENUATORS
31
x 100 32 The attenuation introduced by an L
pad, aT pad, or api pad can be made
3100 1
X
2 5.65
3100
— 274 11
11.3 RA RA

The leg R1 is:

1 1ilsT + 1\
— ZikN — 1j R3
1 (32 + 1\ 1 FIG. 17. The usual style of tapped T-pad
5032 — 1f — 274 variable attenuator.
18
 be calibrated very accurately. In ad-
75A 75A
dition, the gang switch can be made
with large wiping contacts which will

t:
75 A 75A
keep contact noise at aminimum. This
77, ft 75A
is in contrast to a rheostat or a po-
tentiometer which seldom can be reset
.n. SOURCE

500A LOAD
to a given point, and usually has a
high degree of contact noise.
To increase the amount of attenu-
75ft

6
ation in this pad, the values of RA
500

75A 75R
must be increased and the value of RL
must be decreased. For this reason,
e then, it is possible to combine one of
50OR
the RA's with RL so that the simpler
construction shown in Fig. 18 can be
used.
FIG. 18. An approximate T pad using
only two variable resistors. In the figure, the right-hand resist-
ance forms the right arm of the T pad,
the upper part of the left-hand re-
adjustable by using variable resistors sistance forms the left arm, and the
for the arms and legs. The T pad of lower part forms the leg. This arrange-
Fig. 8, for example, could be made ment is not a true T pad, but only
with variable RA and R7,values. an approximation since it is not possi-
If this is done, however, the rela- ble to make the attenuator have ex-
tions outlined in the table of Fig. 9 actly constant values of input and
must be maintained or the variable output resistance at all settings.
pad will not have constant input and
As shown in the table of Fig. 19,
output impedances. We could do this
it varies from 336 to 861 ohms.
by using taper-wound variable resist-
It will be noted that the use of this
ances ganged together so that all re-
particular attenuator involves a loss
sistances varied by the proper amount
when one control was operated. How- of 1.9 db at the minimum setting. This
ever, this would be quite difficult to is called the insertion loss of this par-
ticular device.
achieve in actual practice because
each resistor would have to be cali- Decade Attenuator Pads. Suppose
brated and wound with such precision we have need for an attenuator ad-
that it would become quite costly. justable in one decibel steps from 0to
A reasonable, practical design of
the variable attenuator is made pos- Switch Input db
sible by the fact that attenuation does position Resistance Loss
not need to be continuously variable.
If the variations are made in equal 1 336 1.9
2 432 3.5
steps of less than 2db each, the varia- 3 522 5.0
tion will appear to be continuous for 4 605 6.5
s 680 7.9
most purposes. This allows us to use 6 748 9.3
a set of fixed resistors and a three- 7 808 10.8
gang switch as shown in Fig. 17. a 861 12.4

One advantage of using step attenu- FIG. 19. Input resistance and db loss of
ation in the design of the variable T the approximate T pad for each switch
pad is that such an arrangement can point.

19
 .520 10
.298
.121 30
.041 40
qp o
P P >

.041 40
4 30 20
FIG. 21. The bridged - T is a t
rue sym -
.121 30
metrical pad with only two variable re-
.298 20 sistors.
TENS 10
.520
o course, design a conventional T pad
having 50 steps, but this would be
expensive and awkward to use.
A better method would be to build
.057
two attenuators, one having four steps
.057 of 10 decibels each, and the other
.057 having ten steps of 1 decibel each.
Then, if these are constant-impedance
.055
pads, they can be connected in tandem
.054 so that the separate attenuations will
.052 add. Thus, one knob controls the tens,
and the other controls the units of
.051
attenuation. Such an arrangement is
.047 called adecade attenuator.
.046 The design for such a decade at-
.044 tenuator is shown in Fig. 20. This
decade pad is designed to work be-
tween a source of 1 ohm and a load
.044 10 of 1 ohm. To find the values for any
10 9 8 7 b 5 4 3 2 I 00
046 9 other source and load impedance, sim-
ply multiply the value shown along-
.047 8
side each resistor by the impedance Z.
UNITS .051 7 The Bridged T. A modification of
.052 6 the T pad, of considerable importance
because it requires only two variable
.054 5
resistors, is shown in Fig. 21. This is
.055 4 known as the bridged T. It is asym-
.057 3 metrical attenuator having two fixed
arms, bridged from input to output by
.057 2
a variable arm, and a variable leg.
.057 The resistances of the fixed arms
o RA are always equal to the input-out-
FIG. 20. A decade attenuator adjustable put impedance Z. The bridge and leg
in 1 db steps from 0 to 50 db, designed resistors RB and RL are related to the
for a source-load impedance of 1 ohm. impedance Z in this way:

RB — B X Zand
50 that maintains perfect impedance
matching at all settings. We could, of RL L X Z.
20
 The multiplying factors, B and L,
Attenu- Bridge-arm Leg
can be determined from the table in ation factor factor
Fig. 22. Pay particular attention to db B L
the arm and leg factors for 6-db at- 0 0 cc
tenuation. Both are almost exactly 1 0.122 8.20
2 .259 3.86
equal to 1. This means that 6 db of 3 .413 2.42
attenuation can be obtained at any 4 .585 1.71
5 .778 1.285
impedance by connecting four resis- 6 .995 1.005
tors, all equal to the impedance, in a 7 1.239 0.808
bridged T. Any other degree of at- 8 1.512 .661
9 1.818 .550
tenuation can be obtained by chang- 10 2.162 .462
ing RB and RL to the proper values. 20 9.000 .111
30 30.62 .0326
You have seen how networks can 40 99.00 .0101
be designed to give impedance-match-
ing with minimum attenuation, or to FIG. 22. Multiplying factors for design
of the bridged-T.
give a desired amount of attenuation.
Now let's look at some networks de- or phase shift at different frequencies.
signed to correct uneven attenuation These are called "equalizers."

Equalizers
Transmission lines and certain types series with the line to partially block
of equipment ordinarily introduce a the low frequencies while passing the
certain amount of distortion in a sig- highs. A more practical arrangement
nal because of unequal attenuation uses an inductance-resistance combi-
and phase shift at the various fre- nation shunted across the line to cause
quencies. It would be extremely diffi- an equivalent loss of the low frequen-
cult to design lines and equipment cies and balance the response.
that would always provide a distor- Such an arrangement is the Western
tion-free signal. The more practical Electric 23A Equalizer shown in Fig.
solution is to use compensating net- 23. As you can see, it consists of a
works to introduce additional attenua- coil and a capacitor in parallel, and
tion or phase shift so that all frequen- a tapped series resistance. The com-
cies will be affected in substantially ponents are mounted in an aluminum-
the same manner. finished metal box, and the resistor
taps are brought out to terminals at
LINE EQUALIZERS one end of the box, so any needed
value of resistance can be selected.
Long lines (such as telephone lines It can be easily adjusted to an un-
or cables) ordinarily attenuate high loaded line with ordinary station
frequencies more than the low fre- equipment. Suppose it is to be ad-
quencies. Capacitance between the justed to a circuit consisting of the
wires acts like a capacitor connected sending-station line amplifier, repeat-
across the line ahead of the load, ing coil, (which is an impedance-
shorting out the high frequencies. A transforming device similar to atrans-
crude form of compensation could be former), transmission line, receiving-
obtained by connecting acapacitor in station repeating coil, and receiving-

21
 FIG. 23. The Western Electric 23A equalizer.

station line amplifier as shown in Fig. the equalizer is left open. Various re-
24. sistance values are tried (using the
VU meters are connected across the resistance box) until the loss is ap-
line following the sending and receiv- proximately the same at 1000 and 8000
ing line amplifiers, and the receiving cycles. Then the resistance box is re-
amplifier is terminated in a 600-ohm moved and the portion of the fixed
load. An attenuator pad is used ahead resistance in the equalizer with a
of the repeating coil at the sending value closest to that determined by
end to prevent cross-talk or interfer- experiment is connected in its place.
ence with other lines in the same This is done by connecting terminal
cable. Another attenuator is used at 1 to the line from which the resist-
the receiving end to avoid overloading ance box was removed, and moving
the amplifier. To see what values of the lead from the L-C combination
resistance to use in the equalizer, the from terminal 4 to the proper ter-
output of a variable-frequency oscil- minal. For example, if 12 or 13 ohms
lator is fed into the sending amplifier, is needed, the lead would be moved
and the loss at 1000 cycles and 8000 from terminal 4 to terminal 7, since
cycles noted. the resistance from terminal 7to ter-
Then the equalizer is connected minal 1is 12.5 ohms, which is as close
across the line side of the receiving as we can get.
repeating coil, but an adjustable re- For temporary lines or intermittent
sistance box is connected in place of service where a permanent installa-
the tapped resistor in the equalizer. tion is not justified, an adjustable
That is, terminal 2 of the equalizer is equalizer such as the Western Electric
connected to one side of the line. The 279A equalizer panel shown in Fig. 25
resistance box is connected between can be used to connect it to any one
terminal 4 of the equalizer and the of several lines as the occasion re-
other side of the line. Terminal 1 of quires.

SENDING NON- LOADED RECEIVING

CABLE CIRCUIT

VAR. FREO
LI NE AMP PAD LINE AMP 600-OHM
OSC. WITH AND 110 DB) REPEATING REPEATING PAD OR AND TERM.
OUTPUT GAIN - COIL COIL - ADJUSTABLE GA IN LOAD
600.600 -
LEVEL CONTROL 4:1 1:4 AT TENUATOR CONTROL FOR AM
OHMS
CONTROL

VOLUME VOLUME
INDICATOR EQUALIZER
INDICATOR

FIG. 24. Setup for equalizing a line.

22
 RI R3

.1'
4 2 1

EQUALIZER

INPUT

e
AT TE NUAT OR AI

OUT P

8 C>

GNO

FIG. 25. The Western Electric 279A equalizer panel.

PICKUP EQUALIZERS vided into two types, record pickup

heads may also be divided into two
Another way in which equalizers are
classes, "velocity-operated" and "am-
used is to compensate for the electro-
dynamic characteristics of phonograph plitude-operated." In avelocity-oper-
ated pickup, the output signal is gen-
and tape pickups. They are also used
to compensate for the particular re- erated by changing the flux of a per-
cording curve used in making records. manent magnet as it passes through a
coil. Different types of heads (mag-
These are called pickup equalizers.
netic, dynamic, variable reluctance)
Recording methods may be divided
accomplish this in slightly different
into two general classes: constant-ve-
ways, but the operating principle is
locity and constant-amplitude. When the same.
a record is cut, the stylus in the cut-
The voltage generated s propor-
ting head cuts a groove in the record.
tional to the rate at which the flux
When no signal is applied, the groove
changes, and the flux is changed by
forms a perfect spiral. When a signal
the movement of the stylus. Thus, the
is applied, the stylus moves in a
signal voltage generated is dependent
transverse (side to side) direction,
on the speed of the stylus. This pickup
making a slight wiggle in the groove.
is the natural opposite of a constant-
When a signal of constant ampli- velocity recorder. If a constant-level
tude is applied to a constant-velocity signal is recorded, a constant-level
cutting head, the transverse velocity output is obtained.
of the stylus is constant regardless of The output of an amplitude-oper-
frequency, but the displacement from ated pickup is constant for constant
side to side decreases with frequency. groove undulation (side to side dis-
With a constant-amplitude cutting placement) amplitude. Common am-
head, the transverse displacement of plitude-operated pickups are the crys-
the stylus is constant (for tones of tal and ceramic types. These operate
constant amplitude), but the trans- on the piezo-electric effect, generating
verse velocity of the stylus varies di- avoltage by the physical distortion of
rectly with the frequency. acrystal. A constant-amplitude signal
Just as cutting heads can be di- recorded with a crystal cutter will be
23
 e
‘b„.A.

do, Soo coo 5000 era

• FRECI,ENEY • FRECLOCT FRECIBLY

FIG. 26. A, variations of magnetic-cutter stylus displacement with frequency. B, out-

put voltage of magnetic pickup on constant-velocity recording. C, output voltage of
crystal pickup on constant velocity recording.

reproduced as aconstant output volt- stant-velocity pickup, the output is as

age when played back through acrys- shown in Fig. 27C.
tal pickup. A constant-amplitude sig- Recording Curves. In actual prac-
nal recorded with a constant-velocity tice, both constant-velocity and con-
cutter will be reproduced as avoltage stant-amplitude characteristics are
which falls off at the rate of 6db per used on parts of any record. When
octave as the frequency is increased. attempts were made to extend the
Fig. 26A shows how the undulation high-frequency range of recordings,
amplitude varies with frequency in a difficulty was experienced in keeping
constant-velocity record for tones of the high-frequency notes from drop-
equal signal level. When a magnetic ping down to the noise level. Also,
play-back head is used, the amplitude with constant-velocity recording, the
of the output signal is the same at all stylus sometimes cut into the next
frequencies as shown in Fig. 26B, but groove when a loud, low note was re-
with an amplitude-operated pickup, corded. These problems were solved
the voltage falls off as in Fig. 26C. by pre-emphasizing the highs and de-
Fig. 27A shows the variation in emphasizing the lows during record-
stylus displacement with frequency for ing, and using equalizers in the play-
tones of equal amplitude when re- back amplifiers to make the necessary
corded with a constant-amplitude re- compensation.
cording head. If the record is played The only trouble with this arrange-
back through a constant-amplitude ment was that there was no agreement
pickup, the output voltage is the same between companies as to exactly what
at all frequencies as shown in Fig. system to use, that is, how much pre-
27B. If played back through a con- emphasis was necessary or at what

1
`.k -,----
9

oto
FRECUE/CY
3cie eco o 63 FREnNCY
51
FREQUENCY

FIG. 27. A, crystal cutter stylus disp acement variation with frequency for constant
signal level. B, voltage output variation when record (in A) is played back through
crystal pickup. C, output voltage variation when same record is played through
magnetic pickup.

24
 24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
e
6
4
2
co0
02
4
6
e
10
12
14
16
18
-20
22
-24
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
20 100 1000 10000 20000

FREQUENCY
FIG. 28. The RIAA recording curve.

frequency it should start, etc. Various audio range.

techniques were tried, and several re- Fig. 29 shows the equivalent circuit
cording curves were developed. As a of a ceramic cartridge and its termi-
result, it was very difficult to design nation. The pickup can be thought of
playback amplifiers to reproduce all as a generator and a capacitor in se-
records satisfactorily with any type of ries, and the load as a resistance and
pickup. Recently, the Recording In- a capacitor in parallel. When the two
dustries Association of America are connected, an RC voltage divider
adopted a standard curve and recom- results. At low frequencies, the react-
mended it to the entire recording in- ance of C is so high it can be ignored,
dustry. The RIAA curve, shown in as in Fig. 29B, but its effects increase
Fig. 28, is identical to the NARTB as the frequency goes up, as shown in
(National Association of Radio and Fig. 29C.
Television Broadcasters) curve and For any given pickup, C is fixed, as
also to RCA's Orthophonie curve. The it depends on the cable length and the
Audio Engineering Society has recom- amplifier construction, so R is the only
mended it as a replacement for their part that can be varied. Fig. 29D
AES curve. Nearly all the major rec- shows how varying R affects the out-
• ord manufacturers now use this curve put.
on their new records. The equivalent circuit of amagnetic
Equalizer Circuits. For best pos- pickup and its termination is shown in
sible frequency response, a pickup Fig. 30A. This circuit contains induc-
must be terminated correctly at the tance, capacitance, and reactance and
input of the amplifier. The ideal pick- acts as a damped resonant circuit. If
up and termination would give a fiat RL is too large, the output will have
frequency response over the entire resonant peaks at frequencies deter-
25
EXACT EQUIVALENT LOW FREQUENCY HIGH FREQUENCY

o —

R.1 5IRE
I

O— I
,
-s
.%
-10 . 0.25
-L.
--r* C
cifs i ,___

0125
CC • CARTRIDGE CAPACITANCE —
A.
C • LOAM CABLE, STRAY, ETC) CAPACITANCE
R • LOAD RESISTANCE
f we ^-
FOR ALL CURVES. Cc•450p,..0: E•100 r

1111 1 1 1 1111

30 50 100 300 500 1KC 3XC 6KC 10KC I5KC

FREQUENCY IN CYCLES

FIG. 29. A, B, C equivalent circuits of ceramic cartridge and termination; D, change

in output with change in terminating resistance.

mined by the values of L and Cs. If range is obtained by keeping the cable
RL is small, Cs is effectively shorted capacitance small and RL high.
and the inductance will cause the Fig. 30B shows a crystal pickup
highs to fall off. Using a longer cable and its termination. The output of a
would cause Cs to increase, and there crystal cartridge falls off rapidly at
would be resonant peaks at a lower high frequencies. R1 and C in series
frequency. If RL is reduced to com- with R2 correct for this. At low fre-
pensate for this, the high-frequency quencies, capacitor C has little effect
output is reduced. The best frequency on the signal appearing at the output.

TERMINATION
MAGNETIC PICKUP TERMINATION CRYSTAL PICKUP
r- .... .

FIG. 30. Equivalent circuit and input termination for A, magnetic, and B, crystal
pickup.

26
 RI R2 R3
180 270 220
ent settings of the equalizer switch are
shown in Fig. 32.
TAPE SYSTEM EQUALIZERS
There are a number of factors that
influence the frequency response of a
record and play-back tape system.
Fig. 33 shows the response curves for
two standard tape speeds-15 inches
per second and 7.5 inches per second.
The slower-moving tape has the poorer
FIG. 31. The RCA MI-11888 pickup high-frequency response. This is be-
equalizer. cause, when a signal is recorded on a
As the frequency goes up, the react- magnetic tape, the particles of the
ance of C goes down. This reduced re- coating form many very small areas
actance shunting resistor R1 increases which act like tiny magnets having
the signal at the output. north and south poles. The slower the
Turntable Equalizers. A typical tape moves past the recording head or
equalizer for use with a broadcast 10

turntable is shown in Fig. 31. This is •5

111111111111•1111111111=1101
the RCA MI-11888, designed to work o I OUTPUT AT 1KC 111111eaffln111.1

with the RCA Type 70 Series turn- o I AT 75IPS EfiliMillifiliM

ODEI
1
11111111111111C11111111111111111111111M1
5

table and the BQ-2A turntable, and is

iiiiiinrininimmummummi
10

for use only with the MI-11874-4 I-

miliummuniiiiimiiiiiiim
15

pickup head. 0 20

The equalizer is mounted inside the iimiammiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim

âminnimumnimummuitiim
25

turntable cabinet in the right-hand 30 30 00 KC IOKC

front corner, where it will be con- FREQUENCY-CPS
venient for use by the operator. FIG. 33. Response of a record playback
Three settings of the equalizer are head.
provided. In the diagram, the switch
is shown in the "normal" position. the higher the frequency of the ap-
When it is desired to accentuate the plied signal, the shorter the magnetic
highs, the switch is moved to the bars become. This causes a canceling
"+Highs" position, which removes effect between the opposite poles,
some of the shunt capacitance from which reduces the magnetism induced
the circuit. When the opposite effect in the tape.
is desired, the switch is thrown to the Another cause of high-frequency
"—Highs" position, which adds shunt loss is that the recording head is large-
capacitance to the circuit. ly inductive. Thus, it has more imped-
The response curves for the differ- ance at high frequencies, decreasing
the strength of the magnetic field be-
0 ,0 11
1+14 tween the pole pieces.
5 NORMAL
0 When the tape is played back, the
gn :5
10
voltage induced in the play-back coil
varies with the rate of change of the
20 50 100 200 500
1000
2000 MOO
5000 20000 flux lines. A high-frequency tone of
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND the same amplitude occupies ashorter
FIG. 32. Frequency response curves for length of tape than alower-frequency
the MI-11888. tone of the same amplitude. Thus, the
27
 Post-Emphasis. Two typical post-
emphasis circuits are shown in Fig.
35. In Fig. 35A, the bass response is
boosted by the series network con-
sisting of capacitor C2 and resistors
Ro and R3.The reactance of Co is so
high at low frequencies that the series
network of C2 and R., has no shunt-
ing effect, and the lows pass unattenu-
ated to the grid of the next stage. As
FIG. 34. Circuits for pre-emphasis.
the frequ ,nicy goes up, the shunting
effect of the two components increases,
change of flux lines is at a faster rate
and a lower proportion of the high-
at higher frequencies (or a faster
frequency signal appears at the grid.
speed) than at a low frequency (or a
Capacitor C3 is an adjustable treble
slower speed).
control used to correct for the very-
To get a linear frequency response
high-frequency losses in a tape re-
in a tape-recorder system, equalizing
corder system. At the higher frequen-
networks are necessary to boost the
cies, C3 shunts some of the highs
amplitude of the frequencies at both
around R3 and on to the grid.
the high and low ends of the audio
In the circuit shown in Fig. 35B,
range. The usual practice is to boost the middle range of frequencies is fed
the highs in the recorder and the lows
back to the input circuit through re-
(and sometimes also the highs) in the

3
play-back amplifier. The former is +B
called pre-emphasis and the latter,
post-emphasis. o
Pre-Emphasis. Two typical pre-
emphasis circuits are shown in Fig. 34.
In Fig. 34A, capacitor C2 sin series
with the recording head across the
output of the amplifier tube. The re-
actance of C2 decreases as the fre-
quency increases, so a high-frequency
signal will produce a higher current
flow in the coil of the recording head
than a low-frequency one will. +B
In Fig. 34B, a series-resonant cir-
cuit. in the amplifier cathode circuit is
used, At low frequencies, a degenera-
tive voltage is developed across re-
sistor RI,feeding an out-of-phase sig-
nal to the grid, decreasing the gain.
At higher frequencies, coil L1 and
capacitor C1 (or C1and C2 in parallel)
have an increasing shunting effect on
resistor RI,decreasing the feedback,
and the gain goes up. Capacitors C1
and C2 are connected in parallel for
high tape speeds, but the switch is
opened at low speed. FIG. 35. Post-emphasis circuits.

28
sistor R1 and capacitor C1.There is These are only some of the many
no feedback of lows because of the uses for equalizers in broadcast serv-
rising capacitance of capacitor C1.The ice. Equalizers and filters, which we
feedback reduces the gain so the gain will take up in the next section of this
decreases with an increase in fre- text, are used to extend the frequency
quency. range of asound system, to add sound
The values of resistor R2 and ca- effécts without the use of mechanical
pacitor C2 can be chosen to give a apparatus, to remove undesirable
small amount of boost at very high sound effects, to improve tonal quali-
frequencies. If C2 is small, its low re- ties resulting from poor acoustical lo-
actance at very high frequencies pre- cation, and to compensate for varia-
vents cathode feedback and increases tions in system response, acoustical
the high-frequency gain. conditions, and program material.

Filters
Basically, filters consist of an ar- from the load by the capacitor or
rangement of reactive components that shorted around the load by the coil.
will respond in certain predetermined As the frequency increases, more and
ways to different frequencies. Filters more current is passed by the capaci-
can be designed to pass low-frequency tor and reaches the load, or if a coil
signals and block signals at high fre- is used, the coil reactance goes up as
quencies. Others can be designed to
pass high frequencies and block low
frequencies. Still others may either
pass or hlock certain definite bands
of frequencies. A fundamental rule is
that anetwork cannot act like afilter

rs
unless it contains some reactive com- HIGH - PASS

ponent, such as a coil or capacitor,

that changes its reactance with fre-
quency.

BASIC FILTER CIRCUITS

LOW -Pass
The operation of the filter depends
not only upon the components used,
but also on the values and circuit ar-
rangements of the parts. Filter ele-
ments can be connected in series with
the load nr in parallel with the load.
Let us see what effect these connec-
o BAND - PASS

tions have.
High-Pass Filter. A capacitor in
series with the load, or acoil in paral-
lel with the load, as shown in Fig. 36A,
forms asimple high-pass filter. At low o BAND-STOP

frequencies, the current is blocked FIG. 36. Types of filters.

29
the frequency increases and more of resonant, and act like a high imped-
the current is forced through the load. ance and the current will flow through
Low-Pass Filter. If we put the ca- the load.
pacitor in parallel with the load or Band-Stop Filter. Band-stop filters
the coil in series with the load as at are shown in Fig. 36D. When the coil
B, the effect will be reversed, and we and capacitor are connected in parallel
will have a low-pass filter. with each other and placed in series
Band-Pass Filter. Suppose we use with the load, current reaches the load
both a coil and a capacitor as in Fig. through the capacitor at high frequen-
36C. If we put them in series with the cies and through the coil at low fre-
load and each other we will have a quencies. At resonance, the blocking
band-pass circuit. Now, low frequen- action of the circulating current in the
cies will be blocked by the capacitor, resonant circuit prevents current from

rialr
o 1 o

TO
SOURCE LOAD

o
o

CBUOTRHVEC
B
AND L
PASS REJECT
ATTENUATION

CEUITRHVER A
C
O R L
O 0 FREQUENCY fc
0
FIG. 37. Basic low-pass L filter, A; filter
response curves, B.

and the higher frequencies will be reaching the load. If they are con-
blocked by the coil. However, at some nected in series with each other across
intermediate frequency, the inductive the load, at resonance the current will
and capacitive reactance will be ex- be shorted around the load. Above and
actly equal and opposite, the cireuit below resonance, either the coil or the
will be series resonant and will pass capacitor will block the current and
current. This is a band-pass filter be- force it through the load.
cause a small band of frequencies These four basic circuits (low-pass,
about the resonant point will be high-pass, band-pass, band-stop) il-
passed. If we put the two in parallel lustrate the principles of filtering, but.
with the load, low frequencies will be in actual practice, we have to con-
bypassed around the load by the coil, sider the sharpness of the cut-off ac-
and high frequencies by the capacitor. tion and the effect of the filter on the
At some frequency the two will be impedance relationship. For this rea-
 sponse curves are shown in Fig. 38B.
Band-pass and band-stop filters can
SOURCE LOAD
also be improved by arranging the
components in an L network. In Fig.
o 39 we show the network and the curves
for a band-pass filter. If the series-
resonant and the parallel-resonant cir-
STOP PASS
cuit shown in Fig. 39A are designed to
resonate at the same frequency, the
ATTENUATION

CURVE IS
BOTH CAND L
cut-off will be quite sharp as shown by
the curves in Fig. 39B. This will re-
sult in a highly discriminating filter
and avery narrow band of frequencies
o will be allowed to pass.
0 FREQUENCY
However, if we make the two cir-
FIG. 38. Basic high-pass L filter, A; filter cuits resonate at slightly different fre-
response curves, B. quencies, we can broaden the pass-
band as shown by the curves in Fig.
son, most practical filter circuits are 39C. Here, all the frequencies between
combinations of the principles we have the resonant frequency of the series
discussed. One of the simplest of these circuit, denoted by f l,and the resonant
is the L filter. frequency of the parallel circuit, de-
L Filter. Let's see why the circuit
in Fig. 37 gives an improved response.
Either the coil or capacitor alone
forms a low-pass filter. With either
one alone, the current in the load will
SOURCE
g LOAD

decrease as the frequency goes up un-

o
til, finally, at some high frequency o
practically no current reaches the
load. By using both components, we PASS

get the benefit of two effects. If the

REJECT REJECT
values are chosen properly, at the
ATTENUATION

cut-off frequency the coil will begin

to block quite alot of current and the 1

capacitor will begin to pass a sub-

stantial amount of current. Thus, the • FREQUENCY CO
coil blocks some of the current and
the capacitor passes some that gets
through the coil, and we have a
sharper response curve as shown by
ATTENUATION

curve B in Fig. 37B.

The high-pass filter shown in Fig.
38 also combines capacitance and in-
ductance in an L-type filter arrange-
ment. Notice that in the circuit in
O 0 FREQUENCY f 12 03

Fig. 38A, we use aseries capacitor and FIG. 39. L-type band-pass filter, A; sharp
cut-off, narrow-band with arm and leg
a shunt coil to provide a sharper at-
resonating at same frequency, B; sharp
tenuation than we would get by using cut-off, wide-band with arm and leg reso-
either component by itself. The re- nating at different frequencies, C.

31
 give sharp cut-off characteristics and
provide almost any type of filtering
action, they are unsymmetrical. In
many filtering applications, it is very
important to have the impedance
matching in both directions. In such
cases symmetrical filters must be used.
The low-pass L section shown in
PASS REJECT PASS Fig. 37A can be made into a sym-
metrical T section by splitting the in-
ductance L in two, and placing one
half on each side of the shunt capaci-
tor C. The same L section can be
changed into asymmetrical pi section
by using two capacitors of half the
former capacity, and locating one at
each end of the inductance.
PASS REJECT PASS
In a similar manner, the band-pass
and band-elimination L sections can
also be made into symmetrical T or pi
sections. A summary of the more com-
mon filter section forms, together with
their attenuation characteristics, is
O 0 FREQUENCY , le
given in Fig. 41.

FIG. 40. L-type band-stop filter, A; sharp MULTI-SECTION FILTERS

cut-off narrow band with arm and leg
resonating at same frequency, B; sharp Now that we know that symmetri-
cut-off, wide band with arm and leg reso- cal filter sections "repeat" the load re-
nating at different frequencies, C. sistance for their input impedance, it
is obvious that we can operate several
noted by f 2,will be passed while all filter sections in tandem. Thus, if we
others will be rejected. have three low-pass T sections, each
Similarly, a band-stop filter can be designed for an impedance, let us say
made by using the L networks shown of 500 ohms, we can arrange them as
in Fig. 40A. Notice that now the par- shown in Fig. 42A. Here the second
allel resonant circuit is in series with section acts as the load impedance for
the load and the series resonant cir- the first, and the input impedance of
cuit is in parallel with the load. When the last section is the load for the sec-
the parallel circuit resonates, it will ond filter section.
tend to block current to the load. When We may continue this arrangement
the series circuit resonates, it will tend for almost any number of sections. In
to short any signals away from the all cases, however, the generator still
load. If the two circuits are designed works into a 500-ohm input imped-
to resonate at the same frequency, a ance, and the impedance at the output
narrow band of frequencies will be continues to match the 500-ohm load.
stopped as shown by Fig. 40B. If there Since the individual attenuations
is a difference in their resonant fre- add, the tandem arrangement will at-
quencies, the stop band will become tenuate the unwanted frequencies
wider as shown in Fig. 40C. roughly three times as much as an in-
Although L pads can be designed to dividual section, while the wanted fre-
32
FIG. 41. The most common forms of L, T, and pi sections with their attenuation
characteristics for low-pass, high-pass, band-stop, and band-pass filters.

quencies pass with little loss, and the fore can be replaced by a single ca-
overall response is improved. The two pacitor. Where two coils appear in
coils in series can be replaced by acoil series, they can be replaced with asin-
of twice the inductance, as shown at B. gle coil of twice the inductance.
We may continue this arrangement In cases where it is necessary to pre-
for almost any number of sections. In sent a very high attenuation to one
all cases, however, the generator still band of frequencies and, at the same
works into a 500-ohm input imped-
ance, and the impedance at the output
continues to match the 500-ohm load.
In precisely the same manner, high-
pass, band-pass, and band-stop multi-
section filters can be made. Wherever
two arm capacities appear in series,
however, the effective capacity is cut FIG. 42. Three low-pass T sections con-
in half. These two capacitors, there- nected in tandem.

33
 eqi

O c
FREQUENCY

o o

le FREQUENCY

O
e
f
c to FREQUENCY

FIG. 43. A prototype section with high attenuation far from cut-off, and a derived
section, with high attenuation close to cut-off, when put in tandem make a composite
filter with a very sharp cut-off, and a high attenuation over the entire stop band.

time, pass an adjacent band of fre- circuit, the section is "shorted out" at
quencies with little loss, we must use one frequency, and its response drops
a filter with a sharper cut-off charac- nearly to zero. This means that at one
teristic. point in the stop band the attenuation
M-Derived Filters. Let us look at is very high, reaching, theoretically, to
Fig. 43A. This is an ordinary low-pass infinity. In practical circuits, the at-
T section, sometimes called a "con- tenuation does not reach infinity be-
stant K filter," with an attenuation cause of losses in the coil, but the re-
characteristic like that shown in Fig. sponse of such a section has a peak
43B. Since this is abasic filter section, of great attenuation, as illustrated in
it is often called a "prototype." Fig. 43D.
It is called a constant-K filter be- In choosing the value of LI,Ci,and
cause of the fact that the product of L2 in the so-called derived filter,
XL and Xc is constant at. all frequen- shown in Fig. 43C, a factor is used in
cies. For example, at some frequency special formulas to calculate their
X, may be 200 ohms, and Xe may be values. This factor, called the "M"
50 ohms, and the product of the two factor, is determined by another
is 10,000. At twice the frequency, Xi, formula based on how sharp the cut-
is 400 ohms, and Xc is 25 ohms and off is to be. Since it is the sharpness
the product (the constant K) is still of cut-off, or "M" factor, that de-
10,000. termines the value of all L and C val-
Let us modify the inductance and ues in a derived filter, this arrange-
capacitance values of this prototype ment is called an "M-derived" filter.
section so that an additional induc- Thus, an M-derived filter is one hav-
ance L2 can be placed in series with ing infinite attenuation at some spe-
the capacitance C1, as illustrated in cific frequency, producing a sharper
Fig. 43C. If done properly, this does cut-off than astandard filter.
not change the section cut-off fre- An M-derived section cannot be
quency, and it does not alter the re- used alone, since after the infinite at-
sponse in the pass band. tenuation frequency, foe, is passed, the
In the attenuation band, however, attenuation again drops to a low val-
we find that astartling change occurs. ue. If, however, we connect aprototype
Since L2 and CI form aseries-resonant and aderived section together in tan-
34
dem, we realize a greatly improved general, filters that are made up of a
filter performance. This means that we prototype and one or more derived
add the curve of Fig. 43B to that of sections are called "composite" filters.
Fig. 43D to get an over-all response
like that shown in Fig. 43E. INPUT-OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
Note that not only is the attenua- Earlier we stated that symmetrical
tion relatively high over the entire filter sections like the T and r sections
stop band, but also that the cut-off in Fig. 41, possess input impedances
characteristic is much sharper. Notice that are nearly equal to the respective
also that the losses in the pass band load resistances. Let us investigate
near the cut-off frequency have been this statement further.
held to a minimum, which is impos- Any symmetrical filter section has
sible to realize by merely adding a characteristic or "iterative" imped-
simple prototype sections together. ance that is determined entirely by
Fig. 43C does not represent the only the values of inductance and capaci-
practical type of derived filter section. tance. It is only when the load resist-
The low-pass pi-section prototype in ance is made equal to this inherent
Fig. 44A, for instance, can be modi- characteristic impedance that the in-
fied to appear as the derived section put impedance of a filter assumes an
in Fig. 44B. The added capacitor C2, identical value. In other words, for
in conjunction with coil LI,now forms proper filter performance, it is desir-
a parallel-tuned circuit, which at its able that we use source and load im-
resonant frequency serves to block the pedances that match the impedance of
flow of current through the section. the filter itself.
Here again, the result is an infinite- Unfortunately, the characteristic
attenuation frequency in the stop impedance of asimple prototype filter
band.
section is not constant with frequency.
In constructing a multi-section fil- Look at the low-pass T section in Fig.
ter, it is possible to use several derived 41 to see why this is so. In the input
sections. Furthermore, if different M terminals, the left-hand inductance
values are used for each derived sec- arm L1/2, and the shunt capacity C2,
tion, a separate infinite attenuation together form a series‘-resonant cir-
frequency for each section is obtained. cuit. Since these two are in resonance
In this way the over-all filter-response at the section cut-off frequency, the
characteristic can have an extremely input impedance drops to a very low
sharp cut-off, and very high attenua- value at this point. In Fig 45, the
tion at all points in the stop band. In solid curve shows how the characteris-
tic impedance of alow-pass T section
o decreases rapidly from anominal val-
ue for low frequencies to atheoretical
zero value at the cut-off point.
On the other hand, the low-pass pi
section in Fig. 41 resembles a split-
capacitor parallel-tuned circuit, and it
behaves like a parallel resonant cir-
o o cuit. For low frequencies, the section
FIG. 44. A prototype low-pass pi section,
has a nominal characteristic imped-
and the corresponding M-derived section.
Where the parallel-tuned circuit is reso-
ance. As the frequency is raised, the
nant, the derived section has infinite at- input impedance increases, and at the
tenuation. cut-off point where the elements are

35
 tion to match api section, called "half
sections."
Terminating Half-Sections. Filters
can be conveniently terminated by
means of what are called half sections.
Examples of half sections and how
they perform are shown in Fig. 46. In
A, we have shown the development of
a half-section T. This filter is devel-
oped by dividing the T into two
FIG. 45. The characteristic impedance of halves. Notice the value of the leg in
a prototype T section drops to zero at the half sections is 2Z 2,because the
the cut-off frequency, and that of a pi two impedances 2Z2 in parallel would
section rises to a very high value. have a value equal to Z2, the imped-
ance in the full T section.
resonant, the impedance approaches an Looking into terminals 1 and 2 of
infinite resistance. The dotted curve the left half of the T, we see the same
in Fig. 45 shows this typical imped- basic arrangement as in the full T sec-
ance change for api section. tion. However, looking into the termi-
Although these two filter sections nals 3 and 4 of the left side, the half
may have identical attenuation char- section looks like the output of air sec-
acteristics, their impedance variations tion filter.
are strikingly different. In general, it Similarly, looking into terminals 1
may be said that the impedance of
any T section drops nearly to zero at
acut-off point, and that of any pi sec- 0 T FILTER o PI FILTER
tion rises to avery high value. COMPLETE FILTERS
21 Z1 Z1
How can we match asource and load 3
to a filter if the characteristic imped-
ance of the filter varies so widely over .4— Tr
the pass band? Z2

In a great many filter applications

4 2
where it is not necessary to work very
HALF SECTIONS
close to the cut-off frequency, the
LEFT SIDE
change of filter impedance is not seri- Z112
3
ous. In such cases, the impedance
variation is ignored, and the source
and load impedances are chosen to be
equal to that of the filter at frequen-
cies far removed from its cut-off fre- 4 2
quency. This gives fair filter perform-
RIGHT SIDE
ance. 3 I/2

Under these conditions, however, the

mismatch at cut-off substantially de-
creases the cut-off sharpness. For more
accurate work, it is necessary to find
abetter method of matching the chang- 2

ing filter impedance. This is done by FIG. 46. How half-sections are developed
aspecial type of T section to match a from a T section (A) and a pi section
T section, or a special type of pi sec- (B)•

36
 to drop to zero at the cut-off frequency.
We find, nevertheless, that the man-
ner in which this impedance drops to
zero depends entirely upon the value
of the multiplying factor M that we
used to derive the total section in the
first place.
If avalue M 1is used, the half-
section impedance varies like aproto-
type T section. This is shown by curve
1in Fig. 47B. For lower values of M,
FIG. 47. A terminating half-section, and the input impedance is more constant
the variation of its characteristic imped- over the pass band. The input imped-
ance with frequency for different values
ance variation for M — 0.8 and M
of the multiplying factor M.
0.6 is illustrated by curves 2and 3, re-
spectively. For still smaller values of
M, let us say M — 0.4 and M — 0.2,
and 2 of the right half of the filter,
the input impedance may rise to ahigh
we see the same basic configuration as
value before it drops abruptly to zero.
we do at the input to a7r section, and
See curves 4and 5.
looking into terminals 3 and 4 we see
A value M — 0.6 gives the best per-
it looks like aT filter.
formance, and results in ahalf-section
The ir filter can be broken down in- input impedance that is very nearly
to two half sections as shown at B. constant over about 80% of the filter
Looking into terminals 1and 2 of the pass band.
left side, we see the circuit looks like
We can use half sections like the one
the input to air section, whereas look-
shown in Fig. 47A to match a con-
ing into terminals 3and 4of this sec-
stant-impedance generator to the vari-
tion we see a circuit similar to the able impedance of a full pi section, or
output of aT filter. On the right side, a number of pi sections in tandem.
looking into terminals 1 and 2, the Furthermore, we can use an additional
circuit looks like the input to aT, and half section at the filter output to
looking into 3 and 4, it looks like the match the filter to a constant-imped-
output of air filter. ance load.
Let us suppose that the M-derived A composite low-pass filter, made
pi section, shown in Fig. 44B, is split in this manner, is shown in Fig. 48A.
in half as indicated by the dotted line. The portion marked B is really the
If we consider only the right half, we prototype pi section of Fig. 44A. The
have the half section shown in Fig. two terminating half sections, A and
47A. C, are made by splitting the derived
Now looking into the terminals 3-4, pi section of Fig. 44B.
this half section appears as a pi sec- As two capacitors in parallel can be
tion. Any full pi section, therefore, can replaced by asingle capacity, the com-
be attached to these terminals without posite filter can be simplified as
an impedance mismatch, since the two shown in Fig. 48B.
networks have the same impedance at Since two half sections have the
all frequencies. same attenuation characteristics as a
Looking into the terminals 1-2, the full-derived section, the over-all re-
half section resembles aT section, and sponse of this filter looks like that
the input impedance can be expected shown in Fig. 43E. The half sections

37
FIG. 48. A, a composite low-pass filter is made by using a prototype pi section and
two constant-impedance terminating half-sections. B, the simplified filter, after com-
bining parallel capacities.

have three uses: (a) they present a DESIGNING FILTERS

nearly constant impedance at each end We have seen that it is the arrange-
of the filter; (b) they sharpen the cut- ment of components in anetwork that
off response; (c) they supply an infi- determines its general response char-
nite attenuation at one point in the at- acteristics. By properly arranging coils
tenuation band. and capacitors we can make anetwork
In a similar manner, it is possible function as a low-pass, high-pass,
to construct half sections that accur- band-pass, or band-stop filter. How-
ately match a T-section filter. Thus, ever, it is the values of the components
half sections, from the network shown that determine just where within the
in Fig. 43C, can be used to terminate frequency range a filter will pass or
aprototype T section like that shown reject signals. Therefore, to construct
in Fig. 43A. This gives the composite a filter we must be able to determine
filter that is shown in Fig. 49A, which, the values for components as well as
in turn, can be simplified as shown in their arrangement.
Fig. 49B. The half sections not only Before we can design a filter for
provide a good impedance match be- some specific application, we must
tween source and filter, and between know which frequencies are to be
filter and load, but they also improve passed, and which are to be rejected,
the general filtering action. The re- and the amount of attenuation of un-
sponse curve for this composite filter wanted frequencies necessary. In other
is similar to Fig. 43E. words, we must know whether it is to
be a low-pass, high-pass, band-pass,
or band-stop filter. We must know the
cut-off frequency of a low-pass or
7%J. L L Lt
high-pass filter. For band-pass or
Cq
band-stop filters, we need to know
2
C>
Ce
2L2 2LP\

6
10 both the upper and lower frequency
0 ‘/

limits of the band to be passed or re-

0 ±
jected. We should know how much at-
o
•L

tenuation of undesired frequencies is

2L2 CT necessary, as it may be necessary to
o
o %.4

use a multi-section filter to obtain

FIG. 49. The use of a T-section proto- enough attenuation and a sufficiently
type with appropriate half sections to sharp cut-off.
make a low-pass composite filter. The
Let's assume, for example, that we
network is simplified by replacing two
inductances in series, with a single in-
want to construct a filter that will
ductance equal to their sum. pass all frequencies between 0 and

38
 L.038 h 3
fc R 3.14 X 5000 X 600
1 1
C..I mid R. 600.ri 15,700 X 600 9,420,000
— .0000001 farad or, .1 mfd.
Thus, a coil of .038 henrys and a
2 4 capacitor of .1 mfd arranged in an L
FIG. 50. Low-pass constant-K, L filter. network with aload resistance of 600
ohms gives us a low-pass filter with a
cut-off frequency of 5 kc.
5000 cycles and attenuate all frequen-
Converting an L Filter to a T or
cies above 5000 cycles. Since we wish
Pi Filter. We know from our previous
to pass low frequencies and attenuate
discussion of filters that we can im-
high frequencies, we will want a low-
prove the cut-off curve for our filter
pass filter. We know that we can ob- and match impedances by converting
tain low-pass characteristics by using the L network to a T or pi network.
a series coil and a shunt capacitor in To do this, we simply use two coils of
an L network as shown in Fig. 50. half the inductance value for the T
Next, we must determine the particu-
filter as shown in Fig. 51A. Or, if we
lar values of inductance and capaci- prefer the pi filter, we could use two
tance that will give us a cut-off fre- capacitors of half the capacitance as
quency of 5000 cycles. shown in Fig. 51B. The choice of using
The L Filter. To do this, we apply either a T or a pi filter is simply a
our circuit values to special formulas matter of convenience, as they give
that have been derived for filter net- exactly the same performance. The
work computation. For a low-pass
filter the capacitance is found from L/. 019h L/2..019h

1
the formula: C fc R; and, the

inductance from the formula: R•600.n.

L o
In both of these formulas R is the
impedance of a purely resistive load
L=.038h
and fc is equal to the desired cut-off
frequency in cycles per second. If we
apply these two formulas to our cir-
cuit in Fig. 50, we find that the in-
R.600.0.
ductance equals:

600 o
L
fc 3.14 X 500(i
600 FIG. 51. Low-pass constant-K filter con-
— .038 henrys
verted to T network, A; low-pass con-
stant-K filter network converted to pi
and, the capacitance equals: network, B.

39
choice is usually based on availability The factor M from which the M-
of components. derived filter gets its name relates to
111-Derived Filter. The filter that the ratio of this frequency of maxi-
we have just computed is aprototype, mum attenuation, foe, and the cut-
or constant-K filter. We know from off frequency, fe. For alow-pass filter,
the previous section on filter princi- M is found from the following for-
ples that we can get a sharper filter mula:
cut-off and obtain better :mpedance
matching throughout the pass band by M 1— A) 2
using an M-derived filter. An M- f00
derived T section is formed by inert- For a high-pass filter, M is found
ing an inductor in series with the leg from the formula:
capacitor of a prototype T section as

(
shown in Fig. 52. fee \2
M —
The addition of this new inductance fc-)
causes the attenuation to rise sharply
Converting aConstant-K Filter to
to a very high value as soon as the
cut-off frequency is reached. This is an 11I-Derived Filter. To change an
ordinary constant-K filter to an M-
due to the fact that the leg of the filter
derived filter, we add the proper re-
is designed to be series resonant at
some frequency slightly above cut-off. actance component to the filter and
When resonance occurs, nearly all the change all the values by an amount
depending on the value of M. To see
current is shorted around the load,
how this works, let's convert the low-
giving us almost infinite attenuation.
In an ordinary constant-K filter, pass constant-K, T section, shown in
when the cut-off frequency is reached, Fig. 51A to the M-derived filter shown
in Fig. 52.
the attenuation increases gradually to
some maximum value as the frequency The first thing we must do is select
is increased above cut-off. In the M- avalue for the frequency of maximum
derived filter, we actually make the attenuation, foe. If we make the fre-
attenuation curve above cut-off rise quency of foc equal to 6250 cycles,
sharply by making the frequency of we can then find the appropriate value
maximum attenuation occur nearer the of M from the formula:
cut-off frequency than it normally
5000
does. Therefore, the sharpness of the
M I/ 1 r
ic
°)2-- r/1
e 625-6j
cut-off curve depends on the location
of the frequency of maximum attenua- — VI — .
82 — V I— .64
tion with respect to the cut-off fre-
quency. .36 — .6

To find our new value L to use for

LV2 ..0114h LI
/2 •.0114h
our arm coils LI,we simply multiply
our original value of L by our value
of M. This gives us:

— LM

— .038 X 6
-- .0223 henrys.

FIG. 52. Low-pass constant-K, L filter We divide this new value 14 1 by 2to
converted to M-derived T network, obtain the correct value for each of

40
our arm coils. Thus our new arm in- =0228 h
ductances are .0114 henrys each.
Our capacitor C2 is also determined
by multiplying the original value of
C..: by M. Or C1 026mfd

.%
— CM — .1 X .6 — .06 mfd. .,> R .600 n.
2/ .03mfd •C 2 =03 mfd .>
The value of the inductance L2 that 2 n /2
we inserted in the leg of our network
is found by applying our original T 1
o o
%•alue of L in the following formula:
FIG. 53. Low-pass constant-K, L filter
converted to M-derived pi network.
1— M 2
L>. 4M X L
used for the leg components where
1— .36 necessary to avoid confusion between
X .038
2.4 reactances. Although we have shown
the formulas for M-derived, high- and
.64
4 .038 .02432
low-pass filters, we have not shown
2 2.4 -
them for band-pass and band-stop fil-
or, approximately .01 henry. ters. The m-derived band-pass and
If we prefer, we can use the M- band-stop filters become much -'too
derived pi section shown in Fig. 53. complex for anyone except filter de-
In this filter, the value of our capaci- sign specialists.
tor C2 used in the T section is divided In these formulas, the units for F,
by 2 to form the two legs of our M- L, C, and R are in cycles-per-second,
derived pi section. We have a new henrys, farads, and ohms, respectively.
capacitor C1 in parallel with our in- Factors Affecting Design. The
ductance L1 to form our filter arm. standard equations for constructing
The value of L1 is the sum of the two filters are based on lossless elements
arm inductances L1/2 used in the T which are pure reactances. Thus, in
section. The value of C1 is found by actual practice, the response of afilter
substituting the original value of C may be somewhat different from what
that we used in our L filter in place was expected. How great this differ-
of the value of L in the formula: ence will be depends on the care that
was exercised in choosing the parts
1— M 2 and in constructing the filter.
1,2 L or, A high-Q coil has very little loss,
4M
since it is mostly inductance and very
1— M 2 64 little resistance. When a lower-Q coil
CI— 4M C - X .1
2.4
is used, the losses are increased. Also,
.064 when a low-Q coil is used in a tuned
— 026 mfd. circuit, the response of the circuit is
2.4
broadened. It will no longer be as sen-
These formulas, 'dong with those sitive to frequencies at or near the
used for high-pass, band-pass, and resonant frequency.
band-stop filters, are shown with their There is always some capacitance
appropriate circuit diagrams in Fig. between the adjacent turns of the coil
54. Notice that in these circuits and winding, and this lowers the Q and
formulas, the subscript 1indicates an increases the losses. Coils wound with
arm reactance and the subscript 2 is wire insulated with amaterial having

41
 LOW PASS FILTER SECTIONS

17 - T V T1
/2 .

C c

o
CONSTANT K -L SECTION
o 1 0J
CONSTANT K -T SECTION
•
CONSTANT K -71 SECTION

Ly2 Ly2
FORMULAS
2
L c I Ft
•
fc f,F1 C2

1.1 .„/1:7
-0 2
o To
i-
f. M DERIVED -T SECTION IA DER VED -T1 SECTION
Li 2

•IAL C2. MC

I-M 2 "2
L2. • L C1• C 2/2 ro
C2/ 2

IA DERIVED .'T" END SECTIONS M DERIVED"TrEND SECTIONS

HIGH PASS FILTER SECTIONS

2C 2C I

CONSTANT K -L SECTION CONSTANT K -T SECTION CONSTANT K T1 SECTION

0-111
FORMULAS 2C1

C
L2

2
L • —• C•
4 II fc 4T1 Tel

M 2 M DERIVED -T SECTION M DER VED -11 SECTION

F- - — 18 t o
2C 1 2C 1 I.
L2 . • Cori
2L 2 2L 2

c„.7.2 .2_ T.......

4M 4M
L1 •— 2 L C2• — C
I-M
MDu IVED .. .r" END SECTIONS M DERIVE eTI" END SECTIONS

BAND PASS FILTER SECTIONS

L1 C, 2C, 2C,
o--11111P--1
1 o-rfer--1 I-Mfrs-04-i
Ly2
/
L1
2 l

. .I
22 1 L2 c2 R

CONSTANT K-L SECTION CONSTANT K -T SECTION CONSTANT K-II SECTION

(f2-foR f2-f l
FORMULAS:
TI(12-11) 1.2e 411 fI12 4T1 I f2 R C2 IT (12-11IR

BAND STOP FILTER SECTIONS

.1
1 /
2 /
L1
2

2C1 2C1 '1

c2,
2 1 R 1.2 212 21 2

o
r C2

CONSTANT K -L SECTION
J IC2
CONSTANT K-T SECTION
o
T /2 C2/2

CONSTANT K- It SECTION
O

(12- III
FORMULAS , Li •(f2- 11)11
f2fI L, •411 (12-III C1* 411(12
' 11)R C2 41112 fiR

IN ABOVE CIRCUITS AND FORMULAS: R•OHMS C. FARADS L•HENRIES f•CYCLES /SEC.

FIG. 54. Basic filter circuits and formulas.

42
 low dielectric hysteresis loss are the is not practical to try to make lami-
best from this standpoint. nations small enough or thin enough
When two coils or two circuits are for use in coil cores. Coils used at these
physically near each other, usually frequencies are air-core coils or have
some coupling exists, although none cores made from powdered iron mixed
may have been intended. The mag- with a suitable binder The binder
netic field about one coil or circuit holds the particles together so that
induces a current in the other. Also they can be shaped to the form desired
the metallic parts of the two circuits and also insulates them from one an-
form a email capacitance through other to prevent eddy currents. A type
which energy may be transferred. The often used in communications equip-
Q of a coil is lowered by the loss of ment is the toroid coil. It is asingle-
energy coupled out of it, and the re- layer or multi-layer coil wound on a
sponse of the filter may be seriously doughnut-shaped powdered-iron core.
altered. An advantage of this type is that, so
This effect can be minimized by the long as the core is unbroken, all of the
proper placement of the parts (physi- lines of force are in the core and none
cal separation, mounting coils at right outside. As a result, shielding is sel-
angles to each other, etc.) and by care- dom necessary to prevent coupling be-
ful shielding. Shielding a coil lowers tween atoroid coil and another coil or
its inductance and also results in an circuit.
energy loss because of the resistance
of the shield, which increases the ef- MEASURING FILTER
RESPONSE
fective resistance of the coil. These
effects lower the Q of the cuil, but the When checking filter response, great
reduction will be slight if the spacing care must be exercised in setting up
between shield and coil is equal to at the equipment to avoid any stray cou-
least the coil diameter at the coil ends pling or leakage. All the units in the
and at least half this distance at the test setup must be bonded together
coil sides. and agood common ground provided.
At power supply or audio frequen- Insertion Loss. The insertion loss
cies, eddy current losses in iron-core of afilter is simply the loss in output,
coils may be reduced by constructing usually expressed in db, caused by in-
the cores of thin metal sheets called serting afilter in acircuit When the
laminations. At higher frequencies, it filter is to be tested before installa-

SIGNAL
ATTENUATOR FILTER DETECTOR VTVM
GENERATOR

o
MARKER
GENERATOR

SCOPE
SWEEP
FILTER DETECTOR 0
GENERATOR

o
FIG. 55. Test setups for measuring (A) insertion loss, and (B) frequency response
of a filter.

43
tion, asetup such as that in Fig. 55A was designed. Ordinarily, you'll know
can be used to measure this insertion how much attenuation of unwanted
loss. The signal source can be asignal frequencies is necessary and how much
generator, with or without modulation. attenuation of wanted frequencies can
For low frequencies, the output meter be tolerated. If the circuit works satis-
may be adb meter or avtvm. For rf factorily after the filter is installed,
frequencies, avtvm should be used. In you won't usually need to know or
some cases, the needed output is most care exactly what the insertion loss
conveniently obtained by feeding the measures.
filter output to a good receiver. Filter Response. The response
Using the lowest signal leve! that curve of afilter can be checked either
provides a usable indication with the by a point-to-point method or by
filter in the circuit, the output is using asweep signal generator and an
noted. Without changing the ampli- oscilloscope to obtain avisual indica-
tude of the input signal, the filter is re- tion if the response curve. In the first
moved from the circuit, the circuit is method, the signal generator is con-
reconnected, and the output is noted. nected to the input of the filter, and
The difference in the two readings is its frequency set to some point within
the insertion loss of the filter. the expected pass band. An output
meter is connected to the output cir-
The attenuator at the input of the
cuit and the signal gunerator set to
filter is provided to reduce the input
give aconvenient. indication. Then the
signal to the lowest amplitude that
signal generator is set to the lowest
will give a usable indication on the
frequency at which there is any re-
meter with the filter in the circuit.
sponse, and the frequency is advanced
Unless the input signal is kept as low
in equal steps, and the output at each
as possible, there may be so much
frequency recorded. These readings
leakage across the filter that the re-
are plotted on graph paper in db, the
sults obtained are inaccurate.
frequency being plotted horizontally
It is important for the shielding for and the output vertically.
the test setup to be as good as it can A more convenient method of check-
be made, particularly when dealing ing response is shown in Fig. 55B.
with rf frequencies. With rf frequen- Here the response curve can be ob-
cies, it is difficult to obtain accurate served and the effects of any adjust-
results at best, and without adequate ments noted. A marker generator set
shielding, it becomes impossible. to the proper frequency and loosely
In most cases, the most satisfactory coupled to the filter can be used to
check of the insertien loss of afilter inject a pip at the cut-off frequency
is simply to try-the filter in the circuit or any other point of interest within
and see if it does the job for which it the band.

44
 Lesson Questions No. 29
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet 29CC.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers
too long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than
two sets at a time or you may run out of lessons before new ones can
reach you.

1. What are two reasons for using attenuators?

2. Use the table in Fig. 9 to compute the values of RA (the arm resistors)
and of 111, (the leg resistor) in a T-type resistive pad in which the out-
put and input are both 60 ohms, and attenuation is 8 db.

3. Complete the following: A minimum loss L pad is used to (a) match

unequal impedances; (b) provide attenuation and maintain an impedance
match between equal impedances; (c) filter out undesirable harmonics.

4. What requirement must a network have before it can be considered a

filter?

5. Name the four basic types of filter circuits.

6. Name the filter circuit you would use if you wanted to pass only the
band of frequencies between 3,000 cycles and 10,000 cycles.

7. If we connect three low-pass T sections in tandem, what effect will this

have on the attenuation of the unwanted frequencies as compared with
a single low-pass, T-section filter?

8. What information must you have before you can design a filter circuit?

9. Compute the values of L and C in asimple, constant-K, L-section, high-

pass filter having a characteristic impedance of 100 ohms and a cut-off
frequency of 100 cycles.

10. Complete the following: A long line, such as a telephone line (a) at-
tenuates the low frequencies more than the highs; (b) attenuates the
high frequencies more than the lows; (c) attenuates the highs and lows
about equally.
 1
"WISHERS" AND "DOERS"
How often have you said, "I wish I had more
money?" Thousands of times, possibly. But do you
realize that if you are living in a town of, let us say,
5,000 inhabitants, there are exactly 4,999 others in
your town who are saying exactly the same thing?
And yet, of these 5,000 "wishers," only about 100
are going to do something about it. The others are
going to continue being "wishers."
Now, any man who shows enough "get-up-and-go"
spirit to undertake this course proves that he is not
a mere "wisher." When you enrolled, you showed
that you wanted to be a "go-getter." Your job now
is to keep going forward on the road you have
mapped out for yourself.
Every lesson in this course, every job you work
hard to get, is a step along this road. So don't let
yourself wish that the lessons were easier, or that
you could become successful without studying, or
that jobs would come looking for you. Stay out of
the class of the "wisher," and stay in the class of the
"doer."
••t.io..›V,.e:, • .-44.••••eard111.411.01deliá.iddieee'e.:
 e

"lb%
ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

K309
 STUDY SCHEDULE

L I. Introduction
You are introduced to the operational amplifier.
Pages 1-4

2. Fundamentals Pages 5-9

Here you learn about the basic op amp characteristics and
circuit configurations.

3. Applications Pages 10 -16

All of the basic op amp circuits and applications are discussed
in detail.

4. Characteristics and Specifications Pages 17 -29

You learn the details about op amp characteristics and how to
specify them.

5. Typical Circuit Techniques Pages 30 -40

You take a close look at some of the circuitry used in op
amps.

6. Common Uses Pages 41 -53

Summer, integrator and comparator circuits are considered.

7. Tests and Measurements Pages 54 -61

You learn how to test op amps and verify their characteristics
through measurements.

8. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 62 -63

9. Answer the Lesson Questions.

10. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1971 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

CEC5C675 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 Rf
E
R¡

RATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

This lesson is your detailed study of ventional amplifiers and permit it to be a

one of the most important types of much more versatile circuit.
amplifiers used in electronics today — the The term "operational" came about
operational amplifier. Its application is because of the early use of an amplifier to
almost unlimited because of its great _perform mathematical operation. Today
versatility. This type of amplifier is also these -amplifiers still perform their orig-
the key element in all analog computers. inal operations, but they have also
The operational amplifier, in its numer- become adapted to be used for many
ous configurations, can help perform other functions.
many mathematical operations. Operational amplifiers, commonly
Since you previously had abrief intro- called op amps, come in many different
duction to the operational amplifier, you forms. For example, the very earliest
should already have abasic idea of what types of op amps were made with vacuum
it is and how it is used. However, this tubes. A typical vacuum tube op amp is
lesson will expand your basic knowledge shown in Fig. 1A, where you can see the
of this important circuit. vacuum tubes, resistors and capacitors
Like any other amplifier, an oper- mounted on aprinted circuit board. The
ational amplifier has an input and an seven circular metallic devices are minia-
output. Amplifiers generally increase the ture vacuum tubes. The large rectangular
level of the input signal and present it at a object is amechanical chopper. While you
higher level at the output; therefore the may still encounter tube type op amps in
operational amplifier circuit has gain and some older equipment, the majority of
_-
amplifies small signals that are applied to operational amplifiers in use today are
ite_Lreit> transistorized units. A transistorized oper-
prªtional amplifier is basically a ational amplifier is shown in Fig. 1B. The
linear amplifier which accurately repro- large cylinder is achopper. Again, all of
duces the shape of the input signal. the components are mounted on a
However, it possesses special character- printed circuit board.
istics which set it apart from more con- Today integrated circuit operational

1
 falsil• -sus
SR-

=CI • .1110.-
rt •
.;%, d arC%

ere

-qL: • nlgo

•racer Oiog F i —

(
1164. fç,
.
8,..,
,
-r! f
le. .-,
—rf-
ree,rn Cile• •11:113.
P.., • ..,
Courtesy Hybrid Systems Inc.

Fig. 1. A tube type operational amplifier (A) and a transistorized operational

amplifier (B).

amplifiers are rapidly replacing the dis- this lesson will be on the transistor type
crete component types in many appli- circuit; these are the circuits you will
cations. An integrated circuit operational most encounter in your work, in both
amplifier is an entire miniature transistor discrete and miniature integrated circuit
amplifier constructed on asingle chip of form.
silicon, in much the same way atransistor An amplifier has to have certain dis-
is made, and housed in asmall multi-lead tinct characteristics before it can be
package like that shown in Fig. 2. Notice called an op amp. The extent to which it
the extremely small size of this amplifier. meets these requirements indicates how
Such an amplifier is as sophisticated as good an operational amplifier it is. Even
and generally superior to the tube and though the perfect operational amplifier
transistor operational amplifiers of Fig. 1. cannot be made, its value is based on how
Later in this lesson we will take alook at closely it can approach the characteristics
some of the circuit details of transistor of the ideal amplifier.
operational amplifiers. The emphasis in One characteristic of an ideal oper-

2
 Courtesy Texas Instruments

Fig. 2. Integrated circuit operational

amplifier in adual in-line package.

ational amplifier is that it must be adc remember that we want our op amp to
amplifier, that is, it must amplify slowly have the capability of measuring, or
varying signals or dc levels. In order to amplifying, de signals.
amplify or pass very low frequency ac Thirdly, the 414
. op amp must have
signals or dc levels, direct coupled cir- ver-Srffe__ input impedance.
- When con-
cuitry is usually used. nected to asource of signal voltage, its
The ideal op amp should also have a impedance is so high that it will not draw
zero output voltage if theinput voltage is any current from the source; its input
zero. Many amplifiers do not have this impedance is infinite.
characteristic. With azero voltage input Ideally gie_op amp must also have low
signal applied, many amplifiers have a drift b other words, it must be aperfect
fixed dc output voltage. When the input de amplifier whose output does not vary
signal is applied the output varies above with changes in circuitry or surroundings.
and below this fixed dc output level. The ideal op amp will have a zero
A_ltlnsih this is
_not_detrimental to circuit oplput impedance. This means that if any
performance, it is more convenient for an Icie resistance is connected to it, the
op amp to have the output voltage zero oylpg will not be lo-a -ded down since

‘y,hen_the input is zero. If only ac signals there is no internal circuit resistance

are to be used, then a capacitor can pme_nt. With azero output impedance,
remove this output level. However, pp amp is a perfect voltage source
-

3
with an output voltage that remains As noted before, the perfect op amp
constant regardless of the load connected does not exist. Even so, actual oper-
to it. ational drawbacks are hard to find. Just
Another ideal factor is minimum what degree of departure from the ideal
power consumption. A good op amp will that can be tolerated depends strictly
not draw alot of current from its power upon the amp's specific application. Each
supplies during operation„ requirement for an op amp will have to
Optimally, the amplifier should be a be investigated to determine those charac-
differential amplifier. Op amps can be teristics needed or desired. For example,
constructed with a single-ended rather a particular requirement may call for an
than a differential input. However, most op amp with input impedance greater
operational amplifiers you encounter will than one megohm, voltage gain greater
be differential amplifiers. than 25,000 and output impedance less
In order to function at its best, the op than 200 ohms. Even though these char-
amp must have very high voltage gain. A acteristics are less than ideal, they accu-
minimum figure is 1000 (rnost have gains rately satisfy the requirements of the
higher than 10,000). particular application.
 Fundamentals
An op amp is nothing more than a amplifier, an output signal will be gener-
combination of some of the individual ated. The limit signal will be amplified
amplifier circuits you studied before. For 1.1y an aniqunt equal to gain A of the
-
example, atypical op amp may consist of .amplifier. If the input signai is very small,
a differential amplifier direct coupled to it will appear greatly enlarged at the
an emitter-follower which drives a com- output because of the high gain.
plementary symmetry output circuit. All If the input sigel to the op amp is too—
of these amplifiers and fundamentals you high, the amplifier output will be clipped.
learned in previous lessons. Here we will For example, if we apply a 1volt input
collect this information and show you signal to an op amp with a gain of
how an op amp is formed. 50,000, our output should theoretically
To begin, however, we will emphasize be equal to the input multiplied by the
only the fundamentals of the op amp. gain, or 50,000 volts.
Once you understand the overall concept, This, of course, cannot actually
you can begin to study the detailed happen. The output of any am_plifir is
circuit operation. limited by the power supplygn
In most of this lesson you will see Most op amps are powered with both
the op amp designated by the symbol positive and negative voltages. A typical
in Fig. 3. The letter A inside the triangle transistor op amp, for example, uses
designates the gain of the amplifier. power supplies of +15 and —15 volts. For
this reason the ouiput ceinot swing any,
greater
— than ±15. volts
, (for a sine wave
INPUT I
INVERTING OUTPUT signal, no more than 30 volts peak-to-
INPUT 2 peak). 'Should the input voltage bg too
NON-INVERTING
high and try to cause an output voltage
beyond the power supply capability of
Fig. 3. Basic operational amplifier symbol. --
the amp, the output signal will be clipped
on both positive and negative peaks. This
This op amp has two inputs; therefore, is due to the saturation of the output
it is__
adifferential amplifier. The — and + transistors.
signs on the inputs designate the inverting • Since its gain is so high, the op amp
and non-inverting input lines. Input_ I is can be used satisfactorily with only very
designated with anegative sign, indicating low level signals. The gain is also unstable,
that it is the inverting input. If asignal is varying greatly from one amplifier unit to
applied to input 1, the output will be the other of the same type. One oper-
180 ° out-of-phase with the input—When— ational amplifier may have a gain of
input 1is used, the op amp is an inverter. 25,000 while an identical amplifier may
Input 2is designated by apositive sign; it have a gain of 35,000. While the circuits
is_ the_ non-inverting input. Any input of the two amplifiers may be identical,
signal applied here will appear in the same various characteristics of the components
phase in the output. could cause large gain differences. For
If we apply an input signal to the many applications this is adisadvantage.

5
 To overcome this problem we generally equal to 100K-ohms and resistor Ri is
use negative feedback with op amps; equal to 10K-ohms, the gain of the circuit
some of the output voltage from the is 100K/10K = 10. Keep this fact in
amplifier is fed back to the inverting mind.
input through aresistor. As you learned Another important characteristic of
in the previous lesson, negative feedback this circuit is that it is an inverter. Since
reduces the overall gain of an _amplifier we are using the inverting input of the
and at the same time stabilizes it. It also amplifier, the output signal will be 180°
v_e_i_frequencse out-of-phase with the input signal. When
The most common op amp circuit is expressing the gain, a negative sign is
shown in Fig. 4. Here the non-inverting indicative of this inversion.
input to the amplifier is grounded. This In Fig. 5we show all the currents and
eliminates the differential characteristics voltages in astandard op amp circuit. The
of the amplifier so we can use it as a input resistor is designated It; while the
single-ended circuit. feedback resistor is designated Rf.Cur-
rent flowing in the input resistor is
designated as current flowing in the
feedback is I f.I, is the current flowing

into the input. It is generally the base

current of a transistor. The amplifier
input voltage, or that voltage appearing
directly at the input of the amplifier, we
label Eb. The input voltage to the entire
operational amplifier circuit is designated
as E. The output voltage is E..
A .— — E •— — mli
Ri o RI

Fie. t. Standard operational amplifier circuit. R Rf

Negative feedback is provided by the

feedback resistor Rf connected between
the output and the inverting input. An
input resistor designated as 12; is also
connected to the inverting input. The free
end of this resistor is the input to the
circuit. With this arrangement the gain of
the circuit is determined strictly by the
Fig. 5. Currents and voltages in an op amp.
ratio of the feedback to input resistances:
gain =R1/R1.
Negative feedback makes the gain of Using these currents and voltages and
the circuit completely predictable. jp some simple Ohm's Law relations, let's
control or set the gain of this amplifier, again see how the gain formula for this
we simply select appropriate values of circuit is obtained. First of all, we know
feedback and input resistors. For that the outp_ut is equal to the input
example, if the feedback resistor Rf is voltage multiplied by the gain. The out-
,

6
put voltage E., then, is equal to Eb times Now, let's make another assumption
—A. To find the value of Eb,we algebra- based on the characteristics of an ideal op
ically rearrange the formula to produce amp. Earlier we said that the input
Eb = — E./A. Remember that the nega- voltage Eb is equal to the output voltage
tive sign indicates inversion. E. divided by the gain —A. The gain is so
From earlier lessons you found that high that the input voltage Eb is
the voltage across any component is equal extremely small. It is so small, in fact,
to the difference in the two voltages at that for all practical purposes we can call
the ends, with respect to ground. For it zero. If we assume azero value for Eb,
example, if we measure 10 volts at one we can remove Eb figures from the
end of aresistor and 7volts at the other, formula. Thus simplified it reads:
the voltage across that resistor is 3.
With this in mind, we can write a E•/Ri=—Eo/Rf
formula for the voltage across the input
and feedback resistors. The voltage across From this we can find that the output
the input resistance It; is equal to Ei — voltage is equal to the gain of the circuit,
Eb. The voltage across the feedback the ratio of the feedback to input resis-
resistor Rf is equal to Eb — E,. Knowing tances, multiplied by the input to the
the voltages across the resistance, we can circuit:
write asimple Ohm's Law expression for
the current through each resistance. For E, = —(E1)
example, the current lthrough the input
resistor is equal to the voltage across it
(E1 — Eb) divided by Ri. The current The negative sign again indicates inver-
If through the feedback resistor is equal
sion. As you can see, we have used only
to the voltage across it, (Eb — E.) divided algebra and Ohm's Law to determine the
by the resistor Rf. gain of the op amp circuit.
Refer to Fig. 5, where the current Keep in mind several things. We
assumed that the input current to the
flowing into the amplifier is I b.If we

assume that our op amp is perfect and has amplifier was zero. As a result, we
an infinite input impedance, we can neglected it. We also assumed that the
gain of the amplifier was infinitely high.
conclude that it will not draw current
Even though we had to use these assump-
from the input source; therefore, I
b = 0.

Because of this the input current I; also

tions to approach the ideal, the formula
given will be quite satisfactory for an op
flows in the feedback resistor R. This
amp with again of 1000 or more.
Means that the input and feedback cur-
rents are equal. We can write a simple There is one very important character-
istic of the op amp in its standard
expression for their equivalence:
configuration. As mentioned earlier, the
input impedance to agood op amp is very
=
high. This, of course, is true in the circuit
of Fig. 5. However, the input impedance
or
of the circuit is not the same as the input
impedance of the amplifier. The feedback
E. — Eb = Eb — E.
and input resistor connections determine
Rf what the input impedance will be.

7
 20K 60K
The input voltage to the amplifier (E b)
is near 0volts, or ground. Since Eb gives INPUT

the same effect as atrue ground, we can

more precisely call it a virtual ground.
% —sis the case of the junction of the
feedback and input . resistors at the
inverting input of the amplifier in Fig. 5.
This point is .called the summary junction + 4- -- -
.1 because it is the input and output of all
the currents in the circuit. INPUT ,IPIu
0 --L --

Since we can consider the right hand of -4- - I- -- I-

resistor It; as being connected to ground, i i

4-12- --t--- 1-
the input impedance of the amplifier I
I
I
circuit is equal to the value of resistor Ri.
If Ri is 100K-ohms, then the input
impedance of the circuit is also 100K.
OUTPUT 0
ohms. This is ausually desirable charac-
teristic of this circuit because the exact
input impedance to the circuit is known.
(1)
In the case of the input impedance of the —I2
amplifier, we do not always know its
exact value. Of course, if it is high enough INPUT ci
it will not affect the circuit. Therefore,
we need not always be concerned with it.
-1.5
However, the input resistance produced
by resistor Ri often is not high enough to +4.5

suit the application. In that case we have

to make acompromise in the gain of the
circuit by adjusting the values of Rf and OUTPUT

to give an appropriate input resistance.

Now let's see how a typical op amp
circuit works. Fig. 6A shows an op amp
with a 60K feedback resistor and a20K
input resistor. From this circuit you O
know that the input impedance is equal
Fig. 6. A conventional op amp circuit (A),
to 20K, the value of the input resistor. typical ac input-output waveforms (B) and
We can figure the gain of the circuit by dc input-output levels (C).
finding the ratio of the feedback to the
input resistance (60100K = 3). The will be produced. Notice that the ampli-
circuit will amplify an input signal by a tude of the output is 3times that of the
factor of three. input. The peak output voltage is 12 volts
Fig. 6B is asine wave input signal of 8 or 24 volts peak-to-peak. Notice also that
volts peak-to-peak. If we apply the peak the input and output signals are 180°
signal voltage to the input of the ampli- out-of-phase, designating the inverting
fier circuit, the output shown in Fig. 6B characteristic of the op amp circuit.

8
 The op amp can also amplify dc obtain gains less than or greater than 1
signals. Fig. 6C shows anegative 1.5 volt because we set the amplifier gain strictly
input applied to the amplifier circuit. the ratio of the feedback to- input
This is amplified and inverted to produce resistors. lf we make the input resistance
an output of +4.5 volts. If the input greater than the feedback resistance,--the
signal is removed from the circuit and the galiLw_ilbe afraction. If we put a2volt
input line grounded, then the output of peak-to-peak signal into an amplifier with
the amplifier should be 0 volts. Because again of .5, the output will be half this,
of unbalanced amplifier circuits, the out- or 1volt peak-to-peak. The amplifier,
put may be only near 0volts. In most op with its gain of less than 1, is actually
amps it is necessary to reduce the output producing aloss. Even though this circuit
to exactly zero; some form of compen- appears to be ineffective, it is often used
sating voltage must be applied to the in analog computers.
circuit to bring the output voltage to
zero.
A popular variation of the circuit SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
shown in Fig. 6 eone where both the
input and feedback resistors are. equal. True or false: An op amp is usually a
gtI
_ince
— iiie-T-esistors
- are equal, the gain of differential amplifier.
the circuit is equal to I. We say that the True or false: The gain of an op amp
_amplifier has unitygat'n r . eop amp circuit is equal to the ratio of the
connected this way is called aunity gain input to feedback resistors. Re:'N
itig_amplifier. Since it has no gain True or false: An op amp can
you might think that it has no appli- amplify both ac and dc signals.
cation. However, it is widely used where Tale or false: The output signal of
we want to maintain the amplitude level an op amp is inverted, or 180°
of asignal and at the same time obtain out-of-phase with the input.
180° phase inversion. The circuit acts as a True or file An op amp cannot be
good isolation amplifier with arelatively connected to provide again less than
high input impedance and low output one.
impedance. What is the gain of an op amp whose
In many ways this circuit also acts like input resistor is 12K and feedback
the emitter-follower circuit you studied resistor is 84K?
in a previous lesson. The gain is 1, An op amp circuit, like that in Fig.
but in this case the amplifier produces 4, has again of 4. The input signal is
inversion which the emitter-follower does a dc voltage of —3.5. What is the
not. The low output impedance gives the amplitude and polarity of the
circuit the ability to provide power ampli- output?
fication. (h) Name five important characteristics
It is important to note tat we can of an op amp.

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-
 Applications

Early use of op amps was limited desirable. In such applications we might

primarily to analog computers. Vacuum want a high input impedance, a low
tube op amps were large, expensive and output impedance, aparticular gain, and
complex. In order to obtain the accu- no inversion of the signal. This operation
racies necessary in an analog computer, can be accomplished by providing the
op amps had to be quite sophisticated. gain in an op amp circuit and compen-
But because of their high cost and com- sating for the phase inversion with aunity
plexity, they were not practical for more gain inverter.
common electronic applications. How- Fig. 7 shows how this is done. Suppose
ever, as transistor op amps were devel- we want a gain of 3 with no phase
oped, many of the problems associated inversion. Amplifier 1 provides the gain
with the vacuum tube types were elimi- of 3. Since this circuit produces phase
nated. inversion, we follow it with aunity gain
For that reason, the op amp has inverter stage to remove the inversion
become apractical circuit element. Today produced by the first amplifier. While this
it is a common building block, not only circuit is used in some situations, it
in analog computers, but also in many wastes parts and power. There is asimpler
other electronic devices and systems. way to eliminate phase inversion.
Design engineers now use op amps as a
matter of course in equipment they
design.
The op amp is quite versatile in elec-
tronic circuits. By varying the types of
components in the input and feedback
circuits and their particular connections,
an extremely wide variety of different
Fig. 7. Using a unity gain inverter to correct
operations can be performed. In fact, the
for inversion.
op amp is practically unlimited in its
application.
In your work you will discover op In Fig. 8 we show a non-inverting op
amps in several major connections. You amp circuit. In this circuit the non-
have already seen the most common op inverting (+) input is not grounded.
amp connection, where the amplifier Instead, we apply the input voltage to
provides gain and phase inversion. Now this terminal. Input and feedback resis-
let's examine some other typical op amp tors are connected to the inverting input,
connections. but the end of input resistor 12;(normally
connected to a signal) is connected to
NON-INVERTING OP AMP CIRCUIT ground. This connection provides a
gain that can be adjusted by setting
There are times when the phase inver- the values of resistors Rf and R1.The
sion of the common op amp is not output voltage of this circuit is equal

10
 Therefore, very little loading of the
driving source will occur.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
FOLLOWER

Take a close look at the gain formula

Rf
E o • (14•••— )Ejn for the non-inverting amplifier circuit in
R¡
Fig. 8. The gain is equal to 1 plus the
Fig. 8. A non-inverting op amp circuit. ratio of the feedback to the input resis-
tances. What would happen if we were to
to the input voltage multiplied by (1 + increase the value of resistor 12; in this
Rf/Ri). As you can see the gain is again formula? The ratio of Rf to Ili would
afunction of the ratio of the feedback to decrease. If we made R1 infinite, or
input resistances. But because of the disconnected it from the circuit alto-
particular connections, avalue of 1must gether, the gain of this amplifier circuit
be added. would be 1. When this condition occurs,
Let's take atypical example and calcu- we have what is known as an op amp
late the gain of this non-inverting circuit. follower.
Assume feedback resistor Rf is equal to You already know about cathode and
20K and input resistor II; is 10K. If we emitter-follower circuits. These are non-
have an input voltage of 2volts, what will inverting buffer circuits whose output is
the output voltage be with the gain very nearly equal to the input. The
obtained? non-inverting op amp circuit is easily
First let's calculate the gain of the converted into a follower type circuit.
circuit: (1 + Ri)=(1 +20K/10K) =(1 The input resistor is removed and 100%
+ 2) = 3. If the input voltage is 2volts, feedback from output to input through
then the output voltage will be 2times 3, resistor Rf is provided to the inverting
or 6 volts. Kp in mind that this is input terminal. For this type of circuit
non-inverting circuit. If the input is asine the feedback resistance can be eliminated
wave, then the output will be in phase and the output connected directly to the
with the input. If the input is a dc inverting input.
voltage, the input and output polarities The typical follower circuit is shown in
will be the same. Fig. 9. In_this circuit the output voltage is
One of the biggest advantages of this equal to the input voltage. The input
circuit is the high input impedance. With impedance is extremely high; the output
the standard op amp configuration, the impedance is very low. While the circuit
input impedance is equal to the value of
the input resistor. For some applications
this may be very low, causing undesired
loading on the driving source. However,
in this circuit the input signal is applied •Em
directly to the non-inverting input. This Ei n
input is usually avery high impedance (an
infinite impedance for an ideal op amp). Fig. 9. An op amp follower.

11
provides no gain or phase inversion it is_
useful as an isolation amplifier and a
power amplifier.
A particular voltage source may have a
high output impedance and, therefore,
will be loaded substantially when con-
nected to a load. This may be an unde-
RI• R2
sirable situation, but it can be eliminated
with the follower. The high impedance Rf •R3
source is connected to the very high Rf
Ece • — (E 2 -E 1)
input impedance of the op amp follower.
Because of this high input impedance, it
will not substantially load the voltage Fig. 10. Using an op amp as adifferential amp.
source. The output voltage of the op amp
is equal to the input. However, its output
impedance is very low and can supply produces this differential amplifying
substantial current to aload. capability with controlled gain.
In this circuit the two input resistors
A DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER are R1 and R2.These two resistors are
CONNECTION generally made equal. The feedback resis-
tor Rf is connected as usual. Resistor R3
Since most op amps are differential is connected between the non-inverting
amplifiers, they have both inverting and input and ground. Resistors R3 and Rf
non-inverting inputs. In the circuits that also are made equal to each other. The
we have discussed, however, we have not gain of the circuit is expressed as Rf/R i
used this differential input capability. In or R3/R 2.The output voltage of this
the standard op amp connection, the non- circuit is equal to the gain multiplied, by
inverting input is connected to ground. the difference of input voltages El and
The differential op amp amplifies the E2.This gives us the output expression
voltage difference between the two
Rf
inputs. If one of these inputs is connected Eo =— (E 2 - E1)
to ground, the difference will simply be RI
tiie _amount of voltage applied to the We might also call this circuit asubtrac-
iitfier input. This forms what is known as tion circuit, since we subtract input volt-
a single-ended, amplifier input. This age E1 from E2 in the process of calcu-
means that both the input and output lating the output.
signals are measured with respect to some Let's assume that resistors R3 and Rf
common ground reference. are equal to 100K and R1 and R2 are
There are occasions when it is desirable 25K. The gain of the circuit then is
to use the differential capabilities of the 100K/25K = 4. Now let's assume input
op amp. At the same time, we want to voltages of El =3volts, and E2 = 8volts.
take advantage of the fact that negative The output voltage of the amplifier is the
feedback around the amplifier can stabi- difference between the two input voltages
lize the circuit and make the gain pre- (5) multiplied by the gain of the circuit
dictable. The circuit shown in Fig. 10 (4), or 20 volts.

12
 Let's take another example of output
voltage calculation of adifferential ampli-
fier circuit. Assume that the values of Rf
and R3 are 500K-ohms. Input resistors
R1 and R2 are also equal to 500K-ohms.
Input voltage E1 = +13 volts, and input
voltage E2 = —2 volts. What is the output
voltage? Using the output formula
Rf

E. =— (E 2 — E1)
RI
Fig. 11. A conventional op amp circuit with
we get a load showing that the input and feedback
currents are equal.
500K
E. — (2 13)
500K
E. = 1(-15) =—15 volts
cause a fixed current to flow through
This circuit performs a very accurate input resistor Ri.Since the value of Riis
algebriac subtraction operation. constant, we can cause the current flow
through it to be constant by applying a
constant voltage to it. The Zener diode
AN OP AMP CONSTANT in Fig. 12 is used to provide the constant
CURRENT SOURCE voltage to resistor R.
This fixed current also flows in the
In an earlier lesson, you learned how a feedback resistor. Instead of connecting
transistor can be connected to form a the load directly between the output of
constant current source. Now you will the amplifier and ground, we connect the
find out how an op amp can be con- load as the feedback element. In this way
nected to perform this same function. the constant current, determined by the
The conventional op amp circuit is
shown in Fig. 11. The input is applied to
resistor It ; and the gain is determined by
the ratio of Rf to Ri.The output voltage
is generally applied to a load connected
between the amplifier output and ground
as shown. Earlier we mentioned that the
input and feedback currents were equal.
Because of the high input impedance of
the op amp, almost no current flows into
the inverting input. Therefore the input
and feedback currents l and I
f in Fig. 11

are equal.
Using this fact, we can produce the
constant current source op amp circuit.
Fig. 12. A constant current source made
Fig. 12 show& the arrangement. First we with an op amp.

13
 Z,ener diode and the input resistor, also adjustment of the gain is possible with
flows through the load. The load resis- this method.
tance can be varied over awide range of With this arrangement it is more often
values but the current flowing through it desirable to control the gain with a
will remain constant. For example, if Ri potentiometer in the f'e—e
-dback path than
is a 10K resistor and the Zener diode in the input circuit.13y varying the
provides avoltage of 10 volts, then the _potenti'in_the_feedback path, we
input current is equal to 10/10K = 1 obtain
_ _ linear
-- control of the gain. If we
milliampere. A constant current of 1 adjusted the input resistance, the gain
milliampere will flow through the load. would not be linear; it would not vary in
This current will remain constant despite a straight line with the value of the
variations in load resistance. resistance. This is because the gain is a
function of the ratio of the two resis-
tances.
VARYING THE GAIN OF AN Also in this arrangement, the input
OP AMP resistance varies as the gain changes,
altering the loading of the driving circuit.
In all the op amp circuits we have
discussed, the gain is fixed by the, values
of the feedback and input resistors in the
Circuit. However, there are many occa-
sions where we wish to control the gain
or vary it continuously over awide range
of values. The most obvious way of
varying the gain of any op amp circuit is
to replace one of the fixed resistors with
potentiometer connected as avariable
resistor. -
A potentiometer is nothing more than
;avariable voltage divider, aresistive net-
/work whose output is less than its input
/ by ,a factor determined by the resistance
values used. The "pot" is a variable
voltage divider with -acontinually adjust- O
able resistance ratio.
Fig. 13A shows a typical op amp
circuit with avariable resistor at both the
input and the feedback positions. How-
ever, to control the gain of the amplifier,
a variable resistance will usually be
required in only one of these positions; a
fixed resistor can be used in the other. By
varying the input or the feedback resis-
tance, the ratio of the two resistors will Fig. 13. Methods of varying the gain of
change and the gain will vary. Continuous an op amp.

14
The input impedance can even be set to ple, if the input voltage is 100 volts and
zero, placing a dead short across the we set the potentiometer arm to the
source driving the amplifier. In most center of the resistance value, the output
instances, however, this is not adesirable voltage will be 50 volts.
situation. In effect we are tapping off aportion
An easy metorLof controlling the gain of the voltage dropped across the resis-
of an op amp circuit is to place a tance of the pot. Expressed as afraction,
potentiometer before or after the circuit, the percentage of voltage tapped off
as shown in Fig. 13B and C. In both Feiween the arm of the pot and ground is
circuits the op amp gain is fixed by the known as the pot coefficient and desig-
ratio of the feedback and input resis- nated. —k. In our example, where we
tances; the amplitude of either the input assumed a 100 volt input, the coefficient
or output is controlled with a potenti- is .5. Multiplying the pot coefficient by 94
ometer. the input voltage gives us t_lletput
Fig. 14 shows a potentiometer con- voltage value: With an ülput voltage of
nected as avariable voltage divider. The 100 volts and apot coefficient of .25, the
input voltage is applied between the output voltage will be 25 volts. Since the
upper end of the potentiometer and pot is continuously variable, we can set
ground, causing current to flow through ey— coefficient between 0 and 1, where
the resistance. The output voltage is the output and input voltages are equal.
taken between ground and the variable Therefore, by connecting the pot at
arm. the input or the output of an op amp, we
With the arm all the way to the top of can vary the gain of the amp. The overall
the resistance, the output voltage will be gain of the circuit shown in either Fig.
equal to the input voltage. If we move the 13B or C is equal to the amplifier gain
arm to the bottom of the resistance, the multiplied by the pot coefficient. In
output voltage will be zero. Positioning other words, the overall circuit gain is
anywhere between the two extremes equal to
causes the output voltage to be some
fraction of the input voltage. For exam- Rf k
—

When the pot is used this way, the overall

gain of the circuit can never be more than
the total gain of the op amp.
One of the most useful circuits for
varying the gain in an op amp is shown in
Fig. 15. In this type of circuit, the input
and feedback resistors are normally equal.
Notice that the feedback resistor is indi-
rectly connected to the output of the op
amp through the arm of the pot. yti_t_
this arrangement the gain of the amplifier
Fig. 14. The input-output relationship of a circuit is equal to the Imi pre of the
potentiometer. pot coefficient. If, for example, the pot

15
 the gain of the circuit (1/k) multiplied by
the input voltage. Keep in mind that the
gain of the amplifier should not be
adjusted so high that, with the given
input voltage, it causes the output ampli-
fier to swing to an output voltage beyond
the power supply voltages used.

Eo • k (E (
k) SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
—

(i) The non-inverting amplifier circuit

Fig. 15. A variable, high gain, op amp circuit. of Fig. 8 has afeedback resistor of
120K and an input resistor of 30K.
What is the gain?
coefficient k is .5, the gain of the (i) The differential amplifier circuit of
amplifier is 1/.5 = 2. Since the coefficient Fig. 10 has values of Rf R3 = 75K
of apotentiometer can be adjusted to any and RI = R2 = 15K. The input
value between zero and 1, we can theoret- voltages are E2 =—23 and E1 =—16
ically obtain any gain between 1 and volts. What is the amplitude and
infinity; the only limiting factor is the polarity of the output?
resolution of the pot setting. (k) True or false: An op amp follower
For some potentiometers it is difficult inverts the input signal.
to obtain very small variations in coeffi- (I) True or false: The load in an op amp
cients. We may want to obtain again of constant current source is connected
1000 with our amplifier, in which case between the output and ground.
the coefficient would have to be .001. (m) A pot has an input voltage of 27
This coefficient is the ratio of 1 to the volts and an output of 9volts. What
desired amplifier gain (k = 1/gain = is the pot coefficient k?
1/1000 = .001). (n) The pot coefficient in the circuit of
The output of voltage from the ampli- Fig. 15 is .004. What is the circuit
fier circuit, shown in Fig. 15, is equal to gain?

16
Characteristics and Specifications
Most of the characteristics and specifi- ground, there will be ameasurable output
cations that we discuss in this section voltage.
arise from the fact that an op amp is an The small difference voltage, that
imperfect device. Like any other elec- appears in the input differential amplifier
tronic circuit, it is made from compo- when both inputs are connected to
nents that have specific tolerances on ground, is caused by the differences in
their values; undesirable characteristics the emitter-base voltages of the two input
cannot be completely eliminated in their transistors. If the emitter-base voltages,
manufacture. designated Vbe ,are exactly equal, there
Despite their imperfection, op amps will be no difference between the two
are still quite useful; their usefulness input voltages and the output voltage will
depends entirely upon their application. be zero. When separate transistors are
By knowing and understanding the used to form the input differential ampli-
characteristics and specifications of op fier, it is very difficult to find two
amps, you will be able to compare them transistors with identical Vbe 's. For that
and determine whether aparticular ampli- reason there will be a small difference,
fier is suitable for agiven application. appearing as an input signal that is ampli-
fied by the high gain of the circuit and
INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE appears as ameasurable dc voltage at the
output. jhe_ainount_nf voltage_that must
Almost all op amps have adifferential beL applied between the input terminals to
input stage. As you have seen in previous offset this output voltage is known as the
applications, the two inputs providing input offset voltage.
inverting and non-inverting operation In the design of a transistor op amp,
permit the op amp to be used in awide the manufacturer normally tries to
variety of circuits. The desirable charac- choose matched input transistors. Special
teristics of a differential amplifier are test set-ups are used to compare the
taken advantage of in the op amp. As you emitter-base voltages for the input transis-
recall, any differential amplifier amplifies tors to match them as closely as possible.
the difference voltage between the two This reduces the input offset voltage.
inputs. If we should connect both inputs Some manufacturers produce special
to ground (0 volts), the difference differential transistors with an extremely
between the two inputs should be zero; small difference voltage. Integrated cir-
the output voltage would also be zero. cuit op amps, which you will study later,
This, however, is only theoretically are very good in this respect. The transis-
true. Because of small differences in the tors of the input amplifier are con-
characteristics of the transistors used in structed on the same chip of silicon
the input differential amplifier, there will material and exhibit almost identical
be a•small difference of voltage that will characteristics, reducing this input offset
be amplified by the high gain of the voltage to practically zero.
circuit and appear as adc output voltage. In a good op amp, this input offset
Therefore, even when both inputs are at voltage varies anywhere from several

17
hundred microvolts to about 10-20 milli- Since we do not know in which direction
volts. When you consider the fact that the the offset voltage will force the output,
open-loop gain of an op amp is many we can apply the desired correction volt-
thousands, this voltage can be amplified age by making the input voltage polarity
to asubstantial signal at the output. For and the amplitude variable with the pot.
this reason we must generally take steps With the input resistance It; grounded
to correct this condition. and avoltmeter connected to the output,
Fig. 16 shows acircuit that can be used potentiometer R2 is adjusted until the
to compensate for input offset voltage. output voltage is equal to zero. The input
This circuit is astandard inverting op amp offset voltage is then corrected.
circuit with feedback and input resistors. The input offset voltage limits the
When we ground the input resistor as magnitude of the input signal that the
shown, the output voltage should be zero. amplifier can amplify. For example, if the
In a practical circuit the output will not input offset voltage were 5 millivolts, we
be zero, however, due to the input offset. could not handle or amplify dc signals of
If, for example, Rf = 100K and 12;= 100 2 millivolts amplitude. Such small level
ohms, the circuit gain would be signals, approximately the same magni-
100K/100 = 1000. With an input offset tude of the offset voltage, will be con-
voltage of 5 millivolts, the output would fused with the offset voltage. An unpre-
be .005 X 1000, or 5 volts. This is far dictable output can result. However, by
from zero as you can see. balancing out the offset voltage with a
To compensate for this, we can apply a circuit like that in Fig. 16, we can then
correction voltage from apotentiometer, handle small amplitude signals. In non-
as shown. The pot is connected to both critical applications where very low gain
plus and minus power supply voltages. is used and where the signal voltages are
This enables us to apply either anegative many times larger than the offset, it is
or apositive voltage to resistor R1 which often possible to disregard the need for
feeds the offset voltage into the op amp. input offset voltage correction if agood
op amp is used.

INPUT OFFSET CURRENT

The input offset current is the differ-

ence between the two input currents with
both of the op amp inputs connected to
ground. This difference in base currents is
amplified and the result is an output
voltage. The average of the two input
base currents is called the input bias
current. It is found by adding the input
currents and dividing the sum by two.
This offset current is afunction of the
balance, or matching, of the input tran-
sistors in the differential input stage.
Fig. 16. Correction for input offset voltage. Instead of being the result of differences

18
in Vbe ,as with input offset voltage, the necting the non-inverting input directly
input offset current is afunction of the to ground, as in previous circuits, we
degree of matching between the Betas insert a resistor between this input and
and leakage currents of the input transis- ground. By making this resistance equal
tors. Because the two transistors used in to the parallel combination of the normal
the differential stage will not have qaual inptit and feedback resistances, the input
Betas or collector-base leakage currents, currents can be made very nearly equal so
different amounts of base current will that their results will cancel. The result
flow when the inputs are connected to will be a minimum of output voltage
ground. This difference between the two offset due to this input offset current. By
currents (the input offset current) is making R2 in Fig. 17 fully adjustable, it
ai-n-piffled and produces an offset output is possible to bring the offset to practi-
voltage. cally zero. If the input and feedback
This current can be compensated for in resistors are both 100K, the parallel
the same way we correct for offset combination will be equal to one-half this
voltage (Fig. 16). Because of the direc- value. R2 in the circuit would be made
tions of the current and possible opposite 50K for minimum offset current effects.
voltage offsets, it may be necessary to
apply correction input to both the invert- INPUT IMPEDANCE
ing and non-inverting inputs in order to
compensate for both effects. N9rmally, One of the most important character-
however, the arrangement shown in Fig. istics of an op amp is the input imped-
16 will enable you to null out the effect ance, the resistance at the input of the
of input offset voltages and currents. amplifier. In other words, each differ-
Fig. 17 shows an op amp circuit that ential input represents acertain amount
can be used to help minimize the input of resistance to ground to some driving
offset current effects. Instead of con- source. It is desirable to have this input
impedance as high as possible so that the
circuit does not load or draw current
from the source driving it.
Whenever this input resistance is con-
nected to an oscillator, amplifier or other
voltage source, current will flow through
the input impedance and effectively le
e dr_tiing source. If the input impedance
is too low, excessive loading of the
driving source may occur and result in
reduced input voltage. Therefore /hi
higher the input impedance, the lower the
R,
Rf Ri 'current drawn from the source.
+Ri
Most typical op amps with no feedback
Rf

connections have an input impedance of

from 20K to 500K-ohms. This is the
' impedance e a_typiç.al bipolar transistor
Fig. 17. Input offset current compensation.
op a_re, Higher input impedances can be

19
obtained with Darlington input differ- OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
éntial amplifiers.
__ When field effect tran-
sistors are used for the input differential
amplifier, extremely high values of input The output impedance is the value of
impedance (even thousands of megohms) the effective internal resistance of the
are possible. amplifier when it is acting as avoltage
There is one special technique used generator. The output of an op amp
with op amps to increase the input appears to be a source of voltage for
impedance. Known as bootstrapping, this whatever load it drives. The output
technique involves taking some of the impedance of the op amp appears in
output voltage of the same polarity as the series with this load. Ideally we would
input voltage and feeding it back to the like to have avery low output impedance
input. This compensates for the amount so that little or none of the voltage
Cir current being drawn by that input produced is dropped across the internal
from the source. In other words, we impedance of the amplifier; almost all of
supply acurrent of proper polarity from it should appear across the load.
the output of the amplifier to the input The output impedance of a typical
to furnish the current to the input nor- transistor op amp without feedback is
mally drawn from the source. By effec- generally several hundred ohms. How-
tively canceling out the current drawn ever, this value is reduced substantially
from the source, the apparent input when feedback is used. By using negative
impedance becomes infinite. feedback, as we normally do with an op
The circuit shown in Fig. 18 uses this amp, output impedances of less than 1
bootstrapping technique. Notice that re- ohm are easily obtainable. If the gain of
sistors RI,R2 R3 and R4 have been the amplifier is very high, output imped-
added to form a voltage divider which ances of .01 ohm are not too difficult to
taps off part of the output voltage which obtain.
is fed back to offset the need for input
current from the signal source.
POWER CONSUMPTION

Power consumption is the dc power

required to operate the amplifier with the
input and output voltages at zero and no
load current flowing. This is the quiescent
amount of current drawn by the amplifier
when no input signal is applied or output
is being developed.
Remembering that power is equal to
the product of the voltage and the cur-
rent, you can easily find the power
consumed by an op amp. Most op amps
use two power supplies, one to supply a
negative voltage and the other apositive
Fig. 18. A non-inverting op amp with
bootstrapping to increase input impedance. voltage. For example, atypical op amp

20
may require + and — 15 volt power However, if the input voltage is made
supplies. If the current drawn from each too large, the gain of the amplifier may
of these 15-volt power supplies is 2 be such that we exceed output voltage
milliamperes, power consumption would swing capabilities of the amplifier. In this
be 30 volts X .002 ampere =.06 watt, or case, the amplifier output will saturate. If
60 milliwatts. the input signal is a sine wave, both the
positive and negative peaks of the output
INPUT VOLTAGE RANGE will be clipped because the output transis-
tors go into saturation. To avoid going
The input voltage range is ameasure of
beyond the output voltage swing capa-
the maximum amount of voltage that can
bility, always check to be sure that the
be applied between the two inputs of the
output voltage is less than the maximum
op amp. If this value is exceeded, damage
value when you multiply the input volt-
may occur to the input differential ampli-
age by the gain of the amplifier.
fier transistors. Normally this voltage
range is restricted by the reverse emitter-
base breakdown voltage of the input
COMMON MODE REJECTION
transistors.

The inputs to an op amp are the inputs

OUTPUT VOLTAGE SWING
to adifferential stage. As you recall from
The output voltage swing is the peak or your study of differential amplifiers, it is
maximum output voltage, with reference the voltage difference between the two
to zero, that can occur without clipping inputs that is amplified by the stage and
or other distortion. This voltage swing is fed to the output. This means that if both
generally limited by the power supply input signals are equal, the output voltage
voltages. For example, in an op amp with should be zero.
power supplies of ± -15 volts, the maxi- The ability of the amplifier to produce
mum output voltage swing would be very a very small or zero output voltage for
nearly equal to 30 volts. For an ac sine equal input voltages is known as the
wave at the output, this would be a common mode rejection. The ratio of the
30-volt peak-to-peak value. Normally, the common mode input voltage to the out-
maximum output voltage swing is less put voltage. produced is known as the
than the supply voltage by an amount common mode rejection ratio. For
equal to the drop across the saturated example, if we apply 10 volts to both
output transistor and any series resis- inputs of the amplifier and the resulting
tance. output voltage is 1millivolt, the common
When the input voltage is low enough mode rejection ratio is 10/.001 = 10,000.
so that, when it is amplified by gain of Normally the common mode rejection
the amplifier it produces an output volt- ratio is specified in decibels. The common
age within the output voltage swing, the mode rejection ratio that we just calcu-
amplifier is said to be operating in the lated, expressed in decibels, would be
linear region. That is to say, the output equal to 20 log 10,000 =20 X 4=80 db.
voltage is an enlarged copy of the input The larger the common mode rejection
voltage. The amplifier does not distort ratio figure, the better the rejection ratio
the signal. and the quality of the amplifier. Common

21
mode rejection ratios of well over 100 db feedback to an input resistance. It is very
are not uncommon in op amps. desirable to be able to control the gain in
this way. In order for this relationship to
hold true, however, the open-loop gain of
POWER SUPPLY REGULATION the amplifier should be at least 100 times
the desired closed-loop gain of the ampli-
Tir_pi_p_u_tafset voltage of an op amp fier.
is sensitive to changes in the power
supply voltages. We call this op amp NOISE
characteristic the power supply rejection
ratio. This is basically the ratio of the All amplifiers are sensitive to and
change in input offset voltage to the produce acertain amount of noise. Noise
change in the supply voltage producing it. is a term that describes any stray signal
Normally, the op amp has two power voltage (produced within the amplifier or
supplies, one held constant and the other external to it) that is amplified and
varied in voltage. Therefore, any input appears in the output. Noise is an
offset voltage change is noticeable. The unwanted signal, generally measured in
ratio of the input offset voltage change to terms of rms voltage, that may interfere
the supply voltage that caused it is the with the amplification of aspecific input.
power supply sensitivity. If the noise level of the amplifier is higher
The power supply sensitivity is afunc- than the small signal to be amplified, the
tion of the balance or matching in the input signal will be completely masked;
input differential amplifier. If the differ- only an amplified noise output will occur.
ential amplifier transistors are as closely Therefore, it is important that the noise
matched as other components in the in the amplifier be minimized.
circuit, the change in input offset voltage There are several types of noise which
for apower supply voltage change will be can occur in op amps. We generally break
very small. The quality of the amplifier is these down into noise components asso-
inversely related to this variation. ciated with specific frequency ranges.
One of these, called the wide band noise
OPEN-LOOP DC VOLTAGE GAIN spectrum, extends from about 1kHz to
100 kHz. Noise produced in this fre-
The voltage gain of the op amp with- quency range is generally from thermal
out external feedback is called the open- effects in resistors and from within semi-
foop dc voltage gain. As we mentioned conductor components, such as diodes
before, the open-loop gain of an op amp and resistors. This type of noise is inter-
is generally very large. Gains of 100,000 nally generated.
or more are not uncommon. However, Another noise spectrum extends from
most op amps will use some form of the frequencies of 10 Hz to 1kHz. Noise
negative feedback to reduce the amplifier in this region is usually from the ac power
gain and make it more predictable. line and frequencies harmonically related
As you saw earlier, negative feedback to it.
through a resistance between the output In the frequency range from 1 Hz to
and the inverting input makes the gain 10 Hz, noise is caused by structural
strictly a function of the ratio of the imperfections in the components

22
(particularly transistors) and is known as ature ranges, the commercial range from
flicker noise. 0°C to 70°Cand the military temperature
In the frequencies above 100 kHz we range of —55 °C to +125 °C. These are the
move into the radio frequency spectrum, typical temperature ranges over which the
and amplifiers can pick up rf signals. Of op amp must work for these specified
course, this is undesirable. It is best to applications. Since the temperature
minimize the amount of noise produced ranges are so wide, care must be taken to
both within the amplifier and external to protect the amplifier.
it. This is particularly true if extremely Temperature variations cause changes
low level signals are to be amplified in the input offset voltage and current
properly. which can produce undesirable amplifier
DRIFT action. As the temperature varies, the
emitter-base voltage drops of the differ-
Drift is a form of very low-frequency ential input transistors vary. Normally the
noise; it is the slowly varying change in emitter-base voltage drop decreases 2
the input offset voltages and currents in millivolts for every °C increase in tem-
an op amp due to fluctuation in temper- perature. If the two differential input
ature, time and power supply voltages. transistors are accurately matched, their
We want to minimize drift in the design emitter-base voltage drops will decrease
and application of the amplifier because together as temperature increases, main-
variations in offset voltages and currents taining abalance and keeping the input
are amplified and interfere with the nor- offset voltage reduced to aminimum.
mal input signal. Recall that the input offset voltage is
No relationship exists between the due to the differences between the
input offset voltage drift and input offset emitter-base voltage drops in the input
current drift. As temperature, time or differential amplifier. It is extremely
power supply voltages change, each of difficult to control the manufacture of
these factors will vary independently, these transistors so that the emitter-base
often in opposite polarity to the other. voltage drops track together with temper-
Since drift is an undesirable characteristic ature. For that reason the input offset
of the op amp, every means must be voltage will change when the temperature
taken to minimize or eliminate it. Let's changes. Emitter-base junction voltages
now discuss the causes of drift and how it are so sensitive to temperature changes
can be minimized. that a temperature difference of only
A major cause for drift is temperature .01 °C between the junctions of two
chante. Electronic equipment using op transistors in the input stage can produce
;nips can be subjected to awide range of an input offset voltage of 24 microvolts.
temperatures. Temperature effects can As you can see, it is important to hold
come from the environment or from heat the junction temperature of the two
in adjacent electronic components or transistors to exactly the same value.
equipment. Such temperature effects Keeping the input offset voltage low,
must be considered when designing and when individual transistors are used in the
using an op amp. differential stage, is quite difficult. Gen-
Most operational amplifiers and com- erally the transistors can be mounted on a
ponents are available in two basic temper- common heat sink. Also there are special

23
differential transistor pairs manufactured, 25 °C causes an increased offset voltage in
where both are made from the same the positive direction. As you can see, the
silicon chip. Often special heating ele- input offset compensation voltage applied
ments or ovens are used on the differ- by the circuit in Fig. 16 is effective only
ential input stage to keep the temperature at one temperature; the output will drift
at aconstant value to reduce the changes due to the change in offset voltage at
in the offset voltage that produce unde- other temperatures.
sirable drift. Notice in this curve that the offset
Drift due to changes in input offset voltage does not change linearly with
voltage is generally specified in millivolts temperature. In other words, equal
per °C of temperature change. For temperature change does not produce a
example, a typical drift may be .05 proportional change in input offset volt-
millivolt per °C. This can be evaluated by age. In addition, the offset voltage in one
varying the temperature, noting the input amplifier varies independently from that
offset voltage drift and then calculating in another.
the change for a given increment of The input offset voltage also tends to
temperature. drift with time. That is, the input offset
Fig. 19 shows a curve relating the voltage will change over along period of
change in input offset voltage to achange time. Normally this condition is
in temperature. At 25 °C (room temper- expressed in microvolts of offset change
ature), the input offset voltage is nulled per days or per thousand hours. This
to zero. Normally this is done by using change is generally caused by the physical
the compensation circuit shown in Fig. changes inside transistors because of their
16. As the temperature is lowered, the age. In most op amps, this characteristic
offset voltage increases in the negative is not particularly detrimental to the
direction. Raising the temperature from operation of the circuit. Only in the most

2ray

I
rnv —

O
* -55•C 25°C 125°C
INPUT
OFFSET
VOLTAGE —Imv

-2mv
TEMPERATURE

Fig. 19. Input offset voltage vs. temperature.

24
critical applications is the offset change possible. These are usually long term,
with time acrucial factor. very slow drift effects which can be
The input offset current in an op amp neglected for most applications.
also drifts with temperature and time
changes. As you recall from our earlier FREQUENCY RESPONSE
discussion, the input offset current is a
function of both the gain, or Betas, of the As you learned in an earlier lesson on
input transistors and the leakage currents. amplifiers, amplifier circuits generally re-
Both these factors increase when temper- spond to a specific band of frequencies.
ature rises. In silicon transistors leakage Amplifiers are classified according to the
current generally doubles for every 10 °C frequency range in which they amplify
increase. If the input transistors are best. There are audio amplifiers, video
matched so that their Betas and leakage amplifiers, rf amplifiers and dc amplifiers.
currents vary the same amount with The op amp is a special case in that it
changes in temperature or age, then the covers a wide range of frequencies. This
offset current will not change. However, wide frequency response capability adds
it is extremely difficult to match the to the versatility of the op amp.
input transistors this closely; they will We defined frequency response in
change differently with temperature, terms of bandwidth. Bandwidth, as you
increasing the amount of input offset recall, is the difference between the upper
current with an increase or decrease in and lower three db cutoff points on the
temperature. amplifier response curve. For op amps the
Changes in Beta or leakage with lower frequency limit is dc. The upper 3
temperature do not directly correspond db point primarily depends —u pon the
-
to changes in input offset voltage. In one internal capacitances of the op amp cir-
particular situation, they may vary cuit and components as well as external
together and their effects may add; in capacitance, inductance and other stray
another case their effects may oppose one impedances. Op amps have been con-
another. It depends upon the individual structed to perform at frequencies up to
components and the circuit in which they 100 MHz.
are used. Now let's take a look at a typical
Generally the same precautions used to frequency response curve for an op amp.
minimize input offset voltage changes In Fig. 20 the upper curve shows the
with temperature can be used in mini- frequency response of the op amp oper-
mizing changes in input offset current. ating with no feedback. The curve is
Mounting the transistors together on a designated as A1.This is the open loop
common heat sink or using differential response that indicates how the gain of
transistor pairs made on the same silicon the amplifier varies with frequency.
chip will help eliminate the effects of Notice that the gain remains constant for
temperature changes. only a very narrow frequency range be-
As with input offset voltage changes, fore it begins to decrease linearly as the
the offset current will vary due to aging frequency is increased. The 3 db down
of the transistors. There is very little that point for the open-loop gain occurs at an
can be done except to try to match the extremely low frequency, 1' 1, that is
transistoís for aging effects as closely as about 100 Hz or less. Beyond this point

25
 OPEN LOOP
GAIN

GAIN

de

80 db -----

GO db —8
GAIN
54db
IN
db

r-1 DECADE — 1.141 OCTAVE

0 o
10 100 1K 10K 20K
Hz

Fig. 20. Op amp frequency response (A) and an op amp frequency

response curve that illustrates the roll-off characteristic (B).

the gain decreases in astraight line as the gain. At the same time we also increase its
frequency increases until the gain is equal bandwidth. Notice that the 3 db down
to one (unity). point (f2) for the closed-loop gain re-
The lower curve shown in Fig. 20A is sponse is far greater than that of the open
the closed-loop frequency response of the loop gain response. Here we are trading
op amp. If we apply negative feedback to off gain for frequency response by adding
the op amp, we immediately reduce its the negative feedback. Notice that the

26
initial gain is lower, but that beyond the when negative feedback is applied.
3 db point, the closed-loop gain response The gain-bandwidth product of an
merges with that of the open loop gain amplifier is a constant which is deter-
response and the gain drops linearly as mined by the amplifier design. This
the frequency increases. means that as we change the gain of the
The rate of decrease in gain with amplifier, the bandwidth must also
respect to frequency is generally called change in order to keep the product of
the roll-off. The gain roll-off character- the two constant. For example, an ampli-
istics of an op amp are generally set so fier with a gain-bandwidth product of
that the gain decreases at arate of 6 db 106 would have a bandwidth of 106 Hz
per octave. This means that the voltage at unity gain. Multiplying the gain of one
gain_ drops by afactor of 2each time the by the bandwidth of 106 Hz we get 106
frequency doubles. Expressing this gain-bandwidth product. Now assume
another way we can say that the gain that we increase the gain of the amplifier
roll-off occurs at a rate of 20 db per to 100. As you would expect from
decade; when the frequency is increased looking at the curve of Fig. 20B, in-
by a factor of ten, the gain is decreased creasing the gain would have the effect of
by afactor of ten. "decreasing thé banctWIdtli. -WIth— à gant-
Fig. 20B illustrates this gain roll-off bandwidth product of 106 and again of
characteristic. The gain in this curve is 100, the bandwidth must be 106/100 =
expressed in db and the frequency in Hz. 104 Hz or 10 kHz.
If the frequency should increase from 1
kHz to 10 kHz, we can say that the
frequency increased by adecade or by a
SLEW1NG RATE
factor of ten. The gain of the amplifier at
1kHz is 80 db, and it drops to 60 db at The slew rate limit of an op amp is the
the 10 kHz point. 80 db represents again maximum time rate of change of the
of 10,000 while 60 db represents again output voltage for a step input voltage.
-
of 1,000. Therefore, as the frequency This is sometimes known as the velocity
increased by a factor of ten, the gain limit. The slewing rate is usually specified
dropped by afactor of ten. in Units of the change in output voltage
Notice on this same curve that as we per unit of time; volts per microsecond is
increase the frequency from 10 kHz to 20 typical.
. It is closely related to the fre-
kHz the gain drops a small amount. We quency response of an amplifier.
have effectively doubled the frequency In a previous lesson you studied the
which represents one octave. The gain has square wave testing of amplifiers where a
dropped 6 db, representing afactor of 2. step voltage or square wave was applied
(60 db represents a gain of 1,000 while to the input and the output of the
54 db represents again of 500.) amplifier then noted. The change in shape
There is one specification of an op amp of the square wave by the amplifier gives
that helps define the relationship between much useful information about the
gain and frequency. Known as the «gajez response characteristics of the amplifier.
bandwidth product, this term will show A step response signal (square wave)
you the general relationship between the contains a large number of high-
gain of the amplifier and its bandwidth frequency harmonic sine waves. If the

27
amplifier passes these high-frequency Frequency Compensation. Because of
harmonics faithfully, the output wave- the very high gain and frequency response
form should be the same as the input characteristics of an op amp, the circuits
waveform. However, since some of the are often susceptible to instability when
high-frequency components will be atten- feedback is used. Instability refers to the
uated by the limited bandwidth of the tendency of an amplifier to oscillate.
amplifier, the output waveform will Naturally any oscillation in an amplifier is
actually be different from the input undesirable. In op amps oscillation can be
waveform. The amount of difference eliminated by using frequency compen-
determines the bandwidth of the ampli- sation techniques.
fier. This can be calculated by measuring As you know, the gain of an amplifier
the output rise time of the square wave of varies with the frequency. When feedback
the amplifier. is used, the gain is relatively constant over
Fig. 21 shows a step voltage input a range of frequencies. Then as the
applied to an op amp. Notice that the rise frequency approaches an upper limit, the
time for the pulse is zero. In apractical gain begins to roll off at aconstant rate.
situation, the rise time of the input pulse As you recall from your previous
would be finite. It is usually made so studies of amplifiers, as frequency in-
much smaller than the expected output creases the gain drops off and substantial
rise time that its effects can be phase shift is introduced. At the half
eliminated. power (3 db down) point the phase shift
between the input and output signals will
be 45 °. This phase shift will increase
further as the frequency is increased and
the gain continues to roll off. It is
INPUT possible that at some point during the
90% — — — —
roll-off the phase shift will equal 180°.
10%— — Combining this with the 180° phase shift
OUTPUT
or inversion of the op amp and assuming
10AiSEC —el a feedback connection, the output signal
will effectively be in phase with the
input. If the gain is equal to or greater
than 1at the point where the 180° phase
Fig. 21. The step response of an op amp. shift occurs, then the amplifier will oscil-
late. The frequency of oscillation will be
the frequency at which the phase shift is
The output of the op amp is also proper for in-phase feedback.
shown in Fig. 21. Notice that the output To avoid this unstable condition at
has a very definitely measurable output high frequencies, it is often necessary to
rise time. These waveforms might be connect external resistor-capacitor net-
displayed on an oscilloscope and the works to an op amp to shape the output
calibrated horizontal sweep and crt screen response curve. This makes the gain roll
will be used to measure the rise time off at arate where the phase shift will not
between the 10% and 90% points of the be 180° when the gain of the amplifier is
waveform. equal to or greater than unity.

28
 TJA_phase shift characteristics of an phase shift, it will be stable over its useful
amplifier depend upon the amplifier cir- frequency range.
cuit and the various external resistor-
capacitor networks used. Occasionally at SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
high frequencies, these characteristics (o) What is the basic cause of input
cause the phase shift to approach 180° offset voltage?
when the amplifier, gain is equal to or What causes input offset current?
greater than one. Even without feedback Why is a high input impedance
an amplifier can oscillate in the open-loop desirable?
condition. This is due to stray capacities What is meant by rise time?
and coupling between circuits of the What determines the maximum out-
amplifier caused by the common power put voltage swing of an op amp?
supply impedance. (t) What causes drift in an op amp?
Such instabilities can be eliminated by (u) Does the circuit of Fig. 16 compen-
using an external frequency compen- sate for the effects of drift?
sation network that forces the amplifier (v) A certain op amp has again of 120
to roll off at a6db per octave rate. Doing db at 100 Hz. What is its gain at 1
this makes the amplifier appear to have kHz if the gain rolls off at 6 db per
the frequency response of a simple R-C octave?
integrator network. Such anetwork has a
(w) Why are external frequency compen-
maximum phase shift of 90°.Since the sation networks often used with op
amplifier can never achieve the 180° amps?

29
 Typical Circuit Techniques
Fig. 22 is ageneralized block diagram ential signal is eliminated after the second
of an op amp, showing its three stages. or third stage and onfy a sing,le-en-cied
The first stage is called the input stage_. It output is fed to some _form a powe'r
is always adifferential amplifier. Usually output stage.
acurrent source feeds the emitters of the The power output stage has two func-
differential transistors. This current tions. First it tends to maximize the
source is either asingle high value resistor _output voltage the amplifier can handle.
or atransistor, forming an active current (A large output voltage is adesirable op
source. This stage is important because it amp characteristic.) It also determines the
determines the input characteristics of output impedance (which must be as low
the op amp. The _input offset voltage, as possible) and the current_ handling
input impedance and common mode capabilities of _the _____amplifjer. In many
rejection, for example, are primarily cases the output stage must also provide
determined by how the input stage is some form of short circuit protection.
•
designed.

BASIC CIRCUITS
DIFFERENTIAL POWER
INPUT SECOND OUTPUT
STAGE STAGE STAGE Let's now discuss in detail some ampli-
fier circuits which illustrate how the
0- blocks in Fig. 22 are filled. Fig. 23 is the
circuit of asimple but complete op amp
Fig. 22. An op amp block diagram. which illustrates most of the principles
involved. In this circuit the first stage is
made up of transistors Q1 and Q2, which
Since op amps are dc amplifiers, the form adifferential amplifier. The input to
first stage is directly coupled to the transistor Q1 is an inverting input, while
second stage. The second stage provides the input to transistor Q2 is the non-
more amplification and produces the inverting input. The emitter of both
proper level translation for the dc signals stages of the transistors of the differential
on which the ac input signals are riding. amplifier must be fed by some form of
Without level translation there is a current source. In this case, avery simple
buildup in the dc voltage coupled from current source is made by having alarge
stage to stage. Also the output will not value resistance (R 4)connected to minus
swing near ground so that the output is supply —V„. Resistors R1 and R2 are
zero when the input is equal to zero volts. the load resistors for the first stage
We could have shown the second stage in transistor.
Fig. 22 as two blocks, one showing again The collectors of transistors Q1 and Q2
stage and the other a level translator or are direct-coupled to the bases of tran-
shifter. sistors Q3 and Q4, which form the second
In many op amps there are more than stage. The second stage emitters are also
two stages of gain. Usually the differ- fed by a current source, in this case

30
 INVERTING INPUT NON INVERTING INPUT

OUTPUT

LOAD

Fig. 23. A simple operational amplifier.

formed by a voltage +V„ and resistor coupled to output transistor Q5.As you
R3. can see from the diagram, the output
In this simple amplifier, NPN tran- stage in this op amp is made up of
sistors are used for the first stage and transistor Q5 connected as an emitter-
PNP's are used for the second stage. The follower.
use of PNP transistors in the second stage This amplifier, having most of the
automatically gives us the ability to level- desired characteristics of an op amp, is
shift the voltage. Remember that the suitable for general purposes. The tran-
voltage builds up only if we use tran- sistors of the first stage must be matched
sistors of the same polarity. very carefully in order to obtain a low
The collector voltages of the second input offset voltage and current.
stage are shifted to a level very near To get an idea of the level of perfor-
ground. The output of the second stage mance of this simple circuit, let's outline
comes from the collectors of transistors its characteristics: input impedance,
Q3 and Q4 .However, the output from 100K; input current, 600 nanoamps;
the collector of transistor Q3 is not used; equivalent input offset voltage, 1 milli-
it is simply returned through resistor R6 volt; voltage gain, 73 decibels. This ampli-
to Vie.Meanwhile the output of tran- fier uses asimple differential amplifier for
sistor Q4 goes to load resistor R5 which is an input stage. However, in many cases a

31
more sophisticated input stage design is differential input stage, a field effect
required to increase the input impedance, transistor differential amplifier input
increase the common mode rejection stage and 'a standard transistor connec-
ratio or obtain lower values of input bias tion. We will now discuss these three
current. approaches .and the active current
The high input impedance and the low sources.
bias current are direct results of each In Fig. 24 is an input stage using both a
other. To achieve ahigh value of common Darlington connected differential ampli-
mode rejection ratio in both cases, an fier stage and an active current source.
active current source is used to feed the The current source is formed by tran-
emitters. The active current source is sistor Q5;resistors R1,R2 and R3; and
usually made up of atransistor and some diode DI.The purpose of the current
resistors. source is to produce a constant current
feeding the two emitters of the differ-
HIGH INPUT IMPEDANCE ential Darlington pair. This current
should be stable enough not to change
rder _to obtain _a_ high input imped- with temperature or bias conditions.
ance, three methods are commonly used: Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage
Darlington connected transistors in the divider taken from the power supply. The

R 5

TO SECOND STAGE

+v„

CURRENT
5 SOURCE
TRANSISTOR

-V et

Fig. 24. A Darlington stage and an active current source.

32
voltage at the base of Qs is determined certain emitter current, the amount of
by this voltage divider. This means that base current that flows into the input
the voltage drop across R3 will also be transistors will be much less than with a
determined by this divider, since the base single transistor. This, of course, achieves
potential and emitter potential will be the asmall value of input current and amuch
same. This now establishes a constant higher input impedance.
voltage across R3 which implies acon- The use of the Darlington connection
stant emitter current (emitter current =- for the input stage of an op am_p_is
emitter voltage/R 3). The_ collector cur- fi'tTuied because of the.. input offset volt-
rent is the emitter current multiplieil-by age and the_ input offset temperature
the al-phid the transistor. The output at coefficient. The reason is that the input
the collector is a very high impedance, offset voltage is the net difference in Vbe
which simulates an ideal current source. drops from one input to the other. Since
The use of a transistor as a current we now have four transistors, it is more
source gives_us much better current stabil- difficult to obtain alow value of input
ity than ahigh value resistor connected to offset voltage. Also the Vbe of the four
ihe power supply. Diode DI is used in transistors must be very closely matched
o-rder— to achieve a * certain degree— a for temperature coefficients, more so
_ _
.tieperature compensaten. As you know, than if we had a standard differential
the emitter-base junction of atransistor pair.
has a negative temperature_ coefficient. In the input stage shown in Fig. 24,
That is, Vbe decreases with an increase in resistors R4 and Rs are the load resistors.
temperature. Diode DI tends to cancel The output from R5 is used to drive a
out the variation in temperature of the second single-ended stage. We could go to
emitter-base junction by introducing an a differential second stage with PNP
equal voltage with apolarity that cancels transistors as we did before, then convert
the effect. In this way, we obtain amore to asingle-ended output after the second
stable current with regard to temperature stage.
changes. For example, if the temperature Another method of obtaining a high
increases, Vbe will decrease, causing more input impedance is to use a standard
voltage to appear across R3 and differential amplifier stage, operate the
increasing the current in Qs.However, transistors at avery low value of collector
the drop across DI decreases, reducing current and manufacture the transistors
the voltage applied to the base of Q5 and so that their Betas are extremely high at
the voltage appearing across R3. There- these low values of collector current. This
fore, the current remains constant. We is sometimes referred to as tite_supei--Beta
must be careful to match the two temper- tInigke. It is very difficult to make
ature coefficients of the emitter-base transistors that have avery high Beta at
junction of the current source transistor low values of collector current. In order _
with the one of diode DI. to get ahigh Beta, we must make the basi
The differential amplifier stage in Fig. of the transistors so thin that the reverse
24 is made up of Darlington pairs Q1 and breakdown characteristics are severely
Q2 on one side and Q3 and Q4 on the restricted. Therefore, we must sacrifice
other. The effect is to achieve a much the magnitude of our input voltage to low
higher value of Beta. Therefore, for a values in order to get the higher gain.

33
 The use of field effect transistors to emitter current stabilization with temper-
obtain high input impedance is shown in ature. The collector of Q5 is connected to
the complete op amp diagram of Fig. 25. the emitters of Q2 and Q4 and through
This op amp offers amuch higher perfor- 3K stabilizing resistors to the sources of
mance than the first one we discussed. field effect transistors Q1 and Q3.The
Transistor Q5 forms the active current two input signals are applied to the gates
source that we discussed in the previous of transistors Q1 and Q3 which are
section. Diode DI,the 3.3K resistor and N-channel field effect transistors. The
the 224K resistor form the voltage divider sources of Q1 and Q3 are connected to
used to establish the emitter voltage the bases of Q2 and Q4 ,directly coupled.
reference. As before, DI is used for As you know from previous lessons,

vcc

>15K
> K 224k 7.5K

80—,

©0 6
o

oINVERTING

510
©0 2

INPUTS OUTPUT

3K 3K
D3 510
NON-INVERTING
o

DI
40

IK t3.3k 10K 6.8K

Vcc

Fig. 25. Operational amplifier with FET's in input.

34
the field effect transistor is similar to a amplifier, the positive half-cycle is ampli-
vacuum tube in its input impedance fied by the NPN transistor while the
characteristics. You can typically obtain negative half-cycle is amplified by the
hundreds of megohms input impedance PNP transistor. This is true for Q9 and
from a field effect transistor. Using this Q10 in Fig. 25; when one is conducting,
compound stage with field effect as well the other is cut off.
as bipolar transistors, the problems of With this arrangement, crossover
input offset voltage drift and input offset distortion occurs. It is caused by the
voltage are quite difficult. The field effect emitter-base characteristics of the tran-
transistors, in particular, do not have sistors used. A silicon transistor requires a
good tracking ability with temperature voltage of .6 to .7 volt across this
(for temperatures above about 70°C, the junction before it conducts. With only .2
tracking is very poor). However, for volt of forward bias, it is still cut off. The
commercial applications they give depletion layer in the junction effectively
extremely low values of input bias cur- causes the transistor to be reverse-biased
rents and extremely high values of input by about .6 to .7 volt. For that reason, a
impedance. transistor is not operated exactly at cut-
The 15K resistors in the collector off as required for class Bconditions. The
circuits of Q2 and Q4 are the load result is that the input waveform must go
more positive or more negative than .6 to
resistors of the first differential stage. The
two collectors of Q2 and Q4 are con- .7 volt before the NPN or PNP transistor
nected respectively to the bases of tran- will conduct. During the zero crossing
sistors Q7 and 06 which form amodified period of the input sine wave, neither
differential amplifier. Transistors Q6 and transistor conducts, so the output signal
Q7 are PNP devices. Here we use the appears as in Fig. 26.
complementary symmetry connection to This distortion can be eliminated by
obtain a dc level shift. This achieves applying just enough forward bias to the
direct coupling and level shifting at the transistors so that they operate right on
same time. The output stage or power the threshold of conduction, acondition
required for proper class B operation. In
stage is formed by transistors Qg ,09 and
Fig. 25 diodes D2 and D3 provide this
Q1o .The collector of 06 is connected to
the base of Qg,while the collector of Q7 forward bias. Each of these silicon diodes
is connected directly to the base of 09 . has a drop of .6 volt, for a total of 1.2
Q9 and Q10 form aclass B output stage. volts between the bases of Q9 and Qi o•
Qg is used to produce an out-of-phase
signal into the base of Qi0 so that we CROSSOVER
DISTORTION
form apush-pull stage with Q9 and Qi o• NPN CONDUCTS_ _

The output stage is essentially acomple-

mentary emitter-follower. Diodes D2 and
D3 are placed between the two bases to PNP BEGINS
TO CONDUCT
NPN BEGINS
TO CONDUCT
reduce crossover distortion. PNP CONDUCTS
PNP REGINS
In aclass Bamplifier the transistors are TO CUT OFF

biased to cutoff, conducting only on

one-half cycle of the input driving signal. Fig. 26. Crossover distortion in a da -s It
In a complementary symmetry class B transistor amplifier.

35
 This is just enough to overcome the external power booster amplifier must be
depletion layer effects of Qg and Q10 in used.
series. Now when Q 7 and Q8 drive Q9
A typical booster output stage of an op
and Q10 in the proper direction, they will amp is shown in Fig. 27A. This circuit is
conduct without producing the crossover
basically a current amplifier which pro-
distortion. The output is taken from the vides wideband unity gain and peak cur-
common emitters Qg and 010 ,through
rents up to ±200 milliamps into a50-ohm
510-ohm resistors which are there for
load. Many common op amps can pro-
short circuit protection.
duce only amaximum of ±10 volts across
In this amplifier we have seen several
a resistor of 3K or 4K. As you can see,
techniques. One of them is the use of
this represents a very small amount of
field effect transistors in the input for
current. While using the technique that
high input impedance and low input bias
we will describe, currents of much higher
current. Another is the use of an active
values can be driven into a much lower
current source. The second stage is
load resistance. This configuration does
formed of PNP transistors to obtain level
not provide any voltage gain; the output
shifting and some degree of gain. The last
voltage will be equal to the input voltage
stage is a class B push-pull stage formed
from an op amp.
with acomplementary pair of transistors.
The circuit in Fig. 27A is basically aset
To obtain an idea of the level of
of cascaded complementary emitter-
performance of the op amp just
followers. It is made complementary so
described, let's look at some of its charac-
that the emitter-base voltage drops of 01,
teristics: open-loop voltage gain, 100 db;
Q3 and 02, Q4 cancel each other. This
input impedance, 100,000 megohms; in-
makes the output voltage equal to the
put bias current, 20 picoamps; input input voltage. The amplifier then has
offset current, 2picoamps; input offset
exactly unity gain. But because of its high
voltage, 10 millivolts; output voltage
input impedance and low output imped-
swing, 50 volts peak-to-peak. In this ance, the circuit provides power amplifi-
amplifier the voltage gain, input resis- cation. When the output voltage from an
tance and input bias current are consider- op amp is applied to the input, the
ably better than in the other one. How- output voltage and polarity from the
ever, the input offset voltage of 10 booster will be exactly the same. How-
millivolts is not as low as it was in the ever, it is now capable of driving alarger
previous amplifier.
current through the load than the op amp
is.
IMPROVED OUTPUT STAGES Assume that the input to the booster
circuit is at ground. This means that both
One of the most important op amp transistors Q1 and 02 become forward-
requirements is that it be able to produce biased. The voltage between the input
a fairly high amount of output voltage and the emitter of Qi and 02 will be
into a low value of resistance. What this approximately .6 volt. This voltage is
means is that apower amplifier must be applied to the bases of Q3 and Q.
used. The output stage in most op amps However, this voltage is insufficient to
can supply areasonable amount of power cause conduction of Q3 and Q4 so no
to a load, but for some applications, an current flows through the output load.

36
 o •I0 of approximately —4.4 volts at the
emitter of Q1 and the base of Q3. This
voltage reverse-biases Q3 so that it is cut
, off. The —5 volts at the input causes 02
to conduct less. The emitter voltage of
Q2 is approximately .6 volt more negative

than the input, or —5.6 volts. This causes

the emitter-base junction of Q4 to con-
duct. Therefore, the output voltage is
INPUT OUTPUT approximately .6 volt different, making
the output —5 volts. The emitter-base
voltage drop of Q4 effectively cancels the
emitter-base drop of 02, making the
output voltage equal to the input voltage.
When +5 volts is applied to the input,
Q1 conducts less and the voltage at the
base of Q3 becomes approximately +5.6
volts. Q3 conducts and its emitter is .6
-10 volt less than its base, so the output
voltage is +5 volts. As you can see, this is
Fig. 27A. A current booster amplifier. aunity gain de power amplifier. Resistors
R3 and R4 in the circuit are generally low
in value so they do not contribute sub-
stantially to a change in the output
voltage. They are used primarily for
short-circuit protection. If the output
eIn accidentally short-circuits, the current
flow through transistors Q3 and Q4 will
be limited by R3 and R4.
For proper operation of this circuit,
the emitter-base voltage characteristics of
® all the transistors must be closely
matched so that their effects will cancel.
The greatest error is introduced because
Fig. 27B. How the booster is normally con- the emitter-base voltage drops for NPN
nected to an op amp. and PNP silicon devices are slightly differ-
ent. For example, the VBE of the NPN
will be .6 volt; the VBE of the PNP
transistor will be .64 volt under the same
conditions of bias. The difference would
The output voltage at this time is essen- be .04 volt. This small error is generally
• tially zero. of little consequence. Its effect can be
Now assume that we apply an input minimized by using the booster amplifier
voltage of —5 volts. This causes transistor within the feedback loop of the op amp
. Q1 to conduct more, producing avoltage to which it is connected. Fig. 27B shows

37
how the booster is normally connected. amplifier stages will have a minimum
The output of an op amp is fed into the effect on the output voltage. We do this
booster and the load connected to the by converting the dc input voltage to ac
booster output. Instead of the normal early in the amplifier, where drift has no
feedback resistance being connected from effect. We then convert this back to adc
the inverting input to the op amp output, signal of substantial amplitude and feed it
the normal connection to the op amp the rest of the way through the dc
output is connected to the booster. The amplifier.
small offset voltage produced by the Most op amp applications can make
imperfectly matched transistors is some- use of the standard unstabilized circuitry.
what overcome by the use of this negative However, for very critical applications,
feedback. chopper stabilization is used to reduce
drift to practically zero.
CHOPPER STABILIZED AMPLIFIERS Fig. 28 shows achopper stabilized op
amp. The dc portion of the amplifier
A chopper stabilized amplifier is adc consists of the differential stage made up
amplifier in which modulation techniques of Q1 and Q2. Transistor Q3 and its
are used to minimize the effects of drift. associated components make up a
Variations in the temperature, power temperature-compensated current source
supply voltages and component character- for the differential input stage. The out-
istics will cause the output voltage of adc put of the differential stage is taken from
amplifier to drift. This is an undesirable the collector of Q2 and fed to acomple-
condition as it introduces an error in the mentary amplifier stage, Q4.Additional
output. Careful circuit design and accu- gain is produced in this stage and its
rate matching of Components aid in mini- output is coupled to transistor Q5 and
mizing drift. However, for critical appli- the emitter-follower output circuit.
cations it must be reduced further. To do The input signal applied to this circuit
this, the dc input to be amplified is is actually fed to two places. First the
passed through a chopper where it is high-frequency components of the input
converted into asquare wave in the audio are passed through capacitor C5 to the
frequency range. This square wave is differential input stage. Any dc at the
amplified by astandard ac amplifier. The input is eliminated by capacitor C5.

ac output then is rectified, or —converte_d The values of capacitor C5 and resistor

back into dc, by the chopper; the R3 are chosen to act as ahigh-pass filter

resulting de voltage is amplified in the that passes only frequencies above a

standard dc amplifier. certain cutoff point. All dc and very
It is the drift in the input stage of adc low-frequency ac signals are passed
amplifier that gives us the most trouble. through R1 and C1,alow-pass filter, to a
The small drift voltage that occurs will be chopper.
amplified many times by the remaining As you recall from aprevious lesson, a
stages of amplification. Therefore, even a chopper is nothing more than a switch
small input drift voltage can appear as a that alternately connects and shorts out
large offset at the output. If we can the dc signal at the input of an ac
minimize the effect of drift in the input amplifier. In this circuit transistor Q6 is
stage, then any drift in the remaining used as ashunt switch. When Q6 is open,

38
 DC AMPLIFIER

INVERTING
INPUT os

C
s

OOUTPUT
OV
eo

cc

INPUT
CHOPPER
0
6

e
r,C4
r ——— _L
•AC AMPLIFIER
OUTPUT
CHOPPER
-÷-
Qiz

L
CHOPPER DRIVE

Fig. 28. A chopper-stabilized amplifier.

it has no effect on the circuit and the tors of Q11 and Q12 are square-wave
input voltage is applied directly to the ac signals that switch between ground and
amplifier through C2. When Q6 conducts, +V cc .This is used to turn transistor Q6
it shorts out the signal so that none is off and on. A rate of about 400 Hz is
applied to the ac amplifier,iransistor Q6 . used.
is turned off and on very rapidly by a Notice that in this circuit Q6 is con-
free-running multivibrator circuit used as nected in a configuration inverted from
a chopper driver. This consists of tran- that normally used. To turn atransistor
sistors Q1i and Q12 and their associated on, we usually forward-bias its emitter-
components. The outputs at the collec- base junction. In this circuit we are

39
forward-biasing the collector-base junc- nents and circuit techniques, chopper
tion. Most transistors are somewhat stabilized amplifiers are actually being
symmetrical; the collector can be used as used less. It is now possible to obtain
the emitter and vice versa. By using this closely matched transistors and stable
connection, there will be an extremely power supplies that reduce drift effects to
low voltage drop between the emitter and a point where chopper stabilization is
collector when the transistor is turned on. unnecessary. In fact, many of today's
This permits the transistor to function as integrated circuit op amps have character-
an almost perfect on/off switch. When it istics which approach those of astandard
is on, its resistance is practically zero; chopper stabilized amplifier. However,
when it is off, almost infinite. for extremely critical operations, chopper
The 400 Hz signal appearing at the stabilization may be used to completely
emitter of Q6 is passed through the ac eliminate the effects of drift.
amplifier made up of Q7,Qg and Q.).
Here it is amplified and fed to the output SELT-TEST QUESTIONS
chopper, which is another inverted tran-
sistor, Q10 .Q10 effectively rectifies the (x) Name three ways a high input
ac output while R4 and C4 filter it into a impedance can be obtained in an op
dc voltage to be applied to the other amp.
input of the differential amplifier. Here (y) What is the purpose of a booster
the dc signal undergoes further amplifi- amplifier?
cation in transistors Q2,Q4 and Q5. (z) What transistor characteristic causes
Because of the tremendous improve- crossover distortion in a class B
ments recently made in electronic compo- amplifier?

40
 Common Uses
Today amps are used in awide variety The mathematical output expression is
of ways. They appear in almost every shown in Fig. 29. Notice that the negative
phase of electronics because they are sign indicates that the sum is inverted.
capable of performing so many useful This amplifier circuit can be used to
functions. The op amp is akey element in perform algebraic addition or subtraction
the analog computer because it can operations. Any number of input resis-
perform so many useful mathematical tances may be connected to the summing
calculations. It can perform multipli- junction.
cation and division by aconstant simply To show how this circuit works, let's
by selecting the gain. It can also add or assume some values for R1,R2,R3 and
subtract. Since one of the major uses for R4 in Fig. 29. Assume that all the
op amp is performing mathematical resistors are 100K. Next assume the input
operations, we will show you several of of E1 equals 2 volts, E2 equals 3 volts,
these useful applications. and E3 equals 4 volts. Now, using all of
these values, what is the output voltage?
MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS Find its magnitude and its polarity.
To solve this problem, all you have to
A typical op amp and summer is shown do is fill in the appropriate values in the
in Fig. 29. This circuit is basically that of output expression shown in Fig. 29. We
the simple inverting op amp you studied will do this after trying to understand
before. The only difference is that we exactly what is happening in this circuit.
have added more than one input resis- Keep in mind that each of the input
tance. In this case we have added three, voltages is going to be multiplied by a
and to each supplied an input voltage. coefficient that is the gain of the ampli-
The op amp will sum the three input fier for that input. Recall that the gain of
voltages after multiplying each by again the op amp is afunction of its feedback
that is the ratio of the feedback resistance and input resistance ratio. However, since
divided by the associated input resistance. we have made each input resistor the
same size as the feedback resistor, this
ratio will be 1:1. Therefore, in this circuit
the output voltage is equal to:

[-00K 100K 100K

E0 = (2) + — (3) + — (4 1
100K 100K 100K

E0 =—{!(2) + 1(3) + 1(4)]

E a—[R
--- R4 R4 (
4 (E 0+ —(E 2 )+-
E
3)
o R1 R2 R3 The solution to this problem simply
involves basic addition. The amplifier
Fig. 29. An op amp summer. performs the addition. Just keep in mind

41
that the amplifier circuit still inverts and producing subtraction. In other words,
that this inversion must be considered the process of subtraction is a form of
when the absolute algebraic or polarity of algebraic addition. This op amp circuit
the signal is important. inverts so that the polarity of the output
In a previous section you were intro- voltage is significant. Therefore be sure to
duced to the differential op amp circuit invert the output voltage that you
that is used to take the difference observe to obtain the true algebraic value.
between two input voltages. This circuit By properly assigning the polarities of
could also be used to perform subtrac- the input voltages the inverting character-
tion. However, we can also use asummer istics of the amplifier can be used to
circuit to perform subtraction. provide proper polarity output. For
Fig. 30 shows atwo-input summer that example, if we wish to solve 42 — 13, one
can be used for subtraction. Notice in this way is to make 13 anegative voltage and
circuit that both the input and feedback 42 apositive voltage. As in Fig. 31A, the
resistances are equal so that the input circuit will produce an output voltage
voltages are multiplied by 1. To use the equal to —29. Note that the input and
summer to subtract, we must feed volt- feedback resistances are all equal to one
ages of opposite polarity into the two another so that no coefficient multipli-
inputs. The op amp produces the differ- cation takes place. Although this circuit
ence between the two input signals as an produces the proper magnitude output
output with a polarity opposite to the voltage of 29, the polarity is algebraically
larger voltage. incorrect. The reason for this is simply
the inversion of the op amp. We can
100K 100K correct the situation by passing the signal
at the output of the summer through a
simple unity gain inverter. This will pro-
duce the proper output voltage without
changing the magnitude.

E
o•—(E re E2 )
100K 100K 100K
+420 'NS I 'NA --vv+--
Fig. 30. Two-input summer for subtraction. 100K
-130 MA
+29

As an example, let's subtract 18 from

27. El will be —27 volts and E2 will be o
18. Since the polarities of the two volt-
ages are different, the amplifier is going El 100K 100K
-42
to produce an output voltage equal to the
E2 100K
sum of the two (-9 volts). Because the +13 +29
larger voltage is negative, the output
voltage will be inverted by the amplifier o _
to become positive. The op amp performs -(E 1+Et)• -(-42+13)•(42-13)•29
algebraic addition; with it we can add
numbers of any polarity. When we add Fig. 31. Two ways of producing correct
numbers of opposite polarity we are algebraic subtraction.

42
 However, we can produce the proper problem down and calculating the voltage
polarity output voltage with a single at each point in the circuit, it is very easy
summer amplifier if we correctly assign to arrive at the correct output voltage and
the polarities of the input voltages. This is polarity. Let's go through this circuit and
shown in Fig. 31B. The two input voltage calculate the output voltage, assuming the
magnitudes are the same as before, 42 input voltages shown.
and 13. However, we make the larger of Amplifier 1is asimple inverting ampli-
the two voltages the negative so that the fier whose gain is the ratio of the feed-
polarity of the inverted output will be back to input resistors. This ratio is
correct. This way we let the inverting 40K/25K = 1.6. This amplifier multiplies
characteristics of the amplifier work for the input voltage by a gain of 1.6.
us. Multiplying our input voltage of 40 by
1.6 gives us an output voltage of 64 volts.
CALCULATING OP AMP NETWORKS Keep in mind that the amplifier inverts so
the output is negative since the input
By now you should be able to calculate voltage is positive. This means that —64
the output voltage and polarity of an op volts appears across the potentiometer.
amp network. Knowing the values and This pot is set to a coefficient k of .2.
polarities of the input voltages and the This simply indicates that 20% of the
values of the input and feedback resis- voltage applied to the pot is tapped off
tances, you should be able to take a and appears at the arm. To find the
circuit like that in Fig. 32 and compute voltage at the arm we simply multiply
the output voltage and polarity. Notice —64 by .2 to get —12.8 volts. This voltage
that this circuit uses awide variety of op is applied to one end of a differential
amp configurations. While at first this amplifier. Notice the differential ampli-
network may seem somewhat complex, fier uses all 10K resistors so that no gain
keep in mind that it uses nothing but the is provided. Instead, the output voltage
simple individual op amp circuits that will be the difference between the two
you have already studied. By breaking the input voltages.

25K 40K

10K
2 -El•(12)- (-12.8)

12+12.8. 24.8

Fig. 32. An analog computing circuit using avariety of op amp circuits.

43
 Amplifier 2 is asummer to which two then, produces an output that is afunc-
input voltagçs are applied. The resistor tion of the mathematical integral of the
values in the \
circuit provide gain multipli- input signal. Integration is amathematical
cation for each input. Again the gain of function; specifically it is a form of
each input is equal to the ratio of the calculus. However, we'll take a simpler
feedback to the input resistor. The gain approach (eliminating a calculus dis-
of the upper input is 100K/20K =5. This cussion) toward understanding the inte-
means that the input voltage, —18, is grator circuit.
multiplied by again of 5. The gain of the A simple integrator circuit is shown in
lower input is 100K/50K = 2, meaning Fig. 33. The input voltage is applied
that the input voltage, +39, is multiplied across aresistor and capacitor connected
by 2. Making the calculation using the in series and the output voltage is taken
standard output formula, we get an out- from across the capacitor. If the input
put voltage of 12. signal applied to this integrator network
Now we have both inputs to the is asine wave, the output signal will also
differential amplifier and we can calculate be a sine wave. Because of the reactance
the output. Recall from your knowledge in the circuit, the output voltage will be
of this circuit that the output is equal to out-of-phase with the input voltage.
(E 2 — El), or the lower input voltage Specifically, the output voltage will lag
minus the upper input voltage. Plugging the input voltage by some angle between
our two input voltage values into this zero and 90 °.The longer the time con-
formula, we find that the output voltage stant of the circuit, compared to the
is 24.8. Notice that since we are subtrac- period of the incoming signal, the closer
ting two input voltages of opposite polar- the output voltage approaches the 90 ° lag
ity, the overall effect is algebraic addi- point. At this time the reactance of the
tion. The output of amplifier 3 then is a capacitor is generally so low, compared to
positive 24.8 volts. This is now fed to the resistance value, that the output
amplifier number 4, where it is further
multiplied in gain. Notice that the circuit
R1
used here is the one whose gain is IN o ()OUT
determined by the coefficient of the
output potentiometer. The gain of this
circuit is equal to 1/k = 1/.4 = 2.5. The
o
output voltage then is the inverted pro- INPUT
duct of 24.8 multiplied by 2.5, or 62
volts.
OUTPUT

INTEGRATOR CIRCUITS

In several previous lessons the subject INPUT

of integrators was discussed. An inte-
grator, in its simplest form, is aresistor-
capacitor network whose time constant is OUTPUT
made long with respect to the period of
Fig. 33. A simple R-C integrator (A), sine wave
the input signal applied to it. This circuit,
input/output (B) and square wave input (C).

44
voltage is much smaller than the input +E 1

voltage. Theoretically, if the phase shift o

were a total of 90°,the output voltage
o
would be zero. However, a practical
integrator is one whose 'phase shift
approaches 90° closely, but also one that
-E,
still has ameasurable output voltage.
If the input voltage applied to an
integrator is a square wave like that
o
shown in Fig. 33C, the output voltage
-E1
will be a triangular or sawtooth type
waveform. The larger the time constant,
the closer the output approaches alinear
sawtooth or triangular waveform.
The integrator circuit shown in Fig. 33
is a useful network. It can be used to
perform phase-shifting and wave-shaping
operations. However, it is limited in that Fig. 35. Integrator input-output waveforms.
its output voltage is much smaller than its
input voltage and it does not provide
perfect integration. In many applications
it is desirable to have exactly a90 ° phase integrajor circuit. Disregarding amplifier
shift, or a perfectly linear sawtooth or phase shift, he output is shifted exactly
triangular wave output. The op amp 90° when a sine wave is applied to the
integrator that we will describe next can input of this circuit. The output ampli-
be used for such applications. tude can be adjusted to adesired level by
A typical op amp integrator is shown choosing the proper values of resistance
in Fig. 34. This is the standard op amp and capacitance. When a square wave or
configuration except that we use afeed- dc step voltage is applied, the output is
back capacitor instead of a feedback nearly a perfect linear sawtooth or ramp
resistor. The result is a nearly perfect waveform. The rate of change of the
output voltage depends upon the input
voltage and the gain of the integrator
which is determined by the R-C values in
the circuit.
Now let's take alook at the operation
of the op amp integrator circuit of Fig.
34. We are going to apply astep voltage
to the input where the voltage switches
rapidly from zero to some dc voltage level
and remains there. The output waveform
of the integrator, under these conditions,
El. t
is shown in Fig. 35.1n Fig. 35A, both the
E°. RC
input voltage (E 1)and the output voltage
Fig. 34. An op amp integrator. are zero.

45
 When the input voltage steps rapidly to input resistance, the integrator gain is
the positive voltage level El,the output 1/(10 6 X 1X 10 -6 )= 1. With again of 1,
begins to rise slowly in anegative direc- the output voltage with a step voltage
tion. The change of voltage is linear with input is simply equal to —E i(t).
respect to time, producing a straight Let's assume that we have an input
negative-going ramp. As long as the input voltage of +10 volts and that we allow the
voltage is held at the El level, the output circuit to integrate for a period of 5
will slowly rise due to the charging of the seconds. To determine the output volt-
feedback capacitance through the input age, we multiply the input voltage by the
resistor. Soon we will reach apoint where,\_ time and invert the result. In this case,
the output voltage can no longer continue Eout = — 10 X 5=— 50 volts. We can
to increase due to the saturation of the stop the integration after 5 seconds by
output amplifier of the op _amp. When removing the input voltage or by shorting
this occurs the output levels off at an the capacitor.
output voltage —E s,which is equal to or Fig. 36 shows the output waveforms
slightly less than the negative power you can expect. The waveform at A
supply voltage of the op amp. shows the step voltage input that switches
Fig. 35B shows the input and output from zero to +10 volts. The output
waveforms for anegative-going step volt- voltage begins to increase in negative
age input. When the input voltage steps to value. If the input is allowed to be
a negative El level, the output voltage present for 5seconds, the output voltage
begins to rise linearly from zero. As long will go to —50 volts. If we remove the
as voltage is applied, the output will input voltage at this point, the output
increase in a straight line to eventually will remain at its —50 volt level. This is
reach the saturation point that is nearly
equal to the positive supply voltage of the
op amp.
The value of the output voltage is very
+10
predictable if we know the values of the
o
input resistor, the feedback capacitor, the 5$

input voltage and the time during which o

the input voltage is applied. All of these
factors are related by the formula:
-50 t
-

1 o
Eout = (Et)(t)
R-C

50
This formula tells us the value of the
output voltage at aspecific time (t) after
input voltage El is applied. .The
value is the gain of the iniegratoLege.
Fig. 36. Integrator step input (A), output
ThejLihiscicuit is, equal to the
,here input is removed after 5 seconds (B)
ciproi:al of the time constant. If we are and output where feedback capacitor is shorted
using a 1mfd capacitor and a 1megohm after 5 seconds (C).

46
because the capacitor retains the charge it voltage _changes. If the gain and the input
received (-50 volts) while the input was voltage are high, the output voltage
connected. Over a long period of time, changes rapidly. If we are not careful to
the charge on this capacitor will leak off control the input voltage, gain and time
due to the internal resistance of the duration of integration, it is quite easy to
capacitance, the input impedance of the saturate the amplifier or to cause it to try
op amp and other factors. to produce an output voltage beyond its
Fig. 36C shows the result of shorting capabilities. Fig. 37 shows the output
the output feedback capacitor after a 5
second period. The output voltage again INPUT
0

goes negative to reach avalue of —50 at STEP

-10

the end of 5 seconds. If we short the

output capacitor with a switch of some
type, the capacitor discharges quickly OUTPUT

through the short circuit. The output

voltage drops to zero despite the fact that
the input is maintained at this value.
What happens to the output voltage
when we change the gain of the ampli- Fig. 37. how integrator gain affects the output
ramp.
fier? Let's change the values of the input
resistor and feedback capacitor and note
the effect this has on the output voltage voltage of an integrator with a—10 volt
when we integrate the +10 volt dc input input step. The outputs produced with
for a period of 5 seconds. Assume that high, medium and low gains are shown.
our new input resistance is 100K-ohms The high gain is aresult of a short R-C
and our feedback capacitor is .1 mfd or time constant. The capacitor charges
10 - 7 .The R-C time constant then'is 10 5 quickly, so the output voltage rises
X 10" 7 = 10 -2 .Then the gain of the rapidly and saturates at time t l.Making

integrator is 1/R-C = 1/10" 2 = 1/.01 = the R-C time constant longer lowers the
100. We now multiply our input voltage gain. Since it takes the capacitor longer to
by 100 and the time the input voltage charge, saturation doesn't occur until
appears at the integrator. The output time t 2. A very low gain, meaning along
voltage should theoretically rise to avalue time constant, produces a very gradual
of 10 X 100 X 5= 5000 volts. However, output ramp that reaches saturation at t 3.

this is an unreasonable value because of Fig. 38 shows how the op amp can be
the output voltage swing limitations. used with sine wave signals. If we assume
Even if this is a high voltage amplifier that the feedback capacitor is 1mfd and
where the output voltage swing may be the input resistor is 1megohm, the gain
±100 volts, the output will quickly rise of the op amp is 1/R-C = 1/(10 6 X 10 -6 )
and saturate at its negative level shortly = 1. This means that the output will be
after the input voltage is applied. equal to the input. However, because the
The gain of an integrator , the input circuit is an integrator, the input and
voltage value and the time de integrator output waveforms will be out-of-phase. A
is allowed to observe the input voltage perfect integrator would produce an out-
determine the rate at which the output put that lags the input by 90°.Keep in

47
 the standard by which we will compare
another input signal, generally achanging
or varying signal.
The simplest form of a comparator is
the diode circuit shown in Fig. 39. A
diode is biased through aresistance with a
20-volt battery which represents the
reference voltage. We are going to com-
pare this reference voltage with the input
signal, applied to the cathode of the
Fig. 38. Integrator operation with sine wave diode that is a positive-going ramp volt-
signals. age. This could possibly be the output
from an integrator being driven from a
mind that our op amp integrator also negative dc source.
inverts the signal; the output is actually With the input voltage at zero, the
shifted by 9e and then inverted 18e. diode is forward-biased. If we assume this
The input and output voltages of the to be aperfect diode that has no voltage
integrator are also shown. The output drop across it, the output voltage will also
voltage, as it would appear without be zero. As the input voltage begins to
inversion, is marked by the dashed line. rise, the diode still conducts; therefore,
As you can see, it lags the input signal by the input is effectively connected directly
90°. However, inversion adds another to the output through the diode.
180 ° phase shift, which causes the output The output exactly follows the shape
voltage to appear as though it is leading of the input signal. The output remains
the input signal by 90°.We call the the same as the input only while the
output waveform a cosine waveform to input voltage is less negative than the
distinguish it from the sine wave input. reference voltage, keeping the diode
By adjusting the values of input resistance forward-biased. As soon as the input
and feedback capacitance, the gain of the voltage reaches a value of 20 volts, the
amplifier can be adjusted to produce any diode no longer conducts; there is insuffi-
desired output amplitude within the cient voltage across it to cause it to be
amplifier's capability. forward-biased. As the input voltage rises
beyond 20, the diode is still cut off so the
ELECTRONIC COMPARATORS output voltage remains at 20 volts. The

iin_electronic comparator is a circuit DISCONTINUITY

that compares one voltage with another
+20V
and produces an output signal that indi-
cates when the two input voltages are

I
equal. A good electronic comparator will
also produce an output signal that will
permit you to know whether one of the REFERENCE +
- 20V
input signals is less than or greater than
the other. One of the input signals to the
comparator is the reference signal. It is Fig. 39. A simple comparator circuit.

48
output, in effect, sees the 20 volts from we may apply the reference voltage to
the reference battery through the resistor. one of the differential inputs. Since the
The output signal flattens off at this output of the amplifier is equal to the
point. The_point where the waveform difference between the two inputs multi-
stops rising in voltage and flattens out is plied by the gain, applying a varying
known as adiscontinuity.. As long as the signal to the other input will make the
inpu
- tv -oltage is lee than the reference differential amplifier output indicate
voltage, the output follows the input. when the two are equal. When the two
However, when the two are equal, a signals are equal, the output of the
discontinuity in the output occurs. This amplifier will, of course, be zero. The
discontinuity represents the point wh-e7ê higher the gain of the amplifier, the larger
the reference and input voltages are the output voltage swing will be for a
equal. Beyond this the outpet waveform small difference between the two input
¡linens out, indicating that the input signals. Remember that this circuit ampli-
voltage is greater than the refelence. fies the difference voltage between the
While the circuit of Fig. 39 is definitely two input signals.
acomparator, its usefulness is somewhat According to this principle an op amp
limited. In apractical circuit, there is a operated in the differential mode with no
finite voltage drop across the diode. For a feedback should provide excellent com-
silicon diode this drop may be .6 or .7 parison. By using the full open-loop gain
volt. As aresult the diode will not stop of the amplifier, only millivolts (or
conducting until the input voltage is perhaps microvolts) of difference signal is
approximately .6 or .7 volt above the required to cause the amplifier output to
reference voltage. For this reason there is swing between its two maximum output
a substantial error in the comparison. voltage limits.
This is particularly true if the reference Fig. 40A shows an op amp connected
voltage is asmall voltage that is the same as a comparator. Notice that absolutely
order of magnitude as the diode voltage no feedback connection is provided. The
drop. For very large voltages, the per- reference seal is connected to one of
centage error would be much smaller. the inputs while the varying signal, to be
In addition, the output waveform is compared to the reference signal,....15
not in the most easily used form., In a applied to the other input.
practical circuit, the discontinuity point If we use the input signal assumed
is not asharp and clearly_defined point. earlier for the simple comparator, we can
Because of the stray capacitance in this get some idea as to the sensitivity of this
circuit, the point is rounded and intro- circuit. When the input voltage at the
duces some ambiguity in the exact point inverting input is 0 volts, the reference
of equality. This circuit is adequate for being 20 volts, the difference signal is 20
simple comparisons, but for critical volts. With this much input signal multi-
comparisons, amore sophisticated circuit plied by the full open-loop gain of the
is required. amplifier, the output will swing to its
Consider for a moment how we may positive saturation level.
use a differential amplifier as a compa- With an open-loop gain of 10,000, the
rator. A differential amplifier is normally output voltage would try to swing toward
designed to handle dc signals. Therefore avalue of 200,000. However, the ampli-

49
 than the reference voltage and the dif-
ference signal between the two is ampli-
fied. As soon as the difference signal
reaches a large enough value, the output
20V._-__ REFERENCE
of the amplifier swings to the negative
saturation region. As you can see from
the curve, the gain of the amplifier is so
high that it takes only a 1 millivolt
difference between the two input signals
to cause the amplifier output to swing to
+E,
one of its saturation levels.
For that reason the sensitivity of this
OUTPUT 0 circuit enables us to detect the equality
between two signals within very close
ranges. With only 1millivolt of error, it is
r possible to compare very low level signals
with good precision. When the output of
+ImV
DIFFERENTIAL the comparator sets at one of its satura-
INPUT tion levels, it means that the input signal
VOLTAGE
is either greater than or less than the
reference voltage. The other saturation
Fig. 40. An op amp comparator (A) and
level is reached whenever the input signals
its output voltage (B).
are again unequal. When the two input
signals are equal, the output of the
fier will simply saturate at its positive comparator is zero. Simply by looking at
output swing point. You can see this in the output signal, you can tell whether
the graph of Fig. 40B. As the input signal the input voltage is less than, equal to, or
begins to rise from zero in a positive greater than the reference voltage.
direction, the difference voltage between There are some very important facts to
the two inputs grows smaller. However, keep in mind here. The rapid switching of
during most of the rise, the difference the op amp output is due to its high gain
voltage between the two is still large or sensitivity. Remember that we are
enough to keep the amplifier output in amplifying the difference voltage between
saturation. the two inputs. With the high open-loop
Soon we begin to reach apoint where gain, the output can swing from its
the input voltage approaches the value of negative to positive output saturation
the reference. When the input voltage level with only an extremely small dif-
becomes equal to the reference voltage, ference signal. For most typical op amps,
the output of the amplifier will be zero. adifference voltage in the millivolt region
As you can see from the graph in Fig. is sufficient to cause the amplifier to
40B, the output voltage drops from its swing from one extreme to the other.
positive saturation level to zero when the There is some error introduced, but it is
two voltages are equal. extremely small; it is negligible for almost
As the input voltage continues to swing all practical electronic circuits.
in apositive direction, it becomes greater The sensitivity of the op amp corn-

50
 To get a true comparison, we apply
feedback to the non-inverting input. A
small portion of the output voltage is
+V
tapped off by the voltage divider made up
of Ri and R5. The voltage is fed back
through R3 to the non-inverting input
along with the reference voltage. Here the
feedback voltage effectively adds to the
—v reference voltage, increasing the amount
Fig. 41. Adding feedback to raise the trigger of difference voltage required to cause
level and minimize the effects of noise. the amplifier to trigger. If we feed back
15 millivolts from the output, the overall
parator can also be adisadvantage. Many_ threshold for the circuit becomes 10 +15
times noise signals appearing on the in- or 25 millivolts. This means that the
puts can cause the comparator to trigger difference between the two input signals
must be at least 25 millivolts in order to
falsely, -producing undesirable output
cause the output voltage to switch from
voltage transitions.
one level to the other.
- To overcome the noise sensitivity of
This introduces a little more error in
the comparator, we can add feedback to
our comparison. However, the increased
the circuit. Fig. 41 shows adifferential op
voltage difference required for output
amp comparator where the input voltage
El is applied to the inverting input switching minimizes the effect that noise
has on the circuit. In other words, the
through 11 1. The reference voltage is
circuit can now tolerate ahigher level of
obtained from a potentiometer that is
noise on the input without producing
connected to both positive and negative
erratic switching. The feedback effec-
power supplies. The arm of the pot can
tively reduces the sensitivity of the
be set to any voltage between the upper
comparator but improves its noise
(positive) and lower (negative) voltage
immunity. By replacing resistors R4 and
levels and still include the zero volts at
Rs with apotentiometer, the sensitivity
the center of the pot. This provides a
can be made adjustable.
convenient means of adjusting the ref-
Fig. 42 shows another way of using an
erence voltage level for the circuit. The
op amp as a comparator. The non-
reference voltage is applied through R2 to
the non-inverting input of the op amp. inverting input is connected to ground as
Let's assume that the op amp has an it normally is in a standard op amp
initial sensitivity of 10 millivolts. This
means that achange or difference of 10
millivolts between the two inputs will gI
cause the amplifier to switch from one
— Er
output level to the other. If noise ex-
ceeding 10 millivolts appears on the input
line, the comparator output will trigger
erratically and give us afalse indication of
the comparison of the input and ref- Fig. 42. Comparator made with an op amp
erence signals. su mmer.

51
 configuration. The input and reference used to make the output voltage of the
voltages to be compared are applied to comparator compatible with other elec-
the inverting input through summing re- tronic circuits that it will drive.
sistors RI and R2. In order for this
circuit to properly perform algebraic COMPARATOR APPLICATIONS
addition (subtraction), the polarities of
the two voltages to be compared must be The op amp comparator circuits that
opposites.
we have discussed here have a wide
In the comparator circuit you studied
variety of applications. They are useful in
in Fig. 40, the polarities of the input and
any situation where you want to compare
reference voltages were the same. If the
the voltage level of two inputs and
input voltage was positive, the reference
produce an output that detects this
voltage would also be positive. In the
comparison. There are many electronic
same way, anegative input voltage and a
control applications where it is necessary
negative reference could also be used to to detect when two voltage levels are
obtain proper operation. Here we are equal.
effectively using the algebraic addition The comparator may be used to
characteristics of the op amp to compare monitor the output voltage of a power
the two input signals. When the two input supply driving a critical instrument. The
signals El and —ER are equal in mag- reference voltage is set equal to the
nitude, the sum of the inputs at the desired power supply output voltage
inverting input will be zero, making the while the output voltage is applied to the
output zero. If the input voltage El is comparator input. As long as the output
greater in magnitude than the negative voltage is above the reference voltage, the
reference voltage, the resulting input is output of the comparator is considered to
positive. This causes the output to swing be off. However, if the power supply
to its negative saturation level. When El voltage should drop, the comparator
is smaller, the net input voltage is nega- would detect this change in voltage and
tive and the output voltage swings to its cause its output to switch to an on
positive output extreme. condition. The output could then be used
In this circuit we are using a Zener to turn on alight that would signal alow
diode in the feedback path. This prevents voltage condition that may be undesirable
the amplifier from swinging between its in the system. A comparator used in this
two saturation levels, limiting the output
way is called a threshold detector.
voltage levels. When the output swings in
Comparators find a wide variety of uses
the negative direction, it causes the Zener in control applications such as this.
diode to be forward-biased. The output
The output voltage of a comparator
voltage is limited to .6 volt. When the
can also be used to make a decision
output voltage swings positive, the Zener
regarding the off or on of aspecific logic
diode becomes reverse-biased in its Zener
circuit, based upon the relative ampli-
mode and holds the output voltage to a
tudes of certain input and reference
level equal to the Zener voltage. In this
voltages. For example, if the input volt-
case we are using a 5.6 volt Zener. This age is above the reference voltage, a
practice of limiting, or clamping, the
particular electronic circuit may be per-
output voltage to aspecific level is often mitted to operate. However, if the input

52
voltage drops below the reference voltage, the zero axis, the comparator will switch
the output of the comparator either turns and produce a 50% duty cycle square
off the electronic circuit to prevent its wave. Remember that output clamping
operation or enables another electronic with a Zener diode can be used to
circuit to perform an alternate function. produce desired, limited voltage levels for
A very common application for the driving other circuitry.
voltage comparator is waveform gen-
eration. For example, the comparator can
be used to change asine wave signal into SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
asquare wave. Fig. 43 shows asine wave
signal applied to the input of acompara- (aa) A 3-input summer amplifier has
tor. The sine wave varies symmetrically input resistors RI = 10K, R2 = 5K,
above and below zero. The dashed line in and R3 = 2K to which are applied
the figure represents an applied dc ref- voltages of El = —10, E2 =+6 and
erence voltage. Whenever the sine wave E3 = +8. The feedback resistor Rf
and reference voltages are equal, the is20K. What are the amplitude and
output of the comparator will switch and polarity of the output voltage?
produce asquare wave output signal. Also (ab) True or false: An op amp summer
notice in Fig. 43 that each time the sine can perform any algebraic addition
wave and reference voltages are equal, the problem.
output of the comparator switches to (ac) True or false: A summer can have
produce a clean square wave. The fre- any number of inputs.
quency of the square wave is the same as (ad) True or false: The output voltage
that of the input sine wave. However, the rate of change in an integrator can
duty cycle of the output waveform de- be varied by changing the size of
pends upon the setting of the reference the feedback capacitor.
voltage. A 50% duty cycle square wave (ae) True or false: An op amp inte-
can be generated from the sine wave by grator does not invert.
making the reference input equal to zero. (af) An integrator has a feedback ca-
Whenever the sine wave voltage crosses pacitor of 1 mfd and an input
resistor of 100K. What is the gain?
(ag) If the integrator in (al) is allowed
to integrate a—.3 volt input for 7
seconds, what will the output volt-
age be?
(ah) True or false: In a summer type
comparator the input and reference
Fig. 43. Input-output waveforms of acompar- voltages must be of opposite po-
ator used for wave-shaping. larity.

53
 Tests and Measurements
The ultimate test of an op amp is its adjusted to some low value such as 100
performance in the particular application microvolts.
for which it was selected. However, there At first glance it may seem as if the
are individual tests that can be made to amplifier is not in the open-loop mode
test the individual specifications to de- because there is a 1 megohm resistor
termine its suitability for agiven job. In connected from the inverting input to the
this section we are going to discuss output and a capacitor of 1,000 micro-
measurements of op amp characteristics. farads connected from the input to
Adequate prediction of performance re- ground. Notice that this test circuit has
quires measurement of many of the the same configuration as anon-inverting
parameters that will be discussed in this amplifier circuit: the input signal is
section. applied to the non-inverting input while a
feedback network is connected between
the output and the inverting input. The
MEASURING OPEN-LOOP GAIN only exception here is the use of a
capacitor between the input and ground
Open-loop gain of op amps can be a rather than aresistor. This capacitor is an
difficult parameter to measure; gain is effective impedance with ac signals so it
usually very large and oscillation prob- works just as well as aresistor. The value
lems are often encountered. As you of its reactance at 10 Hz is used with the
know, the dc gain of op amps is fairly 1 megohm feedback value to determine
large. At low frequencies it starts to the gain. The gain called for by this
decrease, or roll off, at a fixed rate. feedback configuration at 10 Hz is equal
Therefore, we must measure open-loop to
gain at a very low frequency or at dc.
Measurement at dc poses difficult prob- E. Rf
- = + —
lems because the offset voltage also gets
Ei X,
amplified. If the offset voltage is too
large, it could cause the output voltage to
swing to either its positive or negative
Ri•I MEG
saturation level. Therefore, it is better to
measure the open-loop gain using ac at
some low frequency.
A common circuit used for the meas-
urement of open-loop voltage gain is
shown in Fig. 44. The input source is a
sine wave at 10 Hz that is applied to the SCOPE
OR
non-inverting input through a resistive E •100 microvolts
VTVIA
E.
divider formed by R1 and R2. This GAIN •
E
resistive divider is designed to reduce and
accurately control the input voltage to
the circuit. The op amp input voltage is Fig. 44. Open-loop gain measurement.

54
The capacitive reactance of a 1,000 mfd the ratio of the output to input voltage.
capacitor at 10 Hz is If an oscilloscope is used for output
measurement, the peak-to-peak value is
.159 .159 .159
normally recorded. This must be con-
fC 10 X 1000 X 10 -6 10 -2 verted to rms, or the same input voltage
units, to obtain the correct value of gain.
.159 X 10 2 = 15.9 ohms
It is important that the power supply be
properly decoupled, or filtered, with large
Rounding off this value to 16 and using capacitors to ground as close to the
the other values given, we find that this amplifier as possible. Should it be re-
feedback yields again of quired, it is also important to compensate
for amplifier oscillation. These pre-
cautions should be taken in almost all the
Rf \ = 1,000,000)

=62,500
Xe 16 measurement circuits we describe.
Gain Stability vs. Temperature. The
or approx. 96 db temperature coefficient, or variation of
the gain with temperature, can be
In all probability, however, this gain is measured with the same circuit as Fig. 44.
beyond the capability of the circuit. In All you have to do is vary the tempera-
other words, even though we have what ture of the amplifier and measure the gain
appears to be closed-loop gain, it is high at the various temperatures. A gain vs.
enough so that the limiting factor will be temperature curve can then be plotted.
the open-loop op amp gain. If the op amp The stability factor is anumber obtained
has avery large open-loop gain, the values by dividing the change in gain by the
of Rf in Fig. 44 should be further change .in temperature. The smaller this
increased. Op amp, open-loop, frequency number, the better the stability.
response is usually flat up to about 100 Gain Stability VS- Power Supply
Hz. Therefore the low-frequency meas- Changes. The same procedure can be used
urement is valid and convenient for meas- to measure the variation of gain with
urements with standard instruments. changes in power supply voltage. This is
To measure the gain, we first connect a often very important because the ampli-
signal generator, whose output is 10 Hz, fier specification sheet may call for again
to the input and adjust it until the input with a given power supply setting dif-
voltage to the amplifier is 100 microvolts. ferent from the setting being used. To do
This can only be done with knowledge of this measuring, we must know the typical
the value of the voltage divider formed by and worst case values for the various
resistors R1 and R2. Since 100 microvolts power supplies. In general, the gain of the
is usually too small to observe directly, op amp increases as the power supply
you can set the generator output to some voltage increases. However, we must be
more easily measured value and then rely careful to see that the maximum rating of
upon the voltage divider ratio to produce the op amp is not exceeded. The stability
an input voltage of 100 microvolts. Next, factor is anumber __obtained by dividing
ahigh impedance voltmeter or an oscillo- the change_ in gain by the change in power
_
scope is connected to the output and the supply voltage setting. The lower this
output voltage is measured. The gain is number is, the better the stability.
-

55
 IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS tion of variable resistor R3. When it drops
10%, the relationship between R3 and the
Open-loop Input Impedance. The input impedance of the amplifier is 9 to
open-loop input impedance is measured 1.
in a circuit like the one used for the In order to use this method, we must
open-loop gain test. The only exception is have an initial idea of what the input
that avariable resistor (R 3)is placed in impedance is going to be so we can
series with the input. Refer to Fig. 45. choose the right magnitude for R3. For
The input voltage is again adjusted to be example, this input impedance can be as
100 microvolts at about 10 Hz. With the large as 1,000 megohms in FET input
value of resistor R3 reduced to zero, the amplifiers. This would mean that the
output voltage is measured. The second value of the resistor must also be ex-
step is to increase the variable of R3 until tremely large. Therefore, this method
the output drops by 10%. In other words, may be impractical for some high input
if the output swings 10 volts peak-to- impedance op amps.
peak, we increase the value of R3 until Output Impedance. The output im-
the output drops to 9volts peak-to-peak. pedance measurement is similar to the
We are decreasing the output by decreas- measurement of the input impedance, but
ing the value of the input with avoltage simpler. We'll use the circuit shown in
divider, formed by the series R3 and the Fig. 46 to illustrate.
input impedance to the amplifier. Since
the output of the amplifier has dropped
10%, we conclude that the resistance into
IMEG
the input terminal is equal to 9times the
value of R3 at that setting. All you have
to do now is measure the value of R3 and
multiply it by 9. This will give you the
input impedance of the amplifier.
The key to understanding this method
of measuring the input impedance is to
realize that the output voltage of the
amplifier drops because of the introduc-
Fig. 46. Measuring output impedance.

IMEG

We again adjust the input voltage to

100 microvolts but, this time, connect a
variable load resistance (R4)to the out-
put. With the load resistance dis-
connected, we measure the output volt-
age. We then connect R4 to the output
and adjust its value until the output
El • 100pV
voltage drops 10%. For this procedure we
must be sure that the output signal is not
3. Nleasurim . input impedance. clipped or otherwise distorted. We are

56
using the output impedance of the ampli- conveniently measured voltage of 100
fier and R4 as a voltage divider whose millivolts.
output voltage drops as we decrease R4. Input Offset Voltage Drift vs. Tem-
When the output voltage drops 10%, the perature. The input voltage drift versus
output impedance of the amplifier is temperature can also be measured in the
equal to the value of the load resistance circuit of Fig. 47. All you have to do is
divided by 9. vary the temperature of the amplifier and
note the offset voltage change. Then
INPUT VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS compute the change in offset voltage
divided by the change in temperature.
Input Offset Voltage. The input offset The smaller this ratio, the better the
voltage is very conveniently measured at matching of Vbe of the input transistors
dc using the circuit shown in Fig. 47. In with temperature.
this circuit we have an amplifier con- Input Voltage Drift vs. Supply. The
nected in the inverting configuration with variation of input offset voltage with
an input resistance equal to 100 ohms power supply voltage changes is com-
and afeedback resistance equal to 10K. monly called the power supply rejection
Therefore, the gain of the circuit is ratio. We measure the input offset voltage
10K/100= 100. with different values of power supply
With the input shorted to ground, the voltages. Then we divide the change in
input to the circuit is equal to the input offset voltage by the change in power
offset voltage of the amplifier. Since this supply voltage producing that change.
input offset voltage is usually in the The resulting ratio tells us the stability. A
millivolt region, it is difficult to measure; low ratio value is desirable. In some cases
it is best to amplify it and measure the it is best to vary only one of the two
enlarged version at the output. This is supply voltages at atime.
what this circuit does. The output volt- Input Voltage Drift vs. Time. To
age, if measured with a suitable volt- measure the input voltage drift versus
meter, will be equal to the input offset time, attach astrip chart recorder to the
voltage multiplied by the gain of the output and let the amplifier run. Then,
amplifier. What we have done is to use checking the strip recorder output, we
the amplifier to increase its own input find the maximum output change for the
voltage by shorting the inputs. Now, if prescribed time.
the input voltage is as small as 1millivolt, A strip chart recorder is aspecial type
it will appear in the output as a more of voltmeter that records the output
voltage in ink on astrip of graph paper.
The paper is moved very slowly past the
10K pen that marks aline or curve on it. The
position of the pen is determined by the
input voltage; the position of the mark on
the paper shows the voltage variation
with time.
E.• Eoff
uit X 100

Input Bias Current. The measurement

of the input bias current is done best as in
Fig. 47. Input offset voltage measurement. Fig. 48A. Rather than measuring the

57
 use Ohm's Law to determine this current.
Let us assume that the output voltage of
the amplifier (which we are testing under
the conditions of Fig. 48A) equals 1volt.
When we divide this voltage by 1 meg-
ohm, we get .1 microampere, or 100
IelAS . 10MEO nanoamperes. This is the value of the
input bias current flowing into the in-
1011E8
verting input.
Using this method we can obtain the
current flowing into only one of the
input terminals. The current flowing into
the other terminal could have adifferent
value. Therefore in order to find the
non-inverting input bias .current, we must
do asimilar .measurement. To do this we
must ground the inverting input pre-
Fig. 48. Input bias current measurement (A) viously used and connect the 10 megohm
and input offset current measurement (B). resistor between the other input and
ground. Now we obtain another value for
input bias, different from the first one.
input bias current directly at the input The .1 mfd capacitor across the 10
with some form of current meter, we megohm resistor is used to eliminate any
insert a 10 megohm resistor from the
noise or ac signal that could occur.
input to the output. The other input of
Input Offset Current. As you know,
the amplifier under test is returned to
the average
- of the two input bias currents
ground. This circuit takes advantage of
is called the input offset current. One
the fact that the input bias current, the
way we could measure the input offset
current that flows into or out of the
current is to individually measure the two
input terminal, must flow through the 10
jnput bias currents, add them and divide
megohm resistor and appear as an output
by two. However, the circuit shown in
voltage. So the approach here is very Fig. 48B shows a more direct way of
similar to the one used for the input
obtaining the input offset current in one
offset voltage. We convert the current measurement.
into a fairly large voltage rather than a
We have a balanced input with a 10
current of a few nanoamperes, which is megohm resistor and a .1 mfd capacitor
very difficult to measure.
connected to both inputs. This way we
To use the circuit shown in Fig. 48A, obtain an output voltage that is pro-
measure the output voltage (E o )with a portional to the difference between the
suitable oscilloscope or voltmeter. The two bias currents. To obtain the true
input-output current will be equal to the input offset current, the value of this
magnitude of the output voltage divided output current must be divided by two.
by 10 megohms. The reason for this is In this circuit, the input offset current
that the input bias current is. flowing equals the output voltage divided by 10
through the 10 megohm resistor. We can megohms, as before.

58
 In order to measure the input bias response of the unity gain amplifier
current drift and input offset current which intersects the axis at the maximum
drift with temperature, we place the frequency at which the amplifier can be
amplifier in a temperature-controlled used (F m ax ).
environment and note the change in input To find the maximum frequency re-
offset current divided by the change in sponse, we use a signal generator with a
temperature. That way we get what we variable frequency output. The generator
call the "temperature coefficient" of the should be set at afairly low output, e.g.,
input bias current and of the input offset 30 millivolts. The output of the amplifier
is monitored with an oscilloscope or
current.
voltmeter and the frequency is increased
Often it is important to find the input
current drift with power supply voltage until the output voltage drops 3 db. At
this frequency the response will equal the
changes. Depending upon the amplifier
requirements, we vary the power supply F„,„„ of the amplifier. Of course, if some
gain is required the procedure will be the
output ±10, or 20%, while we monitor
the input offset current. We then divide

o
the change in input offset current, caused
10K 10K
by the power supply variation, by the
change in power supply magnitude. The
resulting ratio gives an indication of the
stability. A low ratio is most desirable.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

In order to measure the frequency A. 10,000

OPEN
„ e LOOP
response, we normally connect the ampli- GAIN
fier in the desired configuration. Then we GAIN

apply a sine wave of varying frequencies

A•100
to the input while we monitor the output
voltage and the gain. However, in order to AI
find the maximum frequency response, it FREQUENCY

max
is better to connect the amplifier in the f

unity gain configuration shown in Fig.

49A.
As we explained before, if feedback is
used in an amplifier, the magnitude of the OUTPUT
CD
gain decreases and the bandwidth in-
—J
creases. In the extreme case of unity gain, o
the amplifier frequency response curve
extends all the way to the point where it
meets the open-loop roll-off curve. This is
TIME
shown in Fig. 49B. In this figure we show
the frequency response for open-loop
gain, a gain of 100, and the frequency Fig. 49. Frequency response measurement.

59
 same. The frequency response is always this situation overshoots to 110 millivolts
taken when the gain drops to 3db below and then comes back down, the amount
the low-frequency or dc value. As you of overshoot is 10% (10 millivolts/100
can see, this frequency will decrease as millivolts). In the case of many high-
the closed-loop gain of the amplifier frequency amplifiers, the overshoot can
increases. go up to 40%.
Rise Time and Delay Time. The same The frequency response and rise time
circuit that was used for the frequency characteristics of an op amp are in-
response measurement is also used to find timately related. In general, amplifiers
the rise time of the amplifier. However, with very high-frequency response have
instead of connecting an input sine wave, much faster rise times than amplifiers
we connect a square wave of about 100 that have a low-frequency response. The
millivolts peak-to-peak. We then monitor rise time and frequency response are
the output with an oscilloscope. The closely related; if one is known, the other
procedure is to observe the output on an can be calculated. The formula F= .35/tr
expanded time scale and measure the shows this relationship. F is the 3 db
output rise time from 10% to 90% of its down frequency, or the amplifier band-
rise. If the square wave input rise is fast width in MHz, where the t, is the rise
compared to the rise time of the ampli- time expressed in microseconds. For ex-
fier, the rise time of the square wave ample, if the rise time is .5 microsecond,
input can be neglected. For example, if the bandwidth, or 3db cutoff, is .35/.5 =
we use agenerator with arise time of 10 .7 MHz. By turning the formula around
nanoseconds and the rise time seen on the (t, = .35/f), you can calculate the rise
oscilloscope is 1 microsecond, the 10 time for agiven bandwidth.
nanoseconds can be neglected.
In Fig. 49C we show apicture of what SUMMARY
can be seen on a dual channel oscillo-
scope. The first signal is the input step, or In this section we have attempted to
square wave, which we have shown as an describe the procedures for testing,
ideal condition with zero rise time. The measuring and evaluating some op amp
dashed line is what could be the amplifier parameters. In many cases such compre-
output. As we mentioned before, the rise hensive tests are not necessary. The most
time is measured from the 10% point to important tests that guarantee op amp
the 90% point. • performance are:
It is also possible that some degree of
overshoot will be noticed rather than a 1. Open-loop gain.
smooth signal that simply follows the 2. Input offset voltage and input off-
input. In many cases the overshoot limits set voltage drift with temperature.
must be specified by expressing the 3. Input offset current.
amount of overshoot as a percentage of 4. Input impedance.
the output voltage. Take the case where
the input voltage is 100 millivolts and the In applications where we are interested
output voltage is also 100 millivolts be- in specific characteristics, they must be
cause the circuit is connected with the measured. If we have an op amp that will
unity gain configuration. If the output in change very much with time, the van-

60
ations of gain, offset voltage and current any test was not passed, a red light
with power supply voltage change be- indicates ano-go condition.
come very critical. However, in most A photograph of one of these units is
applications the parameters given are all shown in Fig. 50. The square push
that are needed to guarantee good op buttons are used to select the desired test
amp performance. while the rotary switches select various
A lot of these test circuits can be input parameters. The meter is used for
combined with switching arrangements to voltage and current measurements. This
form apiece of test equipment that can unit tests integrated circuit op amps that
quickly perform all of the op amp tests are plugged into the test socket below the
given here. These automatic test sets for push buttons. You are going to study
op amps are able to sequence from one integrated circuits in detail in a later
test to the other by themselves. By using lesson. You will see then how useful this
comparators they provide alight signal of device is in testing integrated circuit op
whether all the tests have been passed; if amps.

Courtesy Philbrick/Nexus-Teledyne
Fig. 50. An automatic operational amplifier tester.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS (aj) The output rise time of an op amp

(ai) Why is the open-loop gain measure- is 400 nanoseconds (.4 micro-
ment made at a very low fre- seconds). What is the 3 db band-
quency? width?

61
 Answers to Self-Test Questions
(a) True. ponent characteristics with tem-
(b) False. The gain is the ratio of the perature, time and power supply
feedback to the input resistor. variations.
(c) True. (u) No. This circuit can adjust the
(d) True. offset to produce azero output for
(e) False. zero input, but drift will change
(0 Gain = Rf/R 1 = 84K/12K = 7. the characteristics and make the
(g) E. =— gain X Ei =—4(-3.5) = output above or below zero.
+14 volts. (v) Six db per octave is equivalent to
(h) High open-loop gain, high input 20 db per decade. 100 Hz to 1kHz
impedance, low output impedance, is a decade change so the gain
wide frequency response, direct drops by 20 db or from 120 db to
coupling, low drift, low power 100 db.
consumption, differential inputs. (w) Frequency compensation networks
(i) Gain = I+ Rf/R 1 = 1+ 120K/30K insure a6db per octave roll-off to
= 1+4= 5. prevent oscillation.
(i) E. = Rf/R 1 (E 2 — El) = (x) High input impedance can be ob-
75K/15K [-23 — (-16)] = tained by using FET input tran-
5(-23 + 16) = 5(-7) = —35 volts. sistors, the Darlington connection
(k) False. or super-high Beta transistors at
(I) False. The load is connected be- low current levels.
tween the output and the inverting (Y) A booster amplifier is used with an
input. op amp to permit it to develop its
(m) k= E./E i =9/27 =.333. normal output voltage across alow
(n) Gain = 1/k = 1/.004 =250. resistance load. It is apower ampli-
(o) Unmatched emitter-base voltage fier.
drop in the differential input tran- (z) The internal self-bias, due to the
sistors is the basic cause of input depletion layer, causes crossover
offset voltage. distortion.
(P) Unmatched leakage and Beta in the (aa) E. = — [EI(R f/R i)+ E2(Rf/R 2)
input transistors cause input offset +E3(Rf/R 3)]
current. E. = — L—10(20K/10K) +
(q) A high input impedance does not 6(20K/5K) +8(20K/2K)]
load the driving source. E. =— [—1 0(2) +6(4) +8(10)]
(r) Rise time is the time it takes the E. =— (-20 +24 +80) =—84.
amplifier output to rise from 10% (ab) True.
to 90% of its final amplitude in (ac) True.
response to astep input. (ad) True. Changing the feedback ca-
(s) The power supply voltages de-
pacity varies the gain so the rate of
termine the output swing limit.
output voltage change can be con-
(t) Drift is caused by changes in com-
trolled.

62
(ae) False. The op amp integrator does (ah) True.
invert. (ai) Since the gain begins to roll off at a
(af) Gain = 1/R-C = 11(100K X 1mfd) very low frequency, to obtain a
equals measurement of the maximum
1/(100,000 X 1X 10 -6 )= open-loop gain, the test should be
1/(10 5 X 10 -6 )= performed at dc or some low fre-
1/10 -- = 1/.1 = 10. quency before this roll-off occurs.
(ag) E. = —1/R-C • Ein • t = —10 (aj) Bandwidth f = .35/t, = .35/.4 =
(—.3)(7) =21 volts. .875 MHz or 875 kHz.

63
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet K309.
Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.
Most students want to know their grades as soon as possible, so they mail their set of
answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the next lesson within afew days,
send in two sets of answers at atime. Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't
hold your answers too long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than
two sets at atime or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What three transistor characteristics affect input offset voltage and current?

2. What two external conditions are most responsible for changes in op amp
characteristics?

3. A two-input op amp summer has input resistors R1 = 50K, R2 = 40K to which are
applied input voltages of El = —30 volts and E2 = +40 volts. The feedback resistor
Rf is 200K. What are the output voltage amplitude and polarity?

4. Name two ways of getting high input impedance in an op amp.

5. An input voltage of —2.3 volts is applied to an op amp follower. What is the output
voltage?

6. A triangular waveform is applied to acomparator whose reference input is grounded.

The output signal will be:

(a) A triangular wave

(b) A sine wave
(c) A square wave
(d) A fixed dc voltage

7. The output saturation limit on an op amp integrator is -

±50 volts. The integrator gain
is 5, the input voltage is +2 and the circuit integrates for 4seconds. Is the output in
saturation?

8. The 10% to 90% output rise time of an op amp is .08 microseconds. What is the
upper 3db down bandwidth?

9. As the closed-loop gain of an op amp circuit increases, the bandwidth

(a) increases
(b) decreases

10. Name five mathematical operations that an op amp can perform.

(4 )
 4

COMPETITION
When a competitor opens a shop in your neighborhood,
your first reactions are probably the same as those of most
people — you feel that he is "cutting in" on your trade and
that, by fair or foul means, he may run you out of business.
However, there is another view to take of this problem.

First, forget your fears! A mind frozen by mistrust and hate

is incapable of reasoning; it will lead you to the very downfall
you fear. Face the facts: someone else is in the same business,
so you must make your services so much better than his that
you get your share of the work.

Welcome the competition as a spur — something to force

you to your best efforts — something to make you become
more careful, more efficient, more alert. You will find that
honest competition adds enjoyment to your work.

And, another thing, force your competitor to rise to your

level to survive — don't stoop to his. Do your best work and
you'll find that your fears were not justified — there is plenty
of business for the man who can deliver the goods!

I
•

•
 I

Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-710(506)
ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

INTRODUCING YOU

TO ELECTRONICS

B101
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

E I. Introduction Pages 1-4

This section gives you aglimpse of the opportunities in store
for you, and also some helpful suggestions on how to study.

E 2. Electricity Pages 5-12

You get abasic idea of what electricity is.

3. Current Flow Pages 13 -17

You learn how current is made to flow in acircuit, and the
relationship between current, voltage and resistance.

4. Magnetism Pages 18 -24

You learn about the importance of magnetism in electronics.

5. Electronic Components Pages 25 -37

We look at a number of basic parts; conductors, insulators,
batteries, coils, transformers, resistors, vacuum tubes and
transistors.

6. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 38 -39

7. Answer the Lesson Questions.

8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

P113M 1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 Deciding to study the NRI course Since in the second book, and in
is one of the wisest decisions of your each of the following books that you
life. Why? Because this course has will study, you will be building on
been planned and written from be- what you have learned in previous
ginning to end especially for men books, it is important for you to
who must do their studying at home, understand each new idea as it is
usually after their regular day's presented before going on to the next
work. Each of NRI 's bite size lessons subject. Do not make the mistake of
has been programmed into small skipping over a section that you do
sections. Most of these sections can not at first understand. Usually if
be mastered with little over an any section of alesson at first seems
hour's diligent study. difficult, you will be able to under-
The amount of education you now stand it completely by rereading it
have is of less importance than an several times. If after you have
unswerving ambition to succeed. The carefully studied a section of a les-
first lesson starts right at the be- son, you find there are still some
ginning assuming that you know points puzzling you, take advantage
nothing about electronics, and pre- of the NRI Consultation Service to
pares you for the more advanced ask for extra help. Try to be as
second lesson. If you will make a specific as possible about exactly
firm resolution now to work on your what is not clear to you -- we will
course regularly, you can be assured be glad to assist you; we are here
of success. The rewards that can be to help you.
yours by satisfactorily completing The surest way to succeed is to
your course are within your grasp. be determined to succeed. Make a
You've taken the first step by en- sincere promise to yourself right
rolling, now the next step is to set now, that you are going to complete
up a study schedule, and then stick your NRI course and succeed in
to that study schedule at all costs. electronics.

1
 OPPORTUNITIES Electronic equipment is also be-
coming more and more important in
Let us look at a few of the oppor- industry. Electronics in industry
tunities that are available to the represents a tremendous new field,
qualified technician. As an NRI the surface of which has just been
graduate you will be in a position to scratched. Electronic equipment is
choose your opportunity, instead of used to count finished components
waiting for it to come to you. coming off assembly lines, it is used
In radio, for instance, there are to inspect manufactured parts, it is
hundreds of different job opportuni- used to control precision machines,
ties in entertainment broadcasting automatically making possible the
alone. You might think that television high-speed production of items that
has eliminated the opportunities in could formerly be made only manu-
this field of radio. The actual facts ally by highly skilled operators.
are that almost every week new radio Electronics is used in oil refiner-
stations are licensed by the FCC and ies, in the manufacturing and qual-
that the annual radio receiver pro- ity-control of new cars, in the new
duction in this country is close to plastics industry and in many other
10,000,000 receivers. fields, too numerous to mention. As
Television has not eliminated op- a matter of fact, there is hardly an
portunities in the radio field; instead industrial process in which elec-
it has created new opportunities of tronics cannot be put to use advan-
its own. The demand for broadcast tageously. Here is a field of un-
technicians and television service- limited opportunities; a field that is
men has never been fully satisfied just developing.
since television first swept across From the preceding list of oppor-
the country. Now color television is tunities you might think that this is
here, and it is creating still greater an industry already fully developed.
demands for trained men. You can be Actually we have barely scratched
one of them. the surface. You are going to see
Another fact that people fail to breath-taking new developments
realize is that there are many op- which far outshadow even the mira-
portunities outside the entertain- cle of color television. Because your
ment broadcasting field. There are NRI training is built upon a sound
thousands of fascinating well-paid foundation, you will be prepared for
jobs for men in communications sys- the undreamed-of jobs that will soon
tems on land, on sea, and in the air. be created by new developments. You
Fire and police departments, tele- will not only learn about equipment
phone companies, power companies, in use today, but you will also learn
gas companies, railroads, and air- the fundamental ideas in back of the
lines are only a few of the many operation of tomorrow's equipment.
organizations using radio communi- Once you understand this basic theo-
cations equipment. The use of radio ry, you will be able to understand
in industrial communications is in new developments as they come
fact increasing so fast that finding along. You will understand how they
frequency assignments for all the work, because you will know the
new stations is becoming a serious fundamentals. New electronic equip-
problem. ment will not use new circuits, it

2
will use the basic circuits you will periods of rest. After you've com-
be studying, but in new ways. pleted several lessons, you will be
able to study longer without getting
HOW TO STUDY tired.
Be Fair to Yourself.
Naturally, you want to complete Most of us have asked for that
your course and become an expert second slice of apple pie only to
technician as quickly as possible. discover we are too full to handle
To help you do this, here are a few it. An over-ambitious study schedule
suggestions on how to study. can be like that second slice of pie.
A Study Schedule. Be sure your study schedule is rea-
The first suggestion is that you sonable, one that you will have no
plan a study schedule. Decide how trouble following. This schedule
many hours you'll study each week. need not deprive you of time for other
Then decide on which days you will activities. A well planned schedule
be able to work on your course. Fi- will see to it that each activity
nally, decide the time during the day gets its fair share of your attention.
or evening that will be best for study- If possible, have a regular place
ing. to study, and get used to going to
How Often to Study. the same place each time you study.
Space your study periods close to- Naturally, this place should be rela-
gether. The ideal arrangement is to tively free of distracting noises. If
devote some time to your course the noise around you can't be con-
each day. If you can't spare one or trolled, consider going to a Public
two hours, study for 45 minutes,half Library. Libraries are quiet and
an hour, or whatever you can spare. have an ideal study atmosphere.
Regular study is the key to learn- When you sit down to study, be
ing effectively. You can learn and sure to have everything you need.
remember much more from study- Then you won't have to stop in the
ing 30 minutes daily than from longer middle of a lesson to get a pencil,
sessions spaced several days apart. paper etc. Keep these materials
Studying daily, or every other day, near your place of study at all times
keeps the instruction fresh in your so that once you sit down, you can
mind. If three or four days pass be- go right to work.
tween study periods, you may forget Here are some suggestions to help
most of what you learned from your you study your lesson texts system-
last session. It's hard to pick up atically. These suggestions are the
where you left off, and you often result of years of experience with
have to do a lot of "back-tracking" well over 600,000 students and will
to refresh your memory. enable you to learn effectively.
Take a Break. Survey the Lesson.
Unless you're accustomed to Begin each new lesson with a
studying regularly, you may find that survey. First, read the Study Sched-
you tire easily. This isn't unusual. ule to get a general idea of the sub-
It will take time for you to get the jects and their order of presentation.
"study habit". Next, thumb through the lesson and
In the beginning, make your study look at the different main headings.
periods short and break them up with The main headings are the same as

3
each step in the Study Schedule. periodically. A good system is to
Now carry the survey further. review completed lessons at about
Look at the smaller headings under the same rate you study new lessons.
each main heading to get amore de- For example, when you finish six
tailed idea of what the lesson covers. lessons, go over the first two again.
In fact, you should glance at the first When you finish your next new les-
two or three sentences under each son, review the third and fourth les-
heading. sons. After your review catches up to
The survey acquaints you with the your new lessons, start the review
lesson. When you begin a thorough over again. Naturally, when you re-
study, you will know what to expect. view, you will not have to be as thor-
Read and Recite. ough as when you study the lesson.
After the survey, you are ready However, just skimming through the
to study the lesson. Remember, the lesson you are reviewing will help
text is full of facts and explanations. recall the important points in that
To absorb them, you should read lesson.
every sentence carefully, turning Your lessons contain a series of
over in your mind what it says and self-test questions which are related
means. to the major topics of eachtext.You
Stop periodically and try to recall should try to answer each question,
what you've read. Actually recite to in writing, as you come to it in your
yourself the main headings and the studies. Before continuing, check
important ideas under each. Then your answer against the "Answers
check back to see whether you've to Self-Test Questions" on pages 38
covered everything. If you've left and 39. If you have answered the
something out, restudy those points questions correctly, go on to the next
and again try to repeat them to section. If any of your answers are
yourself. incorrect, review the topic just
Answering the Test Questions. covered.
On the last page of each lesson The se Self-Test Questions are for
are ten questions covering subjects your own use so you can see how well
in the lesson text. you understand the material. Do NOT
You'll probably find many of the Send the Answers to the .Ug_.f-'e
questions easy to answer. Some will Questions to NRI for Gradins. This
require a good deal of thought. A will only slow down your instructor.
few may seem difficult but will help Now you are ready to go -- ready
you develop the ability to work out to start your study of electronics.
problems you'll encounter in the At first we will study a few basic
field. ideas and then we will use these
If you come to aquestion you can't ideas in building up some simple
answer, find that part of the lesson circuits. Make sure you fully under-
where the subject is covered. Re- stand the ideas and circuits as they
read that portion carefully, fixing are presented. Even the most com-
the answer to the question firmly in plex electronic equipment is made
mind. Then write out the answer in up of nothing more than a large
your own words. number of the simple circuits that
You will find it helpful to review you will study in your early lessons.

4
 Electricity
Electricity and magnetism play an cloth and rub the balls with the cloth
important part in the operation of all and then suspend them, instead of
electronic equipment. But what is hanging straight down as they did
electricity? What is magnetism? If before, the balls will tend to swing
you learn the answers to these two out as shown in Fig. 2 as though
questions once and for all now, you some force were pushing them apart.
will havethe foundation for everything
else you will study and work with in
your electronics career. Let us take
up electricity first.

WHAT ELECTRICITY IS

We will start our discussion of

what electricity is by describing a
few simple experiments that were
performed by scientists many years
ago. These experiments helped lead
to the understanding of electricity
that we have today. You do not have
to perform these experiments. We Fig. 2. I'm) glass balls that have been
are describing them only to help you rubbed with asilk cloth move apart.
understand electricity.
If two small glass balls are sus- Actually, there must be some force
pended by threads as shown in Fig. pushing them apart; rubbing the balls
1, the weight of the glass balls will with the silk cloth has produced the
cause them to hang straight down as force.
shown. Now if we take apiece of silk The same experiment can be per-
formed using two small hard-rubber
balls. Again, before the balls have
been rubbed with the silk cloth they
THREAD will hang vertically, but once they
have been rubbed with the silk cloth
they will push apart. Again rubbing
the small balls with the silk cloth
has produced a force which pushes
SMALL GLASS BALLS the balls apart.
STAND
There are two important points
illustrated by these experiments.
First, rubbing the balls with the silk
cloth produced a force that pushed
the balls apart. We call this force a
Fig. I. Two small glass balls suspended "charge". The act of producing this
by threads will hang vertically because force is called "charging". We say
of the weight of the balls. that the balls are "charged."

5
 Second, let us consider what hap- cause a force was produced on the
pened when we rubbed the glass balls two balls, otherwise they would
with the silk cloth. When we rubbed simply hang straight down. We also
the two balls, we charged them. Since know that the forces produced on the
both balls were charged in the same two balls were such that the balls
way, it is logical to assume that we did not repel each other, at least at
have placed the same kind of acharge first, because the two balls moved
on the two balls. But the two balls together and touched. Since we have
pushed each other apart. We had seen from the previous experiments
similar results when we charged that like charges repel, these
the two rubber balls. They also re- charges must have been unlike. In
pelled each other. From these ex- other words, there must be a dif-
periments we can conclude that if ferent kind of charge on the glass
two objects are charged with the ball from the one on the rubber.
same kind of a charge, they will These simple experiments lead
repel each other. This is a basic us to a fundamental important rule,
electrical law, and it is usually
stated: "like charges repel;
unlike charges attract."
like charges repel.
Remember this rule, it is important.
Now, if the same experiment is You will use it throughout your en-
performed using one small glass tire career in electronics. You will
ball and one small rubber ball, we soon use this simple rule to help
would observe an entirely different explain the operation of many elec-
effect. When the balls are rubbed tronic devices.
with the silk and then suspended, Now let us proceed with our study
instead of moving apart, the two balls of electricity to see if we can ex-
would move toward each other as plain more fully what happened in
shown in Fig. 3. If they are placed the experiments we have just de-
close enough together, they will scribed. To do this we must study
move toward each other until they the electron theory.
touch. Once the two balls touch each
other, they will begin to move apart
to hang straight down. They will
probably swing past the straight-
down point and then swing back to-
gether and touch again. This cycle
may be repeated several times until
eventually the balls will hang
straight down as they would if they
had not been charged in the first
place. Now let us see what con-
clusions we can draw from this ex-
periment.
We have seen that rubbing the.two
balls with the silk cloth charged them Fig. :3. The charged glass and rubber balls
as before. This we know is true be- t• ill move together and touch each other.

6
 THE ELECTRON THEORY of this atom has one positive charge.
Travelling around this nucleus in an
Everything on this earth is made elliptical path is one electron which
up of tiny particles. You can see for has a negative charge. The negative
yourself that the earth is not one charge on the electron exactly bal-
solid piece of material, it is made ances the positive charge on the
up of tiny particles of sand and stone nucleus so that electrically the atom
and rock. Even the smallest grain is neutral. The most complex atom
of sand is itself made up of millions found in nature is the uranium atom.
of still smaller particles, so small The nucleus of the uranium atom has
that they cannot be seen even with 92 positive charges and travelling
the most powerful microscope. around the nucleus of this atom are
The smallest particle of a sub- 92 electrons which will exactly bal-
stance that retains the original ance the 92 charges on the nucleus,
properties of the substance is called so that the net electrical charge on
an "atom." All atoms of agiven sub- the atom is zero.
stance are alike. In other words, the Between the simplest atom, which
smallest particle of apiece of copper is the hydrogen atom, and the most
that still is and resembles copper is complex atom are 90 other mate-
called an atom. These atoms are so rials. They range from the helium
small that a piece of copper the size atom which has two positive charges
of the head of a pin would contain on the nucleus and two electrons
millions of atoms. travelling around it up to the pro-
But the atom is not the smallest tactinium atom which has 91
particle, the atom itself is made up charges on the nucleus and 91 elec-
of still smaller particles. Scientists trons travelling around it.
have identified a number of different In their natural state the electrons
particles from which the atom is travelling around the nucleus of an
made. However, we are interested atom exactly balance the positive
in only two of these particles, thé charges on the nucleus. However,
nucleus* and the electron. We are
- under some circumstances an atom
more interested in the electron than might loose one of its electrons.
we are in the nucleus. When this happens, the electron,
The nucleus is the center of the which carries a negative electrical
atom. Travelling around the nucleus charge, moves off into space or over
in elliptical paths (a somewhat cir- to a nearby atom. Meanwhile, the
cular path that has been squashed, atom which has lost the electron
like an egg or football) will be one or now does not have enough electrons
more electrons. The number of elec- to completely balance the positive
trons will be different for atoms of charge on the nucleus. As a result,
different elements. the atom has apositive charge.
The nucleus of an atom has aposi- Under some circumstances the
tive charge. The simplest atom is opposite might happen, and an atom
the hydrogen atom and the nucleus might pick up an extra electron.

T. be strictly correct we should not call the nucleus a particle, because it is made
up of smaller particles. However, for our purposes we can consider the nucleus as one
particle.

7
 plest atom, to uranium, the most
complex atom, the electrons fill the
inner rings first. For example, the
hydrogen atom shown in Fig. 5A has
one electron traveling around the
nucleus. The helium atom shown in
Fig. 5B has the first ring filled with
two electrons travelling around the
nucleus. The lithium atom has three
electrons as in Fig. 5C, two elec-
trons fill the first ring and the third
electron appears in the second ring.
Subsequent elements will have elec-
trons in the second ring until amaxi-
mum of eight electrons is reached in
this ring. The next element will have
Fig. I. the maximum number of electrons two electrons in the first ring, eight
there can be in each of the first four rings in the second and the eleventh elec-
of any atom. tron in the third ring.
When the outer ring of electrons
When this happens the atom has more in an -- atom is filled, the atom is very

electrons than it needs to completely stable electrically and chemically.

neutralize the charge on the nucleus. It is almost impossible to get an
As a result, the atom will have a electron to move out of the atom or
negative charge. to force another electron into the
The electrons around the nucleus atom. On the other hand, if the outer
of an atom travel around it in rings. ring MS all the electrons it can hold
There is amaximum number of elec- * except one, it is very easy to force
trons that can be in each ring. In an electron into that outer ring to fill
Fig. 4 we have shown the maximum the ring. By contrast, if the outer
number of electrons that can be in al* has only one electron in it, that
each of the first four rings surround- 'electron is not held very closely to
ing the nucleus of an atom. As the the atom and therefore it can easily
atoms go from hydrogen, the smi- move out of its position into space

Iig. 5. The hplrogen atom is shin at A. the helium atom at 11. and the litnium atom at C.

8
,or to another atom.
The copper atom is an excellent
example of an atom with one elec-
tron in its outer ring. The positive
charge on the nucleus of the copper
atom is 29 as shown in Fig. 6. The
first three rings of the atom are
filled, they hold all the electrons
they can. However, the 29th electron
required to neutralize the charge on
the nucleus is in the fourth ring by
Itself. This electron is not held very
closely to the nucleus. As a result,
it can move easily from one atom to
another. This is the reason why cop-
per wire is so widely used in elec- Fig. 6. The nucleus of the copper atom
tronic equipment and in electric has a positive charge of 29. Around the
power distribution. nucleus there are normally 29 electrons
If we apply some external force to arranged as shown above.
a copper atom, we can easily knock
the outermost electron loose and it trons are like charges they tend to
might move to an outer ring of a repel each other.
nearby atom. This atom will then In a piece of copper there will be
have two electrons in the fourth millions of atoms. Each of these
ring. It then has one more electron atoms will have a nucleus that has
than it needs to neutralize the charge a positive charge of 29 on it and
on the nucleus. The tendency is for around it 29 electrons that neutralize
this atom to get rid of this extra this positive charge. The electrons
charge as quickly as possible. Either are held in the atom by the positive
the new electron that moved into the charge on the neeus which attracts
fourth ring will be forced out of this them. At the same time the elec-
ring, or the original electron in the trons are repelling other electrons
fourth ring will move out. In any in the atom and electrons in nearby
case, whichever of the two electrons atoms. There is more or less acon-
leaves this fourth ring will move dition where there is a balance be-
over to a nearby atom, and it in turn tween the nucleus holding or attract-
will upset the balance of this atom ing its electrons and at the same
and either move on itself, or force time the electrons repelling or push-
the electron in the outer ring of this ing away other electrons.
atom out. If we take a piece of copper wire
Now if you will remember when we and connect something to it that will
rubbed the two glass balls and the two try to pull electrons from one end of
rubber balls with a silk cloth and the wire and push them into the other
placed like charges on them they end we will set up an instantaneous
repelled each other. Electrons have chain reaction along that wire. The
a negative electrical charge. All instant an electron starts to move
electrons have exactly the same out of the fourth ring of one of the
charge. Since the charges on elec- copper atoms the negative charge on

9
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Fig. 7. The hollow tube shown at .‘ is full of ping pong balls. when an extra ball is
pushed into end a at II. the effect is to push all the balls at once and aball starts to
to fall out at end b.

that electron will push an electron you start an electron moving at end
out of the fourth ring of a nearby a of the wire shown in Fig. 8. Al-
atom. At the same instant, it in turn though the electrons are not touch-
will start pushing an electron out of ing each other there is a force be-
the fourth ring of an atom adjacent tween them as shown, so that this
to it. This will happen all the way force causes electrons all down the
along the wire so that at the instant wire to start to move at the same
an electron starts moving at one end instant. If you were to apply agreater
of the copper another electron will force so that two electrons started
start moving at the other end. The moving at end, a, of the wire as shown
motion of the electrons will be the in Fig. 9A, this force would cause
same all through the length of the two electrons to start moving all the
wire. way down the wire as shown. Simi-
You might get abetter idea of what larly if you increase the force still
is happening if you took ahollow tube further and start three electrons
such as shown in Fig. 7A and filled moving at end, a, as shown in Fig.
it with ping pong balls so that the 9B, then you have this chain re-
balls are all touching each other. action of three moving the entire
The minute you start to force an length of the wire. The motion _ce
extra ball into the one end, a, all the electrons will be the same through-
balls in the tube start to move and out the length of the wire.
a ball starts to fall out of the end The movement of electrons along
b as shown in Fig. 7B. The move- the wire is called current flow. This
ment is instantaneous through the is what an electric current is. We
entire length of the tube. will go into this in detail in the next
The same situation exists when section of this lesson. However, be-

A 3

FORCE

Fig. 8. When force is applied at end A of wire and an electron is pushed towards B.
there is an instantaneous reaction all along the length of wire pushing a line of elec-
trons towards 13.

10
fore going to the next section let us the extra electrons on the rubber
explain the action of the charged ball will leave the rubber ball and
rubber and glass balls. When the move over to the glass ball and
glass ball is rubbed with the silk partly make up for the shortage of
cloth, the friction of rubbing the ball electrons on the glass ball. When
removes some of the electrons from this happens, the balls may swing
the ball. Once the electrons have apart, but the charges will not be
been removed, there are not enough completely neutralized, so the balls
electrons left to completely neutral- will swing back together again and
ize the charges on the nuclei of the a few more electrons will move from
atoms. Therefore the glass balls will the rubber ball over to the glass ball.
have a positive charge on them. This swinging back and forth will
When we rub the rubber balls, the continue until enough electrons have

a
FORCE
FORCE
FORCE --e
FORCE e --..-0 -•
-e — •-e — '
-e — •
-40 — •"0

Fig. 9. Number of electrons set in motion along a wire depends on the force
appl ied.

rubber balls take electrons from the moved from the rubber ball to the
silk cloth so they will have more glass ball to reduce the force of at-
electrons than are needed to com- traction between the two balls until
pletely neutralize the positive it is no longer strong enough to cause
charges on the nuclei of the atoms. the balls to swing together.
Therefore the rubber balls will have
a negative charge on them. SUMMARY
Since the two similarly charged
glass balls repelled each other and We have covered a great deal of
likewise the two charged rubber material in this section, and chances
balls repelled each other, we as- are you will not be able to remember
sumed that like charges repelled. all of it. We do not expect you to re-
Indeed, two positive charges will member all of the details, but you
repel each other, and two negative should remember the important
oharges will repel each other. points such as:
When we charge one glass ball
and one rubber ball and suspend 1. Like electric charges repel, and
them near each other, they will be unlike electric charges attract.
attracted because they have unlike 2. All material is made up of ex-
charges; one is charged positive and tremely small particles called
the other is charged negative and atoms.
unlike charges attract. When they 3. All the atoms of agiven substance
move together and touch, some of are identical.

11
4. Atoms are made up of a nucleus (a) State the law of charges.
in the center, which has a posi- (b) What is an atom?
tive charge, and anumber of elec- (c) Which two parts of the atom are
trons, which have negative we interested in?
charges. Normally the atom will (d) Which part of the atom has a
have enough electrons to exactly positive charge ?Which part has
neutralize the charge on the nu- a negative charge?
cleus. (e) If the copper atom which nor-
5. The electrons arrange them- mally has 29 electrons loses
selves in rings around the nu- one of its electrons, what kind
cleus of the atom. There is a of a charge does the atom have?
maximum number of electrons )Why do electrons in adjacent
that can be in each ring. atoms repel each other?
6. In some atoms, such as the cop-
per atom, an electron can be If you can answer the preceding
easily displaced. self-test questions you can be sure
that you understand the important
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS points covered in the preceding sec-
Before going on with the next sec- tion of this lesson. However, before
tion of this lesson be sure to answer going on, here is a real tough ques-
the following self-test questions. tion for you to think about. Don't
Write out the answer to each ques- spend more than five or ten minutes
tion carefully. After you have an- thinking about it, but try to answer
swered all of the questions, check it because this will stick in your mind
your answers with those on pages38 and help you to remember some of
and 39. We do not expect you to give these important points later.
the same answer, but be sure that you
understand the point brought out by (g) One atom has ten electrons and
the question before going on to the another atom has eleven elec-
next section. Remember, do NOT trons. Which of the two atoms
send your answers to the Self-Test would you expect would most
Questions to NRI for grading. readily give up an electron?

500W en

le ek
26

12
 Current Flow
In the preceding section you have started. This is called an electric
seen how an electron being knocked circuit.
out of its atom forces additional Electrons will continue to follow
electrons out of their atoms and sets this circular path until the path or
them in motion. We have also pointed circuit is broken by disconnecting
out that if we apply some force to the wire from one terminal of the
push the electrons at one end of a cell or until the chemical action of
wire and another force to pull the the cell is exhausted.
electrons from the other end we can Notice that there must be a com-
start an instantaneous motion of plete path for the electrons to travel.
electrons along the wire with the An electron leaving one terminal of
electrons moving from one end to- the cell must be able to travel
wards the other. through a complete circuit, through
A device that is capable of doing the wire, through the cell and back
this is a flashlight cell. A flashlight
to the terminal from which it left.
cell, by means of the chemical action If you simply connect a wire to one
that occurs inside it, will push elec-terminal of the cell, nothing will
trons from one terminal and pull happen.
them into the other. If we connect a A flashlight cell has two termi-
wire between the two terminals of nals. One terminal is a small round
a flashlight cell, electrons will im- terminal in the center of one end of
mediately be set in motion through the cell. This is the positive of the
the wire and through the cell as cell. The other end of the cell is the
shown in Fig. 10. Electrons will be negative terminal of the cell. Now,
moving from the one terminal of the can you tell from whichterminal the
flashlight cell through the wire and electrons are going to leave the
back to the other terminal of the flashlight cell? Remember the ex-
cell, and through the cell back to- periment with the glass balls. When
wards the terminal from which they we charged the glass balls we placed
a like charge on the two balls and
they pushed each other apart. Now
an electron has a negative or minus
FLASHLIGHT
charge. Which terminal is going to
CELL
push electrons away, and which ter-
minal will attract them ?The answer
to these two questions is just what
you might expect from the law of
charges. We said that like charges
repel, and therefore the negative
terminal of the battery will push the
Fig. 10. 1%%ire eonneeted bet%“.en the tv,,o electrons out of the battery. The
terminals of a flashlight cell pros ides an positive terminal of the cell will
electric circuit through %%hick electrons attract the electrons, because it has
can floss. the opposite charge on it.

13
 we will have some other device con-
nected in the circuit so that the elec-
trons flowing in the circuit will do
something useful. For example, in
a flashlight we have the flashlight
bulb connected between the two ter-
minals of the flashlight cell. The
flashlight bulb is simply made of a
piece of wire, usually some very
Fig. II. The schematic diagram of asimple hard wire such as a tungsten wire
circuit. which is placed inside of the glass
envelope from which all the air has
been evacuated. When we connect the
In Fig. 11 we have repeated the flashlight cell in the circuit such as
circuit shown in Fig. 10; however, shown in Fig. 12, the electrons will
this time we have used the symbol be set in motion instantaneously
that is used in electronics to identify throughout the entire circuit as be-
a single cell such as a flashlight fore. However, the movement of
cell. Notice that we have used one electrons through the tungsten wire
short line and one longer line to produces a great deal of heat in the
represent the cell. The short line wire; in fact the wire gets so hot
identifies the negative terminal of that it reaches "white" heat and
the flashlight cell and the long line gives off light. Here we have put
the positive terminal. We have also the movement of electrons to work,
marked the terminals with - and + and have used it to produce light.
signs so that there will not be any Circuits such as shown in Figs. 10
confusion. Remember the symbol and 11 where the electrons simply
used for the cell, you will see it many travel from one terminal of the bat-
times in your electronics career. tery to the other are usually avoided::
Symbols like these are used on all Sometimes they occur accidentally
electronic diagrams to indicate the due to a parts failure and they are
various parts. There is a different then referred to as short circuits.
symbol for each part. Using asimple You will learn more about this ia
symbol instead of trying to show the later lessons.
actual part makes the diagram much
easier to understand. These dia-
grams using symbols are called
"schematic" diagrams and the indi-
vidual symbols, schematic symbols.
We will teach you each symbol as
you come to it so you will not have
to learn a lot of them at once.
In the circuits shown in Fig. 10
and 11, the electrons leaving the
negative terminal of the battery
simply flow through the wire back
to the positive terminal - they are Fig. 12. A simple circuit showing a bulb
not doing anything useful. Usually connected across a flashlight cell.

14
 THE AMPERE in the circuit per second. The actual
number of electrons that will pass
The movement of electrons the point is unimportant. However,
through an electric circuit is called a standard ampere has been set up,
an electric current. The strength and all current measurements are
of the current depends on the num- made in relationship to this standard
ber of electrons in motion at any ampere. If the number of electrons
point in the circuit. As we pointed flowing in the circuit is twice the
out previously, the number of elec- number represented by one ampere,
trons in motion will be the same at then the current flowing in the cir-
all points in the circuit. In the cir- cuit is two amperes. If it is ten times
cuits shown in Figs. 11 and 12 the the standard ampere, the current
number of electrons leaving the flowing is ten amperes. The word
negative terminal of the battery at ampere is used so often in elec-
a given time will be exactly equal to tronics that we abbreviate it "amp".
the number of electrons flowing To make it plural, we simply add an
through the flashlight bulb at the "s", for example 10 amperes is
same time and also equal to the num- written 10 amps.
ber of electrons reaching the posi-
tive terminal of the battery. THE VOLT
The number of electrons set in
motion depends upon the force ap- When we were discussing the am-
plied to the circuit, and also on the pere, we said that the amount of cur-
material used in the circuit. Some rent that will flow in a circuit de-
materials give up one or two elec- pends upon the force applied to the
trons more readily than others, and circuit. We should have some means
as a result it is easier for the elec- of measuring this force. The force
trons to move through circuits made is called the "electromotive force",
of these materials than in circuits or "voltage", and it is measured in
made up of other materials that will volts. Often you will see electro-
n' give up their electrons so easily. motive force abbreviated "emf".
We must have some way of know- You do not have to be concerned
ing how much current there is flow- about exactly how much force there
ing in a circuit. A movement of one is in one volt; the important thing
or two electrons past apoint in acir- is to know that the number of volts
cuit in a period of one second repre- indicates the amount of force applied
sents an extremely small current, to the circuit, and the higher the
so small in fact that it would be of voltage, the more force is being ap-
no useful value. Before a current plied to the circuit. In other words,
can be useful, there must be a tre- two volts represents twice as much
mendous number of electrons force as one volt. Ten volts repre-
moving past each point in the circuit. sents ten times as much force as
It would be impractical to try to one volt.
count the number of electrons, so By way of interest you might like
instead, a unit of current called the to know that the voltage of a con-
"ampere" has been devised. The am- ventional flashlight cell is approxi-
pere represents a useful number of mately one and a half or 1.5 volts.
electrons flowing past a given point The storage batteries used in mod-

15
ern automobiles are made up of six having a resistance of 1ohm, acur-
cells connected so that the voltage rent of 1 ampere will flow in the
of the six cells adds. Each cell has circuit. If we double the voltage so
a voltage of about 2 volts so that that the voltage is 2 volts and the
the total battery voltage is 12 volts. resistance is still 1 ohm, the cur-
Older automobiles may have 3 cell rent that will flow in the circuit will
storage batteries - the voltage of be 2 amps. On the other hand, if the
these cells is 6 volts. Electric light voltage is 1volt, and we double the
bulbs and most appliances in homes resistance to 2 ohms, the current
are designed to operate on avoltage that will flow in the circuit will be
of about 120 volts. only 1/2 amp.
This relationship between cur-
THE OHM rent, voltage and resistance is known
The amount of current that will as "Ohm's Law". We will use Ohm's
flow in acircuit depends on one other Law many times in future lessons.
thing besides the force applied to the For the present, all you need to re-
circuit. This is how readily the ma- member is that the current depends
terial will give up electrons and let upon the voltage and the resistance.
them move in the circuit. Some ma- If you double the voltage and keep
terials will give up electrons quite the resistance constant, the current
readily and let them move through will double. If you cut the voltage in
the circuit with little or no oppo- half and keep the resistance constant
sition. However, other materials the current will be cut in half. On
will not give up electrons so readily, the other hand, if you keep the volt-
and may offer considerable opposi- age constant but double the resist-
tion to the flow of current. This op- ance the current will be cut in half
position to current flow is called but if you keep the voltage constant
"resistance". The resistance of a and cut the resistance in half the
material depends upon how readily current will double. Increasing the
it will allow electrons to move voltage increases the current, re-
through it. Resistance is measured ducing the voltage reduces the cur-
in "ohms". Again, you need not know rent. Increasing the resistance re-
the exact definition of a standard duces the current and reducing the
ohm, the important thing to know is resistance increases the current.
that resistance is the opposition to
SUMMARY
current flow in a circuit and that it
is measured in ohms. Here are the important points you
should remember from this section
OHM'S LAW f:e" of the lesson:
We have said that the current that 1. If a flashlight cell is connected
flows in a circuit depends upon the to a wire made up of a material
force or voltage applied to the cir- from which some of the electrons
cuit and on the opposition or resist- can be displaced, electrons will
ance in the circuit. This means that move from the negative terminal
the current depends both on the volt- of the cell through the wire to the
age and on the resistance. positive terminal, and through the
If in an electrical circuit a volt- cell back to the negative terminal
age of 1 volt is applied to a circuit making a complete circuit. The

16
 cell provides the force that sets cell has a surplus of electrons?
the electrons in motion. Which terminal has a shortage
2. A movement of electrons through of electrons?
the circuit is called a "current". (1) When an electric circuit is
In a simple circuit such as shown completed do the electrons
in Figs. 10 and 11, the movement start in motion at the negative
of electrons is the same at all terminal of the battery first?
points in the circuit. Also, re- At the positive terminal of the
• member that once the wire is battery? Or do they start in mo-
connected to the two-battery ter- tion instantaneously through-
minals and the electron move- out the entire circuit?
ment starts, it starts the same )What is the unit in which we
instant in all parts of the circuit. measure electric currents?
3. The unit used to measure the (k) What is the unit used to meas-
strength of an electric current is ure the electromotive force ap-
the ampere. plied in an electric circuit?
4. The unit of force that sets the (1 ) What unit is used to measure
electrons in motion is the volt. the opposition to current flow in
5. The unit of resistance is the ohm. an electric circuit?
6. The relationship between cur- 111) According to Ohm's Law, what -i
rent, voltage and resistance is effect on the electric current e
known as Ohm's Law. flowing in the circuit will in- r
creasing the voltage have? 1-

(n) If we reduce the resistance in v

SELF -TEST QUESTIONS
an electric circuit, will the cur-
rent in the circuit increase or
_
(h) Which terminal of a flashlight will it decrease?

17
 Magnetism

Magnetism is as important in passes are made simply of a mag-

electronics as electricity. Without netized piece of steel that is mounted
magnetism there would be no elec- on a delicately pivotted bearing that
tronics industry at all, for magnet- will turn as easily as the needle sus-
ism and electricity work together pended by the thread.
to make our modern electronic de-
vices possible. POLES or A MAGNET

PERMANENT MAGNETS The ends of a permanent magnet

are called "poles". This name was
A magnet will pick up or attract given to the ends of a magnet be-
small pieces of steel or iron. Min- cause the ends point toward the poles
erals that have this property are of the earth when the magnet is free
found buried in the ground in some to pivot on an axis. The pole that
parts of the world. These minerals points toward the north pole of the
are called natural magnets. A piece earth was originally called the
of iron or steel can be made into a "north-seeking" pole. However, for
magnet by stroking it in one direc- simplicity the name has been short-
tion with a magnet. When we make a ened to the "north pole". The mag-
magnet in this way, we say that the netic pole that points to the south
metal is "magnetized". These mag- pole of the earth is called the "south
nets are called "permanent" mag- pole".
nets, because they will retain their If two magnets are brought near
magnetism almost indefinitely. each other, the north pole of one
Originally, permanent magnets
were made of iron or steel, but mod-
ern permanent magnets are usually
made of an alloy called "Alnico".
Alnico is a mixture of aluminum,
nickel and cobalt. Very strong light-
MAGNETIZED
weight magnets, which retain their NEEDLE
magnetism much better than mag-
nets made of iron or steel, can be
made from Alnico.
When a magnetized steel needle
is suspended at its balance point by
a light thread, as shown in Fig. 13,
the needle will always line up in a Fig. 13. If a magnetized needle is sus-
direction corresponding closely to pended at its balance point by a thin
north and south. This phenomenon thread, the needle will lin e up in a north
led to the first practical use for and south direction like a compass. be-
magnets, in compasses used by early cause it lines up with the magnetic field
sea voyagers and travellers. Com- of the earth.

18
 magnet will repel the north pole of
the other. Similarly, the south pole
of one magnet will repel the south
pole of another magnet. However,
the north pole of one magnet will
attract the south pole of the other .1— .11.—

magnet. The reason why a compass

r
e always points in a north-south di- /.
/ R
Pe
4
rection is that the earth itself is ,r

a magnet, and one pole of this large

C PASS, )
magnet is near the north geographic
pole, and the other pole is near the
Fig. It small compass ran be used to
south geographic pole. The north
trace magnetic lines of force near a per-
pole of the earth attracts one of the manent magnet.
poles of the magnet and repels the
other. The south pole of the earth the compass as shown in Fig. 14,
attracts the pole that is repelled by you will be able to trace out the lines
the north pole, and repels the pole of force. The lines of force are shown
that is attracted by the north pole. coming from the north pole of the
Therefore, the magnet will point in magnet and going to the south pole.
a direction so that one pole points We do not know for sure whether or
toward the north magnetic pole and not this is true, but there is con-
the other pole points toward the southsiderable evidence that the lines of
magnetic pole. force actually do go from the north
Notice the similarity between the pole to the south pole and therefore
attraction and repulsion of magnetic we will base our explanations on this
poles and the attraction and repul- assumption.
sion of electric charges. You al- Another experiment that can be
ready know that "like charges repel performed to show the lines of force
and unlike charges attract". In mag- around a magnet is to place a thin
nets, "like poles repel and unlike sheet of cardboard over amagnet and
poles attract". This is afundamental then sprinkle iron filings evenly over
law of magnetism; you should re- the sheet of cardboard. Tap the card-
member it. board gently, and the iron filings will
arrange themselves indefinite lines,
MAGNETIC LINES producing the pattern shown at the
OF FORCE top in Fig. 15.
If two magnets are arranged so
There are lines of force surround- that their north poles are placed
ing a magnet. You can trace out the close together and then iron filings
lines of force around a magnet by are sprinkled on a cardboard placed
using a small compass. If you bring over the magnet, the iron filings will
the compass near the north pole of arrange themselves as shown in the
the magnet, the south pole of the center of Fig. 15. Notice that you can
compass will be attracted to the see the lines of force from the north
north pole of the magnet. The com- poles of the two magnets actually re-
pass needle will line up with the pelling each other.
magnetic lines of force. If you move You would get a third pattern by

19
 This is called "electro magnetism".
The circular lines of force around
the wire can actually be traced out
with a compass. There will be many
of these magnetic rings surrounding
the entire length of the wire. The
magnetic lines of force close to the
wire will be much stronger and more
easily detected than those at some
distance from the wire as shown in 11
Fig. 16. However, even with a weak
current flowing through awire, mag-
netic lines of force can be detected
some distance from the wire, with
sensitive equipment.
Even though the magnetic lines of
force around a current-carrying
wire can be detected, the magnetic
field will be weak unless the current
Fig. 15. IF iron filings are placed on a flowing through the wire is very
sheet of cardboard over permanent mag- strong. However, by winding the wire
nets, they %ill trace out lines of force as in the form of a coil, a strong mag-
shw.n here. net can be made. When the wire is
bent into a loop, the circular mag-
placing the north pole of one magnet netic rings pass through the center
toward the south pole of another and of the coil in the same direction and
sprinkling iron filings on a card- reinforce each other as shown in
board. The pattern you would get in Fig. 17.
this case would be like the one shown
at the bottom in Fig. 15. Here you
can see the attraction between the
north pole and the south pole of the
two magnets.
The lines of force coming from a
magnet are called "magnetic lines of
force". They are similar to the lines
Oriorce surrounding electrically
charged objects. The lines of force
around an electrically charged ob-
ject are called "electric lines of
force".

ELECTRO MAGNETS

An electric current flowing Fig. 16. Ilhen electrons flo‘% through a

through a wire produces a magnetic ‘ire, magnetic lines of force surround the
field in the space around the wire. ire. This is across-sect ion aI%ie% .

20
 COMPASS in one direction and another in a
TINY second direction, and a third in still
MAGNETIC
another direction as shown in Fig.
RING
COIL OF WIRE 18A. As a result of the random ar-
rangement of these small magnets,
../ae
N the magnetic field of one magnet is
.•-•- S
cancelled by the magnetic field of
another. However, when the iron
core is placed in the magnetic field
MAGNETIC inside the current-carrying coil, the
FIELD
magnetic field produced by the coil
DIRECTION OF
causes the particles to line up and
ELECTRON FLOW all point in the same direction as
shown in Fig. 18B. When this hap-
pens, the entire bar becomes one
Fig. 'lie more turns of %%ire %%e have strong magnet. However, most of the
in a coil, the stronger the magnetic field tiny particles are kept lined up only
%%ill be %%hen electrons flo%% through the by the magnetic field produced by the
coil. current flowing in the coil. Once this
field is removed by opening the cir-
This type of magnet is called an cuit so that the current can no longer
"electromagnet". The magnetic ef- flow through the coil, most of the
fect exists only as long as the cur- tiny particles will return to their
rent is flowing through the wire. random arrangement so that they
Once the current is stopped by open- will no longer be pointing in one di-
in-g-the circuit, the magnetic effect rection, and most of the magnetic
will disappear. Many parts used in field will disappear.
electronic equipment depend upon
the basic principles of electromag-
netism to operate.
The electromagnet shown in Fig.
17 can be made much stronger by
o
inserting an iron bar or a bar of
some magnetic material inside the
coil. The iron bar is called a "core".
The actual increase in the strength
of the magnet will depend upon the
type of core material used.
You probably wonder why insert-
ELECTRON FLOW
ing a core inside the coil makes the
magnet stronger. The answer to this
question is that the iron core is made
up of millions of tiny particles of
o
Iron. Each of these particles is it-
self a magnet having a north pole Fig. 18. In an unmagnetized bar of iron at
and a south pole. Ordinarily, these %, the tiny magnets in the iron do not line
tiny magnets are not arranged in up: if the bar of iron is magnetized, they
any definite pattern. One might point %%ill line up as at il.

21
 INDUCED CURRENTS motion. As long as the magnet is
moving inside the coil, acurrent will
We have seen that there is amag- flow in the coil and through the flash-
netic field around a current-carry- light bulb.
ing wire, and that if a current flows This current flows because avolt-
through a coil, an electromagnet will age is induced in the coil. The mag-
be produced. Now, is the opposite netic lines of force moving through
true ?If acoil is placed inside amag- the turns of wire on the coil are
netic field will acurrent flow through said to cut the turns of wire on the
the coil? Let us look in the experi- coil. A small voltage is induced in
ment illustrated in Fig. 19. Here we each turn on the coil as long as the
have a coil wound on a hollow form. number of magnetic lines of force
The ends of the coil are connected cutting the turn is changing. The
to a small flashlight bulb. We have voltages induced in the various turns
used a combination of a pictorial of wire on the coil add together. This
drawing for the coil and aschematic total voltage produces acurrent flow
symbol for the bulb. through the coil and through the
If a magnet is moved quickly in- flashlight bulb. We call the voltage
side the hollow form, the bulb will produced an "induced" voltage and
light while the magnet is being moved the current an "induced" current.
into the coil. Once the magnet is A second demonstration of an in-
completely inside the coil and no duced voltage is shown in Fig. 20.
longer moving, the bulb will no Two coils are wound on the same
longer light. When the magnet is form and placed near each other.
moved quickly out of the coil, the It is customary on schematic dia-
bulb will light again. If the magnet grams to use letters to designate
is moved quickly in and out of the the various parts. L is usually used
coil, the bulb will light and remain for coils. We have marked the coils
lighted as long as the magnet is in Li and L2 to make them easy to re-
fer to. One coil, which we have
marked Li, is connected to a flash-
MAGNET light cell through a switch, and the
other coil marked L2 is connected
to a flashlight bulb. Inserted through
the form on which the coils are wound
FLASHLIGHT is an iron core to increase the
COIL BULB strength of the magnetic field. We
have shown the schematic symbol
for the switch, and labelled it SW.
This makes three schematic sym-
bols you should know now, the flash-
light cell, the light bulb and the
Fig. 19. If a magnet is moved in and out switch.
of a coil connected to a flashlight bulb, When the switch is closed and cur-
the magnetic lines of force rutting the rent starts to flow in Li, there will
turns of wire on the coil will induee avolt- be a voltage induced in 12 and aglow
age in the coil, and the voltage will cause will be seen in the flashlight bulb.
a current flow through the flashlight bulb. However, this glow will last for only

22
 force cutting 12 again induces avolt-
age in 12 which causes the current
to flow.
It is important for you to realize
that whenever a magnetic field
around a coil changes, there will be
a voltage induced in the coil. Re-
member this, it is important; you
will be dealing with induced voltages
as long as you are in the field of
electronics.

Fig. 20. ghen the circuit to LI is opened SUMMARY

or closed, a voltage will be induced in 1.2.
There is a great deal of similarity
an instant after the switch is closed. between magnetism and electricity.
When the switch is open and the cur- Indeed, the basic law of magnetic
rent flow in Li is interrupted, the forces - "like forces repel, and un-
bulb again will glow, indicating that like forces attract", is the same as
this too induced a voltage in the sec- the basic law of electricity, "like
ond winding. charges repel and unlike charges
The explanation of this action is attract". As you go on through your
the same as for the voltage induced course you will see that electricity
by the magnet moving in and out of and magnetism work together to
the coil in Fig. 19. When the circuit make the electronic devices that we
is completed by closing the switch, use today possible.
current starts to flow in the coil. But You are not expected to remember
the magnetic field that accompanies all the details described in this sec-
the current flow does not build up in- tion on magnetism. The information
stantly; it takes just ashort time for is presented so you will have acom-
this field to build_Lip. When the field plete picture and be able to under-
is building up, the magnetic lines stand magnetism completely. The
cutting the turns of L2 are changing important points that you must re-
just as they cut the coil when the member from this section are as
magnet was moved into the coil in follows:
Fig. 19. While the magnetic field in
Li is building up, the number of mag- 1. A magnet has a north pole and a
netic lines of force is increasing. south pole.
This change in the number of mag- 2. Magnetic lines of force travel
netic lines of force cutting L2 in- from the north pole of the magnet
duces a voltage in 12 which causes around through space tothe south
a current to flow through it and the pole of the magnet.
flashlight bulb. When the circuit is 3. Like magnetic poles repel; unlike
open, the magnetic field must dis- magnetic poles attract.
appear. The number of magnetic 4. There is a magnetic field around
lines of force again must change and a current-carrying wire.
while this is happening, the change 5. An electromagnet can be made by
in the number of magnetic lines of passing a current through a coil.

23
6. Inserting an iron core into an netic lines of force coming from
electromagnet will result in a the poles of a magnet travel?
stronger magnetic field. (r) Where are the magnetic lines of
7. If the magnetic lines of force force around a current-carry-
cutting a turn of a coil change, ing wire strongest -close to the
there will be a voltage induced wire or at some distance from
in that turn of the coil. the wire?
8. If the magnetic lines of force cut- (s) What effect will placing an iron
ting all the turns of a coil change core inside of an electromagnet
there will be a voltage induced in have on the strength of the mag-
each turn of the coil and these netic field?
voltages will add together. If the (t) If the ends of a coil are con-
coil is connected into a complete nected to a flashlight bulb, and
circuit, current will flow in the a very strong permanent mag-
circuit. net is placed inside of the coil,
will the flashlight bulb light?
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS How long will the flashlight bulb
remain lit?
(o) State the basic law of magne- (u) In the circuit shown in Fig. 20,
tism. when the switch is first closed,
(p) If a pole of a magnet attracts the flashlight bulb will glow.
the south pole of a compass, is Why doesn't the flashlight bulb
the pole a north or south pole? continue to glow as long as the
(q) In which direction do the mag- switch is closed?

24
 Electronic Components
The parts used in electronics and that schematic diagrams are
equipment are often simply called really quite easy to follow. If you
parts ,but they are sometimes called learn how to read the simple sche-
components. The two words mean the matic diagrams in the beginning,
same thing; we'll use both words so when you get along further in your
you will get familiar with them. course you will find that the large
In the rest of this lesson, you will complex diagrams, that you will have
study a few of the parts found in to deal with later, are very easy to
electronic equipment. We are simply follow.
going to introduce these parts; you
will study them in detail in later
CONDUCTORS AND
lessons. INSULATORS
You have already seen the sche-
matic symbol for a single-cell bat- When we connect parts together
tery such as the flashlight cell, for in an electronic circuit there will
a light bulb and for a switch. You be certain paths through which we
will learn the symbols used for sev- want electrons to flow, and other
eral other parts. It is important that places where we want to avoid acur-
you learn these symbols as you go rent flow. We use conductors to pro-
along. The symbols are used to draw vide the paths for current flow and
schematic diagrams. Schematic dia- insulators where we want to prevent
grams tell you how the various parts current flow.
are connected together. You must There are a number of materials
learn how to read this type of dia- from which one or two electrons in
gram. Manufacturers supply sche- the outer ring of electrons can be
matic diagrams of electronic equip- displaced. Copper, silver, alumi-
ment, they do not supply picture dia- num, iron and most metals are ex-
grams. As a matter of fact, picture amples of this type of material. Since
or pictorial diagrams would be far electrons can be displaced from
more complicated and far more dif- these materials it is easy to set them
ficult to read than schematic dia- in motion in a wire made of this type
grams. Once you learn how to read of material, and cause a current to
schematic diagrams you will find flow through the wire. These mate-
that they tell you far more about how rials are called conductors. They
a circuit is connected than a pic- are so called because they will con-
torial diagram could possibly do. duct or transmit an electric current;
It is quite a job to learn all the in other words a current flow can be
schematic symbols at once, but if set up in them. The lines used to con-
you take them one at a time, as you nect parts together on schematic
come to them in your lessons, and diagrams represent the wire con-
also learn how to read the simple ductors used to provide paths for
schematic diagrams that will be current flow.
shown in the early lessons, you will There is no such thing as a per-
soon find that you know the symbols fect conductor. All conductors offer

25
some resistance, or opposition, to plastic coating. The coating is an
an electric current. Silver is the best insulator. Its purpose is to keep the
known conductor, but it is used only current flowing through the wire to
in special applications because it is the part it is supposed to reach and
too expensive. Copper, which is al- prevent its travelling through an-
most as good a conductor as silver, other circuit. If we did not use an
is used in most wire because it is insulator over the wire, and two
less expensive than silver. Copper wires happened to accidentally
wire is used almost exclusively in touch, we might have a short circuit
connecting electronic components where current would simply flow out
together. It is also used in coils. one wire and back to the battery and
However, in some special applica- perform no useful service. With an
tions where it is essential to keep insulating material around the
the resistance as low as possible wires, the insulator will prevent this
you will find that silver wire or from happening.
silver plated copper wire is used.
You will learn about these special
applications later. BATTERIES
There are other materials which
will not readily give up any elec- You already know that aflashlight
trons. A material having its outer cell is a device that can force elec-
ring full of electrons has no place trons through a circuit. You know
to permit any additional electrons that the cell has two terminals, a
to move into the atom nor will it positive terminal and anegative ter-
willingly permit any electrons to minal. You know that when the flash-
move from any of its rings. This light cell is connected into acircuit,
type of material is called an insu- electrons will leave the negative ter-
lator. It normally will not pass or minal of the cell, flow through the
conduct an electric current. circuit and back to the positive ter-
There is no such thing as a per- minal of the cell. You also know that
fect insulator. Even in materials the voltage of a flashlight cell is
having all the electron rings filled, about 1.5 volts.
an electron will occasionally escape, Sometimes we need more voltage
particularly if enough force is ap- than can be obtained from a single
plied to the material. However, the flashlight cell. For example, you
number of electrons that will escape have surely seen aflashlight in which
is usually so small, that for all two cells are used. In such a flash-
practical purposes we can say that light the cells are arranged as shown
these materials will not conduct cur- In Fig. 21A. The positive terminal
rent. When an extremely high force of one cell connects to the center
is applied to this material, electrons terminal on a flashlight bulb. The
may be forced out and the material positive terminal of the second cell
will break down, and no longer will is connected to the negative terminal
be usable as an insulator. of the first cell. The negative ter-
Most copper wire that you will use minal of the second cell connects to
in electronic equipment to connect a switch and through the switch to
the various parts together will be the threaded part of the bulb. When
covered with a rubber coating or a the switch is closed current flows

26
 1
BULB
4.5 volts. To get this voltage all you
CELL I CELL 2
need to do is connect three 1.5 volt
;11 BACK OF
FLASHLIGHT flashlight cells in series and the
CASE
voltages will add to give you a volt-
SWITCH
age of 4.5 volts.
2 FLASHLIGHT CELLS
Many of the small portable tran-
sistor radios in use today use asmall
BULB
9-volt battery. Batteries of this type
are simply made up of six small cells
similar to the flashlight cell. Six
times 1.5 gives you a voltage of 9
o SWITCH
volts.
In the early days of radio 22.5
Fig. 21. Two flashlight cells used in series volts and 45-volt batteries were
to power a3-volt flashlight bulb are shown widely used. A 22.5 volt battery had
at A. The schematic diagram of this circuit fifteen 1.5 volt cells connected in
is shown at II. series to give a voltage of 22.5 volts
and a 45-volt battery simply had
from the negative terminal of cell thirty 1.5-volt cells connected in
2 through the switch and then through series to give a voltage of 45 volts.
the bulb to the positive terminal of A 3-volt battery is generally indi-
cell 1, through cell 1to the negative cated schematically by the symbol
terminal of cell 1and across to the for two cells arranged such as shown
positive terminal of cell 2 and then in Figs. 21B and 22A. A 4.5-volt
through cell 2. Schematically the battery usually used three cell sym-
circuit is shown in Fig. 21B. bols as shown in Fig.22B.However,
In a circuit of this type we say if we wanted to show a22.5 or 45-volt
that the two cells are connected in battery it would be too tedious to
series. Each cell provides avoltage draw the symbol for the required
of 1.5 volts so that the total voltage number of cells so the symbol usu-
applied to the flashlight bulb is 1.5 ally shows 5 or 6 cells connected in
+ 1.5 or 3 volts. series such as shown in Fig.22C and
You can obtain devices in which then the voltage is written either
two cells similar to a flashlight cell above or below the cell as indicated
are put in a single container to pro- in the figure.
vide a total output voltage of 3volts. When cells are connected so that
When two cells are put together like
this we call it a battery. In other
words, a battery is simply a device 1
111 1
1111
1 1
1111
1111
1
in which there are several cells.
45V
Often we call aflashlight cell aflash-

0 0 0
light battery; technically this is not
quite correct, but it has come into
such wide usage that everybody
knows what is meant and as aresult Fig. 22. Schematic symbol for two cells
the expression is used. in series is shown at A. Symbol for three
In some applications in elec- cells in series is shown at B. C is symbol
tronics you might need a voltage of for .15V battery.

27
the negative terminal of one is con- currents are required than it would
nected to the positive terminal of be simply to make one special cell
another to produce a battery, the that could supply the currents and
total battery voltage is equal to the have to make them only in limited
voltage of the individual cells times quantities.
the number of cells. However, some- When a number of cells are con-
times a number of cells are con- nected in parallel and the output volt-
nected so that the positive termi- age is only 1.5 volts we usually use
nals of all the cells are connected the same schematic symbol as we
together and the negative terminals use for a flashlight battery. This
of the cells are connected together. symbol indicates the voltage, it does
When cells are connected inthis way, not indicate that the cell is capable
we also refer to the device as the of a higher current than a flashlight
battery. However, a battery of this cell. If we waat to make it clear that
type has an output voltage equal to we have several cells connected in
the voltage of only one cell. We say parallel, we can use the symbol
that the cells are connected in shown in Fig. 23.This symbol shows
parallel. four cells connected in parallel.
You might wonder why we would Other Types of Batteries.
want to connect cells in parallel. The flashlight cell is only one type
The answer is that in some applica- of cell. There are many other types
tions we may need more current of cells. For example, there is the
than can be supplied by asingle cell. lead cell which is used in storage
In this case by connecting a number batteries found in automobiles. Six
of cells in parallel, each cell can lead cells are arranged in series in
supply part of the required current the average automobile battery found
and the total number of cells is con- in late model cars. In older cars
nected together to form a battery three cells were connected in series.
that is capable of supplying the cur- The lead cell has avoltage of about
rent required. 2 volts so that modern cars have a
This might immediately bring up 12-volt battery in it whereas older
a question - why not simply make a cars have 6-volt batteries.
bigger cell that is capable of sup-
plying the current needed. This can
be done, but often manufacturers
are making certain size cells in ve ry
large quantities and therefore they
can make them at alow cost. To make
a single cell that could supplytwo or
three times the current capacity of
a single cell might cost as much as
ten or fifteen times what it would
cost to make the smaller cell that
they were making in very large quan-
tities. Therefore it is more eco-
nomical to take three or four of these
smaller cells and connect them in
parallel for applications where high Fig. 21. Four cells connected in parallel.

28
 Other types of cells used today
are the mercury cell and the manga-

®
nese cell. You will study these cells
and batteries made up of these cells
in later lessons.
Fig. 2.4. Schematic symbols for coils. The
COILS AND lines above the coil at B indicate an iron
TRANSFORMERS core.

You have already been briefly in- equipment made that does not use
troduced to coils and you know that one or more transformers.
if the number of magnetic lines of In spite of the importance of the
force cutting a coil changes, a volt- transformer, it is basically asimple
age will be induced in the coil. In device. A transformer in its sim-
electronics you will run into all kinds plest form is nothing more than two
of coils. In the tuners of television coils mounted close together. The
receivers designed to receive the two coils we discussed in Fig. 20
ultra high frequency channels, you actually can be called atransformer.
will find coils that have only one or Two typical transformers and the
two turns. In other applications you schematic symbols for them are
will find coils having many turns. shown in Fig. 25. The transformer
The schematic symbol used to rep- shown in Fig. 25A consists of two
resent a coil is shown in Fig. 24A. coils wound on a cardboard frame.
This should not be too hard to re- This type of coil is called an air-
member because the symbol itself core transformer. The one shown in
looks something like a coil. Fig. 25B is made of two coils wound
We mentioned previously that on iron core. This type is called an
sometimes an iron core is placed iron-core transformer.
inside the coil, and that placing the Air-core transformers such as
iron core inside of the coil will shown in Fig. 25A are used in radio
greatly increase the magnetic field frequency applications. By radio
produced by the coil. Often in elec- frequency we mean radio signals.
tronics there will be iron cores Iron-core transformers such as
used inside of a coil. When a coil shown in Fig. 25B are used in power
has an iron core, a schematic sym-
bol like that shown in Fig. 24B is AIR CORE IRON CORE
usually used. The lines placed be- TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
side the coil symbol indicate that
the coil has an iron core.
Probably no device has done more
for the electronics industry than the
transformer. The transformer has
made it possible for power com-
panies to supply homes and industry
with electric power economically. Fig. 23. Sehematie symbols for transform-
Without economical power there ers. The transformer at is an air-core
could be no electronics industry. transformer, the one at 11, an iron-core
There is hardly apiece of electronic transformer.

29
applications. You will find out what the capacitor. These electrons will
the difference is between radio fre- repel electrons from the other plate
quency signals and power frequen- of the capacitor and they in turn will
cies in your next lesson. flow towards the positive plate of the
We do not expect you to know all battery. As a result, we will buildup
there is to know about coils and a charge on the two plates of the ca-
transformers at this time, the only pacitor as shown in Fig. 26A. No-
thing we want you to remember is tice that one plate of the capacitor
the schematic symbols used for coils has a negative charge and the other
and the schematic symbols used for plate has a positive charge. The
transformers. You will go into great schematic symbols used for a ca-
detail on these important parts in a pacitor are shown in Fig. 26B. You
later lesson. will find both types of symbols used.
As you might expect the two lines
CAPACITORS represent the two plates of the ca-
pacitor. Be sure that you remember
An important electronic part is the the schematic symbols. Capacitors
capacitor. Basically a capacitor is are among the most important parts
simply two metal plates that are used in electronics. There are many
placed close together. The plates do different sizes and different types;
not touch, they may be separated capacitors are so important that we
simply by an air space or some other will devote an entire lesson to them
material may be placed between the and to their uses later.
two plates of the capacitor.
If a battery is connected to the two RESISTORS
plates of the capacitor, the negative
charge on the negative terminal of Earlier in this lesson we men-
the battery will try to force addi- tioned that conductors were used to
tional electrons into the one plate of carry the electric current from one

Fig. 26. The circuit at show.s how acapacitor can he charged. The schematic symbols
are slico•n at B.

30
part of a circuit to another. We VACUUM TUBES
pointed out that the materials used
in conductors were selected because Vacuum tubes are so widely used
they had electrons readily available today that almost everyone has seen
and offered little or no opposition one. Since tubes are so widely used,
to the flow of electric current it is important for you to learn some-
through them. In some applications thing about their operation as soon
we want to offer opposition to the as possible.
flow of electric current. In these The Diode Tube.
cases we use a device called a re- The simplest vacuum tube is the
sistor. A resistor may be made of diode tube. In the diode tube a fila-
a carbon-type composition or it can ment that can be heated to a red
be made of a wire that does not have heat by passing a current through
as good conduction capabilities as it is placed inside of a glass en-
copper has. In electronics you will velope. Around the filament is a
run into resistors having a resist- metal cylinder called the plate.
ance of only a few ohms up to resis- Leads are brought out of the glass
tors that may have a resistance of envelope for the two filament leads
well over 1,000,000 ohms. and for the plate lead. All the air
is evacuated from the inside of the
220 glass envelope before the envelope
is sealed. The schematic symbol for
a diode tube is shown in Fig. 28.
Fig. 27. The sehematir symbol tor a re- We mentioned earlier that in an
sistor. atom, the electrons were rotating
about the nucleus of the atom. In a
The schematic symbol for aresis- diode tube the electrons are rotating
tor is shown in Fig. 27. The actual about the nucleus of the atom in the
resistance of the resistor is usually material used for the filament. When
written beside the schematic symbol a battery is connected between the
as in Fig. 27. Here we have aresis- filament terminals as shown in Fig.
tor that has aresistance of 220 ohms 29A, the filament is heated to a red
and we have indicated this value heat. This causes the motion of the
above the resistor. electrons to speed up and many of
In any piece of electronic equip-
ment you will probably find more
PLATE
resistors, capacitors and coils than
any other parts. As a result, their
schematic symbols will appear most
frequently on schematic diagrams.
Be sure you remember the sym- ENVELOPE FILAMENT
bols used for each of these three im-
portant parts. Resistors are so im-
portant and so widely used that you
will go into detailed study of them in
a later lesson and you will be deal-
ing with them throughout your entire Fig. 28. The schematic symbol of a t%so-
electronics career. element (diode) tube.

31
Fig. 29. The filament of adiode is heated as shown at N. When adiode is connected as
shown at IL a small current will flow in the direction indicated by the arrows. When a
battery is added as in C. amuch stronger current will flow.

the electrons to break loose from battery to the negative terminal and
the atom and fly off into space around from the negative terminal back to
the filament of the tube. If we con- the filament of the tube.
nect the lead from the plate of the Of course, as with any complete
tube back to the filament as shown circuit, the current flow around the
in Fig. 29B, some of the electrons circuit is instantaneous. The instant
that fly off the filament will travel the battery is connected to the tube
through the space from the filament current starts flowing around the
of the tube over to the plate and then circuit, and the amount of current
flow from the plate through the ex- flowing through the circuit is the
ternal circuit back to the filament same at all points in the circuit at
of the tube. all times.
Since electrons have a negative Even though the diode tube is the
charge they are attracted by aposi- simplest and the first tube invented,
tive charge. Therefore if we connect it is still in use today. The high-
a battery between the plate and the voltage rectifier used in television
filament as shown in Fig. 29C, the receivers today is nothing other than
electrons that fly off the filament an improved version of this simple
of the tube will be attracted by the diode tube. Be sure that you remem-
positive potential on the plate of the ber the schematic symbol for the
tube. As a result, many more of the diode tube that is shown in Fig. 28-
electrons will travel from the fila- this is an important symbol and you
ment over to the plate of the tube to must remember it.
the positive terminal of the battery. The Triode Tube.
Electrons will travel through the While the diode tube is important,

32
and its discovery was a great mile-
stone in the early days of elec-
tronics, it was not until the three-
element tube called the triode tube
was invented that the electronics
industry as we know it 'today really
got started. The schematic symbol A
of a triode tube is shown in Fig. 30.
Notice that the symbol is the same
as the symbol for the diode tube ex- Fig. 31. A triode tube showing how three
cept that a third element has been batteries are used to provide the neCrti-
added between the filament and the sary operating voltages.
plate. This third element is called
a grid. The battery marked A is used to
heat the filament of the tube. In early
days of radio this battery was called
the A battery. A small battery having
a voltage of 3 or more volts is con-
nected between the filament of the
tube and the grid. This battery is
GRID labelled C on the diagram, and is
called a C battery. Notice that the
positive terminal of this battery is
connected to the filament, and the
negative terminal is connected to
the grid. A battery having a some-
what higher voltage is connected be-
tween the plate of the tube and the
filament. The positive terminal of
this battery is connected to the plate
and the negative terminal is con-
Fig. 30. the schematic symbol for atriode. nected to the filament. This battery
is called a B battery.
In a triode tube the filament is Now let us see what happens in the
placed in the center of the tube. tube. The filament of the tube is
Around the filament, and close to heated by the current from the A bat-
it is a wire mesh; this is the grid tery. This causes the filament to
of the tube. Placed some distance give off electrons and the electrons
from the grid and around it is around fly off into the space between the
cylinder and this is the plate. filament and the grid. However,
Because the grid is placed so close many of the electrons are repelled
to the filament, a small voltage ap- by the negative charge on the grid
plied to the grid will have a large of the tube due to the voltage of the
effect on the number of electrons C battery, and travel back to the
that can flow from the filament to filament. Some of the electrons
the plate of the tube. If the tube is manage to get through the grid and
connected into a circuit as shown in they are attracted by the positive
Fig. 31, you can see what will happen. potential applied to the plate of the

33
tube by the B battery, and will travel that were used in the tube. More
over to the plate. The amount of cur- modern tubes have a cathode that is
rent flowing from the filament to the designed to give off the electrons.
plate of the tube can be controlled by The cathode is a hollow round tube
the grid voltage. If we increase the and it is coated with aspecial mate-
negative voltage applied to the grid, rial that readily gives off electrons
the amount of current flowing when it is heated. Inside of the cath-
through the tube will decrease, and ode is a heater. The heater is heated
if we reduce the negative voltage ap- by an external voltage applied to it
plied to the grid of the tube, the and the heat from the heater radiates
amount of current flowing from the to the cathode and heats the cathode
filament of the tube to the plate will to a temperature where it will give
increase. off electrons.
It is this ability of the grid to con-
trol the flow of current from the fila-
ment of the tube to the plate that
makes the vacuum tube so useful in
electronics. You will study vacuum
ENVELOPE
tubes in detail in later lessons. For PLATE
the present, you should remember
HEATER
how electrons flow from the fila-
CATHODE
ment of the tube to the plate of the
tube and how the grid can control GRID

the flow of electrons through the

tube. You should also remember the
schematic symbols used to repre-
sent a diode (a two-element tube) and
a triode (a three-element tube).
The schematic symbol of a triode
tube with a cathode instead of afila- Fig. 33. Cut-away view of atypical vacuum
ment is shown in Fig. 32 the triode tube showing its elements.
tubes we have shown previously, the
filament was heated by abattery and The cathode-type tube has re-
the filament gave off the electrons placed the filament-type tube in
modern electronic equipment. The
tubes used in modern radio and tele-
vision receivers are all cathode-
type tubes. A cut-away view of a
modern tube is shown in Fig. 33.
Filament-type tubes were used in
portable receivers, but these have
been replaced today by transistors.
CATHODE

TRANSISTORS

Fig. 32. Schematic symbol of a triode tube Transistors are made out of mate-
with a cathode and a heater, rials called semiconductors. Re-

34
member that a conductor is amate-
rial that will conduct or pass the
flow of electric current. An insula-
tor is a material that will not nor-

o
mally pass an electric current. A
semiconductor is a material that
falls midway between the two. It is
neither a good conductor nor a good Fig. :35. Schematic symbols for two differ-
insulator. ent types of three-element transistors. 'I'he
Two materials, germanium and emitter is marked e. the base b. and the
silicon are widely used in making collector c.
transistors. Almost all the early
transistors were germanium tran- with small quantities of another
sistors, but now silicon transistors chemical.
are about as numerous as germani- Since the transistor is made up of
um transistors. In the early days three pieces of material, it is often
of semiconductors, manufacturing called a triode, just as the vacuum
techniques had not been developed tube with the cathode, a grid and a
for the manufacture of silicon tran- plate is called atriode. The elements
sistors. The few silicon transistors in a transistor are called the emit-
that were available were much more ter, the base and the collector. The
expensive than germanium transis- schematic symbols for transistors
tors. However, today both types are are shown in Fig. 35. The lead with
widely available and there is very the arrow on it and marked with the
little difference between the price letter e, is the emitter, the long
of the two. straight line marked b is the base
A typical transistor is made up of and the other lead marked c is the
three pieces of germanium or silicon collector. The two different types
as shown in Fig. 34. These three of symbols are for two different
pieces are arranged as shown. Each types of transistors. Their operation
piece of the germanium or silicon is somewhat different, but they can
has been mixed with small quan- be used to accomplish the same
tities of another chemical. The thing.
pieces marked 1 and 3 have been The transistor is acomparatively
mixed with the same chemical and new device compared to the vacuum
the piece marked 2 has been mixed tube. However, tremendous pro-

2 3

Fig. :IL .% triode transistor made of three pieces of germanium. The germanium in the
pieces marked Iand :I has been mixed with a small amount of one chemical: the ger-
manium in the section sarked 2has been mixed with another.

35
gress has been made with the tran- currents from one part to another
sistor in a relatively short space of and insulators are used to keep
time. Already, portable radio re- the current from flowing where
ceivers using vacuum tubes have it is not wanted.
disappeared. All modern portable 2. Batteries are made of groups of
radio receivers use transistors. cells. If the cells in abattery are
Also automobile radio receivers are connected in series, that is the
now completely transistorized -they positive terminal of one connec-
all use transistors. The only auto- ted to the negative terminal of the
mobile radio you will find using other, the voltages of the cells
vacuum tubes will be the automobile add so that the total battery volt-
receiver designed for a car that is age will be equal to the voltage
a number of years old. of the cell times the number of
Since transistors are making such cells in the battery.
important strides, it is extremely 3. When cells are connected so that
important that you learn all you can the positive terminals of the cells
about them. For the present, simply are connected together and the
remember the symbols used for negative terminals are connected
them, and remember the names of together we say that the cells are
the different elements in a transis- connected in parallel.
tor. Later, you will have several 4. Coils and transformers are
lessons devoted exclusively to tran- widely used in electronics. A coil
sistors and you'll study transistor is simply made of a number of
circuits in many of your more ad- turns of wire. A transformer con-
vanced lessons. sists of two or more coils placed
close together so that the mag-
SUMMARY netic lines of force produced when
a current flows through one coil
In the preceding section you were will cut the turns of the other
introduced to many of the parts that coils. Remember the symbols
you will study in detail in later les- used for air core coils and trans-
sons and will work with in your ex- formers and for iron core coils
perimental kits. As we pointed out, and transformers.
it is important that you learn the 5. A capacitor is a device that can
schematic symbols for these parts store an electric charge. It is
as you go along, and also follow the made of two metal plates placed
simple circuits as you come to them. close together. Review the sym-
If you will do this as you go through bol used to represent a capaci-
your course you will find that sche- tor.
matic diagrams are easy to read, 6. Resistors oppose the flow of cur-
and you will soon be able to read rent through them. Resistors
fairly complicated diagrams with- having a resistance of only a few
out too much trouble. ohms up to resistances of over
There are a number of important 1,000,000 ohms will be found in
points in this lesson that you should electronic equipment.
remember: 7. Two important types of vacuum
tubes are the diode tube and the
1. Conductors are used to carry triode tube. A diode tube has two

36
 elements, a triode tube has three cells are connected in series
elements. to form a battery, what will the
8. Transistors are made of mate- battery voltage be?
rials called semiconductors. (Y) Draw the schematic symbol of a
Germanium and silicon are used 90 volt battery.
in the manufacture of transistors. (z) Draw the schematic symbol for
A transistor has three elements an air core coil.
called an emitter, a base and a (an) Draw the schematic symbol for
collector. an iron core transformer.
(ab) What is the name of the device
that can store an electric
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS charge?
(ac) Draw the schematic symbol of a
(v) Name three materials that are capacitor.
good conductors. (ad) Name the three elements of a
(w) What metal is mostwidely used triode vacuum tube.
as an electrical conductor? (ae) Name the three elements of a
(x) If four 1-1/2 volt flashlight transistor.

37
Answers to Self-Test Questions

(a) Like charges repel, unlike closely to the nucleus. Indeed,

charges attract. this is the structure of the sodi-
(b) An atom is the smallest parti- um atom. Sodium is a metal
cle of an element that retains which in its pure state is so
the original characteristics of unstable that it must be kept
the element. The atom will have submerged in oil. The atom with
a nucleus at its center and a the ten electrons has the first
number of electrons revolving two rings filled. You will re-
around the nucleus. member that we said that atoms
(c) The nucleus and the electrons. with the outer ring filled are
(d) The nucleus has a positive very stable. This atom is indeed
charge - the electrons have a stable, it is the neon atom. Neon
negative charge. is called an inert gas by
(e) The copper atom will have a chemists. This means it is
positive charge. If the atom chemically inactive and will not
loses one of its electrons, there combine with other elements.
will not be enough electrons to (h) The negative terminal of a
completely neutralize the posi- flashlight cell has a surplus of
tive charge on the nucleus and electrons. The positive termi-
therefore the atom will have a nal has a shortage. As aresult,
positive charge. when a flashlight cell is con-
(f) Electrons in adjacent atoms re- nected into a circuit, the elec-
pel each other because all elec- trons leave the negative termi-
trons have a negative charge nal, flow through the circuit and
and like charges repel. travel back to the positive ter-
(g) If you draw adiagram of the two minal of the cell.
atoms, you will soon see the an- (i) When an electric circuit is
swer to this question. The one completed, electrons start in
atom that has the ten electrons motion instantaneously through-
will have two electrons in the out the entire circuit. In a
first ring and eight electrons simple circuit such as shown
in the second ring. This is illus- in Figures 11 and 12, the num-
trated in Fig. 4which shows the ber of electrons in motion is
maximum number of electrons the same in all parts of the
that can be in each ring. The circuit.
atom that has eleven electrons (J) We measure electric currents
will have two electrons in the in amperes. We usually abbre-
first ring, eight electrons in the viate amperes, amps.
second ring, and the eleventh (k) The unit used to measure elec-
electron in the third ring. This tromotive force is the volt.
atom will be quite unstable be- (1) The unit used to measure the
cause the single electron in the opposition to current flow in an
third ring will not be held very electric circuit is the ohm.

38
(m) Increasing the voltage in an bulb will no longer light.
electric circuit will increase (u) In the circuit shown in Fig. 20,
the current flowing. when the switch is first closed,
(n) If we reduce the resistance in the magnetic field in Li builds
an electric circuit, the current up slowly. This causes the num-
flowing in the circuit will in-. ber of magnetic lines of force
crease. to increase and the changing
(o) The basic law of magnetism is, number of magnetic lines of
"like poles repel; unlike poles force cutting L2 induces avolt-
attract". age in L2. Once the magnetic
(p) The basic law of magnetism will field around Li is built up to
give you the answer to this its full strength, the number of
question. Since the pole of the magnetic lines of force cutting
magnet attracts the south pole L2 will no longer change and
of the compass, the pole must there will be no voltage induced
be an unlike pole, therefore it in L2, therefore the flashlight
is a north pole. bulb will no longer light.
(q) The magnetic lines of force Copper, silver, aluminum, iron
leave the north pole of the mag- and most metals are good con-
net and travel through space ductors.
to the south pole of the magnet. Copper.
(r) The magnetic lines of force When the flashlight cells are
around acurrent-carrying wire connected in series the voltage
are strongest close to the wire. will be equal to the cell voltage
The further you get away from times the number of cells.
the wire, the weaker the mag- 1-1/2 times 4 = 6volts.
netic lines of force will be. (Y) See Fig. 22C, use the same
(s) Placing an iron core inside of symbol but write 90 y instead
an electromagnet will increase of 45 v.
the strength of the magnetic (z) See Fig. 24A.
field. (as) See Fig. 25B.
(t) The flashlight bulb will light (ab) A capacitor.
while the magnet is being placed (ac) See Fig. 26B.
inside of the coil. Once the mag- (ad) Plate, grid and filament or
net is inside of the coil and no cathode.
longer moving, the flashlight (ae) Emitter, base and collector.

39
 Answering The Questions
On the last page of this lesson you swer from the book, but rather try
will find ten questions. These ques- to write the answer in your own
tions are designed to help you learn words. If you find that you have dif-
the important points in this lesson. ficulty and cannot answer the ques-
We do not want you to try to memo- tion, it is an indication that you need
rize the lesson or answer the ques- to study some more.
tions from memory. Many of the questions can be an-
When you are ready to answer the swered by a single word or by one
questions, read over the first ques- or two words. Make your answers as
tion carefully, make sure you under- brief and as direct as possible. Make
stand the question and then mentally sure that your answer actually an-
see if you can answer the question. swers the question asked. In some
Next, go to the section of the lesson questions you will be asked to draw
where the answer is given, and read a schematic diagram or part of a
over that section of the lesson again. diagram. Be sure you check these
Make sure that you completely diagrams over carefully before you
understand the answer to the ques- send in your answers for grading,
tion. Then, close the book and write because it is easy to make a mis-
out the answer. Do not copy the an- take in drawing schematics.

40
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B101.
Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grades as soon as possible, so they

mail their answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the
next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable. However, don't hold your answers too long;
you may lose them. Don't hold answers to more than two sets of lessons
at any time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. Two small balls of unknown material that are suspended near each
other by threads are charged by being rubbed with a silk cloth. The
balls then repel each other. Which one of the following statements will
then be incorrect?
(1) The balls both have a negative charge on them.
(2) The balls both have a positive charge on them.
(3) One ball has a positive charge, the other a negative charge.

2. Which does a negatively charged body have, a shortage or a surplus

of electrons?

3. Draw a schematic diagram of a wire connected between the two ter-

minals of a flashlight cell. Mark the polarity of the battery terminals
and show by means of arrows the direction in which current will flow.

4. If we double the voltage applied to a circuit, what will happen to the

current?

5. If you find that when you bring 2 magnetic poles together they attract
each other, which one of the following statements is true?
(1) The two poles must both be north poles.
(2) The two poles must be south poles.
(3) One pole must be a north pole and the other a south pole.

6. If a permanent magnet is held motionless inside a coil, will a voltage

be induced in the coil?

7. How many flashlight cells would you have to connect in series to get
7.5 volts?

8. Will current flow from the fila-

ment to the plate in the circuit
shown at right? Explain your
answer. (Notice that the negative
terminal of battery B is con- —
nected to the plate of the diode.) A

9. Draw the schematic symbol of a modern triode tube and label the
parts.

10. Draw the schematic symbol for a transistor and label each element
with its full name.
HOW TO BUILD CONFIDENCE
Self-confidence--an active faith in your own power
to accomplish whatever you try to do--is a personal
asset which can do big things for you.

One thing which builds self-confidence is asuccess-

ful experience. Each lesson completed with a passing
grade is a successful experience which will build up
confidence in you.

Little successes are contagious. Once you get ataste

of success, you'll find yourself doing something suc-
cessful every day. And before you realize it, your little
successes will have built up to that big success you've
been dreaming of. So--get the habit of success as fast
as possible. Resolve to study every day, even if only
for a few minutes.

Another confidence builder is a deep, firm faith in

yourself--in your ability to get ahead.If you do believe
in yourself and you are willing to back up this faith
with good hard studying, you can safely leave the final
result to itself. With complete confidence, you can
look forward to an early success in electronics.

Act as if you could not possibly fail, and you will

succeed:
 •

•
 Innovation in learning

ma" by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-201
15.•

HOW ELECTRICITY IS

fr- PRODUCED FOR

ELECTRONICS
_wig* ereil fiIjj1_11-
TriJ W-jjviIUj 11-11 B102

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

HOW ELECTRICITY IS PRODUCED
FOR ELECTRONICS

B102
 HOW ELECTRICITY IS
PRODUCED FOR ELECTRONICS

Electronics is a term you will be have been unable to do before. You can
meeting constantly from now on. Let us be sure that we are going to see many
take time to see what we mean by the new developments in electronics in the
word "electronics." Originally the term years to come.
electronics was applied only to devices In this lesson you are going to study
using electronic tubes. However, in recent some of the uses of electronics. We will
years the meaning has been broadened to cover only a few of the details, but you
include the whole field of electron behav- will learn enough to be able to under-
ior. Thus we can consider every appli- stand these uses of electronics. In addi-
cation of electricity as part of the general tion to learning something about these
field of electronics. processes, you will learn more about the
You have already seen many uses of behavior of the electron.
electronic principles. You see them every The first use of electronics that you
day, for example, in your radio and will study is in the power industry.
television receivers. Although this is often not considered part
The field of electronics is a growing of the electronics industry, it is extremely
field. The chances are that at this very important to electronics, because without
minute while you are reading this lesson, economical power there would be very
engineers are working on new projects little use of electronics at all. This brief
that will result in some new use of look at the power industry will help you
electronics. They may be working on in your study of other pieces of elec-
some method of using electronics to tronic equipment.
improve on some process we are already You will also learn more about elec-
using, or they may be working on some- tronics in radio. You will study several
thing that is entirely new, something we new components, and also you will learn

1
how sound is sent through space by many cases explained much more thor-
means of radio waves. This section on oughly than in this lesson.
radio is important because the circuits If there are any basic circuits and ideas
you will study here are similar to ones that you do not understand be sure to go
you will find in radio, in television, and in over these points several times. If you
need help be sure to take advantage of
other industrial applications.
You will also see how electronic prin- the NR1 consultation service and write in
requesting assistance. A thorough under-
ciples are used in one branch of industry.
standing of the basic fundamentals is
Many industrial processes require large
amounts of direct current. absolutely essential; the more advanced
It is much more convenient to gener- lessons you will study later will be based
on the fundamentals you will be learning
ate and transmit alternating current than
direct current. You will see how alter- in this and other basic lessons.
nating current can be changed into direct We have already mentioned that with-
current by means of electron tubes. out economical electric power, there
Finally, you will learn about pulse-type would be no electronics industry. In
signals that are widely used in computers addition to economical power, we must
and television. You will learn the basic have large amounts of power available.
fundamentals of logic circuits that pro- The information on how electric power
cess these pulse signals in computers. is generated is important to the radio-TV
In studying the following sections of serviceman, the computer technician, the
this lesson, it is important for you to communications technician, and the
understand the basic circuits and ideas industrial electronics technician. All may
presented. However, it is not necessary have occasion to service power-generating
for you to remember all of the details of equipment. Even the radio-TV serviceman
the various processes. As you complete a with only a small business may want to
section of the lesson, answer the self-test fix mobile equipment. There is more and
questions at the end of the section. If you more demand for people who can do
can answer these questions and remember repair work of this type, and in order to
the answers to them, then you should do such repairs one must be familiar with
have no difficulty answering the ques- power-generating equipment.
tions at the end of the lesson. Between There are two main sources of power
the self-test questions and the lesson in electronic equipment. One is batteries
questions, we will cover all of the impor- which you have already studied briefly.
tant points in the lesson. Other details of You will now look into batteries in more
the lesson will become more familiar to detail, and then go on to the study of
you as you go further in your course; generators to see how they operate and
these details will be covered again, and in how the voltage generated is pictured.

2
 Batteries
Batteries can be divided into two A simple electric cell can be made by
types: those containing primary cells and inserting two pieces of metal in an acid
• those containing secondary cells. Primary solution. The voltage produced by the
cells are cells that cannot be recharged. A cell will depend upon the metals used.
• flashlight cell is an example of this type. For example, if one metal is zinc and the
A secondary cell is a cell that can be other copper, the cell voltage will be
recharged. The storage batteries used in about 1.1 volts. If the copper electrode is
automobiles are made up of secondary replaced by asilver electrode, avoltage of
cells as are the rechargeable batteries used about 1.5 volts will be produced. On the
to operate portable television receivers other hand, if magnesium is used as one
designed for battery operation. electrode and gold as the other, avoltage
We mentioned previously that a bat- of about 3.7 volts will be produced. Such
tery is made up of two or more cells. But a battery, while it has a relatively high
the word battery is also used to describe voltage, isn't practical because of the cost
single cells, such as flashlight cells. Con- of the gold and magnesium.
sequently, the word battery has come to The cells we were speaking of con-
mean anything from one cell up. tained acid in aliquid form. This type of
A basic knowledge of batteries is cell has the disadvantage that the acid is
important to the electronics technician easily spilled. A much more practical cell
today because many of the devices he will is the "dry cell", such as the flashlight
encounter operate from batteries. For cell, which we will now study in detail.
example, there are millions of portable
radio receivers in use; almost all of these DRY CELLS
operate from batteries made up of cells
like the flashlight cell. Portable television
receivers which can be operated from Dry cells are not really dry. The
either the power line or from a battery chemical mixture in the battery is actu-
pack are becoming increasingly popular. ally quite moist, and when it becomes dry
These television receivers operate from the battery is no longer usable. The name
small storage batteries that are similar to dry cell was given to these batteries
the storage batteries used in automobiles. because the chemical mixture was in the
Other types of batteries, such as the form of apaste rather than aliquid. The
manganese battery and the mercury bat- dry cell uses acarbon rod as the positive
tery, are becoming increasingly important. electrode and the zinc case as the negative
In some ways these cells are similar to the electrode. The voltage of a cell of this
flashlight cell, but they have alonger life. type is 1-1 /2 volts.
The chances are that they would replace This cell is actually similar to the
the flashlight cell entirely except for the simple basic cells we mentioned earlier
fact that they are more expensive. which contain two metals in an acid

3
solution. In this case, one metal is zinc
and the other is carbon. We do not often
think of carbon as ametal, but actually it
is midway between the metals and non-
metals, and in some cases acts like ametal
and in other cases acts like a nonmetal.
When used in a dry cell it acts like a
metal.
The acid is in the form of apaste made
up of ammonium chloride, powdered
carbon and manganese dioxide. The
ammonium chloride is the acid, the other
two chemicals are added to improve the
performance of the cell. Fig. 2. A square 1%-volt battery.
The construction of one type of dry
cell that can supply current for a much connector is provided instead. A cell of
longer time than aflashlight cell is shown this type can provide a much higher
in Fig. 1. This cell is similar to aflashlight current than a flashlight cell, because it
cell except it is larger and has screw-type has much larger electrodes. However, the
terminals to which the leads are con- output voltage of the cell is the same as
nected. The metal case and carbon rod that of the flashlight cell (1-1/2 volts). In
are often provided with screw terminals the early days of radio, four cells of this
as shown here. Sometimes aplug type of type, connected in series, were used to
provide 6 volts to operate the filaments
NEGATIVE
TERMINAL POSITIVE TERMINAL of the tubes in many radios.
GOES TO GOES TO CARBON
ZINC CASE /ROD IN CENTER OF In addition to the round cell shown in
„we DRY CELL
Fig. 1, 1-1/2-volt cells are often made
WAX SEAL
square. A square cell can often be fitted
into a somewhat smaller place than a
CARBON ROD
round cell, and therefore is particularly
CHEMICAL MATERIALS
(MANGANESE DIOXIDE,
POWDERED CARBON, ANO
useful in portable equipment. A square
SAL AMMONIAC)
cell is shown in Fig. 2. It would be more
correct to call a square cell a battery
—ZINC CASE
because it is generally made up of four
small round cells instead of one large cell.
APER JACKET
The negative terminals of all four cells are
connected together and brought out to
one common terminal which is the neg-
ative terminal of the battery. Similarly,
the positive terminals of all four cells are
connected together and brought to one
common positive terminal.
Fig. 1. Construction of adry cell. As you learned earlier, this type of

4
 connection is called aparallel connection
and though there are four cells used, the
output voltage from the battery is only
1-1/2 volts, the same as it would be if
only one large cell were used. As we
pointed out earlier, the advantage of this
type of construction is that the four cells
in parallel can supply more current than a
single cell could alone. This is because the
current the cell can supply clends pri-
iifly the area of tositive and Fig. 4. how the dry cells in Fig. 3are connected
niive electrodes — the carbon rod and in series.
¡iiise.eir area is greater when
four cells are used in parallel than it to provide a voltage of 45 volts and is_
would be if one cell of the same physical called a"B" battery. This type of battery
size were used. In addition, we pointed was widely used in the early days of radio
out that it is often more economical to to provide the voltage between the plate
use the four cells because the manu- and filament of the tubes in radio receiv-
facturer may be making them in large ers. Later, smaller versions of the battery
quantities for other uses. This will bring were used in portable receivers. Today,
the cost down so that it is more econom- the battery itself is not as important as
ical to use four of the smaller cells than it the lesson we can learn from it about the
would be to use one large cell. voltages between different points. The
You already know that dry cells can be following section of this lesson is ex-
connected in series to provide more than tremely important, read it several times
the 1-1/2 volts available from the single to be sure you understand it completely.
cell. An example of this type of battery is The battery shown in Fig. 3is made up
shown in Fig. 3. This battery is designed of thirty 1-1/2 volt cells connected in
series as shown in Fig. 4. Notice that
there are three terminals brought out of
this battery. It is easy to see that the
voltage between the two outside termi-
nals should be 45 volts. There are thirty
1-1/2-volt cells, and 30 X 1-1/2 is 45.
Now trace out the circuit between the
negative terminal and the terminal
marked +22-1/2 and you will see how we
get this voltage. You will find that there
are fifteen cells connected between these
two terminals, and 15 X 1-1/2 is 22-1/2.
2.4 97 , 11X

Thus, if you need only 22-1/2 volts you

Fig. 3. A 45-volt battery made of dry cells would connect between the — terminal
connected in series. and the terminal marked +22-1/2.

5
 Now look at the other half of the
battery. What is the voltage between the
terminals marked +22-1/2 and 45? By
inspecting Fig. 4 you can see that there
are fifteen cells connected between these
two terminals. 15 X 1-.1/2 is 22-1/2, and
therefore there should be 22-1/2 volts
between these two terminals. But which
terminal is positive and which is negative?
By looking at Fig. 4 again, you can find
the answer to this question. Notice that Fie 5. The terminals of the 45-volt battery
the terminal marked +45 is connected to which are shown in Fig. 4 can be marked
as shown.
the positive terminal of one of the cells.
The terminal marked +22-1/2 is con-
nected to the negative terminal of the last mark the battery as in Fig. 5. Notice that
cell in the group of fifteen cells con- this is the same battery as the one in Fig.
nected between these two terminals. 4; we have simply marked the terminals
Therefore, this is the negative terminal differently. The voltage between the two
and the +45 terminal is the positive outside terminals is still 45 volts, and the
terminal. voltage between either outside terminal
It may seem somewhat confusing at and the center terminal is 22-1/2 volts. In
first that the terminal marked +22-1/2 Fig. 4, we have considered the voltage at
can be both positive and negative. Let us the negative terminal as zero and marked
see how this can be so. Starting with the the other two positive with respect to it.
negative terminal and looking toward the In Fig. 5, we have considered the positive
other two, you first see agroup of fifteen terminal as zero volts and marked the
cells and then aterminal. This terminal is other two negative with respect to it. We
positive compared to the negative termi- could go one step further and mark the
nal. We say it is positive with respect to center terminal zero and the one outside
the negative terminal. Then there is terminal —22-1/2 volts and the other
another group of fifteen cells and another +22-1/2 volts with respect to the center
terminal. This last terminal is even more terminal.
positive with respect to the negative You might wonder why there are all
terminal. Now, if we started at the these different ways of marking battery
positive terminal and looked back terminals. The reason is that in electronic
through the battery we would see agroup equipment one terminal of a battery is
of fifteen cells and a terminal. This usually connected to a common or
terminal is negative with respect to the ground terminal in the equipment. Some-
positive terminal. We would then see an times this terminal is the positive terminal
additional group of fifteen cells and of the battery, sometimes it is the nega-
another terminal, which is even more tive terminal. It all depends on what the
negative with respect to the positive battery is to be used for. Usually the
terminal. We could, if we wished to do so, terminal voltages are marked with respect

6
 to the terminal that will be grounded in
normal operation.
It is important to understand what is
meant by a ground terminal or con-
nection. In the early days of radio almost
all radios were connected by awire to a
water pipe or to a pipe driven into the
ground to improve reception. This was
called a "ground" lead. One terminal of
Fig. 6. Two batteries having the same voltage
the "A" battery, the negative terminal of
can be connected in parallel if a high current
the "B" battery and the positive terminal is required.
of the "C" battery were all connected to
the metal chassis on which the receiver can be supplied by asingle cell or battery,
was built, and the metal chassis was
you can obtain it by connecting two or
connected to the ground lead. Now the more batteries in parallel. When you
chassis in electronic equipment is called a
connect two batteries in parallel, you
chassis ground even though it may not be
connect the two negative terminals to-
connected to an external ground con-
gether and the two positive terminals
nection at all. The negative side or termi-
together as shown in Fig. 6. This is the
nal of the Bsupply is called B— ground or
same type of connection that is used in
the common ground. In some equipment
the battery shown in Fig. 2, where the
B— is connected to the chassis, but in
1-1/2-volt battery was made from four
other equipment it is not. When B— is cells connected in parallel. Of course, you
connected to the chassis, we refer to both
can only do this if the batteries have the
B— and the chassis as ground. When B— same voltage. When two similar batteries
is not connected to the chassis, we refer that are connected in parallel are con-
to the chassis as achassis ground and to nected to a circuit, each battery will
B— as a floating ground. You will see supply approximately one-half of the
these three expressions used frequently. current used in the circuit. This is more
Remember that one terminal can be economical than taking the full current
both positive and negative at the same from one until it is exhausted and then
time. In other words, one terminal might taking the full current from another,
be positive when it is compared to because the batteries connected in paral-
another terminal, but negative when com- lel will usually last more than twice as
pared to a third. You will run into this long as asingle battery.
situation over and over again. There are two big disadvantages of the
Although aB battery is able to supply dry cell. It has afairly short shelf life and
a much higher voltage than asingle cell, a rather large cell is required to supply a
the amount of current that can be taken moderate current. The shelf life of acell
from it is somewhat limited. If a B is the length of time it can be kept after it
battery is used to supply ahigh current, it is made before it deteriorates to such an
will soon be exhausted. extent that its life is affected appreciably.
When you need a higher current than When we say adry cell has ashort life we

7
mean that it cannot be kept too long Mercury cells were originally developed
before it is put into service, otherwise it for use by the Armed Forces, but are now
will not last long. found in many pieces of portable equip-
ment manufactured for civilian use. Their
MERCURY CELLS small size and long life make them ideal
for use in transistorized equipment. Since
A cell that overcomes the two main transistors use only a small amount of
disadvantages of the dry cell is the mer- current, transistorized equipment pow-
cury cell. The voltage supplied by one of ered by mercury batteries can be oper-
these cells is about 1.35 volts or about ated for along time before it is necessary
1.4 volts depending upon the materials to replace the batteries. When it is neces-
used in the cell. sary to replace amercury battery, the old
There are two different types of mer- batteries must not be disposed of by
cury cells in use. One is a flat cell that burning; these batteries will explode if
looks something like a button, and the they are thrown into a fire and might
other is a cylindrical cell that more cause considerable damage or injury to
closely resembles a standard flashlight someone nearby.
cell. The advantage of the button-type One other important point to remem-
cell is that several of them can be stacked ber about the mercury cell is that the
inside of one container to form abattery. small terminal on the top of the cell is the
A typical battery made of three flat cells negative terminal._The case is the positive
is shown in Fig. 7. The battery is slightly terminal. This is the opposite of the
smaller than astandard flashlight cell, but —standard flashlight cell where the button
produces a higher voltage, has a longer on the top of the cell is the positive
life and can supply more current than a terminal and the case is the negative
flashlight cell. terminal.

MANGANESE BATTERIES

The big disadvantage of the mercury

battery is that it is quite expensive. This
has limited its use somewhat in entertain-
ment type equipment, such as portable
radios, etc. A battery that is not as
expensive, but has many of the desirable
characteristics of the mercury cell, such
as long life, is the manganese cell. This
cell is also often called the alkaline-
manganese-zinc cell.
Thi-Tnse -cell looks very much
Fig. 7. The mercury battery shown is slightly
like aflashlight cell and is generally made
smaller than a standard flashlight cell, but
produces a higher voltage, and has a longer
in the same physical sizes as the small dry
life than the flashlight cell. cells used for flashlights and portable

8
radios. The voltage of acell of this type is lating material called separators, made
1.5 volts so it can be readily substituted either of porous wood or perforated
for a dry cell. A manganese cell can wood or fiber glass. The separators pre-
supply a certain value of current for vent the plates from touching each other
much longer than the same size dry cell. and destroying the cell. One of the sets of
Manganese cells are particularly useful in the plates is treated chemically to form
applications where the equipment is to be an oxide of lead (a combination of lead
left on for along time. Here their life will and oxygen), and the two sets of plates
greatly exceed the life of a dry cell. with the separators between them are
However, in applications where equip- then placed in a container filled with a
ment is operated intermittently for short solution of sulphuric acid in water. The
periods, the manganese cell will outlast term "lead-acid battery" came about as a
the dry cell, but the increase in perfor- result of the use of lead plates in a
mance may not be justified by the solution of sulphuric acid.
increased expense of the manganese cell. The voltage in this type of cell is
approximately 2 volts. Storage batteries
LEAD-ACID BATTERIES used in modern automobiles are usually
made of six cells connected in series so
that the output voltage from the battery
The storage battery used in auto- is 12 volts. Older automobiles used bat-
mobiles is the best known example of a teries in which three cells were connected
secondary cell. This type of cell has two in series to give an output voltage of 6
groups of plates: one attached to the volts. A three-cell battery is shown in Fig.
positive terminal and the other to the 8B.
negative terminal. The plates are made of To charge this type of battery, the
lead and fit together as shown in Fig. 8A. battery is connected to abattery charger
Between the plates are sheets of insu- which simply applies a voltage slightly

NEGATIVE POSITIVE
TERMINAL TERMINAL

NEGATIVE POSITIVE
PLATES PLATES

Fig. 8. (A) shows the construction of astorage battery; (13) shows athree-cell battery.

9
 through it in the opposite direction. Once
the battery has been recharged, it can
again be connected to the circuit and will
CHARGER supply current to the circuit.
In an automobile, the battery is usually
+ o GO connected to agenerator. As long as the
car is running at areasonable speed, the
generator is both charging the battery and
supplying the current needed to operate
00 the car. However, when the car is oper-
o

E
ating at a slow speed or when it is
stopped, the generator is not turning fast

r o enough to provide the electricity needed

by the car and the battery supplies this
energy. In the next section of this lesson
you will study generators and you will see
Fig. 9. (A) shows the direction current will flow
how they produce an electric current.
when a storage battery is being charged; (B)
shows the direction current will flow when the
battery is supplying current. NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES

higher than the battery voltage. The There are two main disadvantages of
charger forces current through the bat- the lead-acid storage battery. One dis-
tery as shown in Fig. 9A. This current advantage is that it has a somewhat
causes a chemical change in the battery, limited life and the other is that it gives
and the electrical energy put in the off hydrogen and oxygen when it is
battery is stored in it in the form of charged, and therefore the cell must be
chemical energy. When the battery is vented to allow these gases to escape. The
connected to acircuit, the energy stored hydrogen and oxygen given off from the
in the battery is released by the chemical battery come from the water in the cell
action of the battery and current will and this water must be replaced period-
flow in the circuit as shown in Fig. 9B. ically. As a result, the cell requires con-
Notice the direction of current in Figs. siderable maintenance.
9A and 9B. When the battery is being A cell that overcomes this disadvantage
charged, the current is forced through the is the nickel-cadmium cell. While the cell
battery in the opposite direction to which does give off gases when it is being
it flows when the battery is supplying charged, methods have been developed to
current. The storage battery can supply take care of these gases so that the cell
current for a much longer time than the may be sealed. As a result, you do not
average dry cell. When the storage battery have to add water or acid to the cell; the
is discharged and is no longer able to cell requires no maintenance other than
supply the current required by the cir- to charge it when it becomes discharged.
cuit, the battery can be removed from the The nickel-cadmium cell has an oper-
circuit and recharged by passing current ating voltage of about 1.2 volts. While the

10
 cell cannot supply quite as much current advantages are its limited shelf life and its
as the same size lead-acid cell can supply, limited current capabilities.
the fact that it will last almost indef- The mercury cell has a much longer
initely if it is cared for and that it can be shelf life than adry cell, and agiven size
sealed and requires no maintenance has mercury cell is capable of supplying a
/ made it ideally suited for use in operating much higher current than adry cell. That
portable electronic equipment. As more is to say, it can supply the same current
portable transistorized equipment is as a dry cell for a much longer time.
+. developed, it is likely that this type of Mercury cells have a voltage of about
cell will become more important to the 1.35 or 1.4 volts, depending upon the
electronics technician. materials used in them. The disadvantage
In charging both the lead-acid and the of the mercury cell is its cost.
nickel-cadmium storage batteries or cells, The manganese cell can provide agiven
the technician should follow the manu- current for amuch longer time than adry
facturer's recommendations and avoid cell can. Its shelf life is better than adry
charging either type of cell at a higher cell, but not as good as a mercury cell.
rate. This is likely to cause excessive heat The output voltage of amanganese cell is
which can cause the plates in the cell to about 1.5 volts.
warp and touch. Once this happens, the The storage cell has the advantage that
cell is shorted and it is no longer usable. it can be recharged and used again. There
are two important types of storage cells,
SUMMARY the lead-acid cell and the nickel-cadmium
cell. The lead-acid cell has avoltage of
In this section of the lesson we have about 2volts and the nickel-cadmium cell
covered three important primary cells and has avoltage of about 1.2 volts.
two important secondary cells. We do not The advantage of the nickel-cadmium
expect you to remember how these cells cell over the lead-acid cell is that it can be
are made, but you should remember the sealed and does not require the periodic
voltage of each cell and remember their maintenance that the lead-acid cell
important characteristics. There may be requires.
occasions when you will want to sub-
stitute one type of cell for the other to SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
obtain improved performance. In order to
do this you must know the voltage What is the output voltage of adry
supplied by each type of cell so that you cell?
can be sure that you will have the proper If fifteen dry cells are connected in
operating voltage for the equipment. You series to form abattery, what would
must also know something about their the output voltage be?
characteristics so that you will be able to If eight dry cells are connected in
select a suitable replacement that will parallel to form a battery, what
result in improved performance. would the output voltage be?
The most important characteristic of If six dry cells are connected in
the dry cell is its economy. Its dis- series to form a 9-volt battery and
 the negative terminal is marked with (0 What is the output voltage of a
aminus sign and the positive termi- mercury cell?
nal marked +9V, how would you (8) What is the output voltage of a
expect a center tap terminal con- manganese cell?
nected between the third and fourth (h) Since the manganese cell is abetter
cells to be marked? cell than the dry cell, why hasn't it 1
(This is adifficult question -look at Figs. completely replaced the dry cell?
4and 5before you make up your mind as (j) Name two types of secondary cells.
to what the answer should be.) (i) Which type of secondary cell pro-
(e) What are the two main advantages of vides the longest life, and the most
the mercury cell over the dry cell? maintenance-free performance?

12
 Generators
Although batteries are very useful, one direction. We call this kind of current
their ability to supply large amounts of direct current. We usually abbreviate this
power is limited. If a battery, even a dc.
lead-acid storage battery, is called upon The voltage supplied by abattery that
to supply large amounts of current, it will causes adirect current to flow is referred
soon be exhausted and must be removed to as a dc voltage. The expression dc
from the circuit and recharged. Even if voltage means that the voltage causes a
storage batteries could supply the large direct current to flow. This means that
amounts of electricity consumed daily by the polarity does not change. In other
the average large city, we would still have words, on a battery, one terminal is
to have some way of recharging the always the negative terminal and the
batteries. Thus, we would have aneed for other terminal is always the positive
a device other than a battery that is terminal. We say that the terminals
capable of supplying large amounts of always have the same polarity — the
electricity. polarity of the terminals does not change.
You already know that if the magnetic A dc generator is adevice that gener-
field cutting through a coil is varied, a ates adirect current. In other words, the
voltage will be induced in the coil. If the current coming from the generator always
magnetic field is made to vary rapidly flows in the same direction. This means
enough, the voltage will be induced con- that the terminals of the generator must
tinuously in the coil; this voltage can be always have the same polarity; one termi-
connected to an outside circuit and cur- nal will always be the negative terminal
rent will flow through the circuit. This is and the other terminal will always be the
the principle that is used in electric power positive terminal.
generators. Besides direct current, there is another
Before studying generators, let us learn important type of current with which
about two important kinds of current you must be familiar. This type of cur-
you will have to deal with: direct current rent is called alternating current or simply
and alternating current. ac. Alternating current differs from direct
current in that its direction is continually
changing. The current flows first in one
DIRECT CURRENT AND
direction and then in the opposite direc-
ALTERNATING CURRENT
tion. This reversal of current occurs many
times asecond. The current supplied to
The current supplied by a battery your home is alternating current. The
always flows from the negative terminal voltage that produces an alternating cur-
of the battery through the external cir- rent is called an ac voltage. In order to
cuit and back to the positive terminal of produce aflow of alternating current the
the battery. The current always flows in polarity of the terminals of the device

13
causing the current flow must be con- flowing from the north pole to the south
tinually reversing. In other words, when pole of the magnet and avoltage will be
the current is flowing in one direction, induced in the coil. The amount of
one terminal must be negative and the voltage will depend upon the number of
other positive. When the current flows in magnetic lines being cut by the coil as it
the opposite direction, the polarity of the rotates. This in turn will depend upon the
terminals must reverse so that the termi- strength of the magnetic field and upon
nal that was the negative terminal must the speed at which the coil is rotated.
become the positive terminal and the First, let us consider the voltage that
terminal that was the positive terminal will be produced by a generator of this
must become the negative terminal. type. When the coil is in the position
While alternating current cannot be shown in Fig. 11A, the movement of the
used to operate such electronic devices -as coil is parallel to the lines of force
tubes and transistors, it has many useful flowing from the north pole to the south
applications; indeed our modern indus- pole of the magnet. They are moving
tries depend upon large amounts of alter- along the lines of force and are not
nating current being readily available. cutting through any of the lines of force.
Now we will go ahead and learn how a You will remember that in order to
simple generator operates and at the same induce avoltage in acoil, the turns of the
time learn more about alternating current coil must be cut by magnetic lines of
and ac voltage. force. In Fig. 11A, the coil is moving
along the lines of force and not cutting
A SIMPLE GENERATOR through them. There will be no voltage
induced in the coil when the coil is in this
A simple generator capable of gener- position.
ating electric power can be built as shown When the coil moves counterclockwise
in Fig. 10. This generator consists of a to the position shown in Fig. 11B, it will
single-turn coil placed between the poles still be moving almost parallel to the lines
of amagnet. As the coil is rotated, it will of force. However, it is moving at asmall
cut through the magnetic lines of force angle to these lines of force and therefore
it will cut through some of them and
MAGNET
there will be some voltage induced in the
coil. When the coil moves down to the
position shown in Fig. 11C, it will be
cutting more lines of force because it is
moving at asharper angle to them and a
somewhat higher voltage will be induced
in the coil. Finally when it reaches the
SLIP RINGS SHAFT POLE
position shown in Fig. 11D, it will be
BRUSHES moving directly perpendicular to the lines
AC VOLTAGE of force and will be cutting through them
at maximum speed, and the voltage
Fig. 10. A simple ac generator. induced in the coil will reach its highest

14
 z

Fig. 11. In the illustration, the coil is rotating counterclockwise. The voltage produced by this
generator depends upon the movement of the coil in relation to the magnetic lines of force.

value. As the coil moves down to Lne and 5 we said that one terminal of the
positions shown in Figs. 11E and 11F, it battery could be considered as zero volt-
will be cutting fewer and fewer lines of age and the voltage at the other terminals
force until it finally reaches the position marked in reference to this terminal. You
shown in Fig. 11G. Once again the coil can do the same thing with agenerator.
will be running parallel to the lines of You can use one lead as the ground or
force and no voltage will be induced in common lead and measure the voltage at
the coil. the other lead as either positive or nega-
tive with respect to the common lead.
If we assume that one lead is a com-
HOW VOLTAGES ARE
mon or ground lead, we can conveniently
PICTURED
represent the voltage at the other lead by
a graph. A graph is merely asimple way
You will remember that when we of presenting information in the form of
discussed the batteries shown in Figs. 4 a picture. In Fig. I2A, you will notice a

15
 •100 +100 +100 .100
•80 •80 •80 •80
•60 •60 •60 +60
•40 •40 .40 •40
•20 •20 •20 •20
o o o o
-20 -20 -20 20
-40 -40 -40 40
-60 -60 -60 60
-BO -80 -eo 80
-100 -100 -100 100

ABCDEFG ®ABCDEFG 0 ABCDEFG ABCDEFG

Fig. 12. Construction of agraph ot the voltage produced by the generator in Fig. 11.

horizontal line which is marked zero vertical line running through D, as shown
running through the center of the graph. in Fig. 12B. Similarly the voltages that
This is the zero voltage line which repre- are present at the remaining points would
sents the voltage of the ground or be marked (in the graph. This would look
common lead. The horizontal lines above like Fig. 12C. The only step left is to
this line represent positive voltages, and draw a smooth curve joining all these
the lines below the zero line represent points as shown in Fig. 12D. This curve
negative voltages. The vertical lines repre- represents the voltage generated by the
sent the positions .of the coil shown in generator through one half turn.
Fig. 11. When the coil is rotated through the
Let us assume that at the instant the remaining half turn, the polarity of the
coil is in the position shown in Fig. 11D, voltage produced will be reversed. In
the voltage generated is 100 volts. If the other words, the voltage will now be
voltage is 100 volts positive with respect negative with respect to the ground termi-
to the common terminal, we would place nal because the coil will now be cutting
a mark (X) on the graph at the point through the magnetic lines of force in the
where the +100 volt line crosses the opposite direction. If we complete the

+100
•80
•60
•40
•20
o
20
40
60
80
-100

Fig. 13. The appearance of the output voltage produced by the generator as it travels through
one complete turn.

16
drawing to show what the voltage will with only a single-turn coil would be
look like during the other half turn, the extremely low, even with avery strong
picture would look like Fig. 13A. For magnetic field. However, we can obtain a
convenience, if we leave the horizontal higher voltage simply by putting more
and vertical lines of the graph off, we can turns of wire on the coil. Ten_fung_Las
get abetter look at the shape or appear- lush voltee would_11
ance of the output voltage as in Fig. 13B. ten-turn coil as in a single-turn coil. If
This is called awaveform. one-tenth of a volt is induced in a
This is how the ac voltage supplied by single-turn coil, one-tenth of avolt will be
the power company may be represented. induced in each turn of the ten-turn coil.
It is called asine (pronounced sign) wave. These voltages will be induced in series
The voltage represented by one com- with each other so that the total voltage
plete turn of the coil in the magnetic field available at the output terminals of the
is called acycle. The power supplied by coil will be 1volt. By putting 100 turns
most power companies in this country is on the coil, we could get 10 volts; by
60-cycle power. When we say 60-cycle, putting 1000 turns on the coil, we could
we mean 60 cycles per second. In other get 100 volts.
words, the voltage goes through 60 cycles Thus, by putting the proper number of
each second, like the one shown in Fig. turns on the coils of agenerator we can
13. This is called the "frequency" of the generate any required voltage.
ac voltage. To make the generator pro-
duce this type of voltage, it would have
DC GENERATORS
to be turned at aspeed of 60 revolutions
per second, which is 3600 revolutions per
minute. The part of the cycle above the Instead of using apermanent magnet
line is called ahalf cycle, and it is referred such as the one shown in Fig. 10, a
to as the positive half cycle. The part of practical generator would use an electro-
the cycle below the line is also called a magnet to supply the magnetic field. The
half cycle, and it is referred to as the current required to operate this electro-
negative half cycle. magnet can be obtained either from the
You will also see the term Hertz, generator itself or from another gener-
abbreviated Hz, used to designate the ator. However, it must be dc. The voltage
frequency of an ac signal. Hertz and generated by the generator we have dis-
cycles per second mean exactly the same cussed is ac. Now let us look into the
thing and you will see these expressions generator further and see how we can
used interchangeably. Hertz is the pre- obtain dc instead of ac.
ferred term, but you will see cycles per In an ac generator such as the one
second used almost as often. Just remem- described, the ends of the coils are
ber when you see the expression 60 Hz connected to slip-rings. By means of
signal, we are referring to an alternating contacts riding on the slip-rings (which
voltage or current that completes 60 are called brushes), we could take the ac
cycles per second. voltage off the generator. However, if,
The voltage generated by this generator instead of using two slip-rings, we use a

17
 MAGNET
the other section. When acoil starts to go
through the second half revolution, the
brushes will be connected to the opposite
section; the one that was connected to
the first section will then be connected to
the second section, and the one that was
COMMUTATOR -BRUSH connected to the second section will then
be connected to the first section and
DC VOLTAGE current will always flow through the
F. 14. A simple de generator.
external circuit in the same direction, as
shown in Fig. 15. As a result, at the
commutator, as shown in Fig. 14, we can output we will have a voltage like that
obtain dc. A commutator is similar to a shown in Fig. 16.
slip-ring except that it is split in half and
the two halves are insulated from each
other. The brushes are placed so that
when the coil is going through the first
half revolution, one brush will be con-
nected to one section of the commutator
and the other brush will be connected to Fig. 16. Output of a simple de generator.

Here we have essentially the same wave

shape as we had in Fig. 13, except that
the half of the cycle that was previously
negative and drawn below the line has
now been reversed by the automatic
reversing of the connections to the coil
performed by the commutator and
brushes.
A voltage like that shown in Fig. 16 is
called pulsating dc. It is dc inasmuch as
the current that flows as aresult of this
voltage will always flow in one direction.
However, since the voltage varies, the
current varies; it will flow in pulses and
actually drop to zero twice through each
revolution of the coil. This can be used in
Fig. 15. In (A), section 1 of the commutator
some applications but it is not what we
is negative, and section 2 is positive. In (B),
call pure dc, like the dc supplied by a
section 1 is positive, and section 2 is negative.
This means that brush A is always connected
battery.
to the negative section of the commutator and As in the case of the ac generator, the
brush B to the positive section, and current output voltage from adc generator with
flows in only one direction. only a single turn would be extremely

18
 ARMATURE
siderable voltage. The commutator used
with this type of generator would have
twelve sections instead of two, as is the
case in the generator with only one coil.
There will be some fluctuation in the
voltage so that the output voltage will
•
A' look like Fig. 18 as the generator goes
through one revolution. Notice that with
COMMUTATOR
this type of generator, instead of two big
Fig. 17. The armature of a dc generator with half cycles, an almost constant value of
6series-connected coils. dc is obtained.
low — too low to be usable. However, by
DC fri-Y-NrYYWYNY%
winding several turns on the coil, ahigher
voltage can be obtained. This will still Fig. 18. Only a small ripple will be noticeable
provide a pulsating type of dc like that in the output of a dc generator having 6 coils
shown in Fig. 16. and 12 commutator sections.

A better arrangement is shown in Fig.

AC VALUES
17. Here, there are anumber of coils on
an iron form called an "armature." The Now look back at the ac cycle shown
coils are in different positions around the in Fig. 13. Notice that at the start of the
armature. In the position shown, coil cycle the voltage is O. When the coil has
A-A' will not cut any lines of force and rotated through one quarter of aturn, the
therefore there will be no voltage induced voltage has built up to amaximum value;
in it. The coil B-B', however, is cutting a when the coil has gone through one-half a
few lines of force and some voltage will turn, the voltage is back to zero again. At
be induced in it. Coil C-C' is cutting still three-quarters of a turn, the voltage has
more lines of force and a somewhat reached amaximum value with the oppo-
higher voltage will be induced, and coil site polarity and finally at the end of the
D-D' is cutting directly across the lines of cycle, the voltage is back to zero. The end
force and the maximum voltage will be of this cycle is actually the start of the
induced in it. These coils are all con- next cycle. The voltage reaches a maxi-
nected in series and brought out to mum value twice in each cycle, and it
connections on the commutator. Two drops to zero twice in each cycle.
brushes are used on the generator, and Let us see how we measure ac. When
the output voltage from this type of we talk about a dc current and we say
machine will be nearly constant. This is that the current flowing in the circuit is 1
because there will always be one coil amp, we mean that a certain number of
either in or close to each position shown electrons are flowing past agiven point in
in Fig. 17. The voltage produced by the the circuit. This same number of elec-
generator will be the voltage of all the trons continues to flow as long as the
coils in series. While some of the coils are current in the circuit is 1amp. However,
producing very little voltage, the coils what happens when we're dealing with
near the position D-D' will produce con- ac? Since the voltage reaches amaximum

19
 .140
twice each cycle and falls to zero twice •100
1
f
PEAK 1
each cycle, the current must also have 140V
EFFECTIVE
two maximums in each cycle and fall to 100V rPEAK-70-
PEAK
zero twice each cycle. Therefore, the 280V
number of electrons flowing in the circuit PEAK I

1
140V
is not constant; in fact it is continually
changing as the ac voltage goes through -140
its cycle.
To overcome this difficulty, we mea- Fig. 19. AC waveform showing effective (rms),
sure ac in terms of equivalent dc. When peak and peak-to-peak voltages.
we say that the ac current flowing in the
circuit is 1amp, we mean that the current the two peaks will be 2.8 times the
is the equivalent of 1amp of dc. In other effective voltage. This voltage is called the
words, if a dc current of 1 amp flows peak-to-peak voltage. Fig. 19 shows an ac
through aheating element such as found voltage of 100 volts. The peak value is
in an electric iron or toaster, acertain 140 volts, and the peak-to-peak value 280
amount of heat will be produced. When volts. Study this figure to be sure you
the ac current flowing through the same understand what the terms mean.
heating element produces the same It's important to remember when we
amount of heat, we say that the ac are talking about ac voltages that unless
current is 1amp. we specifically refer to the peak or
The same system is used to measure ac peak-to-peak voltages, we are talking
voltage. If a dc voltage of 100 volts is about effective voltages; in other words,
required to force the current of 1ampere the ac voltages that will produce the same
through acircuit made up of aresistance, effect as the equivalent dc voltage. Also
the ac voltage that will force an ac remember that the peak or greatest volt-
current of 1 amp through the same age reached during ahalf cycle will be 1.4
resistance is said to be 100 volts. This is times as great as the effective voltage, and
called the effective or rms voltage and it that the peak-to-peak voltage will be 2.8
will cause an ac current to flow that will times the effective voltage. You will run
produce the same heating effect as the into the terms "peak voltage" and "peak-
equivalent amount of direct current. to-peak voltage" as well as the expression
From looking at an ac voltage cycle, it "effective voltage" many times during
is quite obvious that the voltage must be your career in electronics. Knowing the
greater than the effective value during peak value of an ac voltage is often very
part of the cycle and less than the important.
effective value during the remainder of A good example of how high the peak
the cycle. The maximum value that the ac voltage in acircuit may be is the voltage
voltage reaches during a half cycle is supplied in most homes in this country.
called the peak voltage. The peak voltage The average power company supplies a
is approximately 1.4 times the effective voltage somewhere between 115 and 120
voltage. Each peak is 1.4 times the volts, 60 Hertz ac for lighting and general
effective voltage, and the voltage between domestic uses. This is the effective value

20
of the voltage. Let us assume that the that this ac voltage is called asine wave.
voltage supplied to your home is exactly Remember that when we speak of ac
120 volts. What is the peak voltage voltage and current we are speaking of
reached during each half cycle? It will be the voltage and current that will produce
1.4 X 120, which is 168 volts. In other the same effect as the equivalent values of
words, twice during each cycle the actual dc. Remember that the peak value of the
voltage between the two power leads ac cycle is 1.4 times the effective value,
connected to each electric light and appli- and the peak-to-peak value is 2.8 times
ance in your home reaches avalue of 168 the effective value.
volts. Twice during each cycle the voltage
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
also drops to zero.
The net effect of this ac voltage is the What are the two kinds of current
same as supplying a de voltage of 120 that the electronic technician must
volts to the electric lights. The peak-to- know about?
peak voltage supplied to your home will What do we call the voltage that
be 2.8 X 120 volts or 336 volts! produces a current that flows in
only one direction?
THE IMPORTANCE OF AC
What is the name given to avoltage
You may wonder why we have gone that causes current to flow first in
into so much detail in describing alter- one direction and then in the other
nating current. Alternating current is direction many times in asecond?
important not only because it is the type What is the name given to the ac
of power supplied by the power com- voltage wave supplied by the power
panies, but also because ac signals are company?
used throughout the whole electronics What is acycle?
industry. The sound that comes from the What do we mean by 60 cycles per
loudspeaker in your radio or your tele- second (60 Hertz)?
vision receiver and the sound from your What is the name given to the device
telephone are produced by ac signals on a dc generator that is used to
having a frequency not too much higher reverse the connections of the coil
than the power line frequency. The radio to produce dc instead of ac?
waves that travel through space are What type of current is produced by
actually ac signals of a much higher a simple dc generator such as the
frequency. Signals used in many indus- one shown in Fig. 14?
trial applications are ac signals. What do we mean when we say that
the ac current is 1amp?
SUMMARY
If we say the ac voltage is 100 volts,
We have covered a great deal of do we mean the effective or the
material in the preceding sections. There peak value of the ac voltage is 100
are several important things that you volts?
should remember. First, remember what (u) If the rms voltage is 200 volts, what
an ac cycle looks like. Also remember is the peak value of the voltage?

21
 Electronics in Communications
Radio waves are sine waves like the one megahertz. The megahertz is 1,000,000
shown in Fig. 13. They are similar to the Hertz and it is abbreviated MHz. There
60 Hertz ac power waves. The only are 1,000 kilohertz in a megahertz. The
difference is in the frequency of radio standard broadcast band is 550 kHz to
waves. The lowest frequency radio waves 1700 kHz. This can also be expressed as
have afrequency of about 15,000 Hertz. .55 MHz and 1.7 MHz. TV stations
We usually use kilohertz instead of Hertz operate up in the megahertz region. Chan-
when speaking of radio waves around this nel 2, the lowest TV channel, occupies
frequency. -- one kilohertz equals one the band of frequencies from 54 MHz to
thousand Hertz. Therefore, 15,000 Hertz 60 MHz. Channel 13 occupies the band of
is equal to 15 kilohertz (kHz). This is a frequencies from 210 MHz to 216 MHz.
very low frequency radio signal; there are These channels are referred to as the vhf
only a few very high-powered stations (very high frequency) TV channels. The
operating on such low frequencies. They FM broadcast band, which is located
are used mostly by government services between channels 6 and 7, occupies the
for world-wide communications. band of frequencies from 88 to 108 MHz.
The standard radio broadcast stations TV channels 14 through 83 are
operate on frequencies between 550 kHz referred as the uhf (ultra high frequency)
(550,000 Hertz) and approximately channels. Channel 14 occupies the band
1,700 kHz (1,700,000 Hertz). This group of frequencies from 470 MHz to 476
of frequencies is called a band; in this MHz and Channel 83 occupies the band
case, the broadcast band. The word band of frequencies from 884 MHz to 890
when it is used this way means nothing MHz.
other than agroup of frequencies. Now let us look at some parts of a
Needless to say, ac signals of such high radio system. We will briefly describe a
frequencies cannot be generated by radio transmitter and a receiver. Let us
means of mechanical generators such as look at the transmitter first.
those used to produce 60-cycle power
voltages and current. These ac signals THE RADIO TRANSMITTER
must be generated by electronic devices
such as vacuum tubes and transistors. Radio transmitters are actually made
We mentioned that the frequency of up of anumber of sections, each designed
radio signals is often expressed in kilo- to do aspecific job. Let's discuss some of
hertz rather than in Hertz. Akilohertz is the more important sections of atypical
equal to 1,000 Hertz. However, many transmitter.
broadcast services operate on such high The sound signal to be transmitted
frequencies that even the kilohertz is not starts in the microphone. There are a
large enough to provide a convenient number of different types of micro-
method of expressing their frequency; so phones in use. We will look at one of the
in addition to the kilohertz we use the simpler types. Before we discuss the

22
microphone, let's learn a little about the diaphragm is connected to the coil,
sound. the coil will vibrate between the poles of
Sound is a vibration set up in air or the magnet. You already know what will
some other medium. The key you strike happen when a coil is moved in a mag-
on a piano is connected to a hammer, netic field; the turns of wire on the coil
which strikes a string that is tightly will cut through the magnetic lines of
stretched on aframe. The string begins to force, and voltage will be induced in the
vibrate and sets the air surrounding it into coil. If this coil is connected to an
vibration. The frequency at which the external circuit, there will be a current
string vibrates will determine the tone flow through the circuit. The frequency
that you hear. Similarly, when we speak, of the current will depend upon the
the speech muscles in our throat set the frequency at which the diaphragm and
air in our throat into vibration. This coil vibrate. This in turn will depend
vibration is projected from our mouth upon the frequency at which the air is
and nose, and the vibration travels vibrating, which in turn depends upon the
through the air. However, instead of vibrations set up by the vocal muscles in
producing a single frequency, our voices the throat of the person speaking in front
are actually quite complex and may of the microphone.
produce vibrations of many frequencies, This electrical signal produced by the
causing the different tones by which we microphone is called an audio signal or
can distinguish the voice of one person audio voltage. The word audio is used to
from that of another. designate electrical signals in the fre-
Microphones. A simple microphone is quency range of sound. An audio voltage
shown in Fig. 20. This microphone con- or signal is the electrical equivalent of
sists of a coil and a magnet and a flat sound.
metal disc which is called a diaphragm. An Audio Amplifier. In atypical trans-
Fastened to the diaphragm is asmall light mitter the output of the microphone is
coil form on which acoil is wound. The fed to an audio amplifier. The audio
coil is placed between the poles of a voltage is fed to a vacuum tube or a
permanent magnet. When you speak in transistor that will amplify the signal so
front of the microphone, your voice sets that amuch stronger signal will appear in
the air into vibration. The vibrating air the output circuit of the tube or tran-
will cause the diaphragm to vibrate. Since sistor. The amplified signal will be just
MAGNET
like the signal generated by the micro-
phone, but it will be stronger. A tube or
DIAPHRAGM
transistor along with its associated parts is
COIL WOUND
ON FORM called astage. A stage used to amplify an
audio signal is called an audio stage.
In a typical transmitter, the audio
signal produced by the microphone will
be amplified by a number of stages in
order to build up the strength of the
Fig. 20. A simple dynamic microphone. signal until it is hundreds of times

23
stronger than the original signal produced the signals will be strong enough to travel
by the microphone. The signal is first fed through space from the transmitter to the
to one stage where it is amplified and receiver.
then on to a second stage where it is In one of the radio frequency stages of
amplified still further and on to a fol- the transmitter, the audio signal is super-
lowing stage and so on until its strength imposed on the radio frequency signal.
has been built up to the desired level. The This is called modulation. The audio
amplified signal, however, will have signal is the modulation signal and the rf
exactly the same frequency and charac- signal is the modulated signal.
teristics as the original signal produced by In a radio system of this type, the
the microphone. modulation signal varies the amplitude or
The microphone and the audio ampli- strength of the rf signal. This type of
fiers in atransmitter are called the audio modulation is called amplitude modu-
section. This is often abbreviated af lation and is abbreviated AM. In some
(audio frequency) section. Another transmitters the modulated signal is then
important section of the transmitter is fed directly to the antenna, but in others
the radio frequency section — this is it is amplified further and then fed to the
abbreviated rf section. antenna.
The RF Section. The rf section of a The modulated rf signal from the
transmitter is made up of a number of transmitter is fed through acable or wire,
separate stages. The first stage is the stage called atransmission line, to the antenna.
that actually generates the radio fre- The transmission line is something like
quency signal. This stage is called the the power lines that are used to bring the
oscillator stage. The oscillator stage is power from the power-generating station
carefully designed to produce asignal of to your home. They simply carry the
the desired frequency. The signal from power from the transmitter to the
the oscillator stage is then amplified by antenna.
additional stages which are called rf The antenna at aradio station is simply
power amplifier stages. These stages build alength of wire or atower to which the
up the strength of the radio frequency transmission line is connected. When the
signals generated by the oscillator so that radio frequency signal is fed to the

ANTENNA

RF POWER MODULATED RF
OSCILLATOR
AMPLIFIER RF AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER

MICROPHONE

AUDIO AUDIO
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER

Fig. 21. A block diagram of asimple transmitter.

24
antenna, the rf signal sets up acurrent in in atransmitter; it will be helpful to you,
the antenna which produces amagnetic even though you may never work on a
field and an electric field surrounding the radio transmitter. Notice the symbols
antenna. These fields travel out in space used in Fig. 21 for the microphone and
from the antenna and carry the signal the antenna. Remember these symbols;
from the transmitting antenna to the you will see them frequently in future
receiving antenna. lessons.
A simplified diagram of aradio trans-
THE RECEIVER
mitting system is shown in Fig. 21. This
type of diagram is called ablock diagram. The job that the receiver has to per-
It is a simpler way of representing the form is exactly the opposite of the job
various stages or sections of a piece of the transmitter has to perform. The trans-
electronic equipment than showing the mitter must take the sound and convert it
complete schematic diagram. We will use to an electrical signal, which is the audio
this type of diagram frequently because it signal, and then superimpose the audio
enables us to give an overall picture of the signal on an rf carrier signal. The receiver
various stages of a piece of electronic must take the rf carrier and remove the
equipment without going into all the audio signal from it and then convert the
details of the circuitry. You will find later audio signal back into sound.
that the circuits used in the various stages In spite of the fact that the receiver
follow certain basic patterns. In other must perform the opposite tasks from
words, there is little difference in the those performed by the transmitter, there
circuits used in the individual stages; the are many similarities between a trans-
difference is the manner in which the mitter and areceiver. A transmitter has rf
stages are used. amplifiers, so do many receivers. The
Notice that the sound signal is gen- transmitter has audio amplifiers, so do
erated by amicrophone and fed to the receivers. The transmitter has a stage in
audio amplifier stages. At this same time which modulation occurs — the receiver
the rf signal is generated by an oscillator has astage in which demodulation occurs.
and amplified by rf power amplifier Demodulation is sometimes called detec-
stages. In the third rf stage, the rf signal is tion; it is the recovery of the audio signal
modulated by the audio signal and the from the modulated signal. You will see
modulated signal is then amplified by the later that there is agreat deal of similarity
last stage in the transmitter. This stage is between the operation of the stage in
called the final amplifier or simply the which modulation occurs and the stage in
final because it is the last rf amplifier which demodulation occurs. The trans-
stage in the transmitter. The signal from mitter has a microphone which converts
the final is then fed through a trans- the sound into an electrical signal; the
mission line to the transmitting antenna. receiver has aspeaker which converts the
This brief description of Fig. 21 is all electrical signal to asound signal. Even
you need to know about radio trans- though the microphone and speaker per-
mitters at this time. However, you should form opposite tasks, there is agreat deal
understand in general terms what is done of similarity between the two.

25
 Now let's look at a simple receiver This amplification is usually carried out
system. Modern receivers are somewhat in astage called an rf amplifier. It is quite
more complicated than the one we will similar to the rf amplifier in atransmitter,
describe, but nevertheless millions of except it is called an rf voltage amplifier
receivers like this one have been made. (in a transmitter it is called an rf power
The Antenna. The radio receiving amplifier). The rf amplifier in the receiver
antenna is amuch simpler device than the is designed to increase the strength of the
transmitting antenna. The signals trans- signal voltage picked up by the antenna.
mitted by modern broadcast transmitters The Demodulator. The amplified signal
are so strong that only simple receiving from the rf amplifier is fed to a stage
antennas are needed. A simple outside called the demodulator or detector. This
antenna may be made from awire 25 to stage separates the audio signal from the
50 feet long mounted between two poles. rf signal. The rf signal is called the carrier;
Most modern radio receivers do not need it carries the audio signal from the trans-
any outside antenna at all. An indoor mitter to the receiver. However, it serves
antenna made of a coil wound on a little or no useful purpose in the receiver.
powdered iron core is called aloopstick. In the detector stage, the rf signal is
It is mounted in the rear of the receiver, separated from the audio signal. The rf
inside of the receiver cabinet. This is all signal is discarded so that the signal at the
the antenna that is needed to provide output of the detector is an audio signal.
satisfactory reception on local broadcast This audio signal is exactly like the audio
stations. A loopstick mounted in the rear signal that was originally produced by the
of areceiver is shown in Fig. 22. microphone in the transmitter.
The RF Amplifier. The signal picked The Audio Amplifier. The signal at the
up by the receiving antenna is quite weak output of the detector is still a weak
even if the station being received is a signal. Before it can be used to operate a
fairly strong local station. Before the loudspeaker, the strength of this signal
signal can be used it must be amplified. must be increased. It is increased by
feeding the signal to an audio amplifier,
which is similar to the audio amplifier in
a radio transmitter. The signal at the
output of the audio amplifier is identical
to the signal at the input, but much
stronger.
The Speaker. A speaker is not very
different from a microphone. In fact,
sometimes speakers are used as micro-
phones in intercommunications units
such as between two offices.
A sketch of asimple speaker is shown
in Fig. 23. Notice that the speaker has a
F. 22. Loopstick mounted in the rear of a magnet like the microphone. Between the
receiver. poles of the magnet is acoil, and the coil

26
 vibrating at the frequency of the original
sound signal produced by the micro-
phone, the air around the speaker will be
set into vibration at the same frequency.
The effect of setting this air into vibra-
tion is exactly the same as setting the air
into vibration with your vocal chords by
speaking. The vibration will be heard as
sound, and the sound will be at the same
frequency and tone as the original sound
that was first uttered in front of the
microphone.
The operation of modern speakers is
similar to that of the speaker shown in
Fig. 23. A simple pm dynamic speaker.
Fig. 23. This type of speaker with a
moving coil is called adynamic speaker.
is connected to a diaphragm. However, Modern dynamic speakers have aperma-
instead of having a flat diaphragm as in nent magnet like the one we have shown,
the microphone, the diaphragm is cone- and this type is called a permanent
shaped and in a speaker it is called the magnet dynamic speaker and is usually
cone. The cone is fastened to the coil. abbreviated simply a pm speaker.
When the varying current from the Another type of dynamic speaker uses an
audio amplifier is fed to the coil in the electromagnet instead of a permanent
speaker, avarying magnetic field is pro- magnet. This small coil placed between
duced. Depending on the polarity of the the poles of the magnet is called the voice
field produced by the current flowing in coil. Usually the voice coil is wound on a
the coil, the field may either aid or small lightweight form.
oppose the magnetic field produced by The magnets used in pm speakers are
the permanent magnet. Since the audio strong permanent magnets made of
signal is being fed to the speaker, it is alnico. You will remember that alnico is
actually an ac signal. The polarity of the an alloy of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt
magnetic field produced by the coil will which can be used to make extremely
sometimes aid and sometimes oppose the strong permanent magnets.
permanent magnet field. This varying
effect will cause the coil to vibrate in and TELEVISION
out. Since the coil is fastened to the cone,
the cone will vibrate in and out with the The transmission and reception of a
coil. The rate of vibration will depend television signal is not very different from
upon the frequency of the audio signal. that of a radio signal. However, in tele-
The vibrating cone will set the air in vision there are two signals to be taken
front and in back of the cone in motion. care of, the sound signal and the picture
The air will vibrate at the same frequency signal. To transmit these two signals
as the cone vibrates. Since the cone is through the air, two rf carriers are

27
needed, a picture carrier and a sound signal will be amplified by several video
carrier. The sound signal in television is amplifiers. Similarly, in acolor TV sys-
called the audio signal as it is in radio and tem, the color signal is amplified by color
the picture signal is called the video amplifiers. The color signal is then used
signal. to modulate an oscillator which is called a
The sound signal is picked up by a subcarrier oscillator, and this signal is
microphone, fed to audio amplifiers and combined with the video signal. The
then used to modulate the sound carrier. video signal and the color subcarrier
However, in television, instead of varying signal are then used to amplitude-mod-
the amplitude of the carrier, the fre- ulate an rf carrier. Amplitude modulation
quency of the carrier is varied. This is is used; this is the same type of mod-
called frequency modulation and is abbre- ulation that is used in the standard radio
viated FM. Some radio stations also use broadcasting band.
this type of modulation. They are called Thus the TV transmitter, instead of
FM stations. transmitting only one rf signal, must
The picture is picked up by acamera actually transmit two rf signals, one to
that contains aset of lenses similar to the carry the sound signal and the other to
lenses used in acamera that takes photo- carry the video signal along with the color
graphs. The lenses project the picture on signal if the broadcast is in color. The two
the face of aspecial tube called acamera signals from the transmitter are fed to a
pickup tube. This tube has a specially single antenna.
treated face plate on it and the light At the receiving installation, the two
striking it produces asmall voltage. The signals are picked up by one antenna,
brighter the light, the more voltage pro- amplified by rf amplifiers and then sep-
duced. The pickup tube produces avideo arated from the rf carriers by separate
signal that varies in amplitude with the detectors, one for the video and the other
brightness of the different parts of the for the sound. In the case of a color
picture. The video signal is something like television receiver, the video signal and
an audio signal; however, it is the elec- the color subcarrier are separated from
trical equivalent of the picture. the video carrier and the color signal is
In acolor television system, in addition then separated from the color subcarrier
to the signal that contains the brightness by acolor detector.
information, acolor signal is developed, The sound signal from the detector is
and this signal contains the color infor- amplified and fed to aspeaker. The video
mation. In other words, the video signal signal is amplified and fed to the picture
contains the information that tells how tube. In a black and white TV receiver
bright different parts of the picture are, the picture tube brightness is controlled
and the color signal tells what color they by the video signal. In acolor television
are. receiver the brightness is controlled by
The video signal at the output of the the video signal which is mixed with the
pickup tube is fed to astage called the color signal to produce the original colors
video amplifier stage where the signal is picked up by the camera.
amplified. In a transmitter, the video This is only abrief run through of a

28
television transmitter and receiver. There schematic symbols for amicrophone and
are many details that have been simpli- an antenna.
fied, many more that have been omitted,
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
but you need not be concerned about
them at this time. Keep in mind that the (y) How many kilohertz are there in a
operation of the video portion of a TV megahertz?
transmitter is not very different from that (w) Write 1900 kHz in megahertz.
of the audio portion of the transmitter. (x) What is the name given to the
There are many differences in details, but electrical signal produced by sound
the basic principles are the same. striking amicrophone?
(Y) What is an audio stage?
(z) What is the name given to the stage
SUMMARY
in a transmitter that actually gen-
erates the radio frequency signal?
This brief description of abroadcasting (aa) What is the name of the device
system gives you a birdseye picture of used to feed an rf signal from the
what happens in aradio transmitter and a transmitter to the antenna?
radio receiver. We do not expect you to (ab) What is the name given to the stage
remember the details at this time, but that separates the audio signal from
having ageneral idea of what takes place the rf carrier?
will help you with later lessons. Remem- (ac) What is the name of the small coil
ber that an rf stage amplifies a radio placed between the poles of the
frequency signal and that an audio stage magnet in aspeaker?
amplifies an audio signal. Remember (ad) What are the names of the two
what an rf signal is, what an audio signal signals that must be transmitted in
is and what avideo signal is. You should a black and white television sys-
also remember that the stage that sep- tem?
arates the audio signal from the rf carrier (ae) What type of modulation is used in
and the stage that separates the video the sound section of a TV trans-
signal from the rf carrier are both called mitter?
detector stages. You should remember (af) What type of modulation is used in
the basic principles of the operation of a the video section of a TV trans-
microphone and a speaker and also the mitter?

29
 Electronics in Industry
We have already mentioned that there tronic tubes designed for this type of
are many uses for electronics in industry service and by solid-state devices.
and that the number of applications is It is much more convenient to generate
growing daily. Electronics is used in oil and transmit ac than it is dc. The reason
refineries to control the various steps in for this is that ac can be transmitted at
the refinement of crude oil. It is used in very high voltages. The higher the voltage
the livestock feed industry to control the is for a given amount of power to be
mixing of grains and the preparation of transmitted, the lower the losses in the
feed for farm animals. It is used in the transmission lines will be. AC voltages can
factories to control the operation of be conveniently increased or decreased by
precision machines, to inspect the fin- means of atransformer, whereas dc volt-
ished product coming off the assembly ages cannot be changed from one value to
lines and to count the output of high- another conveniently.
speed automatic machines. It is used by The Transformer. You have already
railroads to automatically guide loaded briefly studied a simple transformer. A
and/or empty cars in switching operations transformer consists of two coils wound
and to control the speed of the car so on a common core. In the preceding
that it hits the cars already standing on lesson you learned that if abattery was
the track at just the right speed to couple connected to one winding and aswitch
to the car without damaging the cars or inserted into the circuit and the switch
their contents. We have all been thrilled opened and closed rapidly, the changing
in the past few years by the amazing feats magnetic field set up in the one winding
performed by space ships sent to the would induce a voltage in the second
moon to take television pictures of the winding.
moon, by the launching and orbiting of We call the winding to which the
the ships and recovery of the astronauts. battery is connected the primary winding
All these phenomenal feats have been and we call the other winding the sec-
possible due to many electronic devices at ondary winding. These names are ea- sy to
the control stations and aboard the space remember; remember that primary is
ships. In spite of all the advances we have first, and secondary is second.
made, the chances are that in the next ten If instead of abattery and switch, we
years we will see even greater advances connected ac voltage to the primary
and even more opportunities in the field winding on the transformer, the ac volt-
of electronics. age will cause an alternating current to
flow in the primary winding. When the
CHANGING AC TO DC alternating current flows in one direction
it will build up amagnetic field and the
One of the important uses of elec- changing lines of force, as the field is
tronics in industry is converting ac to dc. built up, will cut the turns of the sec-
This can be accomplished by large elec- ondary winding and induce avoltage in

30
these turns. As the ac current collapses direction. You will learn about tube
and then begins to flow in the opposite rectifiers now and about other types
direction, the magnetic field being pro- later.
duced will be continually changing. As Half-Wave Rectifiers. A half-wave recti-
the field builds up in the opposite direc- fier is adevice that will allow current to
tion, a voltage of the opposite polarity flow during only one half of each cycle.
will be induced in the secondary winding. Remember that the ac cycle we looked at
The voltage that will be induced in the before in Fig. 13 had apositive half and a
secondary winding will depend upon how negative half. A half-wave rectifier can be
many turns there are on the secondary connected to allow current to flow either
winding. If the secondary winding has the during the positive half or during the
same number of turns as the primary negative half of the cycle, but it will not
winding, the voltage induced in the sec- let current flow during both halves of the
ondary will be equal to the voltage cycle.
applied to the primary. If the secondary A schematic diagram of a half-wave
winding has twice as many turns as the rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 24. You
primary winding, the voltage induced in are already familiar with the schematic
the secondary will be twice the voltage symbols used on this diagram. T1 and 1 2
induced in the primary. A transformer of are iron-core transformers, and V1 is a
this type is called a step-up transformer tube with a filament and aplate. Notice
because it steps the voltage up to ahigher that the tube is drawn upside down. You
value. On the other hand, if the sec- will find them drawn in any position on
ondary winding has only half as many schematic diagrams, but the pointed
turns as the primary, the voltage induced symbol is always the filament and the
in the secondary will be only half the straight line is the plate. On the schematic
voltage applied to the primary. This type diagrams the dots where several con-
of voltage is called a step-down trans- necting lines meet indicate aconnection.
former because it steps down the voltage. The crossovers without a dot indicate
Thus by means of a step-up trans- that there is no connection.
former an ac voltage generated by a Now let us study Fig. 24. The ac power
generator can be stepped up to a very from the power line is fed to the primary
high value. It can then be transmitted to a
rafeiSeeftek
distant point by means of high-voltage
transmission lines and at that point (s,rp-ooiev)
stepped down by means of a step-down
transformer. This is why it is more
convenient to transmit alternating current
than direct current.
Alternating current is changed to direct
current by means of rectifiers. A rectifier
is a device that will let current flow
through it in one direction, but will not
let it flow through it in the opposite

31
winding of the transformers marked T1 of T2. The filament transformer T1 heats
and T2. T1 is astep-down transformer. the tube filament, but does not enter into
The winding on this transformer provides the operation of the rectifier in any other
the voltage necessary to heat the filament way.
of the diode tube. This transformer is Looking at Fig. 25A we see the first
often called a filament transformer half cycle which is the positive half cycle.
because it supplies the power required to At the left of the drawing we see the ac
heat the tube and serves no other useful voltage across the secondary of T2. In the
purpose in the circuit. center we see the polarity of the voltage
Transformer T2 may be either astep- across the secondary of T2 and at the
up or step-down transformer depending right we see the voltage that will appear
upon the dc voltage required by the load. across the load. The voltage will cause a
If the dc voltage needed is higher than the current flow through the load. During
power line voltage, astep-up transformer this half cycle, the end of the secondary
is used, whereas if it is lower, astep-down winding of T2 which is connected to the
transformer is used. The block marked plate of the diode tube is positive and the
"load" on the diagram represents what- other end is negative. When this happens,
ever is going to use the dc power pro- current will flow from the lower end of
duced. This might be anumber of storage the transformer winding to terminal 1of
batteries we are charging, or it could be a the load, through the load to terminal 2
bath which is being used to refine copper and to the filament of the tube. You
or aluminum in arefinery. You will see know that the red-hot filament will emit
the word load used frequently in this or give off electrons. These electrons will
way. be attracted to the plate of the tube by
Now let us see how the half-wave the positive voltage on the plate. There-
rectifier works. Refer to Fig. 25 as you fore, the electrons will flow from the
read the explanation. We have simplified filament to the plate of the tube to the
the figure by leaving out the filament positive end of the transformer. Since this
transformer T1 and the primary winding is acomplete circuit, current can flow.
However, when the polarity of the
voltage across the secondary of T2

o reverses, we will have the negative half

cycle shown in Fig. 25B. The polarity of
the secondary of T2 is shown. Notice that
the end of the secondary winding con-
nected to the plate of the tube will be
negative and the other end will be posi-
tive. Now let us see how current will have
to flow during this part of the cycle.

® You will remember that current flows

from the negative terminal of the voltage
source through the external circuit and
Fig. 25. How a half-wave rectifier works. back to the positive terminal of the

32
source. This means the electrons will have two secondary windings on one trans-
to flow from the negative end of the former. One winding as a step-down
secondary winding of the transformer to winding provides the voltage needed to
the plate of the tube. They could do this, operate the filament of the rectifier tube.
but then they would have to flow from The other winding may be either a
the plate of the tube to the filament. step-up or astep-down winding depend-
However, there is no way the plate can ing upon the dc voltage required by the
give off electrons. Furthermore, electrons load.
will not flow from the filament of the
SILICON RECTIFIERS
tube to the plate because they will be
repelled by the negative voltage on the In many applications silicon rectifiers
plate. The plate will be negative because have replaced diode tubes. The advantage
the side of the transformer it is connected of a silicon rectifier is that it does not
to is negative during this half cycle. Since have afilament and hence does not use
electrons cannot get across the tube there any power to heat the filament such as a
is no complete circuit and, therefore, tube does. In addition, silicon rectifiers
there will be no current in the circuit. are quite small and can pass rather large
The current in ahalf-wave rectifier of currents for their size. They have an
this type will look like the drawing in Fig. additional advantage in that there is very
25. Notice that during the first half of the little voltage lost across the rectifier,
cycle when the plate is positive there will whereas in a tube there will be some
be current through the circuit. During the voltage lost across the tube. A silicon
next half cycle when the plate is negative rectifier is made of two different types of
there is no current. This chain of events silicon placed together to form ajunc-
will continue so that during the third half tion. This junction will permit current to
cycle when the plate becomes positive cross it in one direction, but will not
again, current will flow and then during permit it to cross in the other. In the
the fourth half cycle again there will be forward direction there is practically no
no current. The current will flow in resistance in the junction and therefore
pulses, with one pulse for each cycle. the current flows freely in that direction.
Again, this type of dc is called apulsating In the reverse direction, the junction
dc and the rectifier is called ahalf-wave offers such a very high resistance that
rectifier because it rectifies only one half practically no current crosses it.
of each cycle. A schematic diagram of a half-wave
In apractical circuit the need for two rectifier using asilicon rectifier is shown
transformers can be avoided by putting in Fig. 26. The arrows indicate the

RECTIFIER

1
•
AC
LOAD
INPUT
•

Fig. 26. A half-wave rectifier using asilicon rectifier.

33
direction in which current will flow rectifier is a device that will permit
during the half cycle the rectifier passes current to flow through it in only one
current. direction. By using arectifier, alternating
Notice that the arrows indicating the current can be changed to pulsating direct
direction of current flow point in the current. Remember that ahalf-wave recti-
opposite direction to the arrow used as fier rectifies only half of each cycle so
part of the symbol in the silicon rectifier. that you'll get a pulse during one half
The reason for this is that the symbol cycle and no current during the next half
dates back to the early days of electricity cycle.
when engineers and scientists thought
that current flowed from the positive
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
terminal of a battery or generator
through the load and back to the negative
terminal. Hence the symbol was drawn (ag) What is the name given to atrans-
with the arrow indicating this direction of former where the secondary volt-
current. Now we know that current flows age is higher than the primary
in the opposite direction, but the symbol voltage?
has been carried over to indicate asolid- (ah) If atransformer has fewer turns on
state rectifier such as a silicon rectifier the secondary winding than it has
and the arrow points in the wrong direc- on the primary winding, will the
tion. Remember this symbol, it is used to secondary voltage be equal to,
represent all types of solid-state devices greater than or less than the pri-
that will permit current flow in only one mary voltage? What is the name
direction. It is used to represent detectors given to this kind of transformer?
made out of germanium which can be (ai) In a half-wave rectifier circuit, in
used in radio and television receivers; it is which direction will current flow
used to represent selenium rectifiers through adiode tube?
which are another type of solid-state (aj) What must the polarity of the
rectifier; and it is used to represent voltage on the plate of a diode
copper-oxide rectifiers which are used in rectifier tube be in order for cur-
meters. You will learn more about these rent to flow in ahalf-wave rectifier
devices later. They are often called diodes circuit?
because there are two types of material (ak) Draw the schematic symbol for a
used in them. silicon rectifier and by means of an
arrow above it indicate in which
SUMMARY direction the current will flow
through the rectifier.
At this time you need not remember (al) When two connecting lines cross
all the details of how arectifier operates. and there is a dot placed on the
However, you should remember that a junction, what does this indicate?

34
 Electronics for Computers
Almost all of the electronic circuits +10V ---

used in communications equipment,

industrial applications and in computers o OFF ON OFF ON

operate from direct current. While this dc TIME

....
could be obtained from aset of batteries,
most often it is obtained from a power
Fig. 27. A simple pulse signal.
supply that consists of a power trans-
former and rectifier similar to that dis- simple- pulse signal is shown in Fig. 27.
cussed in the previous section. The trans- Notice that this signal switches rapidly
former takes the ac line voltage and steps from a zero volt level to a 10 volt level
it up or down to the required voltage and then back again to zero, repeating
level. The rectifier then converts this ac itself periodically. The resulting wave
into a pulsating dc. This pulsating dc is shape of this signal is approximately
then fed through a filter circuit to square and, therefore, this pulse signal is
smooth it into aclean pure dc signal very often referred to as a square wave or
similar to that obtained from a battery. more generally as arectangular wave. This
The resulting dc voltage is then used to signal is basically a pulsating dc signal
power the various electronic circuits used similar to the output of the half-wave
in communications, industrial and com- rectifier you studied in the previous
puter equipment. section. The difference between this sig-
The sine wave is the basic electrical nal and the rectifier output is the wave
signal used in communications and indus- shape.
trial electronic equipment. In communi- A pulse signal like this is relatively easy
cations equipment, oscillator circuits are to generate. In fact, we could generate it
used to generate a sine wave signal and very simply with the battery and switch
produce acarrier signal that is radiated by circuit shown in Fig. 28. When the switch
the transmitter and detected by the is open, or off, no voltage appears
receiver. In computer circuits, however, between points A and B. However, when
the sine wave is not the basic electrical we close the switch or turn on the circuit,
signal. Computers use another class of the battery voltage appears between
signals known as pulse signals. Let's take points A and B. If we turn the switch off
alook at some of these interesting signals
and see how they are produced and used
c. A
in computers.

PULSE SIGNALS

oe
A pulse signal is an electrical voltage or
current that switches rapidly from one
voltage level to another and back again. A Fig. 28. One means of generating asquare wave.

35
and on at a rapid rate, it will produce a volts. This signal is similar to that shown
square wave similar to that shown in Fig. in Fig. 27 with the exception that the
27. amplitude of the voltage is less and the
While pulse signals are sometimes pro- off and on times are unequal. It is quite
duced with a circuit as simple as that common to have unequal off and on
shown in Fig. 28, they are usually pro- periods in a pulse signal. Here we show
duced by electronic circuits known as the on period being Jonger than the off
multivibrators. A multivibrator generates period. However, just the opposite could
a very fast high frequency square wave be true in another waveform.
whose frequency, amplitude and pulse Fig. 29B shows another rectangular
width can be varied over wide ranges. waveform where the voltage switches
Any pulse signal is usually specified by from 0 volts to —5 volts. It is easy to
these three characteristics: frequency, generate either positive or negative volt-
amplitude and pulse width. Frequency is age signals with pulse circuits.
the rate at which the pulses occur. The In Fig. 29C we show yet another type
amplitude of the pulse is the amount of of pulse circuit that switches between
voltage or current that it represents when two voltage levels, +6 volts and —6 volts.
it is "on". Pulse width designates the This type of pulse signal is really an ac
amount of time that the pulse is "on". signal since it produces an alternating
There are a wide variety of different current. When the pulse is positive, the
pulse signals that you may encounter in voltage will cause electrons through a
computers and in other electronic equip- circuit to flow in one direction. When the
ment. The signal in Fig. 29A is arectan- voltage is negative, electrons will flow
gular wave that switches from 0 to +5 through the circuit in the opposite direc-
tion.
+5 -
The pulse waveforms we have shown
0 OFF ON OFF ON OFF here are typical of what you might
encounter in computer equipment but
other variations are possible. Pulse signals
o
like these are also used in television,
telemetry and communications equip-
ON OFF ON OFF
ment. Just keep in mind the basic fact
that a pulse signal usually switches rap-
idly between two voltage or current levels
+5 - rather than varying smoothly and con-
tinuously like asine wave does.
O
LOGIC CIRCUITS

There is a special class of electronic

Fig. 29. Some different types of rectangular circuits known as logic circuits that are
pulses. (A) unequal on-off times; (B) negative used to process or manipulate the pulse
going pulses; (C) an ac square wave. signals you have just studied. Such cir-

36
 ->0-- INVERTER
from 0 to +5 volts at the output. A
positive-going pulse at the input to an
inverter produces the negative-going pulse
on the output.

19 AND SATE An AND gate is a logic circuit that

produces an output pulse if two or more
pulses are applied to its inputs simulta-
neously. See Fig. 31B. An AND gate can
OR GATE
have two or more inputs and a single
output. The gate does not produce an
Fig. 30. The three basic digital logic circuits. output signal unless input signals are
applied to all of its inputs simultaneously.
cuits are also referred to as digital cir- If an input signal occurs on only one of
cuits. The three basic logic circuits are the the input lines, no output pulse will be
inverter, the AND gate, and the OR gate. produced. The AND gate is commonly
The symbols representing these three referred to as acoincidence gate since it
basic digital circuits are shown in Fig. 30. produces an output only when the two
Let's see how these circuits work. All of inputs are coincident in time.
these circuits operate on pulse signals Fig. 31C shows how the OR gate
similar to those shown in Fig. 27 and 29. works. The OR gate also has one output
An inverter circuit does exactly what it and can have two or more inputs. It
says, it inverts a pulse signal so that the produces an output any time a pulse
inputs and outputs are going in opposite occurs on any of its inputs. In Fig. 31C
directions. We say that the signals are we show two pulses occurring at different
complements of one another. For exam- times at the two inputs. An output pulse
ple, if apulse switching from +5 volts to is produced for each of the input pulses.
0 volts is applied to the input of an Any digital logic function can be per-
inverter as shown in Fig. 31A, the result- formed by just these simple circuits. More
ing output will be a signal that switches complex operations than those described
here are performed by combining these

o three circuits. Any digital computer is

made up of nothing but alarge quantity
of these three basic types of circuits. A
digital computer or other large digital

® J.
L.
system may be very complex. However, if
you understand the operation of the
three simple circuits discussed here, you
can easily learn how the more complex

@ -FL D—n_n_ systems work. This is true, of course, of

any piece of electronic equipment. If you
learn how the basic simple circuits such as
Fig. 31. (A) inverter operation; (B) AND gate oscillators, amplifiers and power supplies
operation; (C) OR gate operation. work, you will then be able to understand

37
more complex pieces of equipment. In you do not master the fundamentals
your NRI lessons to come, you will study covered in the early lessons you will find
these important fundamental circuits to it difficult to grasp some of the ideas
prepare you for more complex equip- presented in later lessons.
ment.
Now answer the self-test questions on SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
this section and then do the lesson
questions. Remember that if you have (am) What is the main difference
difficulty with the self-test questions it is between a pulse signal and a sine
an indication you need to go over the wave signal?
section again. Do not hesitate to spend (an) Name three characteristics by
any time you need to review. Learning which a rectangular pulse signal is
the basic fundamentals you are studying usually specified.
now is the most important part of your (ao) Which type of logic circuit pro-
course. If you understand these funda- duces an output pulse if input
mentals, you will be able to build on pulses occur on either of its two
them in later lessons and you will find inputs?
that as you go on your course becomes (ap) True or False? A pulse signal can
easier and easier. On the other hand, if be either ac or pulsating dc.

38
 Answers to Self-Test Questions
(a) 1-1/2 volts. The lead-acid cell and the nickel-
(b) 22-1/2 volts. Each cell has avoltage cadmium cell.
of 1-1/2 volts and since there are The nickel-cadmium cell provides
fifteen cells, the voltage will be longer life and more maintenance-
1-1/2 X 15 =22-1/2 volts. free performance than the lead-acid
(c) 1-1/2 volts. When cells are con- cell because it can be sealed and
nected in parallel the voltage of all hence water does not escape from
the cells must be equal and the it when it is charged.
total voltage of the cell will be (k) Direct current and alternating cur-
equal to the voltage of one cell. rent.
Connecting cells in parallel does (I) DC voltage.
not increase the voltage -- it (m) AC voltage.
increases the current capabilities of (n) The voltage wave supplied by the
the battery. power company is called a sine
(d) +4-1/2 volts. The battery will be wave.
marked essentially the same as the (0) The waveform shown in Fig. 13B
battery in Fig. 4. Since one termi- represents one cycle. In acycle of
nal is marked with a — sign, we alternating current, the voltage
consider this terminal as the refer- between the two terminals of the
ence point. The center tap has generator starts at zero and then
three cells between it and the builds up to amaximum value with
reference point and therefore the one polarity and then drops back
voltage will be 4-1/2 volts. It will to zero; it then builds up to a
be marked + to indicate that this maximum value with the other
terminal is positive with respect to polarity and then drops back to
the negative terminal. zero. During the next cycle it will
A longer shelf life and a higher simply repeat the first cycle.
current capacity. (p) 60 cycles per second means that we
1.35 volts or 1.4 volts, depending have 60 complete cycles in a sec-
upon the materials used in the ond. This means that the voltage
mercury cell. starts at zero, builds up to amaxi-
1.5 volts. The output voltage of a mum with one polarity, drops back
manganese cell is approximately to zero, builds up to a maximum
the same as the output voltage of a value at the opposite polarity and
dry cell. drops back to zero atotal of sixty
(h) The manganese cell has not times in asecond.
replaced the dry cell because it is (q) A commutator.
more expensive than the dry cell, (r) A simple dc generator such as
so in many cases the economy of shown in Fig. 14 would produce a
the dry cell overrules the advan- pulsating de such as shown by the
tages of the manganese cell. waveform in Fig. 16. A pulsating

39
 dc of this type is normally not number of components or it may
desired and the excessive pulsating consist of a transistor and anum-
can be eliminated by means of an ber of components.
armature such as shown in Fig. 17. (z) The oscillator stage.
In this armature anumber of series- (aa) The transmission line.
connected coils are used and a (ab) A detector stage or ademodulator
more even de is produced. stage. Both names are used.
(s) When we say that the ac current is (ac) A voice coil.
1amp we mean that the ac current (ad) The audio signal which carries the
is the equivalent of 1amp of direct sound information and the video
current. In other words, if an ac signal which carries the picture
current of 1 amp is flowing information.
through the coils of aheater, it will (ae) Frequency modulation (FM) is
produce the same amount of heat used in the sound section of aTV
as a dc current of 1amp flowing transmitter.
through the same coils would pro- (af) Amplitude modulation (AM) is
duce. used in the video section of aTV
(t) When we give an ac voltage and do transmitter.
not specifically mention that it is (ag) A step-up transformer.
the peak value, we always assume (ah) Less than; a step-down trans-
that the value is meant to be the former.
effective or rms value of the volt- (ai) Current flows from the filament or
age. If we want to give the peak cathode to the plate.
value of an ac voltage, we should (aj) The plate must be positive.
specifically state that it is the peak (ak)
value, otherwise it would be CURRENT
assumed to be the effective or rms
value. — 1«•—
(u) 280 volts. The peak value of an ac
voltage is 1.4 times the rms value. (al) It indicates a connection between
Thus if the rms value is 200 volts, the two circuits.
the peak value will be: 200 X 1.4 = (am) A pulse signal switches abruptly
280 volts. from one voltage level to another
There are 1,000 kilohertz in one while a sine wave varies smoothly
megahertz. or continuously between its two
1900 kHz = 1.9 MHz. peak levels.
An audio signal. (an) Frequency, amplitude and pulse
An audio stage is astage designed width.
to amplify an audio signal. The (ao) An OR gate.
stage may consist of a tube and a (ap) True.

40
 '''I' e -.6' • 'Z., *.e

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a-• '«
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 YOU'VE GOT COURAGE
An eight year old boy was discussing arithmetic with a
friend. Said Johnny: "Teacher's gonna start us on subtraction
tomorrow; wish I could stay home." But Harry laughed
outright at Johnny's fears, and said; "Aw, I've had that and it's
easy once you get started; what I'm worrying about is
multiplication!"

It is natural even for grown men to feel like these boys —to
fear most the things about which they know the least.

Did you know that some of the world's best speakers are
always afraid when they get up to make a speech before a
strange audience? Their courage gets them started, and in no
time at all their fear changes to aconfident enthusiasm which
makes their talk abig success.

You've got courage! Use your courage to overcome normal

fears, to carry you into each new subject and carry you over
each difficulty. In no time at all, you will be looking forward
to new subjects with intense interest — you will be eager to
tackle new problems. Remember that each conquered diffi-
culty brings you one step closer to your goal of SUCCESS IN
ELECTRONICS!
ti,
Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-202
•

.4 •
CURRENT, VOLTAGE,

AND RESISTANCE
q.J
J Vi W. r W1

B103

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

B103
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

E E Introduction Pages 1-2

E 2. Current Pages 3-8

You learn about dc and ac and about the units used to measure
current.

E 3. Voltage Pages 9-20

Here you study both dc voltage and ac voltage. You learn how
voltage sources act when they are connected together.

ri 4. Resistance Pages 20 -23

You learn about resistance and how it limits the current flow
in acircuit. You study the units used to measure resistance.

E 5. Ohm's Law Pages 24 -33

You learn the three forms of Ohm's Law and see how they are
used in simple circuit calculations.

E 6. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 33 -40

E 7. Answer the Lesson Questions.

E 8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

PII3M 1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 CURRENT, VOLTAGE
AND RESISTANCE

Have you ever looked into the back tric and magnetic charges: like
of a color television receiver ?If you charges repel, unlike charges at-
have, you probably wondered how it tract. In magnets like fields repel
would be possible to identify the and unlike fields attract. You also
parts in the set and to trace out the learned that an electric current was
circuits. You may have wondered a movement of electrons. You al-
how an experienced technician can ready know that an electron has a
find a defective part among the maze negative charge and that it will be
of parts and circuits in the receiver. attracted by a positive charge and
The technique that he uses is the repel other negative charges.
same as the technique that you are You learned about direct and al-
going to learn now. Most of the cir- ternating currents and studied bat-
cuits in a color television receiver teries and generators. You also took
or in any other piece of electronic a quick look at a broadcast system
equipment are basically rather sim- and learned what is meant by an audio
ple circuits. The difficulty comes signal and a radio frequency signal.
from the fact that so many of them We will go into more detail later
are used together. However, once on the various things covered in your
you learn how to trace simple cir- first two lessons. These lessons
cuits and understand what is happen- were primarily introductory lessons
ing in the circuit you will find that to get you started. In this lesson we
you will be able to apply that knowl- will start going into considerable de-
edge to more complex circuits, and tail. You will learn that the units of
also to larger groups of simple cir- electrical measurement - the volt,
cuits when they are used together. the ampere, and the ohm - are in
Your first two lessons introduced some cases too small and in other
you to a number of important things cases too large. You'll learn how to
in the field of electronics. You convert them into practical sizes
learned the important laws of elec- when necessary.

1
 You will study simple circuits and Pay particular attention to the
learn how voltage, current and re- self-test questions. These questions
sistance are related in these cir- will tell you whether or not you have
cuits. You will study Ohm's Law; learned all you should have about
this is a very simple law, but it is each section of the lesson as you go
probably the most important rule along. If you find there is aself-test
or law in electronics. You will use question you cannot answer, this
Ohm's Law over and over again as means you need to restudy that sec-
long as you are in the electronics tion of the lesson. Don't be afraid
field. to go back and spend whatever extra
As you study this lesson, keep in time may be necessary. A little extra
mind tha,t it is perhaps the most im- time on this lesson will pay great
portant lesson in your entire course. dividends in later lessons not only
You must understand basic simple in helping you understand these les-
circuits thoroughly. If there is any- sons better, but it will also make it
thing you do not understand, be sure easier for you and save time in the
to go over that section of the lesson long run.
several times. If you can't work it Now let us go ahead and learn
out for yourself be sure to write to more about current, voltage and re-
NRI and ask for help. Our instruc- sistance. We will study current first,
tors will be glad to help you; they then voltage, and finally resistance.
all agree that this is a very impor- In each case, we will review the im-
tant lesson and will do everything portant points that you already know,
they can to be sure that you under- and then go ahead and expand that
stand the entire lesson. knowledge.

2
 Current
You have already learned that an of the battery is exactly the same as
electron is part of an atom. An elec- the number of electrons passing
tron has a negative electrical point A on the wire connecting the
charge. All electrons have exactly battery to the lamp. The number of
the same negative electric charge. electrons flowing through the lamp
Electrons repel each other because is the same as the number of elec-
like charges repel. Electrons are trons passing point B on the other
repelled by all negative charges wire, and the same number of elec-
and attracted by all positive charges. trons are moving into the positive
An electric current is the move- terminal of the battery.
ment of electrons in the circuit. Another important point that you
There are two kinds of electric cur- must remember about an electric
rent, direct current and alternating current is that the instant the cir-
current. Let us discuss direct cur- cuit is closed, the electrons start
rent first. moving in all parts of the circuit.
One electron does NOT leave the
DIRECT CURRENT negative terminal of the battery, hit
another, and so forth, and thus start
When a battery is connected to an movement in the circuit after acer-
electric circuit, electrons are re- tain period of time; each electron
pelled from the negative terminal of starts movement immediately the
the battery and attracted by the posi- moment the circuit is completed.
tive terminal of the battery. Elec- The unit of current flow is the
trons move in one direction through ampere which we usually abbreviate
the circuit. This type of current flow amp. A current of 1ampere repre-
is called direct current. We usually sents a certain number of electrons
refer to it simply as dc. moving past a point in the circuit in
In a simple circuit such as shown a second. If twice as many electrons
in Fig. 1, it is important for you to are moving past that point in the
remember that the current flow is circuit, the current flow is 2 am-
the same in all parts of the circuit peres, and if ten times the number
at all times. The number of elec- of electrons are moving past the
trons leaving the negative terminal point in the circuit, the current flow
is 10 amperes.
Direct current is widely used in
electronic equipment. Current will
flow through a vacuum tube or a
transistor in only one direction and
therefore the current used to op-

T
erate these devices is direct cur-
rent. There are other applications
of direct current in industry. Direct
current is used in purifying metals,
Fig. I. simple de circuit. in plating operations and in running

3
some motors that require precise
controls. Direct current motors can
be more closely controlled than
alternating current motors.

ALTERNATING CURRENT

The electric current supplied to

homes for lighting, for cooking and
operation of small appliances is
alternating current. An alternating Fig. 2. A sine %%ave shot.ing rms and peak
current flows first in one direction values.
and then in the other direction. The
current starts at zero amplitude and sine wave. A typical sine wave show-
builds up to a maximum value which ing one complete cycle is shown in
we call the peak value, then drops Fig. 2. In this figure the rms value
back to zero, then builds up to apeak of the alternating current is 1amp.
value flowing in the opposite direc- As you can see, for part of the cycle
tion, and then drops to zero again. the actual current flowing will be
This action of flowing first in one less than 1 amp and during part of
direction and dropping back to zero the cycle it will be greater than 1
value, then building up to amaximum amp. The actual peak or highest
value in the opposite direction and value that the current reaches is
then once again dropping back to 1.4 x the rms value. In the example
zero is called a cycle. The current shown, where the rms value is 1
supplied by most power companies amp, the peak value will be 1.4 amps.
is 60-cycle current. This means that In the first half cycle, we have
it goes through 60 cycles per second. drawn the wave shape above the hori-
Alternating current is also meas- zontal line representing zero cur-
ured in amperes. However, since the rent. This half of the cycle is re-
number of electrons flowing past a ferred to as the positive half cycle.
point in the circuit is continually The other half cycle is referred to
changing when we have alternating as the negative half cycle. Notice,
current, we use asomewhat different the negative half is exactly the same
method of expressing the value of as the positive half. The current
the current. The alternating current reaches the same rms and the same
is compared to direct current.lf the peak values. We simply call one a
alternating current flowing through positive half cycle and the other a
a heat-producing device produces negative half cycle to indicate that
the same amount of heat as a direct the current is flowing in opposite
current of 1 ampere produces, we directions during the two half cycles.
say that the ac current is lampere. To convert rms values of current
We call this the effective value or to peak values you multiply the rms
the rms value. value by 1.4. If you have the peak
The change in amplitude of an al- value of the current and want to con-
ternating current follows a pattern vert it to the rms value, you simply
or waveshape which is known as a divide by 1.4.

4
 THE MILLIAMPERE peres we move the decimal point
three places to the right. Todo this,
write .05 amps as .050 amps and
While the unit of current meas- then move the decimal point three
urement is the ampere, in elec- places to the right. Thus .05 amps =
tronics this unit is often so large .050 amps = 50 milliamperes.
that it is cumbersome. For example, If you have a current in milli-
in an audio amplifier stage using amperes and want to convert it to
either a tube or a transistor, the amperes you move the decimal point
current flow may be only a few three places to the left, adding zeros
thousandths of an ampere. In a case as necessary. For example, to con-
where the current flow was three vert 47 milliamperes to amps we
thousandths of an ampere we could first write 47 milliamperes as 47.
write this as 3/1000 or we could milliamperes. Now we move the
write this value as a decimal, in decimal point three places to the left
which case it would be .003. by moving it past the 7and past the
However, rather than do this it is 4. Now we add a 0 so we can move
much more convenient to express the decimal point three places and
the current flow in milliamperes. get .047 amps. Another example,
A milliampere is one thousandth of suppose the current is 7 milliam-
an ampere. Thus a current flow of peres and we want to convert this
three thousandths of an ampere will to amperes. We write 7 milliam-
be 3 milliamperes. peres as 7. milliamperes. Next, we
There are one thousand milli- move the decimal point three places
amperes in an ampere. Therefore to the left; we move it past the 7 and
to convert amperes to milliamperes then add two zeros to the left of the
you simply multiply by one thousand. 7and get .007 amps.
You do this by moving the decimal You will deal with milliamperes
point three places to the right. For a great deal in electronics, and often
example, suppose you have a cur- you will have to convert them to
rent of 5 amperes. We would nor- amperes. Remember the rules for
mally simply write this as 5 amps. converting back and forth. To con-
However, we can also write it as vert milliamperes to amperes you
5. amps. Now to move the decimal move the decimal point three places
point three places to the right we to the left. To convert amperes to
simply add three zeros to the right milliamperes you move the decimal
of the decimal point, and then move point three places to the right. In
the decimal point to the right of the effect, when you convert from milli-
three zeros. Thus 5.000 amps be- amperes to amperes by moving the
comes 5,000. milliamps. decimal point three places to the
We seldom use milliamperes to left, you are dividing by 1000. When
express currents that are over 1 you convert amperes to milliam-
ampere, but when the current is peres by moving the decimal point
some fraction of an ampere the three places to the right, you are
milliampere becomes particularly multiplying by 1000.
useful. For example, suppose the Since we use milliamperes so
current flow in a circuit is .05 am- often in electronics it is convenient
peres. To change this to milliam- to have an abbreviation for this

5
rather long word. We often abbre- THE MICROAMPERE
viate milliampere milliamp and to
make it plural we simply add an s. In some circuits, even the milli-
An even more convenient abbre- ampere is too large a unit to con-
viation is ma. Thus 27 milliamperes veniently express current flow. Thus
can be abbreviated 27 milliamps or we have an even smaller unit, the
27 ma. microampere, which we abbreviate
You might think that converting microamp. The microamp is one
from amperes to milliamperes and millionth of an ampere. It is one
from milliamperes back to amperes thousandth of a milliamp.
is difficult and something that you To convert amps to microamps
are not used to doing. This is not you move the decimal point six
true. Whether you realize it or not places to the right. Remember it is
you are doing conversions of this the same as converting amps to
type all the time. For example, sup- milliamps except that you move the
pose somebody gave you four hun- decimal point six places instead of
dred cents. It is not too likely that three places. To convert microamps
you would say that you had four hun- to amps you move the decimal point
dred cents. Chances are that you six places to the left. This is the
would convert cents to dollars by same as converting milliamps to
moving the decimal point two places amps, or cents to dollars except that
to the left and say you had $4.00. you move the decimal point six
However, if you did have $4.00 and places to the left.
wanted to change it to cents you Even the abbreviation microamp
would move the decimal point two is somewhat long and inconvenient,
places to the right and know that and since we have already used the
you should have four hundred cents. letter ma for milliamps, we use the
The conversion back and forth be- Greek u which looks something like
tween amps and milliamps is ex- our u to abbreviate microamps. We
actly the same except that we have write it ua.
one additional place. To convert Sometimes you will want to con-
from the larger unit, dollars in one vert microamperes to milliamperes
case and amperes in the other, to and vice versa. To do this, you move
the smaller unit, cents in one case the decimal point three places. To
and milliamperes in the other, we go from the larger unit, milliam-
move the decimal point to the right. peres, to the smaller unit, micro-
To convert from the smaller unit amperes, move the decimal point to
(cents in the one case and milliam- the right, and to go from the smaller
peres in the other) to the larger unit to the larger unit move it to the
unit (dollars in the one case and left.
amps in the other case) we move In Fig. 3we have shown a number
the decimal point to the left. Re- of examples of conversions from one
member the dollars and cents con- unit to another. Before going ahead
version and remember that you have study this figure and the conversions
one extra place and you will have and then try to do them yourself.
no difficulty changing back and forth This is the best way to learn how to
between amps and milliamps; it is convert from one unit to another.
that easy. Once you learn how to do this you

6
 LARGE TO SMALL SMALL TO LARGE

Dollars To Cents Cents To Dollars

$1 100 cents 1000 cents = $10.00 = $10.

We moved the decimal point 2places We moved the decimal point2 places
to the right. $1 = $1.00 to the left.

$1.00 = 100 cents 1000.0 = $10.00

Amps To Milllamps VAIlllamps To Amps

1amp = 1000 milliamps 10 milliamp = .010 amp

We moved the decimal point 3places We moved the decimal point 3places
to the right. to the left.

1 amp = 1.000 amp 10. milliamp = .010 amp

1.000 amp = 1000 milliamps = .01 amp

Amps To Microamps IAlcroamps To Amps

1 amp = 1000000 tamp 100000 uamps = .100000 amp

We moved the clecimal point 6places We moved the decimal point 6places
to the right. to the left.

1 amp 1.000000 amp 100000. uamp = .100000 amp

1.000000 amp = 1000000 uamp = .1 amp

Fig. 3. Examples of conversion from one

unit to another.

will find it is really quite simple and flow. The important thing to re-
in a very short while you will find member about current flow is that
that you are converting from one unit it is a movement of electrons, and
to another mentally just as easily as that in a series circuit the current
you convert dollars and cents. flowing is the same at all parts of
the circuit. Also remember that once
SUMMARY the circuit is completed, current
starts to flow in all parts of the cir-
In this section of the lesson you cuit at the same instant.
have reviewed many of the things You learned that to convert from
you learned earlier about current rms values to peak values of ac cur-

7
rent you multiply the rms value by the correct number of places.
1.4 and to convert from peak values
to rms values you divide by 1.4. The SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
milliampere is one thousandth of an
ampere. The microampere is one (a) If the current flowing past a
millionth of an ampere. To convert point in the circuit is 1ampere
from the larger units to the smaller and it is increased so that four
units you move the decimal point to times the number of electrons
the right and to convert from the pass the point in asecond, what
smaller units to the larger units you will the new current flow be?
move it to the left. In converting (h) If the rms value of current is
amperes to milliamperes and vice 3 amps, what will the peak value
versa you move the decimal point be?
three places, and in converting am- (c) Change 7amps rms to its peak
peres and microamperes you move value.
it six places. In converting micro- (d) If the peak value of current in
amperes and milliamperes you move a circuit is 7 amps, what is the
the decimal point three places. rms value?
These conversions are the same as (e) In a circuit, the peak value of
converting dollars and cents and it current is 21 amps; find the rms
is something that you will learn to value.
do almost automatically. Convert $6.00 to cents.
Fig. 3shows anumber of examples Convert 350 cents to dollars.
of how to convert the different units. Change 2 amps to milliamps.
Be sure to study this figure carefully Convert 6 amps to milliamps.
and then do the sell-test questions. Convert 3.5 amps to milliamps.
When you are doing these questions, Convert .42 amps to milliamps.
if there is a conversion you do not Convert .037 amps to milli-
know how to do, look at Fig. 3 and amps.
try to work it out yourself. If you (m) Convert .002 amps to milli-
can't, go to the back of the book and amps.
see how the conversion is made. Just (n) Convert 46 ma to amps.
look at the one you can't do and then (o) Convert 822 ma to amps.
go back to the sell-test questions. (P) Convert 1327 ma to amps.
There are several examples of each (c1) Convert 2 amps to la.
type of conversion. They are put in (r) Convert .0017 amps to ua.
deliberately so that if you have trou- (s) Convert 20 ua to amps.
ble with the first one you can look (t) Convert 147 ua to amps.
at Fig. 3 to get help. Then look at (u) Convert .26 ma to ua.
the answer for additional help if (v) Convert .031 ma to ua.
necessary, and have another crack (w) Convert 6100 µa to ma.
at doing it yourself. Changing back (x) Convert 927 ua to ma.
and forth becomes almost automatic (y) Convert 327,000 ua to ma, and
- you simply move the decimal point then to amps.

8
 Voltage
You have already learned that to one side of the voltage source op-
voltage is the electrical pressure erating the radio or television set
or force that can set electrons into we still refer to it as a ground con-
motion. You know that two voltage nection. Sometimes instead of using
sources are the battery and the gen- the chassis as a common connection
erator. You also know that the unit for the various circuits in the re-
in which voltage is measured is the ceiver, we run a series of connec-
volt. tions from one common point in the
Now let us review some of the im- receiver to another and back to one
portant things you learned about side of the voltage source. We call
voltage, and then expand that knowl- this type of connection a "floating
edge. ground" to distinguish it from a
DC VOLTAGE ground that is actually connected to
the chassis.
You know that dc is the abbrevia- With one side of the voltage source
tion for direct current. A dc voltage connected to the ground, we make dc
is a voltage that will cause a direct voltage measurements between the
current to flow. We refer to this volt- ground and various other points in
age as dc voltage, not direct current the circuit. We then have a con-
voltage. venient method of indicating the volt-
A battery is an excellent source age that should be found in various
of a dc voltage. The battery will sup- parts of the circuit.
ply a potential that will cause acon- An example of what this can lead
stant current to flow in one direction. to is shown in Fig. 4. Here we have
A dc voltage will cause a current shown a 15 volt battery connected
flow from the negative terminal of to a small lamp. The positive ter-
the voltage source, through the cir- minal of the battery in Fig. 4A is
cuit to the positive terminal of the numbered 1and the negative termi-
source. nal is numbered 2. Notice that con-
In the early days of radio, radios nected to the negative terminal we
were built on a metal chassis and have a lead going to a symbol that
one side of the voltage source used is marked ground. This is another
to operate the radio was connected new schematic symbol for you to
to this chassis. The chassis in turn remember.
was usually connected to a ground, We are going to start using an ex-
such as a water pipe or ametal pipe pression which may be new to you.
driven into the ground. As a result, It is "with respect to". It means
the connection to the chassis became simply "compared to" and is always
known as the ground connection. used by electronics technicians. You
Today, you should not connect the will have no trouble if you know that
chassis of a radio or television re- "compared to" and "with respect to"
ceiver to a ground connection be- mean the same thing.
cause you might place ashort across In Fig. 4A the negative terminal
the power line if you do this. How- of the battery is connected to
ever, if the chassis is still connected ground. Using ground as areference

9
 15
VOLTS
21 -
-=—"
1 -I-

GROUND

Fig. 1. Simple circuits ‘vith ground conneetions.

point we say that terminal 1is +15 equipment you will run into equip-
volts with respect to ground. ment where the negative terminal of
Now look at Fig. 4B. Here ter- the voltage source is grounded as in
minal 1 of the same battery, which Fig. 4A; you will run into equipment
is the positive terminal, is connected where the positive terminal is
to ground. In this case using ground grounded as in Fig. 4B, and you will
as a reference point we say that ter- also encounter equipment where you
minal 2 is -15 volts with respect to have voltage both negative and posi-
ground. tive with respect to ground as in Fig.
The important thing for you to 5.
understand in these two examples AC VOLTAGE
is that the voltage is the same in
both cases. However, the polarity of You will remember that an ac volt-
the different points in the circuit age is one that causes an alternating
will be positive or negative depend- current to flow. We refer to it as ac
ing upon how the voltage source is voltage instead of alternating cur-
connected to the circuit. rent voltage. As in the case of dc
A 15 volt battery made up of 1-1/2 voltage, we always use the abbre-
volt cells will have a total of ten viation.
cells. If the battery has acenter con-
nection, as shown in Fig. 5, and the
center connection is connected to
ground, we have a situation where
we have both negative and positive
polarities with respect to ground.
Terminal 1 is + 7-1/2 volts with
respect to ground and terminal 2
is - 7-1/2 volts with respect to
ground. However, the total voltage GROUND
is still 15 volts, as it was in both
examples in Fig. 4, and the current Fig. 5. simple circuit where a voltage
flow through the bulbs would be the positive with respect to ground and a volt-
same in all three cases. age negative %%ith respect to ground are
In your studies of electronic present.

10
 Ac voltages are produced by gen-
erators or alternators. An alterna-
tor is a type of generator similar 15
to the generator you studied earlier. VOLTS
A schematic diagram of a simple AC
ac circuit (similar to the de circuit
2
shown in Fig. 4) is shown in Fig. 6.
Notice the symbol we have used to
represent an ac generator. This is
another important schematic symbol -= GROUND
for you to remember.
In Fig. 6, terminal 2 of the gen- Fig. A simple ae circuit with one side
erator is grounded. If we measure grounded.
the voltage on terminal 1 with re-
spect to ground or to terminal 2, we again is O. The voltage immediately
will get a voltage reading of 15 volts. begins to build up with the opposite
The generator will produce an ac polarity until we reach point dwhere
current flow that will have the same once again the voltage between
heating effect in the bulb as the 15 ground and terminal 1is 1.4 x 15 =
volt batteries did. However, you will 21 volts. The voltage then begins to
remember that the voltage is con- drop back until it reaches 0 again
tinually varying. During one cycle, at point e.
the voltage at terminal 1 starts at The waveform between points a
0 as represented by point a in Fig. and erepresents one complete cycle.
7. The voltage begins to increase The same cycle is completed again
until it reaches its peak value at between points e and i, and then
point b. If the rms or effective volt- again between points iand m. In an
age is 15 volts then we know that the ac circuit this cycle goes on indefi-
value of b will be 1.4 x15 =21 volts. nitely as long as the generator is
Then the voltage between ground and operating.
terminal 1 begins to decrease until During the first half cycle the volt-
a half cycle after point a when we age is positive at terminal 1 with
reach point c, where the voltage once respect to ground. During the next

Fig. 7. Three cycles of an ay sinewave.

11
half cycle the voltage is negative because the battery polarity does not
with respect to ground. We draw the change. In Fig. 6, terminal 1is posi-
waveform above the line to represent tive for one half cycle and negative
a positive voltage and below the line for the next half cycle. Its polarity
to represent a negative voltage. We changes every half cycle because the
call the waveform between points a voltage generated is an ac voltage.
and b a quarter of a cycle; between It is important for you to understand
b and c is also a quarter of a cycle this difference between ac voltages
as it is between c and d and d and e. and de voltages.
The waveform between points a and
VOLTAGES IN SERIES
c, points c and e, points eand g, etc.,
is referred to as a half cycle. Voltage sources can be connected
We said that we have a complete in series. Whether they add together
cycle between points a and e. By a or subtract from each other depends
complete cycle we mean the ac volt- upon the way in which they are con-
age starts at one point and goes nected.
through a complete cycle back to the In Fig. 8A we have shown two 4.5
equivalent point on the next cycle. volt batteries connected in series
We also have a complete cycle be- aiding. By this we mean that the two
tween points b and f because the voltages add together. Notice that the
waveform has gone through a full batteries are connected together in
cycle between these two points. Be- the same way as the cells forming
tween points c and g is also a full the battery are connected together.
cycle as it is between points d and The positive terminal of the lower
h. In speaking of a complete cycle battery is connected to the negative
we can start at any point on the terminal of the upper battery. With
cycle and continue on to the equiva- the arrangement shown in Fig. 8A
lent point on the next cycle. How- the negative terminal of the lower
ever, it is usually more convenient battery is at ground potential. The
to start at a 0 point such as either voltage between terminal 1 and
point a or cwhen referring to acom- ground will be equal to the sum of
plete cycle. In fact, in most cases the voltages of the two batteries,
when speaking of an ac cycle we will which in this case will be 9 volts.
start at point a and refer to the posi- In Fig. 8B, we have shown bat-
tive half of the cycle first and then teries with different voltages con-
the negative half. There is no rea- nected in series aiding. Notice that
son why we have to do this; it is just the positive terminal of the one bat-
something that is done by custom. tery is connected to the negative ter-
Notice the difference between the minal of the other. The voltage be-
polarity at terminal 1with respect tween terminal 1and ground will be
to ground in Fig. 6 and the polarity the sum of the two battery voltages
of the ungrounded terminal in Figs. which is 7.5 volts. The position of
4A and 4B. In Fig. 4A terminal 1is the two batteries could be reversed;
the ungrounded terminal and it is al- the voltage between terminal 1and
ways positive because the battery ground or terminal 2 would be the
polarity does not change. In Fig. 4B, same in either case.
terminal 2 is the ungrounded termi- In Fig. 9, we have shown three
nal and it is always negative, again examples of batteries connected in

12
 • 1

4.5V 3.0 V

-t 4.5 V 4. 5V =

2 •2

Fig. 8. Batteries connected in series so their Voltages add.

series opposing. These batteries are each other. The lower battery has a
connected so that their voltages op- voltage of 3 volts, and the upper bat-
pose, and to find the total voltage tery a voltage of 4.5 volts.Subtract-
we must subtract the battery volt- ing 3 from 4.5 gives us 1.5 volts.
ages. Since the upper battery has the
In Fig. 9A, each battery is a 4.5 higher potential, the voltage at ter-
volt battery. When you subtract 4.5 minal 1will be positive with respect
from 4.5 the result is 0 and there- to ground or terminal 2. In other
fore the potential between terminals words, this voltage is able to over-
1 and 2 or between terminal 1 and come the voltage of the 3volt battery
ground is O. The two batteries have and cause terminal 1to be +1.5 volts
equal voltages and therefore their with respect to ground.
voltages cancel. In Fig. 9C, we have the opposite
In Fig. 9B, we have batteries of situation. Here the two batteries
unequal voltages connected to oppose again subtract to give us a voltage

• 1 •1

4.5V = 4.5V = 3.0 V

II I
I II

1
3.0V = 4.5V —

•2 •2 •2

Fig. 9. Batteries eonnected in series so their voltages subtraet.

13
of 1.5 volts. However, in this case, from the series combination will be
the polarity of the 4.5 volt and 3volt the sum of the two voltages. If they
batteries is reversed, so that now are connected in series opposing so
terminal 1 becomes -1.5 volts with that the negative terminals of the
respect to ground. generators or the positive terminals
From the preceding examples you of the two generators are connected
can see that batteries connected in together, the voltage available will
series can either aid or oppose each be the difference in voltage between
other depending upon how they are the two generators, and the polarity
connected. You will also see that of the circuit will be the polarity of
when one side of the circuit is the generator producing the higher
grounded, the other side can be voltage.
either positive or negative depending It is also possible to connect a
upon the battery voltages and how battery in series with an ac genera-
they are connected. When unequal tor such as shown in Fig. 10. Here,
batteries are connected in series since the polarity of the voltage pro-
opposing, the polarity of the cir- luced by the ac generator reverses
cuit will be the polarity of the every cycle we have a situation
battery with a higher voltage. When where during one half cycle the volt-
batteries are connected in series age produced by the generator will
aiding, the polarity will be the same aid the battery voltage, and during
as the polarity of both batteries, the next half cycle the voltage will
since they must be connected in the oppose the battery voltage.
same way in order to aid. In Fig. 11A ,
we have shown agraph
We can connect de generators of what the voltage will look like be-
in series in exactly the same way as tween terminals 1 and 2 of Fig. 10A
the batteries shown in Figs. 8 and 9 when the peak voltage generated by
are connected. If they are connected the generator is exactly equal to
in series aiding so that the negative the battery voltage. Terminal 2 is
terminal of one generator is con- grounded and therefore is shown as
nected to the positive terminal of the zero voltage. The voltage at terminal
other, the total voltage available 1with respect to terminal 2is shown

SI

-4-

2 2

Fig. 10. Battery connected in series %%ith ac generator.

14
 + VOLTS

TERMINAL BATTERY
VOLTAGE o

TERMINAL 0 VOLTS
2 _L

- VOLTS
Fig. 11. gaveform showing how battery and generator voltages add in Fig. 10A.
Voltage between terminal 1and ground is shown.

by the graph. In electronics, as we reversed so it opposes the battery

have already pointed out, the expres- voltage. At point d, at the end of the
sion "with respect to" means "com- third quarter cycle, the generator
pared to". voltage will be exactly equal to the
At the left of the graph in Fig. 11A, battery voltage but will have the op-
before the generator begins to turn, posite polarity. As a result, the two
the voltage between terminals 1 and voltages will subtract, so at point d
2 will be the battery voltage. Ter- the voltage between terminals 1 and
minal 1 is positive with respect to 2 will be zero. The actual voltage
terminal 2 because the positive ter- on terminal 1 at point dwill be zero.
minal of the battery is connected During the next quarter cycle,
to terminal 1. When the generator from point d to point e, the generator
begins to turn at point a in Fig.11A, voltage decreases (becomes less
the generator voltage begins to build negative) so that at the end of the
up during the first quarter cycle cycle, at point e, the generator volt-
and adds to the battery voltage. When age is back to zero, and the voltage
the generator voltage reaches its at terminal 1 is once again equal
peak value at point b,the voltage be- to the battery voltage.
tween terminals 1 and 2will be twice In Fig. 11B, we have shown a sit-
what it was at point a. This is be- uation in which the peak generator
cause the peak generator voltage is voltage is only half the battery volt-
adding to the battery voltage. age. Under these circumstances ,the
During the next quarter cycle,the voltage builds up during the first
generator voltage is falling from quarter cycle. At point b, the total
point b to point c. At the end of the voltage between terminal 1 and ter-
first half cycle, the generator volt- minal 2 will be 1-1/2 times the
age will be zero as shown at point battery voltage. At point c on the
c, so the voltage between terminals curve, at the end of a half cycle,
1 and 2 will be the battery voltage the generator voltage will be back
alone. to zero so the voltage between ter-
During the next quarter cycle, as minal 1 and ground (or terminal
shownbetween points c and d in Fig. 2) will be equal to the battery volt-
11A, the generator voltage begins to age.
build up again, but this time the During the next half cycle, when
polarity of the generator voltage is the generator voltage begins to

15
oppose the battery voltage, the volt- times the battery voltage, it will
age between terminals 1 and 2drops cancel the battery voltage and then
until at the peak of the negative half swing terminal 1 negative to avalue
cycle the voltage between terminals equal to half the battery voltage.
1 and 2 is half the battery voltage. You can see from Fig. 11 that
This is illustrated at point d in Fig. when an ac voltage and a de volt-
11B. age are connected in series, they
As the ac voltage drops back to aid during one half cycle and oppose
zero during the final quarter cycle, during the other half cycle. If the
the voltage at terminal 1 increases peak generator voltage is equal to
back to the battery voltage as shown the battery voltage, the total volt-
at point e. age will drop to zero volts once
In Fig. 11C, the peak generator each cycle and will swing up to a
voltage is 1-1/2 times the battery value which is twice the battery volt-
voltage. At the end of the first quar- age once each cycle. If the generator
ter cycle (at point b) the voltage be- voltage is less than the battery volt-
tween terminals 1 and 2 will be age, the total voltage increases
2-1/2 times the battery voltage con- above the battery voltage and drops
sisting of the generator voltage, to less than the battery voltage once
which is 1-1/2 times the battery each cycle. On the other hand, lithe
voltage, plus the battery voltage. generator voltage is greater than the
At the end of the first half cycle battery voltage, the total voltage will
(at point c) the generator voltage reach a value which is more than
will be back to zero and the volt- double the battery voltage during
age between terminals 1 and 2drops one half cycle. When the generator
back to the battery voltage. voltage opposes the battery voltage
The peak generator voltage over- during the other half cycle, the po-
comes the battery voltage during larity of the output voltage will re-
the next half cycle because it is verse when the generator voltage
greater than the battery voltage and exceeds the battery voltage.
has the opposite polarity. As a In Fig. 12, we have shown the volt-
result, at point d on the graph, ter- age between terminal 1and terminal
minal 1 is negative with respect to 2, which is connected to ground, with
ground and terminal 2. Since the the generator and battery connected
peak generator voltage is 1-1/2 as in Fig. 10B. The peak generator

+VOLTS

TERMINAL 0 VOLTS

Fig. 12. gaveform skosing ho%. battery and generator voltages add in Fig. 1011.
N'oltage bet‘‘een terminal 1and ground is sho‘sn.

16
voltage is exactly equal to the bat- explaining how voltages add or sub-
tery voltage in Fig. 12A, less than tract? Do we ever make such con-
the battery voltage in Fig. 12B, and nections in practical electronic cir-
greater than the battery voltage in cuits? This explanation was given
Fig. 12C. to prepare you for actual circuits
When the peak generator voltage which will be described later. For
is exactly equal to the battery volt- example, in a tube or transistor we
age, terminal 1 remains negative will have a fixed de voltage so the
with respect to ground (terminal 2) part works properly. Then to this
at all times except when it drops to fixed de voltage we will add asignal
zero at the peak of the positive half voltage, which is ac. The resulting
cycle of the generator. When the combined voltage then becomes
peak generator voltage is less than more negative or less negative (Fig.
the battery voltage as in Fig. 12B, 12B) or more positive or less posi-
terminal 1 remains negative with tive (Fig. 11B) and the tube or tran-
respect to ground (terminal 2) at all sistor can amplify the ac portion.
times. When the generator voltage This will be explained in greater
is greater than the battery voltage detail later on. For the present, we
as in Fig. 12C, terminal 1becomes just want you to know that there is
positive during a portion of the posi- a very practical reason for what
tive half cycle of the generator. For you have just studied.
the remainder of the time, terminal
MILLIVOLTS
1 remains negative with respect to
ground (terminal 2). Just as the ampere is too large a
Having a battery and an ac gen- current unit and we had to use milli-
erator connected in series is not amperes in some instances, so also
much different from having two bat- is the volt sometimes too large aunit
teries connected in series except and we use the millivolt. A milli-
that in the case of the generator the volt, abbreviated mv, is one thou-
polarity is changing each half cycle sandth of a volt. The prefix milli
so that during one half cycle the two means the same when used with volts
voltages aid and during the next half as it does with amperes - it means
cycle the two voltages oppose. You one thousandth. Therefore, to con-
can find the peak value that the two vert from volts to millivolts, you
reach when they aid simply by adding do the same thing as you did in con-
the peak generator voltage to the verting from amps to milliamps. You
battery voltage, and you can find the multiply by 1000 - to do this you
peak value that they reach when they simply add zeros and move the deci-
oppose by subtracting the two. If the mal point three places to the right.
generator voltage is less than the To convert from millivolts to volts,
battery voltage, then the voltage po- you do the opposite; you divide by
larity in the circuit does not change. 1000 and to do this move the deci-
But if the generator voltage is mal point three places to the left.
greater than the battery voltage,the Remember, it is exactly the same as
polarity of the voltage will change going back and forth between amps
during the half cycle when the two and milliamps. Thus, 2.5 volts =
voltages are opposing. 2.5 x1000 =2500 millivolts; 49 milli-
Why have we spent so much time volts = .049 volts.

17
 MICROVOLTS THE KILOVOLT

Sometimes even the millivolt is A unit that you will encounter in

too large aunit and we use the micro- voltage measurements is the kilo-
volt, which is one millionth of avolt,volt. The kilovolt is one thousand
Just as the microampere is one mil- volts. Thus 25 kilovolts, which is
lionth of an ampere. often abbreviated 25 kv, is equal to
To convert from volts to micro- 25,000 volts. You will run into high
volts multiply by 1,000,000. You do voltages of this type in television
this by moving the decimal point six receivers. Black and white tele-
places to the right. To convert from vision receivers often use voltages
microvolts to volts you move the of 15 kv or more (15,000 volts) to
decimal point six places to the left, operate the picture tube. In color
just as you did in converting micro- television receivers some will have
amps to amps. voltages as high as 25 kv. Just re-
You might wonder where such a member that a kilovolt is equal to
small unit as the microvolt is used. 1000 volts, so to convert kilovolts
It is sometimes used in measuring to volts, you simply multiply by 1000.
the strength of a radio or TV signal
SUMMARY
at a certain point. Also, in testing
radio and television receivers, sig- You should remember the impor-
nals from a few microvolts are fed tant differences between ac and de
into the receiver and then measured voltages. A de voltage, which is pro-
at various points in the receiver to duced by a battery or a de genera-
see how much the various stages tor, will have a polarity that does
are amplifying the signal. You might not change. Connected to a circuit,
find that the signal at the input of a dc voltage source produces acur-
one stage is 10 microvolts and at rent which flows in one direction.
the output was 100 microvolts; this An ac voltage changes potential
means that the stage amplified the (having one polarity during one half
signal voltage ten times. Techni- cycle and the opposite polarity
cians seldom have to convert back during the next) and produces acur-
and forth between volts, millivolts rent which flows in one direction
and microvolts, as often as they do during one half cycle and in the op-
in the case of amps, milliamps and posite direction during the next.
microamps. However, since the pro- Voltages are often connected to
cedures for converting from one to common connections called grounds,
the other are the same, if you know and may be either positive or nega-
one, you know the other. tive with respect to ground depend-
You will remember that to convert ing upon how they are connected to it.
from milliamps to microamps you Batteries and/or generators can
moved the decimal point three places be connected in series aiding so that
to the right, and to convert from their voltages add, or in series op-
millivolts to microvolts you do the posing so that they subtract. When
same thing. Similarly, to convert connected in series between ground
from microvolts to millivolts you and another point, the polarity of the
move the decimal point three places point may be positive or negative
to the left. when the batteries oppose, depending

18
on the polarity of the larger voltage (ac) If a 15 volt battery and a 45
source. volt battery are connected in
A de voltage source such as a series as in Fig. 8B, what will
battery can be connected in series the voltage be at terminal 1?
with an ac generator, and the two (ad) If two 22-1/2 volt batteries are
voltages will add during one half connected in series as shown
cycle and oppose during the next. in Fig. 9A, what is the voltage
The highest voltage produced is at terminal 1 witk respect to
equal to the battery voltage plus ground?
the peak generator voltage. If one (ae) If two batteries are connected
side of the circuit is connected to as shown in Fig. 9B, and one is
a common ground, the polarity in a 45 volt battery and its posi-
the circuit will not change unless tive terminal is connected to
the generator voltage is greater than terminal 1, and the other is a
the battery voltage. In this case, the 22-1/2 volt battery and its posi-
polarity will change during the por- tive terminal is grounded, what
tion of the cycle when the voltages will the voltage at terminal 1
are opposing. be?
Some circuits you will encounter (af) If in Fig. 9C the positions of the
will have very small voltages; others two batteries are reversed so
will have very high voltages. Re- that the negative terminal of the
member that the millivolt (abbre- 4.5 volt battery is connected to
viated mv) is one thousandth of a terminal 1, and the negative
volt, the microvolt (abbreviated .INT) terminal of the 3 volt battery
is one millionth of a volt, and the connects to ground, what will
kilovolt (abbreviated kv) is one thou- the voltage be at terminal 1?
sand volts. (ag) If a generator that has a peak

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS voltage of 15 volts is connected

in series with abattery that has
(z) If in the circuit shown in Fig. a voltage of 15 volts, what is
4B, the battery is a 45 volt bat- the maximum voltage produced
tery, what voltage is present at during the half cycle when the
terminal 2 with respect to two aid, and what will be the
ground? minimum voltage produced
(aa) If in the circuit shown in Fig. when the two oppose?
5, the battery is a 90 volt bat- (ah) If in the circuit shown in Fig.
tery, and the ground terminal 10A the battery voltage is 15
is a center tap, what is the volt- volts and the peak generator
age at terminal 1with respect voltage is 20 volts, what will
to ground? What is the voltage the voltage be between termi-
at terminal 2 with respect to nal 1and ground when they are
ground? aiding and when they are op-
(ab) In the circuit shown in Fig. 6, posing?
if the rms value of the voltage (ai) If a generator and battery are
is 20 volts, what will the peak connected as in Fig. 10B, and
voltage be between terminal 1 the battery voltage is 30 volts
and ground? Will it be positive and the generator peak voltage
or negative? is 45 volts, what will the volt-

19
 age be between terminal 1and (ak) If a battery and generator are
ground when the two are aiding connected in series as shown
and when the two are opposing? in Fig. 10B, and the battery
(aj) If a battery and generator are voltage is 45 volts and the peak
connected as shown in Fig. 10A generator voltage is 30 volts,
and the battery voltage is 20 what will the voltage be between
volts and the peak generator terminal 1and ground when the
voltage is 10 volts what will the generator reaches its peak val-
voltage be between terminal 1 ue aiding the battery and when
and ground when they are aid- it reaches its peak value op-
ing? When they are opposing? posing the battery?

Resistance
One of the most important values If a voltage of 1volt is applied to a
you will work with in your electronic circuit and a current of 1amp flows
career is resistance. All wires and in the circuit, the resistance of the
parts in electronic equipment have circuit is 1 ohm. If a voltage of 2
a certain amount of resistance. In volts is applied to a circuit, and
some cases, such as in ashort piece a current of 1amp flows, the resist-
of copper wire, the resistance may ance in the circuit is 2 ohms. Here
be so low that it has no effect on the we have twice the voltage applied to
performance of the circuit. How- the circuit and, therefore, twice the
ever, in every circuit there will be force to force a current flow in the
some part that has enough resist- circuit. However, since the current
ance to affect the operation of the flow is 1amp in both cases, the cir-
circuit. cuit in the second case must offer
You know that when a voltage is twice the opposition to current flow.
applied to an electrical circuit a This is why the resistance of the
current will flow in the circuit. In circuit is 2 ohms.
a de circuit, the thing that limits In electronic equipment, the wires
the amount of current that will flow used to connect parts together have
for a given voltage is the resistance a very low resistance, usually only
of the circuit. In an ac circuit, re- a fraction of an ohm. However, sev-
sistance also limits the current flow, eral of the parts that you have studied
but there may also be some other do have a much higher resistance.
parts that will affect the current For example, a transformer has two
flow. or more windings on acommon core.
In the case of a transformer used to
THE OHM operate on a 60-cycle power line,
there will be many turns on the pri-
The unit of resistance is the ohm. mary winding of the transformer.
It is named after the scientist George The resistance will depend upon the
Simon Ohm who did a great deal of size of the wire used on the primary
work in the early days when scien- winding of the transformer, but are-
tists first began studying electricity. sistance of about 100 ohms is typical

20
of what you might find if you meas- we want resistance in the circuit.
ured the resistance of the primary Parts made to put resistance in the
winding of the transformer used in a circuit are called resistors. There
large radio or a small television are many different values and sizes
receiver. of resistors used in electronic
DC Resistance. equipment, and several different
De resistance is the opposition types, but the most commonly used
offered to the flow of direct current type is the "carbon resistor". This
in a circuit. If a de voltage is ap- type of resistor is made of amixture
plied to an electrical circuit, the of powdered carbon and a cement-
de resistance of the circuit will limit like material that is used to hold the
the current that will flow in the cir- carbon together. By varying the
cuit. When we speak of dc resistance, composition of the mixture, different
we simply refer to it as resistance values of resistance from a few
rather than by its entire name "de ohms up to several million ohms can
resistance". be obtained.
AC Resistance. Carbon resistors come in several
The ac resistance of a part may different sizes and in many different
not be the same as the de resistance. resistance values. The size of the
For example, at high radio frequen- resistor tells you how much power
cies, which are simply very high ac the resistor can handle. Three dif-
frequencies, the current flowing in a ferent sizes of carbon resistors are
circuit has a tendency to flow on the shown in Fig. 13. Each resistor has
outside of the conductor. This often a resistance of 1000 ohms. The re-
causes the ac resistance to be some- sistor in the middle can handle twice
what higher than the dc resistance. the power that the resistor on the
In some coils used in very high fre- top can handle. The resistor on the
quency equipment you will find that bottom can handle twice the power
the coils are silver plated. The pur- the resistor in the middle can, or
pose of the silver plating is to keep four times the power the resistor
the resistance on the outside of the
conductor as low as possible.
At power line frequencies and
audio frequencies as well as low
radio frequencies, the ac resistance
of most parts is almost the same as
the de resistance and so we gen-
411M-
erally consider them as being the
same. You will see later that it is
comparatively easy to measure the
de resistance of a part, but it is
much more difficult to measure the
ac resistance.
Resistors.
While copper wire is used to con- Fig. 13. Three 1000-ohm. carbon resistors.
nect electronic parts together to The resistor at the top is a 1,%%au size,
keep the resistance in the circuit the middle resistor, a 1watt size and the
low, there are some instances where bottom one, a2watt resistor.

21
on the top can handle. The resistor
on the top is called a half-watt re-
sistor, the one in the middle a one-
watt resistor and the one on the bot-
tom a two-watt resistor. The watt
is a unit of electrical power, which
you will learn about later.
Another type of resistor that you
will encounter is the "wire-wound
resistor". It is made of wire wound
on a form, which is usually some
®WIRE-WOUND RESISTOR •
type of ceramic form. The wire used
to wind the resistor is called resist-
ance wire; it gets its name because
it has a much higher resistance than
copper wire. Wire-wound resistors
are used in places where they must ® DEPOSITED-FILM RESISTOR
handle a higher current than could
be handled by a carbon resistor. Fig. 14. A wire-wound resistor is shown
Another type of resistor that you at A; adeposited film resistor at II.
will encounter is the deposited film
resistor. This type of resistor has value of a resistance as 2,200 ohms
a metal oxide (a combination of a we would indicate the value as 2.2K.
metal and oxygen) film deposited on A resistor having a resistance of
a ceramic form. The advantage of 100,000 ohms would be labelled
this type of resistor is that it can 100K. A resistor with a resistance
be made to handle higher currents of 470,000 ohms would be marked
than a carbon resistor and at the 470K.
same time can be made in larger We use the unit megohms for re-
resistance values than the wire- sistors larger than one million
wound resistor. A wire-wound re- ohms. A resistor whose value is
sistor is shown at A in Fig. 14 and 2,200,000 ohms would be labelled
a deposited film resistor at B. 2.2 megs or 2.2M; both abbreviations
are used. Sometimes a resistor that
LARGER RESISTOR UNITS is somewhat less than a megohm in
resistance is also expressed in meg-
In many electronic circuits you ohms. For example, a 470,000 ohm
will have resistances of several resistor could be labelled 470K, and
thousand ohms; in others you will it can also be labelled .47 mega or
have resistances over a million .47M. Any one of the three labellings
ohms. Rather than indicate the value could be used since they all mean
of these resistors in ohms it is more the same thing.
convenient to use the K-ohm and the Converting back and forth between
megohm. The letter K stands for one ohms, K-ohms and megohms is
thousand so the K-ohm is one thou- essentially the same as converting
sand ohms. Meg stands for one mil- between amps, inilliamps and
lion so one megohm is one million microamps. However, in this case
ohms. Thus, rather than mark the remember that the ohm is the small

22
unit, the K-ohm is one thousand ohms If a current of 1ampere flows in a
and the megohm is one million ohms. circuit when a voltage of 1 volt is
To convert from the small unit to the applied to the circuit, the resistance
larger unit you simply move the in the circuit is 1ohm.
decimal point to the left, either three Three important types of resis-
places or six places, depending on tors that you will encounter in elec-
whether you are converting to K- tronic equipment are the carbon re-
ohms or to megohms. To convert sistor, the wire-wound resistor, and
from the large unit to the small unit the metal oxide film resistor. These
you move the decimal point in the resistors are made in many different
opposite direction. As a technician resistance values and in different
you will have to convert values back sizes to handle different values of
and forth. The values of carbon re- current.
sistors are identified by means of a In many electronic circuits the re-
color code. The color code will give sistance is so high that we use the
the resistance in ohms, but the value K-ohm, which is equal to one thou-
may be given on a circuit diagram sand ohms and the megolun which is
in K-ohms or megohms to save equal to one million ohms. You
space. Thus you have to know what should be able to convert from one
the different units mean so you will unit to another so you will be fa-
be able to identify them on circuit miliar with all three units.
diagrams.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
SUMMARY
(al) If the current flowing in a cir-
Much of the material covered in cuit is 1 amp, and we double
this section of the lesson will be a the resistance in the circuit,
review for you. However, resistance will the current increase, de-
is a very important subject, and you crease, or remain the same?
should make sure you understand (am)Name the three types of resis-
everything in this section before sistors that are used in elec-
going on to the next. In the next sec- tronic equipment.
tion of the lesson you are going to (an) Convert 4,700 ohms to K-ohms.
study Ohm's Law. (ao) Convert 5,600,000 to megohms.
The important points to remember (ap) Convert .330 megs to K-ohms.
in this section are that in a de cir- (aq) Convert 2.2 megs to ohms.
cuit the current flow in the circuit (ar) Convert 8.2 K-ohms to ohms.
will be limited by the resistance in (as) Convert 680 K-ohms to meg-
the circuit. In an ac circuit the re- ohms.
sistance will also limit the current, (at) Draw the symbol used to repre-
but there may be some other factors sent a resistance. You should
that also aid in limiting the current. remember this from an earlier
The unit of resistance is the ohm. lesson.

23
 Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law is one of the most im- voltage and resistance affect the
portant laws or rules in electronics. current in a circuit. We will do some
It tells you how the voltage, current simple problems involving Ohm's
and resistance are related in an Law. Be sure to follow these through
electrical circuit. Ohm's Law states carefully so you will understand what
that the current flowing in the circuit is happening in the circuits we dis-
is equal to the voltage divided by the cuss. We will work out each step in
resistance. Rather than use words detail even though some of the steps
every time to express this law, we may seem comparatively simple.
use symbols. We use the letter Ifor
current, E for voltage and R for re-
BOW VOLTAGE
sistance. Using these symbols we
can express Ohm's Law as: AFFECTS CURRENT

I= E + R In Fig. 15 we have shown asimple

circuit consisting of avoltage source
This is more often written in the
form:

E
I =—
R
E.20V R=2 û.
By using this expression, or by re-
arranging it mathematically, if we
know any two of the three values,
resistance, current or voltage, we
T
can determine the other. As a radio
television serviceman you will be Fig. 15. .% simple circuit eonsisting of a
concerned with replacing parts and voltage source and aresistor.
will not have many occasions to work
out the value of a part using Ohm's and a resistor. The battery voltage,
Law. However, an understanding of it E = 20 volts; the resistance of the
will help you understand what is resistor, R = 2 ohms. Notice the
going on in the circuits you will study symbol we have used to indicate
in this and in following lessons. A ohms. This is the Greek letter omega
technician who wants to get his FCC and it is often used on diagrams as
license to work at a broadcasting or an abbreviation for ohms.
television station, or a technician We can determine the current that
who wants to work in industry or as will flow in this circuit by using
an engineering aid will have to be Ohm's Law. We simply take the for-
able to work out problems involving mula and then substitute the values
Ohm's Law. We are going to use of E and R which we have and this
Ohm's Law to learn more about how will give us the value of I.

24
 E
=—
R

20 E. 5V — 200.11
I =— = 10 amps
2

Thus in the circuit shown in Fig.

15 the current flowing will be equal
to 10 amps. If we increase the volt-
age to 40 volts, the new current flow- Fig. 16. .‘ simple cireu it %%here E
ing will be: and II 200Q.

resistance was given in ohms and the

I =—
40
= 20 amps
2 current we calculated was in amps.
In using Ohm's Law we must always
and if we reduce the voltage to 10 use these basic units. Often this
volts, the current flowing in the cir- leads to a somewhat more difficult
cuit will be: problem than shown in Fig. 15. Look
at the example in Fig. 16.
10 In Fig. 16, the voltage is 5 volts
= — = 5 amps. and the resistance in the circuit is
2
200 ohms. Using Ohm's Law to de-
The important thing to see from termine the current we have:
the preceding is how the current
flowing in the circuit with a given 5
I-
resistance in the circuit is tied di- 200
rectly to the voltage. Increasing the
voltage increased the current, and Here the division is not quite as
reducing the voltage reduced the simple as it was in the preceding
current. In the example where we example because we have to resort
doubled the voltage, the current to a decimal division. The division
doubled, and where we cut the volt- is not particularly difficult; it is
age in half, the current was cut in shown in Fig. 17. We see that we
half. This relationship will always get a current of .025amps.We could
hold true. If we increase the voltage leave our answer like this, or we can
to three times its original value, then convert it to milliamperes by mul-
the current will increase to three tiplying by 1000. To do this we simply
times the original value, and if we move the decimal point three places
reduce the voltage to one third of its to the right and get the answer, I=
original value, then the current will 25 ma.
be reduced to one third of its original
value. We can say that in a given .025
circuit the current will vary directly 2(N) ):).000
with the voltage. Any change in the 100
voltage will result in a correspond- I11(10
1000
ing change in the current.
Notice that in the example given,
the voltage was given in volts, the Hg. I. Solution for Iin Fig. 16.

25
 Since our answer is in milliam- Another example is shown in Fig.
peres, and we multiplied the current 18. Notice that here we have an even
in amperes by 1000 to get our an- larger resistor and also notice that
swer into milliamperes, if we want the resistance is given in K-ohms.
to avoid the decimal division we can Let us see how we go about tackling
multiply by 1000 before performing a problem of this type.
the division and get the answer di- You will remember we said that
rectly in milliamperes. When we do in using Ohm's Law the units must
this the problem becomes: be in volts, amps and ohms. There-

.0002 .2
5
I= x 1000 500C111 10.0000 50000 10000.0
200
10 0000 10000 0

I=
5000
200 o o
Fig. 19. Solution for Iin Fig. 18.
Now we can cancel two zeros above
the division line and two below the fore, the first thing we must do is
line so we have: to convert 50K-ohms to ohms. We do
this simply by multiplying by 1000
5000 50 and get a resistance of 50,000 ohms.
=Ter -2 Now using 50,000 ohms and 10 volts
we can find the current using Ohm's
I = 25 ma Law.

You can use whichever method you E

=
want in determining the current in a
circuit of this type. If you multiply
by 1000 before performing the Ohm 's 10
I=
Law division, be sure to remember 50,000
that your answer will be in milli-
amperes. Incidentally, sometimes Here again we have a decimal di-
we use mils as well as ma for an vision. We can go ahead and perform
abbreviation of milliamperes. In the this division as shown in Fig. 19A.
preceding problem we can say our We get as an answer .0002 amps.
answer is 25 mils. We can convert this to milliamperes
by multiplying by 1000. To do this,
we move the decimal point three
places to the right and get .2 milli-
amps as the current. However, we
still have a decimal so instead of
E=10V =- R.50K converting to milliamps it would be
more logical to convert to micro-
amps. We do this by multiplying by
1,000,000 and this involves moving
the decimal point six places to the
Fig. 18. A simple circuit where E - ION . right. We get as the current 200 ua.
and R =50 K-ohms. If we want to avoid the decimal

26
division we can again convert before multiply by 1,000,000 and then per-
we perform the division. If we try form the division. If your answer,
converting to milliamps first by which will be in microamperes, is
multiplying by 1000 we would have over 1,000 microamperes you can
50,000 divided into 10,000. This can convert this to milliamps if you want
be worked out as shown in Fig. 19B to by simply moving the decimal
and we get our answer, .2 ma. How- point three places to the left. How-
ever, since 50,000 is larger than ever, it really doesn 't matter wheth-
10,000 it is obvious that we have an- er you say that the current is 4,700
other decimal division and so to microamps or 4.7 milliamps, it
avoid this why not simply multiply means the same thing. For that
the voltage, 10 volts by 1,000,000, matter, if you don 't mind doing deci-
and then get our answer directly in mal divisions you don't have to con-
microamps. When we do this the for- vert at all. You can simply give the
mula becomes answer in amperes as .0047 amps.
All three mean the same thing. If
10 you like doing mathematics then the
I- x 1,000,000
50,000 chances are that the decimal divi-
sions won't bother you, but on the
- 10,000,000 other hand if you are like most people
50,000 and steer away from math, then mul-
tiplying either by 1,000 or a 1,000,-
Notice that in 50,000 there are four 000 first to convert the answer di-
zeros so we can mark these four rectly to milliamperes or micro-
zeros off and mark four zeros off amperes is probably the easiest way
from the ten million so that we will to tackle problems of this type.
have In examples shown in Figs. 15, 16
and 18, the voltage source was abat-
1 - 10 '000 '000 tery and therefore the problems all
50,000 involved de voltage and current. If
the voltage source had been an ac
. 1,000 generator instead, we would have
5 found the current in exactly the same
way. In a circuit containing only re-
= 200 microamps sistance, Ohm's Law is used in ex-
actly the same way in an ac circuit
In electronic circuits you will fre- as it is in a de circuit. Where the
quently run into comparatively small value of E is the rms value of the
voltages and very large resistances. voltage, then the current will be
This means that if you want to find found in its rms value. If the value
the current flowing in the circuit and of E given is the peak value of the
you divide directly, you will run into voltage, and we use this value in
a decimal division. Therefore the Ohm's Law, then we will get the peak
easy way is to multiply by 1,000 or value of the ac current. If we want
1,000,000 first to convert the answer the rms value we can get it either
directly to milliamps or microamps. by converting the peak value of the
If you are doubtful about whether you current to its rms value after we
should multiply by 1000 or 1,000,000, perform the calculation or we can

27
convert the peak voltage to an rms will find that this relationship be-
value first. tween current and resistance holds
true regardless of how we change
HOW RESISTANCE the resistance. If we increase the
AFFECTS CURRENT resistance to 3 times its original
value, the current will be reduced
In the simple circuit shown in Fig. to one third and if we cut the resist-
15 where the voltage is 20 volts and ance to one third its original value
the resistance 2 ohms, we found by the current will increase to three
using Ohm's Law that the current times its original value. We say that
flowing in the circuit is 10 amps. the current varies inversely to the
The same circuit is repeated in Fig. resistance.
20 except that we have replaced the As a matter of fact, this relation-
2 ohm resistor with a 4 ohm resis- ship between current and resistance
is obvious if we examine Ohm's Law.
If we look at the expression for cur-
rent

E
E:20V

if E remains constant and we in-

crease R, it is obvious that Imust
be smaller. Similarly, if we reduce
R, and keep E constant, then Imust
Fig. 20. The 212 resistor in the eireuit of get larger.
Fig. 15 is replaced by a le resistor.
FINDING E
tor. How will this affect the value of
I? Using Ohm's Law we can find the In some circuits we may know what
current. the current flowing in the circuit and
the resistance in the circuit are and
E have to find the voltage in the circuit.
=—
R An example of this type of problem
is shown in Fig.21. Here the current
20 is 2 amps and the resistance is 15
I =--= 5 amps
4 ohms. We want to find the value of
E.
Here the current is 5 amps, half of Ohm's Law can be rearranged
what it was before. In other words, mathematically into the form
doubling the resistance cut the cur-
rent in half. If instead of doubling E =IxR
the resistance, we had cut it in half
so that R is equal to 1 ohm, then We usually drop the multiplication
using Ohm's Law again we find that sign and simple write the formula
the current is equal to 20 amps. In as:
other words, cutting the resistance
in half has doubled the current. We E =IR

28
The term IR means Ix R; the mul-
tiplication sign is understood, even
though it is not shown. Using this
form of Ohm's Law we get:
E.? R=1500.0..

E = 2 x 15
= 30 volts

Thus, the value of the voltage applied

to the circuit must be 30 volts. If Fig. 22. Find E where I= 8 ma and H
we want to, we can check this out 1500S/.
using the other form of Ohm's Law:
22, we can first convert the current
E
I =— I which is 8 ma to amps by dividing
R
by 1000. We do this by moving the
substituting 30 for E and 15 for R decimal point three places to the left
we get a current of 2 amps, and and get as the current, .008 amps.
since this agrees with the value Now substituting these values in
given, the value of voltage which we Ohm's Law we can find the voltage
determined must be correct.
E = IR
Notice that the current in Fig. 21
= .008 x 1500
is given in amps and the resistance
= 12 volts
in ohms. Sometimes the current may
be given in milliamperes or micro- This involves a decimal multiplica-
amperes and the resistance might be tion, which is not too difficult to
in K-ohms or megohms. In either perform. However, if you want to
case we must convert back to the avoid the decimal multiplication the
basic units. Milliamperes and easy way to do this is to simply
microamperes must be converted write 8 milliamps as 8/1,000 amps.
to amperes and K-ohms and meg- Now substituting the value of 8/1,000
ohms must be converted to ohms. in the formula we get
An example of this type of problem
is shown in Fig. 22. Here the current
E - X 1500
is given in milliamperes and the re- 1000
sistance in ohms.
Doing the problem shown in Fig.
E = 8 x 1' 500
1,000

E - 12,000
1,000

E R.15J1
Now cancelling three zeros above
and below the division line we get
I =2 AMPS
E - 12 '000
1,000
Fig. 21. A simple circuit where I=2amps
and H = 15fL E = 12 volts

29
 If in Fig. 22 the resistance had 6.6 volts. It is far simpler to do the
been expressed in K-ohms it would problem this way than it is to con-
be written 1.5 K-ohms. To convert vert to amps and ohms. These same
this to ohms we multiply by 1,000. techniques can be used regardless of
Instead of actually performing the what units the current and resistance
multiplication we could then write are in. Remember that if the current
the problem as: is given in milliamperes simply
write it over 1,000 andthis will con-
8
E - 1,000 x 1.5 x 1,000 vert it to amps. If it is given in
microamperes write it over 1,000,-
Now we can cancel the 1,000 above 000 and this will convert it to amps.
and below the division line and If the resistance is given in K-ohms
simply multiply 8 x 1.5 and our an- multiply it by 1,000 to convert it to
swer is 12 volts. ohms and if it is given in megohms

R=2.2 MEG

—Am. 3u t
t

Fig. 23. Find E %here =3/La and R =2.2 megohms.

In the example shown in Fig. 23 multiply it by 1,000,000 to convert

the current is given in microamps it to ohms. Then before doing any-
and the resistance in megohms and thing else look for numbers above
we have to find the voltage. We can and below the division line that can
convert microamperes to amperes be cancelled and then perform the
by dividing the current by 1,000,000 remaining multiplication.
and megohms to ohms by multiplying
FINDING It
the resistance by 1,000,000. Thus
substituting the formula: We can rearrange Ohm's Law to
find the resistance in a circuit if we
E =IxR know the voltage and the current. To
do this we use Ohm's Law in the
3
E - 1,000,000 x 2.2 x 1,000,000 form:

3 x 2.2 x 1,000,000 R =E
1,000,000
Let us go back to the circuit shown
Here we simply cancel the 1,000,000 in Fig. 15. Here the voltage is 20
above and below the division line and volts and we found that the current
multiply 3 x 2.2 and get our answer is 10 amps. Now let us use Ohm's

30
Law to see what value of resistance is usually easier to divide by whole
we get using these values of volt- numbers and then multiply the result
age and current. by either 1,000 or 1,000,000 than it
is to perform the conversion to am-
E peres first and then perform adeci-
R =y
mal division. An example of aprob-
lem where the current is in milli-
20 amperes is as follows: find the re-
R =
10 sistance in a circuit where the volt-
age is 3 volts and the current is 3
= 2 ohms milliamperes. Using the formula:

As you see, the value obtained for R - E x 1,000

the resistance is the value given I (ma)
originally so that we know that our
calculation is correct. R - 3 x 1000
When the voltage is given in volts 3
and the current given in amps, de-
termining the resistance in the cir- R = 1000 ohms
cuit is quite simple. However, often
the current will be in milliamps or An example where the current is
microamps. In this case we must in microamperes is: find the resist-
convert the current to amps in order ance in a circuit where the voltage
to use the formula. is 8volts and the current 100 micro-
To convert milliamps to amps we amperes.
divide by 1,000. We can do the same Using the formula:
thing simply by multiplying the volt-
age by 1,000 and using the current R - E x 1,000,000
in milliamperes in the formula. Thus I (ua)
the formula for resistance becomes
R = 8 x 1,000,000
R - E x 1,000 100
I (in ma)
the easiest way to do this problem
If the current is given in micro- is to divide the top and bottom by
amps we can multiply the voltage by 100 simply by cancelling the 100 on
1,000,000 and then use the current the bottom and removing two zeros
in microamperes in the formula. from the 1,000,000 and then we have
Then the formula becomes
R = 8 x 10,000
E x 1,000,000
R - = 80,000 ohms
I (in ga)

in microamperes. SUMMARY
Multiplying the voltage by 1,000
when the current is in milliamperes In this section of this lesson you
and by 1,000,000 when it is in micro- have seen how the current in a cir-
amperes eliminates the necessity of cuit is affected by the voltage and
performing a decimal division. It the resistance in the circuit. We

31
found that increasing the voltage in- the aid of the examples given in the
creased the current and decreasing textbook. You will not be able to re-
the voltage decreased the current. member all you will learn about
We said that the current varies di- electronics either during your
rectly as the voltage. In the case of course or after you have completed
the resistance in the circuit we found your course, but the important thing
it had the opposite effect on the cur- is to remember the basic fundamen-
rent. Increasing the resistance in tals and then know where to find the
the circuit decreases the current and other facts that you may need.
decreasing the resistance increases If you find that you are puzzled by
the current. We say that the current one of the self-test questions and you
varies inversely with the resistance. can't work it out even after review-
We saw the three important forms ing the lesson, find the answer to
of Ohm's Law and how you can use the question at the back of the book
it in solving problems involving volt- and see how we did the problem.
age, current and resistance in acir- Then close the book and try to dothe
cuit. If any two of these three quan- problem yourself and other prob-
tities are known, you can use Ohm's lems of the same type without re-
Law to find the other. ferring to the answers again. Don't
You should remember the three be discouraged if you don't get the
forms of Ohm's Law. You will use right answer every time or if you
them over and over again, so it would have trouble remembering the
be worthwhile to take time now to various forms of Ohm's Law at first.
memorize them. The three forms Make a determined effort to memo-
are: rize them and after you have used
them a number of times you will
find that they will remain in your
mind.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

(au) Give the form of Ohm's Law

that is used when you know the
Remember that to use Ohm's Law voltage and the current and want
the voltage must be in volts, the cur- to find the resistance.
rent in amps and the resistance in (ay) Write the Ohm's Law formula
ohms. We showed you simple ways that is used when you know the
of getting around the problem of current and resistance in acir-
performing decimal operations in cuit and want to find the voltage.
each type of problem. As you do the (aw) Write the Ohm's Law formula
self-test questions do not hesitate to used when you know the voltage
go back to the section of the lesson and resistance in a circuit and
that dealt with the particular kind need to find the current.
of problem you are working on and (ax) In a circuit such as Fig. 15,
review how we worked the problem. find the current if the voltage
It is not so important for you to is 15 volts and the resistance
memorize how to do these problems is 3 ohms.
as it is to be able to do them with (ay) In a circuit like Fig. 15, find

32
 the current if the voltage is 12 If the voltage applied to a cir-
volts and the resistance is 6,000 cuit is 144 volts, and the cur-
ohms. rent flowing in the circuit is
(az) In a circuit like Fig. 15 find the 120 ta, what is the resistance
current if the voltage is 28 volts in the circuit?
and the resistance 7,000 ohms. Fill in the missing words in the
(ba) In a circuit like Fig. 15 find the following statement: if the volt-
current if the voltage is 15 volts age applied to a circuit is in-
and the resistance 300 K-ohms. creased, the current will
(bb) Find the voltage in acircuit like and if the voltage applied to a
the one in Fig. 21 where the circuit is decreased, the cur-
current is 3 amps and the re- rent will
sistance is 6 ohms. (bn) Fill in the missing words in the
Find the voltage in acircuit like following: if the resistance in a
the one shown in Fig. 21 where circuit is increased, the cur-
the current is 20 ma and the rent will ,and if the re-
resistance 1,000 ohms. sistance in a circuit is de-
(bd) Find the voltage in acircuit like creased, the current will_.
the one shown in Fig. 21 when
the current is 18 ma and the ANSWERS TO SELF-
resistance is 3K-ohms. TEST QUESTIONS
(he) Find the voltage in a circuit (a) 4 amps. If the original current
like Fig. 21 when the current was 1 amp and the number of
is 47 u.a and the resistance electrons increased by four
200,000 ohms. times the new current must be
(hf) Find the voltage in a circuit 4 amps.
like Fig. 21 when the current 3 amps x 1.4 = 4.2 amps.
is 58 ua and the resistance 7 amps x 1.4 = 9.8 amps.
330K-ohms. 7 amps + 1.4 = 5 amps.
(hg) Find the voltage in a circuit 21 amps + 1.4 = 15 amps.
like Fig. 21 when the current $6.00 = 600 cents.
is 6 ua and the resistance 2 350 cents = $3.50.
megohms. 2 amps =2000 ma. To perform
(bh) In a simple series circuit if the the conversion we write 2amps
applied voltage is 12 volts, and as 2.000 and then move the deci-
the current is 4 amps, what is mal point three places to the
the resistance in the circuit? right and get 2000. In perform-
Find the resistance in the cir- ing a conversion of this type,
cuit if the applied voltage is 24 another way to look at it simply
volts and the current 8 ma. is adding three zeros.
Find the resistance in the cir- (i) 6 amps = 6000 ma.
cuit if the applied voltage is 45 )3.5 amps = 3500 ma. Again, we
volts and the current flowing is have simply moved the decimal
15 ma. point three places to the right;
(bk) If the voltage applied to a cir- 3.5 amps = 3500 ma.
cuit is 34 volts, and the current (k) .42 amps = 420 ma.
flowing is 170 u.a, what is the (1 ) .037 amps = 37 ma. Moving the
resistance in the circuit? decimal point three places to

33
 the right, we get 037, and since six places to the left to convert
the zero has no significance we from microamps to amps.
simply write the answer as 37 (u) .26 ma = 260 ua. To convert
ma. from milliamps to microamps
(m) .002 amps =2 milliamps.Mov- we move the decimal point three
ing the decimal point three places to the right. In order to
places to the right we get 002. move it three places we have
ma and we drop the two zeros to add a zero to the right of the
to the left of the 2 since they 6 so .26 ma becomes 260 ua.
have no significance. (v) .031 ma = 31 ua. Again, to con-
(n) 46 ma = .046 amps. Here we vert from the larger unit ma to
move the decimal point three the smaller unit microamperes
places to the left. In order to we move the decimal point to
do this we add a 0 to the left the right. Thus, .031 ma be-
of the 4; thus 46 ma becomes comes 031. ua. The 0tothe left
.046 amps. of the 3 has no significance so
(o) 822 ma = .822 amps. To convert we drop it and write the answer
from the smaller unit to the as 31 µa.
larger unit we move the deci- (w) 6100 Lia = 6.1 ma. To convert
mal point three places to the from the smaller unit to the
left. larger unit we move the deci-
(P) 1327 ma = 1.327 amps. Again, mal point to the left- thus when
we simply move the decimal we move it three places to the
point three places to the left. left 6100 ua becomes 6.1 ma.
(q) 2 amps = 2,000,000 ua. To con- (x) 927 ua = .927 ma. Moving the
vert from amps to ua we have decimal point three places to
moved the decimal point six the left 927. ua becomes .927
places to the right. To do this ma.
we must add the six zeros. (Y) 327,000 µa =327 ma. To convert
(r) .0017 amps = 1700 ua. Moving from the smaller unit to the
the decimal point six places to larger unit we move the deci-
the right, we have to add two mal point three places to the
zeros to the right of the 7 in left. Thus, 327,000 u.a becomes
order to do this and .0017 can 327 ma. To convert the 327 ma
be written .001700 and then we to amps we again move the
move the decimal point six decimal point three places to
places to the right and get 1700 the left and get .327 amps.
La. (z) -45 volts.
(s) 20 ua = .00002 amps. To con- (an) Terminal 1 is + 45V, and ter-
vert from the smaller unit to minal 2 is - 45V.
the larger unit we move the (ab) The peak voltage between ter-
decimal point six places to the minal 1 and ground will be 20
left. In order to move it six X 1.4 = 28 volts. It will be posi-
places we have to add four tive during one half cycle and
zeros to the left of the 2. negative the next half cycle.
(t) 147 µa = .000147 amps. Again, (ac) + 60 volts. The two batteries
we add zeros to the left of the are connected in series aiding,
1 and move the decimal point and therefore their potentials

34
 add, 15 + 45 = 60 volts. The (ag) 30 volts when the two are aiding
terminal is positive because and 0 volts when the two are
it's connected directly to the opposing. When the peak gen-
positive terminal of one of the erator voltage has the same po-
batteries. larity as the battery voltage the
(ad) 0 volts. The two batteries are total voltage will be the sum of
connected in series opposing the two voltages, 15V + 15V =
and therefore the battery volt- 30V. When the generator has the
ages subtract. Since both bat- opposite polarity to the battery,
teries are 22-1/2 volts the net the two voltages will subtract.
value of the voltage between 15V - 15V = OV.
terminal 1and ground will be 0. (ah) +35 volts when they are aiding
(ae) + 22-1/2 volts. The two bat- and - 5 volts when they are op-
teries are connected to oppose posing.
each other; thus their volt- When the peak generator volt-
ages subtract. 45V - 22-1/2V age has the same polarity as the
22-1/2V. The polarity will be battery voltage, the two volt-
that of the higher voltage bat- ages add, 20V +15V =35V. When
tery, which is the 45 volt bat- the two voltages oppose, the po-
tery. Since its positive terminal larity of the generator will be
is connected to terminal 1, then - 20V with respect to terminal
terminal 1will be positive. 1. Therefore the voltage be-
(af) - 1.5 volts. The two batteries tween terminal 1 and ground
are connected in series op- will be 15V -20V = - 5V.
posing and therefore their volt- (ai) - 75V when they aid and + 15V
ages subtract, 4.5 volts -3volts when they oppose. When the
= 1.5 volts. The polarity will be peak generator voltage has the
that of the larger battery and same polarity as the battery
since the negative terminal of voltage, the two voltages add.
the 4.5 volt battery connects to 30V + 45V = 75V. Since the
terminal 1, terminal 1will be negative terminal of the battery
negative. Reversing the bat- is connected to terminal 1, it
teries had no effect on the po- will be - 75V with respect to
larity because we simply re- ground. When the generator
versed their positions, keeping voltage opposes the battery
their polarities as shown in voltage the peak voltage be-
Fig. 9C. It makes nodifference tween terminal 1 and ground
which position the battery is in will be - 30V + 45V = + 15V.
insofar as the total voltage is (aj) + 30 volts when they are aiding
concerned; as long as they are and + 10 volts when they are
opposing each other you sub- opposing. When the peak gen-
tract to get the voltage produced erator voltage aids the battery
by the two in series. In the cir- voltage, the two voltages add.
cuit as shown in Fig. 9C, the + 20V + 10V = + 30V. When the
polarity of terminal 1is - 1.5 peak generator voltage opposes
volts just as it is when the the battery voltage will have,
position of the two batteries is +20V - 10V = + 10V.
changed. (ak) - 75V when they are aiding and

35
 - 15V when they are opposing. ohms in a megohm. Therefore
When the two voltages have the there must be 1,000 K-ohms in
same polarity their voltages a megohm. To convert meg-
add. 45 + 30 = 75V and since the ohms to K-ohms you multiply
negative terminal of the battery by 1,000 and to do this you move
connects to terminal 1, ter- the decimal point three places
minal 1 will be negative. An- to the right. Thus, .330M =
other way of looking at this is 330K.
to write the battery voltage as (aq) 2,200,000 ohms. There are
- 45V and the generator volt- 1,000,000 ohms in a megohm
age as - 30V and add the two and therefore to convert 2.2
together. - 45V - 30V = - 75V. megs to ohms you must mul-
When the two voltages oppose tiply by 1,000,000. To do this
the generator voltage subtracts you move the decimal point six
from the battery voltage. 45V - places to the right.
30V = 15V. Since the battery (ar) 8,200 ohms. There are 1,000
voltage is higher than the gen- ohms in a K-ohm and therefore
erator voltage the polarity of to convert K-ohms to ohms, you
terminal 1 will be the polarity multiply by 1,000. You do this
of the battery which is minus by moving the decimal point
and therefore it will be -15V. three places to the right.
Another way of doing this is to (as) .680 megohms. There are 1,000
write the voltages down with K-ohms in amegohm and there-
their polarity. Here we have fore to convert K-ohms to meg-
-45V + 30V = - 15V. ohms you must divide by 1,000.
(al) The current will decrease. As To do this you simply move the
a matter of fact, if we double decimal point three places to
the resistance in the circuit, the left.
the current will be cut exactly (at )
in half. '\AA.
(am)Carbon resistors, wire-wound
resistors and metal oxide film The symbol for resistance is
resistors are the three most shown above. There are prob-
widely used types of resistors ably more resistors used in
in electronics. electronics equipment than any
(an) 4.7 K-ohms. To convert 4,700 other parts, so it is extremely
ohms to K-ohms, you move the important that you remember
decimal point three places to this symbol. The resistance of
the left. This is the same as a resistor is usually indicated
dividing by 1,000 and getting by writing the resistance either
4.7 K-ohms. directly above or directly be-
(ao) 5.6 megohms. To convert low the resistance symbol. The
5,600,000 ohms to megohms you value may be given in ohms,
must move the decimal point six K-ohms or megohms depending
places to the left. This is the upon the size of the resistor.
same as dividing by 1,000,000. Usually the shortest form is
(ap) 330K-ohms. There are 1,000 used in order to conserve space
ohms in a K-ohm and 1,000,000 on the diagram.

36
 E (az) The current in this case will be
(au) R =-i-
4 ma. You use exactly the same
method as in the preceding ex-
(ay) E = IR ample; since dividing 7,000 in-
to 28 will involve a decimal di-
E vision you can multiply by 1,000
(aw) I =Tf,
and get your answer directly in
milliamperes. In this problem
(ax) 5 amps. To solve this problem we have:
you use the formula:
28
E I- x 1 000
I =-
1-
t 7,000 '

I - 28 '000
and substituting 15 volts for E 7,000
and 3 ohms for R we get
and then cancelling three zeros
, 15 above and below the line we
I=— have:
3

= 5 amps = 28
I
7
(ay) The current will be 2 ma. We
use the formula: = 4 ma

, E (ba) In this problem if we multiplied

i =—
R by 1,000 to get our answer in
milliamperes, we would still
Since dividing 6,000 into 12 have adecimal division because
would be a decimal division, we we must convert 300K to ohms
can multiply by 1,000 and get by multiplying it by 1,000. Thus
our answer directly in milli- we would have:
amperes. When we do this we
have: 15
I - 300 x 1000 x 1'000

I (ma) = 12
6,000 x 1,000
The 1,000 above the division
line would simply cancel the
_ 12,000 1,000 below the division line
I and we would have to divide
6,000
300 into 15. So instead of con-
and cancelling three zeros verting our answer directly to
above and below the line we get: milliamperes it would be better
to convert to microamperes.
, 12 Now the problem becomes:
i =—
6
15
I- x 1 000 000
= 2 ma 300 x 1000 ' '

37
 15 000,000 which is in K-ohms must be
I=
300,000 converted to ohms by multiply-
ing it by 1,000. Using the for-
and now cancelling five zeros mula to find the voltage we have:
above the line and five zeros
below the line we have E - 18 x 3 x 1000
1000

150
I= - 50 ua This can be written:
3

E 18 x 3 x 1000
(bb) The voltage will be 18 volts.
1000
We use the formula:
and now we simply cancel the
E = IR 1000 above the line and the
1000 below the line and we get
and substituting 3 amps for I
as our answer:
and 6 ohms for R we get:
E = 18 x 3
E =3x6 = 54 volts
= 18 volts
(be) In this example the current
(be) In this example the current is which is given in microamps
20 ma, and we must convert must be converted to amps by
this to amps. The easiest way dividing it by 1,000,000. Thus
to do this is to simply divide
our problem becomes:
it by 1,000. Therefore we will

substitute -for
20 Iin the for- 47
E - x 200,000
1,000,000
mula and 1000 for R. Using the
formula: Now you can cancel five zeros
above the line and five zeros
E = IR below the line and we get:

E = 1200 x 1'000 47 x 2 94
00 E - 10 - 10 - 9.4 volts

E - 20,000
(bi) In this example, the current
1,000 which is in microamperes must
and now we simply cancel three be converted to amps by di-
zeros above the line and three viding it by 1,000,000, and the
zeros below the line and we get: resistance which is given in
K-ohms must be converted to
E = 20 volts ohms by multiplying it by 1,000.
Thus using the formula to find
(bd) In this problem, the current the voltage we have:
which is in railliamps must be
converted to amps by dividing 58
E - 1,000,000 x 330 x 1,000
it by 1,000 and the resistance

38
 - 58 x 330 x 1000 12
E R =
4
1,000,000

We have four zeros above the = 3 ohms

division line so we can cancel (bi) In this example, the current is
four zeros below the line and given in milliamperes and we
then our problem becomes: must convert it to amps. We can
do this by multiplying the volt-
58 x 33 age by 1,000. When we do this
E -
100 we have:

and now multiplying 58 x 33 we 24 x 1,000

get: R - 8

1914 24 '000
E = 100 - 19.14 volts R - 8

(be In this example the current, = 3,000 ohms

which is in la, must be con-
verted to amps by dividing it (bj) We use the same procedure in
by 1,000,000, and the resistance this example as we did in the
which is in megohms, must be preceding example. We mul-
converted to ohms by multiply- tiply the voltage by 1,000 and
ing it by 1,000,000. Thus to find this is the equivalent of con-
the voltage we have: verting the current which is in
ma to amps. Therefore our
6 problem becomes:
E = x 2 x 1,000,000
1,000,000
R - 45 x 1,000
E - 6 x 2 x 1,000,000 15
1,000,000
R - 45 '000
and now we can simply cancel 15
the 1,000,000 above the divi-
sion line with the 1,000,000 be- = 3,000 ohms
low the division line and our
voltage becomes (bk) In this example, the current is
given in microamperes. To
E = 6 x 2 = 12 volts convert the current to amperes
we can multiply the voltage by
(bh) 3 ohms. To solve a problem of 1,000,000 and then proceed with
this type we use the formula: our problem.

E R 34 x 1,000,000
R =— =
I 170

In substituting 12 volts for E 34 '000 '000

and 4 amps for Iwe get: R - 170

39
 R 3 400 '000
-' rent will increase, and if the
17 voltage applied to a circuit is
decreased, the current will de-
= 200,000 ohms. crease.
(bn) The complete statement, which
(b1) This example is the same as the describes how resistance af-
preceding example; the current fects the current in a circuit,
is in microamperes and we is as follows: if the resistance
must convert it to amps. We do in a circuit is increased, the
this by multiplying the voltage current will decrease, and if
by 1,000,000. Our problem the resistance in a circuit is
therefore becomes: decreased, the current will in-
crease.

R - 144 x 1,000,000
LOOKING AHEAD
120
You have reached a point where
R - 144 '000 '000 you have learned about voltage, cur-
120
rent and resistance and have started
to study simple circuits. You used
R - 14 '400 '000 the three forms of Ohm's Law in
12
performing calculations in simple
circuits.
R = 1,200,000 ohms.
In the next lesson, you will put
some of these simple circuits to-
If we wish to convert this value gether to form more complex cir-
to megohms we can do so by di- cuits and you will see that even
viding by 1,000,000, in which more complex circuits follow the
case our answer becomes 1.2 same rules that were followed in
megs. these simple circuits. You have al-
(bm) The completed statement, ready come a long way in your
which is very important, is as studying of electronics and you will
follows: If the voltage applied to add considerably to your knowledge
a circuit is increased, the cur- in the next lesson.

40
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B103.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. If a 9 volt battery and a 6volt battery are connected in series aiding,

what will the output voltage of the two batteries be?

2. If a 6 volt battery and a 3 volt battery are connected in series op-

posing, what will the output voltage be?

3. If a battery and a generator are connected as shown in Fig. 10A, and

the battery voltage is 6volts and the peak generator voltage is 6 volts,
what will the maximum positive potential reached at terminal 1be?

4. If in the circuit shown in Fig. 10A, the battery voltage is 6 volts and
the generator peak voltage is 9volts,will terminal 1ever be negative
with respect to ground - if so how much?

5. What are the three types of resistors commonly used in electronic

equipment?

6. Give the three forms of Ohm's Law.

7. If the current flowing in a circuit is 2 amps, when the voltage is 50

volts, what will the current be if the voltage is reduced to 25 volts?

8. If the current flowing in a circuit is 50 ma when the resistance is

1,000 ohms, what will the current be if the resistance is reduced to
500 ohms?

9. If the voltage applied to a circuit is 4 volts, and the resistance in the

circuit is 2,000 ohms, what will the current be?

10. If the current flowing in a circuit is 3 ma and the resistance is 6,000

ohms, what will the voltage be?
GETTING YOUR 'SECOND WIND'
After an opening burst of speed, a champion long-
distance runner drops down to a steady natural pace.
This brief period of relaxation releases that reserve
of power called "second wind." He is then able to
overtake and pass the now nearly exhausted leaders
in the race.
No matter what you are doing, you can always do it
better once you get your second wind. Instead of
fighting that sleepy feeling which sometimes comes
when you are studying, stop and relax for a few
minutes so as to release your own supply of reserve
power. Here are some ways to relax, all worth trying.
Get up and exercise for a few minutes. Get a drink
of cold water. Step outside for a few deep breaths of
fresh air. Take a brisk walk up and down the road
or once around the block.
If you "shake yourself awake" in one of these
ways, you'll find it isn't at all hard to get that second
wind which enables you to study longer and makes
the going easier. Then you'll get in some real worth-
while studying -- then you'll get things done:
'1-4 'ire Innovation in learning

en) ii by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-203
 SERIES AND

leg elSealses.-
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Tie it1_; IC jhiild '2111Ur

V_J W_J LW__J Nil

B104-1
 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

B104-1

,
...
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

E 1. Introduction Pages 1-3

In this section you learn the difference between series and
parallel circuits.

a 2. Series Circuits Pages 3-13

You learn about resistance in series circuits and about voltage
drops. You learn about the very important relationship
between the voltage drops in a series circuit and the source
voltage.

a 3. Parallel Circuits Pages 13 -21

You learn how to find the resistance of aparallel circuit and
you study voltage and current in parallel circuits.

a 4. Series-Parallel Circuits Pages 21 -31

You learn how to solve problems involving series parallel
circuit combinations.

D 5. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 31 -36

D 6. Answer the Lesson Questions.

D 7. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

Pli 5M575 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

So far you have been studying rela- only one path through which current
tively simple circuits. However, in can flow. In other words, if a re-
spite of this, you have learned a sistor is connected between the
great deal about electricity. You negative and positive terminals of a
have studied voltage, current and battery, the electrons must leave the
resistance and the units that are negative terminal of the battery, flow
used to measure them. You know through the resistance to the positive
that the units in which current is terminal of the battery and then
measured are the ampere, milli- through the battery back to the nega-
ampere and microampere. The units tive terminal. There is only one path
used to measure voltage are the volt, through which the current can flow.
the millivolt, the microvolt and the There are other series circuits in
kilovolt. The units used to measure addition to a circuit with only one
resistance are the ohm, K-ohm and resistor. A series circuit may have
megohm. You should be familiar with a number of resistors such as the
all these quantities at this time; you circuit shown in Fig. 1. The circuit
should know what they mean and how is called a series circuit, because
to convert from one unit to another. like the simple circuits you have
You have also studied Ohm's Law studied, the parts are connected in
and how it relates voltage, current series so that electrons must flow
and resistance. If you know any two first from the negative terminal of
of these values, you should be able the battery through Ft 1, and then
to use Ohm's Law to find the third. through R2 and finally through R3
So far the circuits that you have back to the positive terminal of the
studied have been relatively simple battery and then through the battery
circuits. In almost all cases they back to the negative terminal. Elec-
have been series circuits. By a trons flow through one part after the
series circuit, we mean that the other, in series. The series circuit
parts are connected so that there is is a very important circuit in elec-

1
 Fig. 2, sometimes you have to find
the effective value of the three re-
sistors in parallel. We will learn

§
how to do both in this lesson and you
will learn how current flow is af-
fected by connecting resistors both
IMO
R2 in series and in parallel. -
In the first section of the lesson
we will go into series circuits in
considerable detail, and then in the
second section we will go into paral-
lel circuits. After we have com-
pleted both series and parallel cir-
Fig. 1. A series circuit. cuits, we will study circuits that are
combinations of both series and
tronics; make sure that you under- parallel circuits. As you may well
stand what is meant by aseries cir- realize, it is extremely important
cuit. that you understand everything
In addition to a series circuit, we covered in series circuits first, and
have what is known as aparallel cir- then what is covered in parallel cir-
cuit, such as is shown in Fig. 2. cuits later. If there are some points
Here we have three resistors con- that give you trouble, be sure to
nected in parallel across the battery. restudy the parts of the lesson you
We say that they are in parallel be- are in doubt about before going on.
cause there are three parallel paths If you cannot work out the problem
through which current from the bat- yourself, be sure to write to NRI
tery can flow. Electrons leaving the and get additional help. If you do not
negative terminal of the battery can master series circuits you will have
flow through either R1, R2, or R3 trouble with parallel circuits. If you
and then back to the positive ter- leave some points unclear in parallel
minal of the battery and through the circuits, then when you go on to study
battery back to the negative ter- combinations of series and parallel
minal. circuits you will have difficulty with
In this lesson you are going to
study both series and parallel cir-
cuits. Both are important in elec-
tronics. Many circuits found in elec-
tronic equipment are series cir-
cuits; many circuits are parallel
circuits. Some circuits are combi-
nations of both series and parallel
circuits.
When resistors are connected in
series, such as in Fig. 1, you some-
times need to find the total resist-
ance of the resistors. Similarly when
they are connected in parallel as in Fig. 2. A parallel cireuit.

2
 them. Learning electronics is sim- Be sure you can answer the self-
ply a matter of taking one simple test questions at the end of each sec-
circuit at a time, learning how it tion. These questions will test you
works and then building on that on each section, and they are agood
knowledge. If you miss some of the indication of whether or not you have
basic fundamentals, you will have mastered the material covered.
difficulty with more advanced cir- Now, let us go ahead and study series
cuits. circuits.

Series Circuits
A series circuit is a circuit in that in Fig. 3 we have given the bat-
which there is only one path for tery a voltage of 15 volts and given
electrons to flow. In a series cir- each resistor a definite value. When
cuit, such as we saw in Fig. 1, the the resistors are connected in series
current flowing is the same at all in this way, each resistor opposes
parts in the circuit. In other words, the flow of current in the circuit.
the current flowing through R1 is The total opposition to current flow
equal to the current flowing through will be equal to the sum of the re-
R2; equal to the current flowing sistances of the individual resis-
through R3 and equal to the current tors. Thus, when resistors are con-
supplied by the battery. The leads nected in series, we can say that
or conductors connecting the resis- their total resistance is equal to the
tors and batteries together are also sum of the resistances. In this par-
carrying the same current as is ticular case we can express this
flowing through the resistors. This mathematically as:
is one of the important things you
should remember about aseries cir- RT = R1 + Rg + R3

cuit. There is only one path for elec-

trons to flow, and the current flow This formula can be used for find-
in the circuit must be the same at
all points in the circuit.
When we have resistors connected
in a circuit such as in Fig. 1, we
say that the resistors are connected
• in series. Now, let us see what ef- R2z. §
fect these resistors connected in
series have on the current flow in
the circuit.

RESISTORS IN SERIES

In Fig. 3 we have shown a circuit

that is identical to Fig. 1, except Fig. 3. tseries eireuit.

3
mg the resistance of any number of A somewhat more difficult example
resistors connected in series. The of a series circuit is shown in Fig.
total resistance is always equal to 4. However, this should not cause
the sum of the individual resistors. any more difficulty in finding the
Thus if you have five resistors con- total resistance in the circuit than
nected in series and want to know the example in Fig. 3, nor should it
the total resistance of the five in cause you any more difficulty in
series you simply add the resist- finding the total current flowing in
ances together. Similarly, if there the circuit, if you use the procedures
are ten resistors connected in you learned in the preceding lessons.
series, to find the total opposition The first step in finding the total
to current flow you simply add the
value of the ten resistors together. --j\AA/—l\AA/—

The opposition to current flow in

the circuit will be equal to the total
R5= 3.3K R4=I.2 K
resistance of the resistors in series.
In Fig. 3, the total resistance is:
45 V
RT = 3 + 7 + 5 = 15 ohms I800A§
imm
Therefore, the three resistors con-
nected in series offer the same op-
131=1200.n_ R2= I.5K
position to current flow in the circuit
as a single 15-ohm resistor would
offer.
To find the current that will flow Fig. I..% series circuit with five resistors.
in the circuit you use Ohm's Law.
You use it in the form: current that will flow in this circuit
is to find the total resistance. Todo
E this, you must convert all the re-
I =7
sistance values to ohms. R1 = 1200
ohms. R2 = 1.5K-ohms. To convert
When you have a number of resis- this to ohms you multiply by
tors in series, R becomes the total 1000; thus 1.5 x 1000 = 1500 ohms.
value of these resistors, or RT.In R3 is given as 1800 ohms. R4 is
the circuit shown in Fig. 3, 111 = 15 1.2K-ohms, and again to convert this
ohms, and therefore in this circuit, to ohms you multiply by 1000 and
the total current flow will be: get 1200 ohms. Similarly, R5 which
is 3.3K-ohms is equal to 3300 ohms.
15 Now you simply write down the
I =---= 1amp values of these resistances as shown
15
in Fig. 5, and then add the five values
The example given in Fig. 3 was to get the total resistance in the cir-
comparatively simple, because the cuit.
resistance values were all small and As shown in Fig. 5, the total re-
we did not get involved in any deci- sistance of the five resistors con-
mal divisions in finding the current. nected in series is 9000 ohms. Now,

4
we use Ohm's Law to find the cur- 1200
rent that will flow in the circuit. We 1500
use the form, 1800
1200
E 3300
=—
R 9000
Fig. 5. Total value of the five resistors in
If we substitute the values of 45 volts
Fig. 1
for the voltage, and 9000 ohms for
the resistance, we will see that we To measure dc voltages, you use
immediately are involved with a a de voltmeter. A dc voltmeter has
decimal division. However, you will one terminal marked with a minus
remember from the preceding les- sign and the other terminal marked
son that you could multiply by 1000 with a plus sign. To measure the
and get the current directly in milli- voltage across the battery shown in
amperes. Once you do this the prob- Fig. 6, you connect the minus ter-
lem becomes: minal of the meter to the negative
terminal of the battery and the plus
45 terminal of the meter to the positive
I- 9000 x 1000
terminal of the battery. When you
connect a meter across a 30-volt
and we can cancel three zeros above battery such as shown in Fig. 6, the
and below the division line so that meter pointer will move up the scale
our problem is and indicate a voltage of 30 volts.
Don't worry about how the meter
45
I= works now - we will go into that
9
later. The important point to see
= 5 ma here is that you connect the minus
terminal of the meter to the minus
Any series circuit problem can be terminal of the battery and the plus
solved in the same way. To find the terminal of the meter to the plus
current flowing in the circuit you terminal of the battery.
find the total resistance in the cir- Now looking at Fig. 6, you see that
cuit and then divide this total re-
sistance into the voltage applied.
This will give you the total current
flow in the circuit.

MEASURING VOLTAGES

Voltages are measured by means

of an instrument called avoltmeter.
To measure the voltage across abat-
tery, a generator or a circuit, you
connect the voltmeter directly
across the part where you want to Fig. 6. Measuring voltage in a simple
measure the voltage. series circuit.

5
 i\AA/

15
R2

30 V

R1
15

i\AA,

_
Fig. 7. Measuring voltage across series resistors.

the resistor is connected directly the battery, the meter would indicate
across the battery. Suppose we that the voltage was 30 volts.
wanted to measure the voltage Now, let us look at Fig. 7. Here,
across the resistor, how would we instead of a single 30-ohm resistor,
do it? we have two 15-ohm resistors con-
Since the resistor is connected nected in series across the 30-volt
directly across the battery we would battery. Since the total resistance
actually be reading the battery volt- offered by the two 15-ohm resistors
age if we connect the meter across will be 30 ohms, insofar as the bat-
the resistor. Therefore the meter tery is concerned, the circuit will
must be connected across the re- appear exactly like the one in Fig.
sistor as shown in Fig. 6. The minus 6. If we use Ohm's Law we would
terminal of the meter must be con- find that the current in both cases
nected to the end of the resistor that was 1amp. If we measure the volt-
connects to the negative terminal of age across the battery, we connect
the battery and the plus terminal of the meter across the battery in
the meter must be connected to the exactly the same way as we con-
end of the resistor that connects to nected it in Fig. 6.
the plus terminal of the battery. If we want to measure the voltage
Again, since the meter and resistor across the two resistors in series,
are both connected directly across we would connect the negative ter-

6
minal of the meter to the terminal can find the voltage. You know that
of Ri that connects to the negative the resistance of R1 is 15 ohms and
terminal of the battery and the plus you know that the current flowing
terminal of the meter to the termi- through it is 1 amp. Putting these
nal of Rz that connects to the plus values in Ohm's Law we get:
terminal of the battery. The meter
would indicate 30 volts across the E = IR
two resistors, because once again E = 1 x 15 = 15 volts
we are in effect simply connecting
the meter across the battery. How- In the same way you could calcu-
ever, if the voltage across the two late the voltage across R3 and you
resistors in series is 30 volts, then would find that it is also 15 volts.
it is logical to assume that the volt- However, it is not necessary to do
age across one resistor is only half this because you know that the volt-
this value or 15 volts. Indeed, if we age across the series combination
connect the meter across R1 we of R1 and R2 must be 30 volts since
would find that the voltage is 15 they are connected across the 30-
volts, and if we can connect the me- volt battery, and that if the voltage
ter across Ra we would find that the across one of the resistors is 15
voltage across Ra is 15 volts. volts, the voltage across the other
To measure the voltage across must be 15 volts also. In addition,
one of these resistors, we connect in any circuit where you had equal
the meter as shown. Notice that when resistors and the same current flows
measuring the voltage across RI, the through the resistors, the voltage
minus terminal of the meter must be drops across the resistors must be
connected to the end of the resistor equal.
that connects to the negative termi- We have taken this example one
nal of the battery, and the plus ter- step further in Fig. 8. Here we have
minal of the meter is connected to put three 10-ohm resistors in series
the other end. This indicates that across the 30-volt battery. Once
there is a voltage across R1 having again, you know that the total resist-
a polarity as shown in Fig. 7. To ance in the circuit will be the sum of
measure the voltage across Ra, we the individual resistors, which again
connect the meter with the plus ter- is 30 ohms. Therefore the current
minal to the end of the resistor that flow in the circuit will be 1amp and
connects to the positive terminal of the voltage across each resistor will
the battery and the minus terminal be 10 volts. To measure these volt-
of the meter to the other end of Ra. ages, you connect the meter across
This indicates that the voltage the individual resistors as shown.
across R3 has the polarity shown. Notice that the negative or minus
We know that the current flow in terminal of the meter always con-
this circuit will be 1 amp. We can nects to the end of the resistor
prove that there should be a voltage closest to the negative terminal of
of 15 volts across each of these re- the battery and the positive or plus
sistors by using Ohm's Law. Ohm's terminal of the meter connects to
Law states that if you know the re- the end of the resistor closest to
sistance and current in acircuit you the positive terminal of the battery.
30 V
R2 §
10.n.

Fig. 8. Voltage polarities across three

series resistors are as shown.

Across each resistor there will be resistor, and we refer to the volt-
a voltage, and in this case the volt- age across each resistor as a "volt-
age across each resistor will be 10 age drop".
volts. The voltage across each re- In a series circuit such as the one
sistor will have the polarity shown shown in Fig. 8, the sum of the volt-
on the diagram. age drops will always be equal to the
source voltage. This means that the
VOLTAGE DROP voltage drop across R1, plus the
voltage drop across Re, plus the
In referring to the voltage across voltage drop across R3 will be equal
the resistors in a circuit such as to the battery voltage. This is true
Fig. 8, we say that part of the volt- regardless of what the battery volt-
age is used or dropped across each age is and regardless of the value
resistor. We refer to the voltage of the resistors used in the series
across a resistor as a "voltage circuit. The sum of the voltage drops
drop". It is important that you re- in a series circuit will always be
member this term, since we willuse equal to the source voltage.
it over and over again. We say that Sometimes we have occasion to
the voltage is "dropped" across a trace through a series circuit such

8
as the one shown in Fig. 8 and re- tant rule or law in electronics known
cord the voltages across the indi- as Kirchhoff's Law. It states that
vidual parts in the circuit. Let us do the sum of the voltages in a closed
this starting at the minus terminal circuit is 0. In other words, when
of the battery. The first part we you trace around a complete series
come to is R1 and the voltage across circuit such as is shown in Fig. 8,
R1 is 10 volts. Now the question be- and add the voltages with the proper
comes, should we write this as minus polarity, the sum of these voltages
10 volts or plus 10 volts? In tracing will be 0. This is essentially the
through the series circuit, we trace same as the statement that the sum
from the minus end of R1 to the plus of the voltage drops in the circuit
end. Let us say that all voltage en- will be equal to the source voltage.
countered tracing from minus to plus We have gone through both state-
will be indicated as positive volt- ments even though they are essen-
ages. Therefore the voltage drop tially the same, because you will
across R1 is + 10 volts. Now we run into both in your studies of elec-
come to Ra, and the voltage across tronics and it's important that you
it is also 10 volts. Since we are know what they mean and know that
tracing from the minus end of the they are really saying the same
resistor to the plus end we indicate thing.
the voltage across this resistor as Knowing that the sum of the volt-
+ 10 volts too. Next, we come to R3 age drops in aseries circuit is equal
and the voltage across it is 10 volts to the source voltage will enable you
and we are tracing it in the same to find the voltage across aresistor
way, from the minus end of the re- in an example such as the one shown
sistor to the plus end so we indicate in Fig. 9. Here you are given the
this voltage as + 10 volts. Now as we
continue to trace through the circuit R5 + R4
we come to the positive terminal of - -
the battery. Now we trace through
the battery from the positive ter- 10V 8V
minal to the minus terminal - in
other words we are tracing through
the battery in the opposite direction
from which we traced through the 3
resistors. Therefore since we have 60v
called the other voltages plus volt-
ages, we must indicate this as -30
volts. Now if we add the voltages
around the circuit we have
IOV I5V
+ 10 volts + 10 volts + 10 volts - 30
volts = +-
R1 R2
+ 30 volts - 30 volts =
Fig. 9. The voltage across 11 3 can be found
This brings us to another impor— in the above circuit.

9
source voltage as 60 volts. You are to get at the particular part across
given the voltage across four of the which you want to measure the volt-
resistors and want to find the volt- age, you can measure the source
age across R3. You know that the voltage across this part and a num-
sum of the voltage drops across the ber of other parts in series. Then
five resistors must be equal to 60 if you can measure the voltage drop
volts. So you add the voltage drops across the other parts and subtract
that are known across the four re- these voltage drops from the source
sistors. This will give you voltage, you can determine what the
voltage drop is across the part in
10 + 15 + 8 + 10 = 43 volts which you are interested. Being alert
to such simple things as this is often
Since the sum of the five voltage what makes the difference between
drops must be equal to 60 volts and an expert technician who is able to
the voltage drops across the four get at the source of trouble in apiece
resistors total 43 volts, then you of equipment quickly, and a tech-
know that the voltage drop across R3 nician who sort of blunders around
must be equal to 17 volts. trying first one thing and then the
Being able to work simple prob- other, servicing more or less by a
lems like this in series circuits will hit-and-miss procedure.
be helpful to you. In some electronic
TUBE AND TRANSISTOR
equipment parts may be buried in
such a way that it is practically im- CIRCUITS
possible to get at them with a volt- Often vacuum tube and transistor
meter. You might want to measure circuits are simple series circuits.
the voltage across such a part. In Fig. 10, we have shown two ex-
Sometimes, while it is impossible amples of such circuits. Looking at

o
Fig. 10. A series tube circuit is shown at A; aseries transistor circuit at B.

10
Fig. 10A first, here we see a triode the performance of the circuit, we
vacuum tube. Some of the parts that will find that the sum of these volt-
are normally found in the circuit age drops is equal to the battery
have been omitted for simplicity. voltage.
The circuit that we are interested In Fig. 10B, we have shown atran-
in is the series circuit made up of sistor circuit. We have also left out
the battery, R1, the tube and Ra. some of the parts in this circuit to
Electrons leave the negative termi- simplify it. The series circuit we
nal of the battery and flow through are interested in consists of RI,the
R1 to the cathode of the triode tube. transistor, R2 and the battery. In
We use the letter k to designate the this circuit, electrons leave the
cathode. The cathode is heated to a negative terminal of the battery and
red heat by the heater inside the flow through R1 to the emitter
cathode. (We have not shown the (marked e) of the transistor. Here
heater on the diagram because it is they flow from the emitter to the
not part of the series circuit in which base (marked b), and from the base
we are interested.) The electrons to the collector (marked c), and from
fly off the heated cathode and travel the collector through Rg back to the
over to the plate of the tube. From positive terminal of the battery, and
the plate the electrons flow through through the battery back to the nega-
Ra back to the positive terminal of tive terminal. We have a series of
the battery and through the battery voltage drops around the circuit as
back to the negative terminal. Thus shown by the polarities marked on
we have a series circuit consisting the diagram. Again, we can measure
of R1,the vacuum tube, R2 and the the voltage drop across R1,the volt-
battery. Across each of these parts age drop between the emitter and
there will be a voltage drop. The collector of the transistor and the
voltage drop across R1 will have voltage drop across Ra, and the sum
the polarity shown; the end that con- of these three voltage drops will be
nects to the negative terminal of the equal to the battery voltage.
battery will be negative and the end These simple series circuits are
of the resistor that connects to the typical of the series circuits you will
cathode of the tube will be positive. find in all types of electronic equip-
There will be avoltage drop between ment. You will find that the current
the cathode and the plate of the tube; flowing through these simple cir-
the cathode will be negative and the cuits is extremely important. The
plate positive. There will be a volt- generator connected between the
age drop across R2, the end of the grid and ground of the tube circuit
resistor that connects to the plate and between the base and ground in
of the tube will be negative, and the the transistor circuit causes the
end that connects to the positive current through these circuits to
side of the battery will be positive. vary, and this varying current is
By using a de voltmeter and con- what makes it possible for the tube
necting it with the proper polarity and the transistor to amplify the
we can actually measure these volt- signal. The generator in each case
age drops, and if we use the right is representing a small signal in-
kind of meter so it will not upset put, such as might be obtained from

11
a microphone or from a preceding If there are any parts of the pre-
stage. An amplified signal will ap- ceding section that are not clear to
pear across R2 in each case. We you, it would be worthwhile to go
will go into detail on how these de- over the entire section again, before
vices amplify later. The important trying the self-test questions. These
thing for you to see at this time is early lessons are the most impor-
the simple series circuits involved tant lessons in your course. A thor-
and to realize how important it is ough understanding of basic circuits
that you are able to recognize series will help you all the way through
circuits and remember the im- your course; it will make later les-
portant facts about them. sons comparatively easy. On the
other hand, if you do not understand
SUMMARY these basic circuits, then you will
Series circuits are extremely im- have difficulty all the way through
portant; you will find all kinds of your course. After you have
them in electronic equipment. You mastered the material covered in
must be able to recognize a series this section answer the self-test
circuit. It is a circuit inwhich elec- questions. If you find that you cannot
trons leave the negative terminal answer one of the self-test ques-
of the voltage source and flow tions, don't hesitate to go back and
through a number of parts, one after review. These questions are put in
the other, to the positive side of the the lesson to help you determine
voltage source and through the volt- whether or not you know as much
age source back to the negative ter- as you should about the section. By
minal. going back and finding the answer
Remember what is meant by a to a self-test question that you can-
voltage drop. It is the voltage that not answer, you will be reviewing
appears across any part in a series a part of the lesson that is not clear
circuit. You must also be able to to you. This will help you master
indicate the polarity of the voltage the important parts of the lesson.
drop across a part. The end of the
part that is closest to the negative SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
terminal of the voltage source will
be negative, and the end of the part (a) What is a series circuit?
that is closest to the positive ter- (3) How do you connect a dc volt-
minal of the voltage source will be meter to a battery to measure
positive. the battery voltage?
Remember the two important (c) Draw a simple series circuit
rules about the voltages in a series consisting of abattery and three
circuit. The sum of the voltage drops resistors. Label the resistor
in a series circuit is equal to the that connects to the negative
source voltage. Another way of ex- terminal of the battery R I ,and
pressing the same rule is that if the resistor that connects to the
you add the voltages with the correct positive terminal of the battery
polarity, the sum of the voltages R3. Label the resistor between
around a series circuit will be equal R 1 and R3, R2.

to O. (d) Indicate the polarity of the volt-

12
 age drops across the resistors age drop across R1 is 3 volts,
in the series circuit you have the voltage drop across Re is
drawn. 125 volts, and the source volt-
(e) If R1 equals 3 ohms, R2 equals age is 250 volts. What is the
4 ohms and R3 equals 5 ohms, voltage between the plate and
what is the total resistance of cathode of the tube?
the three resistors connected (J) In a transistor circuit such as
in series? shown in Fig. 108, the voltage
(f) If the total current flowing in drop across R1 is .2 volts. The
your series circuit is 2 amps, voltage drop across R3 is 3.6.
find the voltage drop across volts. The battery voltage is 6
each of the three resistors in volts. What is the voltage drop
the circuit. between the emitter and collec-
(g) What is the source voltage in tor of the transistor?
the series circuit you have (k) Draw a series circuit with a
drawn? battery and five resistors like
(h) In a series circuit in which four the one shown in Fig. 4. R1
resistors are connected across equals 120 ohms, Ra equals 150
a battery, the battery voltage is ohms, R3 equals 180 ohms, R4
35 volts. The voltage drop equals 120 ohms and Rs equals
across one resistor is 5 volts, 330 ohms. The battery voltage
across another resistor it is 7 is 18 volts. Find the total re-
volts, and across a third re- sistance in the circuit and then
sistor it is 10 volts. What is find the current flowing in the
the voltage drop across the circuit, and finally find the volt-
fourth resistor? age drop across each resistor
(i) In a vacuum tube circuit such and label the polarity of the
as shown in Fig. 10A, the volt- voltage drop.

Parallel Circuits
You might think of a parallel cir- paths through which current can
cuit as the opposite of a series cir- flow; if three resistors are con-
cuit. In a series circuit, current nected in parallel then there are
flows through one part after the other three paths through which current
in the circuit. There is only one path can flow, and the current flowing in
for current flow and the current is each path or branch of the circuit
the same in all parts of the circuit. can be different.
In a parallel circuit, adifferent cur- Parallel circuits might seem a
rent can flow through each branch little confusing at first, but actually
of the circuit. If two resistors are they are quite simple even though
connected in parallel there are two there are some important rules

13
6 6.n.

o o
Fig. II. Simple parallel resistor circuits.

which govern their performance. in the circuit. The current that will
Once you learn these rules you will flow in the circuit will depend upon
see that parallel circuits are no the battery voltage, and the net re-
more difficult to understand than sistance of the two resistors con-
series circuits. nected in parallel.
In the preceding section we We can see better what is happen-
learned that when two resistors were ing if we redraw the circuit as shown
connected in series that their total in Fig. 11C. Here we see clearly that
resistance was equal to the sum of each resistor is connected directly
their resistances. We have a some- across the battery. Therefore there
what different situation in parallel will be a current path from the nega-
circuits, so let us see exactly what tive terminal of the battery to the
happens. first 6-ohm resistor, through this
resistor, and back to the positive
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL terminal of the battery. The amount
of current that will flow will depend
Often in electronic equipment two upon the voltage of the battery, and
or more resistors may be connected the resistance of the resistor, which
in parallel. We need to be able to in this case is 6-ohms. There will
find the effective resistance of two be a similar path from the negative
resistors connected in parallel. terminal of the battery and through
In Fig. 11A, we have shown two the second resistor and back to the
6-ohm resistors connected in paral- positive terminal of the battery.
lel. Between terminals 1 and 2 of Since the two resistors are of
these resistors there will be some equal value, for agiven battery volt-
net value of resistance. We can con- age, equal currents will flow through
nect these two resistors in parallel the two resistors. Let us suppose
across a battery as shown in Fig. that the battery voltage is 6volts.
11B, and a certain current will flow Then, the current flowing through

14
either of the 6-ohm resistors will simply to make the division easy.
be 1amp. This means that the total We could select any voltage; the cur-
current flowing in the circuit will be rent through each resistor would be
2 amps, lamp through each resistor. different, but the result will always
Now, since we know the battery be the same. For example, suppose
voltage and the total current flowing, we select a battery voltage of 18
we can substitute these values in volts. Then, from Ohm's Law, the
Ohm's Law and find the effective re- current through each resistor will
sistance in the circuit. Using be three amps, and therefore the
total current flowing in the circuit
E
R =7- will be 6amps. When we substitute
these values into Ohm's Law we find
that once again the total resistance
R =-
6 = 3 ohms in the circuit is 3 ohms. Selecting
2
a voltage like this is an easy way of
Thus the resistance of two 6-ohm finding the resistance of two resis-
resistors connected in parallel is tors connected in parallel: there is
3 ohms - notice that it is one half another method that can be used
the resistance of either resistor. which we will show you later.
You can set up other examples of You can use the same procedure
equal resistors connected in paral- in finding the total resistance of two
lel, and you will find that it always unequal resistors connected in
works out that the total resistance parallel. For example, suppose we
of the resistors in parallel is equal have a 4-ohm resistor and an 8-
to one half the resistance of either ohm resistor connected in parallel
resistor. as shown in Fig. 12A. We can sim-
You might wonder about our se- ply set up a simple circuit such as
lecting a voltage of 6 volts to work shown in Fig. 12B and then assume
out this problem. We selected 6volts a convenient battery voltage which

IA

o
Fig. 12. Finding the value of 4n in parallel with 812.

15
in this case might be 8volts. With and now cancelling two zeros above
a voltage of 8 volts, a current of 2 the division line and two zeros below
amps will flow through the 4-ohm the division line, we have
resistor and a current of lamp, will
flow through the 8-ohm resistor. ph. 19200
- 32 - 600 ohms
Therefore the total current flow in
the circuit will be 3 amps. Now to
find the total resistance we divide Often you will have more than two
3 amps into 8volts and get 2.67 ohms. resistors connected in parallel and
In the examples shown in Figs. 11 want to find the total resistance of
and 12, it was easy to pick avoltage the group. In Fig.13A we have shown
into which the resistance values can three resistors in parallel. In Fig.
be divided to give convenient values 13B we have shown them connected
of current. Sometimes this is not so across a battery. If we assume a
easy and then we use another method battery voltage of 24 volts, then we
of finding the value of resistors con- will get a whole number for the cur-
nected in parallel. We use the for- rent flowing through each resistor.
mula The current through the 6-ohm re-
sistor would be 4 amps, the current
R1 X Ra
Rt - Ri Ra through the 8-ohm resistor would be
3 amps, and the current through the
This formula states that the total 12-ohm resistor would be 2 amps.
resistance of two resistors con- This will give us a total current of
nected in parallel is equal to the 9 amps. Now using Ohm's Law we
product of the resistance of the two
can find the total resistance
resistors divided by the sum of the
resistance of the two resistors. E
R =—
For example, using the two 6- I
ohm resistors that we used in Fig.
24
11, in this formula we get R =— = 2.666+ ohms
9
6x6
Rt -6+6 which we round off to 2.7 ohms.
Another way to find the total re-
sistance of three resistors in paral-
Rt = 36 3 ohms lel is to use the formula first for
two of the group, finding the paral-
This formula is particularly use-
lel resistance, and then using the
ful in finding the value of larger re-
formula again with the result and
sistors. For example, find the value
the third resistor in parallel with
of 2400 ohms in parallel with 800
the parallel resistance of the first
ohms. Substituting these values in
two resistors.
the formula we get
In the example, if we find the re-
_ 2400 x 800 sistance of the 6-ohm and 12-ohm
In 2400 + 800 resistor in parallel first, we will
have less work to do with fractions.
1920000 Using the formula, we find that 6
- 3200 ohms in parallel with 12 ohms is

16
 Fig. 13. A parallel circuit with three current paths.

6 X 12 when you get the answer to the value

Rt - 6 +
12 of these four resistors in parallel,
find the value of the four of them in
72 parallel with R5 .When working out
Rt =-
18 = 4 ohms
a problem of this type, sometimes
it is worthwhile to look for groups
Thus the value of a 6-ohm resistor that will work out in even numbers
in parallel with a 12-ohm resistor before starting the problem, and this
is 4 ohms. Now we find the value of will save some work. For example,
4 ohms in parallel with 8ohms, which look at the five resistors in parallel
we did previously and we find in Fig. 14.
4 x8 In this example, if we group to-
gether R and R2 we get
Rt -4 +8

pp 32 12 X 24
= 2.666+ ohms - 12 + 24
= 12 Rt

Again we round it to 2.7 ohms. 288

Rt ---= 8 ohms
If you have four or five resistors 36
connected in parallel you can use the
same formula, simply grouping them Therefore we can consider Ri and
together in pairs and then substi- Re as a single 8-ohm resistor. Now
tuting the parallel resistance in the notice that the value of R4 is 8ohms,
formula. For example, in the case of so let us consider the parallel com-
five resistors you might find the val- bination of R1 and R2 which is equal
ue of Ri and R2 in parallel and then to 8 ohms, with R4.We can use the
the value of Re and R4 in parallel. formula to find the value, but if we
Next, find the parallel resistance of remember that the value of equal
the Ri-R 2 combination in parallel resistors in parallel is equal to one
with the R3-R 4 combination, and half the resistance of either resistor

17
 L5 Ô1
fr' z <

R I
12n

Fig. 14. Five resistors in parallel.

we know immediately that the paral- answer of 1.5 ohms.

lel combination is equal to 4 ohms. Before leaving this section on re-
Now we consider the parallel com- sistors in parallel, there are a few
bination of R1, R2 and Rg as asingle other important points that you
4-ohm resistor. We now find the should notice.
value of it in parallel with R5, which Notice that in each of the examples
is also a 4-ohm resistor, and we given in Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14 the
know immediately that the value of total resistance of the resistors in
this combination is 2 ohms. Now we parallel is less than the resistance
know that R1, Ra, Rg and R5 in of the smallest resistor. This is al-
parallel have aresistance of 2ohms. ways true in a parallel circuit.
Now all we need to do is find the Whenever you connect two or more
value of 2 ohms in parallel with R3, resistors in parallel, the resistance
which is 6 ohms, and we use the of the parallel combination will al-
formula to do this. ways be less than the resistance of
the smallest resistor, regardless of
6 x2 the value of the resistors connected
Rt -6 +2 in parallel.
If you look back at Fig. 11 you can
see why this is so. You know from
Rt =a.= 1.5 ohms
8 Ohm's Law that

E
You can work this problem out by R =—
I
grouping other resistors together
first; try working it out grouping Whenever you connect a resistor
R1 and R3 together first, get the across a battery, a current flows in
value of this combination, and next the circuit and for a given value of
get the value of Ra and Rg in paral- voltage a certain current will flow.
lel. After you have done this decide If the voltage remains constant in the
for yourself which two you should circuit and the current increases,
group together next to make your then the resistance must get
calculation as easy as possible, and smaller. Whenever you connect a
then find the value of this combina- second resistor across a first re-
tion in parallel with the remaining sistor the current increases be-
resistance to see if you getthe same cause there is a second path through

18
which current can flow. Therefore found the exact resistance of the
when you connect two resistors in parallel combination. Keep this in
parallel and the value of E remains mind, because sometimes it will
the same, the value of Iincreases save you some unnecessary work if
and therefore the value of R must you are interested in finding only
get smaller. the approximate resistance of a
Sometimes when two resistors are group of resistors in parallel and
connected in parallel, one resistor do not need to know the exact re-
is so much larger than the other that sistance.
practically all of the current flowing
in the circuit flows through the VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
smaller resistor. For example, if a IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
1000-ohm resistor is connected in In a series circuit, the current is
parallel with a 1-ohm resistor and the same in all parts of the circuit.
the two are connected across a bat- The voltage drop across a part in a
tery, one thousand times as much series circuit depends upon the re-
current will flow through the 1-ohm sistance of the part.
resistor as through the 1000-ohm In a parallel circuit we have es-
resistor. The current flowing sentially the opposite situation. In
through the 1000-ohm resistor would a parallel circuit, since the parts
be such a small percentage of the are connected directly across each
total current flow in the circuit that other, the voltage across each part
it could be ignored. For all practi- must be the same. This means that
cal purposes, the total resistance of the voltage across all the parts in a
the two resistors in parallel can be parallel circuit is the same. You
considered as 1 ohm. cannot have two parts connected in
In most electronic circuits exact parallel and have unequal voltages
calculations are not necessary be- across them.
cause most of the parts have a rea- The current that will flow through
sonable tolerance. If we want to get each part in a parallel circuit will
an approximate value of a group of depend upon the voltage applied
resistors connected in parallel, we across the parallel circuit and the
can usually ignore any resistor that resistance of the part. Since each
is more than ten times larger than branch of a parallel circuit can have
the smallest resistor in the circuit. a different resistance, then we can
Thus, if you had a 2-ohm, a 4-ohm have a different current flowing in
and a 50-ohm resistor connected in each branch of the circuit.
parallel and wanted to get the ap- Therefore, you should remember
proximate resistance of the parallel that in a parallel circuit the voltage
combination, you could ignore the will be the same across each part
50-ohm resistor because it is more in the circuit. The current through
than ten times the resistance of the each branch of the circuit will de-
2-ohm resistor. The value of the re- pend on the resistance of the branch.
sistance you would obtain by ignoring The highest current will flow through
this resistor would not differ ap- the branch having the lowest resist-
preciably from the value you would ance and the lowest current will flow
obtain if you did not ignore it and through the branch having the highest

19
resistance. The total current flow- Now answer the self-test ques-
ing in a parallel circuit is equal to tions on this section of the lesson;
the sum of the currents flowing they will be a good review for you.
through the individual branches.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
SUMMARY
Parallel circuits are widely used 1 )What is the total resistance of
(
in electronic equipment and you will two 50-ohm resistors con-
see many examples of them later in nected in parallel?
your course. (m) What is the total resistance of
There are several important a 24-ohm resistor connected in
things you should remember about parallel with a 12-ohm resis-
resistors in parallel. Remember tor?
that when two or more resistors are (n) If a 3-ohm and a 4-ohm resis-
connected in parallel the total re- tor are connected in parallel
sistance of the parallel combination across a 12-volt battery, what
will always be less than the resist- will be the total current flow
ance of the smallest resistor. from the battery, and what will
When two equal value resistors be the total resistance of the
are connected in parallel, the total 3-ohm and 4-ohm resistance
resistance will be equal to one half in parallel?
the resistance of either resistor. (o) If two 8-ohm resistors are con-
If three equal value resistors are nected in parallel with a 1000-
connected in parallel, the total re- ohm resistor, what will be the
sistance will be one third the re- resistance of the parallel com-
sistance of either resistor, and if bination?
four equal value resistors are con- (P) If two resistors, R1 and Ra, are
nected in parallel, the total resist- connected in parallel across a
ance will be one quarter the resist- battery and a current of 1amp
ance of any one resistor. flows through R1 and a current
We can find the resistance of two of 2 amps flows through Ra,
resistors connected in parallel by which is the larger resistor?
using the formula How much larger is it than the
other resistor?
R1 X Ra (q) If a 5-ohm resistor and a 10-
Rt — Ri + R2
ohm resistor are connected in
parallel across a battery, and
In a parallel circuit the voltage the current through the 5-ohm
across all branches of the parallel resistor is 2 amps, find the
circuit will be equal. The current voltage across the 10-ohm re-
flow in each branch of the circuit sistor and the current that will
will depend upon the resistance of flow through it. What is the total
the circuit, the highest current will current flowing in the circuit?
flow through the lowest resistance What is the battery voltage?
branch, and the lowest current will (r) Complete the following state-
flow through the highest resistance ment: in a parallel circuit, the
branch. voltages across all branches of

20
 the parallel circuit will be branch. The largest current
will flow through the branch
(s) In a parallel circuit, the cur- having the resistance,
rent through each branch of a and the smallest current will
parallel circuit will depend flow through the branch having
upon of the the resistance.

Series-Parallel Circuits
In radio and television transmit- through R2 and part of it can flow
ters and receivers as well as in all through R3. The exact percentage
types of electronic control devices of the current that will flow through
you will find many series circuits each resistor will depend upon their
and many parallel circuits. How- relative size. If the resistors are
ever, in addition to these two types equal, half the current will flow
of circuits you will find many cir- through R2 and half of it will flow
cuits that are combinations of series through R3. On the other hand, if one
and parallel circuits. These types of the resistors is much larger than
of circuits are called series-paral- the other, most of the current will
lel circuits. flow through the smaller resistor
An example of a series-parallel and only a small percentage of the
circuit is shown in Fig. 15. In this current will flow through the larger
circuit, the two resistors, R2 and resistor.
R3, are connected in parallel. Any The two parallel resistors R2 and
current flowing in the circuit, when R3 are connected in series with the
it reaches the junction of R3 and R3 resistor R1 and with the battery.
has two paths through which it can Thus, part of the circuit is asimple
flow. Part of the current can flow series circuit and part of it is a
parallel circuit.
In a circuit of this type, electrons
leave the negative terminal of the
battery and flow through the resistor
RI. The current divides after it
flows through RI, and part flows
3 through R2 and part flows through
R3. Then the current joins at the

junction of the two resistors and

flows back to the positive terminal
of the battery and through the bat-
tery back to the negative terminal.
In solving for values of current,
voltage and resistance in a series-
Fig. 15. A series-parallel circuit. parallel circuit, we use the rules

21
 R3 =24

Fig. 16. A series-parallel circuit.

that apply to a series circuit for the there is in the circuit limiting the
series part of the circuit, and the current flow from the battery.
rules that apply to a parallel circuit To find the total resistance of a
for the parallel part of the circuit. series-parallel circuit of this type,
Actually, it is no more difficult to the first step is to find the resist-
work with this type of circuit and ance of the parallel branch. To do
find voltages, current etc., than it this, we use the formula
is with a simple series or a simple R3 X R 3
parallel circuit. However, there is Rn
Ra + R3
a certain order in which you must
proceed when working with circuits and we substitute the values of 12
of this type. Once you become fa- ohms for R3 and 24 ohms for R3 and
miliar with this type of circuit, you get
will see that it is not as complicated 12 X 24
Rn
as it might look, and also learning 12 + 24
about series-parallel circuits will
make simple series and simple 288 n
oOwns
parallel circuits that much easier P 36
for you. Now, we know that the total re-
Now let us go ahead and study this sistance of R2 in parallel with R3
type of circuit in detail. is 8 ohms. Insofar as the circuit is
concerned, these two resistors could
RESISTANCE IN be replaced by a single 8-ohm re-
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS sistor, as shown in Fig. 17. Notice
In Fig. 16 we have shown aseries- the symbol we have used to indicate
parallel circuit similar to the one R2 in parallel with R3. The two

shown in Fig. 15. In this example, parallel lines between R2 and R3

RI,which is called a series resis- mean "in parallel with".
tor, is equal to 10 ohms. R2 and R3 Once we replace the parallel com-
are called the parallel resistors. bination of R2 and R3 with the equiv-
R2 has a resistance of 12 ohms and alent resistance, we have a simple
R3 has aresistance of 24 ohms. Now, series circuit. As you will remem-
we want to find the total resistance ber, the total resistance of a series
in the circuit. In other words, we circuit is equal to the sum of the
want to find out how much resistance individual resistances. In this case,

22
the total resistance will be 10 + 8 =
18 ohms. This is the total resistance
of the equivalent circuit shown in
Fig. 17, and it is also the total re-
sistance seen by the battery in the
series-parallel circuit shown in Fig.
16. MIR
§ R211R3=8-a.
So far the circuits we have been
dealing with have been very simple
series-parallel circuits. In some
R =10.rt.
circuits we will have several series
resistors and several parallel
branches. The parallel branches Fig. 17. Series equivalent of circuit of
may consist of any number of re- Fig. 15.
sistors. A more complicated series-
parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 18. by single series resistors and then
To find the total resistance seen by find the total series resistance. Now
the battery in this circuit, we will let us go through this problem step
use exactly the same method as we by step.
used to find the total resistance in Notice that in the circuit shown
the circuit shown in Fig. 16. The in Fig. 18 we have two series re-
first thing we will do is find the sistors, R1 and Rs.We also have
effective resistance of the parallel two parallel branches. One parallel
branches and then redraw the cir- branch is made up of the three re-
cuit replacing the parallel branches sistors R2 ,R3 and R4,and the other

R7=611.

R5= 4.n_

R6=12..n.

R2=6_n_ 4' 6 -n-

Fig. 18. A series-parallel circuit

with two series resistors and two
Wv parallel branches. COPY THIS
CIRCUIT ON A SEPARATE
R 1= 3_n_
SHEET OF PAPER FOR QUICK
REFERENCE.

23
parallel branch is made up of the Now let us go ahead and find the
two resistors R6 and R7. value of the 12-ohm and 6-ohm re-
Our first step in solving this prob- sistors in parallel. Again, using our
lem is to find the resistance of the formula we get
parallel branches. Let us take the 12X6
Rt -
branch made up of the three resis- 12 + 6
tors first. If you will remember
from the preceding section, we men-
lit = —
72 = 4 ohms
tioned that when two equal value re- 18
sistors are connected in parallel, Therefore R6 and R7 can be replaced
the total resistance is equal to one by a single 4-ohm resistor without
half the resistance of either resis- affecting the total resistance of the
tor. When three equal value resis- circuit.
tors are connected in parallel the Now we can redraw the circuit
total resistance is one third the value shown in Fig. 18 as we have redrawn
of one of the resistors. From this it in Fig. 19. In place of the three
we know immediately that the total parallel resistors we have inserted
resistance of the three six-ohm re- a single 2-ohm resistor, and in place
sistors in parallel is 2 ohms. of resistors R6 and R7 we have in-
However, you might not remem- serted a 4-ohm resistor. Now we
ber this rule, or the resistors might have a simple series circuit, and to
not be of equal values. In this case get the total resistance of the cir-
you simply use the formula and find cuit we simply add the resistance of
the resistance of two of the resistors the individual resistors. Therefore
in parallel. This would give you the total resistance in the circuit is

6x6 Rt = 3 +2 + 4 + 4 = 13 ohms
R =
6+6
This same procedure can be used
for solving any series-parallel cir-
36
R =--= 3 ohms cuit configuration. In fact, the cir-
12
cuit shown in Fig. 18 could consist
Now this gives you the value of two of four parallel branches in series.
of the resistors in parallel and you There could be aresistor in parallel
combine this value with the remain- with R1 and another resistor in
ing resistor to get the total resist- parallel with Rs. In this case you
ance of the combination. Thus would have a series circuit made
3x6
Rt -3+6

18
Ht =—= 2 ohms
9
Therefore the resistance of the
parallel branch made up of the three
6-ohm resistors is 2 ohms. As far
as the circuit is concerned, we can
replace these three resistors by a Fig. 19. Series equivalent of circuit of
single 2-ohm resistor. Fig. 18.

24
up of four parallel branches con- and substituting 78 volts for E and
nected in series. To solve a circuit 13 ohms for R we have
of this type you use the same pro-
cedure. Find the total resistance of
78
each parallel branch, and then draw I =—
13 = 6 amps
the equivalent circuit as we did in
Fig. 19 and then total the resistance
of the parallel branches to get the This means that the current leaving
total resistance in the circuit. the negative terminal of the battery
Now let us see how the current is 6 amps. Since R1 is in series with
behaves in aseries-parallel circuit. the battery, the current flowing
through R1 must also be 6 amps.
CURRENT IN
The current flowing through the
SERIES-
PARALLEL CIRCUITS parallel combination of R2 ,R3 and
In a series-parallel circuit such R4 must also be 6 amps. However,
as shown in Fig. 18, the current there are three paths here through
must be the same in every series which the current can flow. Since
part of the circuit. By this we mean the three resistors are of equal
that a certain current leaves the value, then one third of the current
negative terminal of the battery and will flow through each branch. This
flows through R I. Then the current means that 2 amps will flow through
reaches the parallel combination of R2 ,2 amps through R3 and 2 amps
R2 , R3 and 11. 4. The total current through R4.
flowing through this parallel com- The current reaching R6 must
bination must be equal to the cur- flow through this resistor and since
rent leaving the negative terminal the series current is 6 amps, the
of the battery and the current flow- current flow through 11 6 must be
ing through R1.The same current 6 amps.
must flow through Rs and the same R6 and R7 form aparallel branch.
current must flow through the paral- Part of the current will flow through
lel combination of R6 and RY. R6 and part of it will flow through
To help us see better what is Since R6 is twice the value of
happening to the current in the cir- R7, then the current flow through
cuit, let's assume that the battery Re,will be only half the current flow-
voltage in Fig. 18 is 78 volts. We ing through Ry. This means that one
picked this value because it will third of the current will flow through
enable us to avoid any decimal Rs and two thirds of it will flow
divisions. through R7 Therefore the current
We have already found that the flow through Ri3 will be 2 amps, and
total resistance of the circuit - that the current flow through R7 will be
is, the resistance that the battery 4 amps. The current flowing into
sees - is 13 ohms. Therefore, we the positive terminal of the battery
can use this to find the current that will be 6 amps, and the current flow
will flow in the circuit. Using the through the battery itself from the
formula positive terminal to the negative
, E terminal will also be 6 amps.
=—
R Now notice how this circuit has

25
obeyed the laws set down both for through this part of the series cir-
series circuits and for parallel cir- cuit.
cuits. We stated that in a series Now that we have looked into re-
circuit, the current is the same in sistance and current in series-
all parts of the circuit. R1 is a part parallel circuits, let us see what
of the series circuit and the current happens to the voltage in these cir-
through it is 6 amps. R2 , R3 and cuits.
R4 in parallel form a part of the
series circuit and the current
VOLTAGE IN
through the three in parallel is 6 SERIES- PARALLEL CIRCUITS
amps. The current divides because
there are three paths, bot the total You will remember that in aseries
current flowing through the three circuit, the sum of the voltage drops
paths is 6 amps. R6 does not have across the branches of the series
any other resistors in parallel with circuit is equal to the applied volt-
it and therefore the entire current age. You will also remember, that
of 6 amps flows through it. R6 and in a parallel circuit you have the
Rry in parallel form a part of the same voltage across all the parts
series circuit and the total current in parallel. Now let us see what
flowing through the two of them is happens in aseries-parallel circuit.
6 amps; part of it flows through R6 Let's use the circuit in Fig. 18 so
and part of it through R7. The en- we don't have to figure out the total
tire 6 amps also flows through the resistance again, and once again
battery. Thus we can say that the let's assume that the battery voltage
current flow in each part of this is 78 volts. We know that this will
series circuit is 6 amps. cause a current of 6 amps to flow in
The current flow also obeys the the circuit.
law of parallel circuits. Whenever With a current of 6 amps flowing
the current reaches a parallel through RI,we can find the voltage
branch it divides, and part of it flows drop across it. We will refer to this
through each branch of the circuit. voltage as El,the voltage across
Since R2 , R3 and R4 are of equal R3 as E2 and so on.
value, the same current flows
through each of the three resistors. El = 6 x 3 = 18 volts
In this case, 2 amps flow through
each resistor so that the total cur- We know that the current flowing
rent flowing in this part of the series through R2 is 2 amps, and usingthis
circuit is 6 amps. In the case of 11,3 we can find the voltage across R3 .
and R., in parallel, the current again
divides and flows through the two E2 = 2 x 6 = 12 volts
resistors in proportion to their re-
sistance. R6 is twice the resistance Since R2 = R3 = R4,and the current
of Rry and therefore only half as flowing through each of these re-
much current flows through R6 as sistors is 2 amps, they must have
Rry •2 amps flow through R6 and 4 the same voltage drop across each
amps through Rry. This gives us a of the resistors. This bears out what
total current of 6 amps, once again we have said before about parts con-

26
nected in parallel - the voltage drop The series-parallel circuit thus
across them must be the same. obeys the law we stated for the volt-
If we stop here and look at Fig. 19, age drops in a series circuit. The
we see that we found the equivalent sum of the voltage drops across each
resistance of R2, Rs and R4 con- of the series branches in a series-
nected in parallel was 2 ohms. In parallel circuit is equal to the source
this circuit, the current flowing voltage. The voltage drop across
through this equivalent resistance is each of the parts in aparallel branch
6 amps, and the voltage across it is equal. Thus we can see that the
will be 12 volts. Therefore we see rules we have set up for voltages
that no matter which way we work, in series and in parallel circuits
either using the total current across apply also to series-parallel cir-
the equivalent resistance or the cuits.
actual current through one branch of Now, if you plan to become aradio-
the parallel circuit, we should get TV service technician, this is as far
the same value of voltage across the as you have to go with series-paral-
parallel circuit. lel circuits. However, if you want to
The voltage across Rs will be go ahead and get your FCC license,
or if you plan on working in industry,
Es = 6 x 4 = 24 volts you should be able to solve some
simple problems in series-parallel
The voltage across R6 will be circuits. You will have to solve these
problems to get your FCC license.
E6 = 2 x 12 =24 volts Often when applying for positions in
industry, examinations are given and
We know that the current through frequently these examinations have
Rry is 4 amps and so we can also one or two problems involving solu-
calculate the voltage across this tions of parallel series and series-
resistor to see that we have the parallel circuits. For the technician
same voltage as across Rs. The who wants to get his FCC license or
voltage across R, is wants to work in industry, and for
the radio-TV service technician who
E7 = 4 x 6 = 24 volts
wants to learn more about series-
Now, let us add the voltage drops parallel circuits we will go through
around the circuit to see what the a typical problem in the next sec-
total voltage drop is. The voltage tion. Remember, if your interest is
drop across R1 is 18 volts. The volt- radio-TV servicing only, you do not
age drop across the parallel com- have to go through this section un-
bination of Ra, Ra and R4 is 12 volts. less you want to.
The voltage drop across Rs is 24
PROBLEMS IN
volts and the voltage drop across
the parallel combination of R6 and SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
is also 24 volts. Now adding these In Fig. 20 we have shown aseries-
voltages we will get the total volt- parallel circuit that is only slightly
age drop in the circuit more complicated than the one shown
in Fig. 18. In this circuit you are
Et = 18 + 12 + 24 + 24 = 78 volts given the values of all the resistors

27
 -/VV\f—f\AA,-
R6=3.n..
R8 = R8=
3n

Wv
R7 3.a.

R = R4e Re 30.n_
I
5.n. 6.n.
R1 =27A I=IAMP

Fig. 20. In the series-parallel circuit shown above,

the current through R5 is 1 amp. Find the source
R2 =9.n_
voltage.

and also the information that the cur- is also 30 volts. Now that we know
rent flowing through Rs is 1 amp. the voltage across these two resis-
The problem is to find the source tors, and their value, we can find
voltage. the current flowing through them.
At first glance, you might think We will use 1 3 for the current

that this is impossible, but actually through R3 and 14 for the current
it is not nearly as difficult as it through R4 and so on throughout the
might appear at first. Let us look problem.
at the information we have about
Rs . 30
1
3 =—
15 = 2 amps
We know that the resistance of
Rs is 30 ohms, and that the current
flowing through it is 1 amp. From 30
14 =--= 5 amps
this we can calculate the voltage 6
across Rs using Ohm's Law. We
use the formula Now we know that the current flow-
ing through R3 is 2 amps, through
E = IR R4 is 5 amps, and the current flow-
ing through Rs is 1 amp. Thus the
and for I substitute 1 amp and for total current flowing through the
R, 30 ohms, and we will get three parallel branches is

E = 1 x 30 = 30 volts h = 2 + 5 + 1 = 8amps

Since R3 and R4 are in parallel Since this combination of three

with Rs,this means that the voltage resistors forms one branch in series
across R3 and the voltage across R4 circuit, now we know that the series
current must be 8 amps. We can 27 x 9
R =
immediately calculate the voltage 27 + 9
drop across Re using this informa-
tion. 243
R =—
36 - 6.75 ohms

Ee = 8 x 3 = 24 volts
Now we know that the resistance
of R1 and R3 in parallel is 6.75
Now we know that the voltage drop
ohms and that the current flowing
across Re is 24 volts and the volt-
through the parallel combination is
age drop across the parallel com-
8 amps; we can find the voltage drop
bination of the three resistors is 30
across this combination.
volts. We know that the source volt-
age will be equal to the sum of the
E = 8 x 6.75 = 54 volts
voltage drops around the series cir-
cuit so if we can find the voltage drop
If you noticed that the current
across the parallel combination of
flow through 112 must be 6 amps and
R1 and Re and also the voltage drop
the current flow through R1 must
across the parallel combination of
be 2 amps, then you can use either
Rry in parallel with Re and R 9 , we'll
current flow along with the appro-
be able to find the sum of the volt-
priate resistor to get the voltage
age drops and hence the source volt-
drop across the parallel combina-
age.
tion.
We can find the voltage drop
across the parallel combination of
El = 2 x 27 = 54 volts
R1 and R2 quite easily. Notice that
R1 is three times as large as R2.
and if you use 11 3 in the current
This means that the current flowing
flow through it, you would get
through R2 will be three times the
current flow through R1.In other
Ea = 6 x 9 = 54 volts
words, if the current flow through
R1 is 1 amp, then the current flow Notice that no matter how you work
through R2 would be 3 amps which it out, either finding the total equiv-
would give us a total of 4amps flow- alent resistance and using the total
ing through the two resistors. How- current, or using the resistance of
ever, we know that the total current either branch and the current flow
flow in the circuit is 8amps, there- through it, you always get the same
fore the current flowing through Ry voltage drop across the parallel
must be 6amps and the current flow- combination or R1 and R2.
ing through R1 must be 2 amps. Now all we need to do is find the
Sometimes you can't divide the equivalent resistance of Rry in paral-
current flow this easily, but we can lel with Re and R9 ,and we can find
still find what the voltage drop the voltage drop across this com-
across the two resistors must be by bination. The first step is to find
finding the resistance of the parallel the resistance of Re in series with
combination. To do this, we sub- R 9 . This is simply 3 + 3 = 6 ohms.

stitute the values of R1 and R2 in Now we have a total of 6 ohms in

our parallel formula parallel with 3 ohms; we want to

29
find the resistance of this parallel drop in each branch of the circuit,
combination. Again, we use our for- and the total voltage applied to the
mula for parallel resistors and get circuit. If we wanted to, we could
also add the resistance of the indi-
R - 3x6 vidual branches of the circuit and
3 +6 find the total resistance of the cir-
cuit; or, since we know the total
18 voltage in the circuit we could simply
R =---= 2 ohms
divide this by the current to get the
total resistance in the circuit.
Since the parallel combination of Solving problems of this type are
R7 in parallel with Re and Ra has a really not any more difficult than
resistance of 2 ohms, and the cur- solving simple Ohm's Law prob-
rent flowing through this combina- lems; they are simply longer be-
tion is 8 amps, we can find the volt- cause there are more steps involved.
age drop across the parallel com-
bination SUMMARY

Series-parallel circuits are im-

E = 8 x 2 = 16 volts portant because you will run into
them in all types of electronic equip-
Now we have the voltage drop ment. In a series-parallel circuit
across each branch in the series- you will have a voltage source in
parallel circuit and all we need to do series with a combination of series
is add these voltage drops - they and parallel components. You may
must be equal to the source voltage. have one series branch and one
Therefore the total voltage is equal parallel branch or you may have
to several of each. In the parallel
branches there may be any number
Et = 54 + 30 +24 +16 = 124 volts of components.
In a series-parallel circuit the
This is typical of the problems total current flow is the same in all
involving the series-parallel cir- series branches of the circuit. In
cuits that you might have to work the parallel branches, the sum of
out either on an FCC examination the currents in the individual
or on an examination for employment branches must be equal to the series
in industry. Notice that the problem current flow. The voltage drop
is not difficult; you just start using across all the components in the
Ohm's Law in a part of the circuit parallel branch is the same and the
where you have two of the three voltage drop across the series com-
quantities, E, I or R, and then find ponents will depend upon the resist-
the third. You use this information ance of the component and the total
to learn more about the circuit and current flowing in the circuit.
work one step at a time. In the cir- To find the total resistance in a
cuit shown in Fig. 20 we were able series-parallel circuit, you reduce
to determine the current flowing in the parallel branches to the equiv-
each part of the circuit, the voltage alent series resistance, and then add

30
the series branches with the equiv- if the battery voltage is 48 volts,
alent resistance of the parallel find the voltage drop across
branches. The total current flow in each resistor in the circuit,
the circuit can be determined from and the current flow through
the source voltage divided by the each resistor.
total resistance of the circuit and (N) If in a circuit like the one shown
the voltage drop across individual in Fig. 15, R1 = 5 ohms, Ra =
parts in the circuit can be found by 10 ohms and R3 =10 ohms, what
using Ohm's Law. is the source voltage if the cur-
Solving problems involving se- rent through 11 3 is 1amp.
ries-parallel circuits is simply a (x) Find the total resistance in a
matter of taking one step at a time, series-parallel circuit like the
making simple applications of Ohm 's one shown in Fig. 18 when Ri
Law until the entire circuit is solved. = 5 ohms, Ra , R3 and R4 are
The following self-test questions each equal to 12 ohms, Et s = 6
are designed to help you with series- ohms, R6 = 48 ohms and R7 =
parallel circuits. If you find that you 24 ohms.
are having difficulty with one of the (Y) Complete the following state-
problems, be sure to go back and ment: In a series-parallel cir-
review. Try to work the problem cuit, the current is the
through on your own, but if you find in each series branch of the
you can't, look for help at the back circuit.
of the book - the solutions to the (z) Complete the following state-
problems are given there. If you ment: In a parallel branch of a
have to go to the back of the book series-parallel circuit, the
to try to find out how to do a prob- sum of the currents through the
lem, make sure you understand that branches of the parallel circuit
problem before tackling the next one; is to the total cur-
the chances are that if you will do rent flowing in the series part
this, then you will be able to work of the circuit.
the next problem by yourself.
ANSWERS TO
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
(t) Draw a series-parallel circuit (a) A series circuit is a circuit in
containing a battery and three which the voltage source and the
resistors in which R1 and Ra parts are connected, so that
are in parallel and connected current leaving the negative
to the negative terminal of the terminal of the voltage source
battery, and Ra is a series re- flows through first one part and
sistor and connected to the then another to the positive ter-
positive terminal of the battery. minal of the voltage source and
(u) If R1 = 20 ohms and Ra = 30 then through the source back to
ohms, and R3 = 12 ohms, find the negative terminal.
the total resistance in the cir- (b) To measure the voltage of abat-
cuit. tery with a de voltmeter, you
(v) Using the values of RI,Ra and connect the negative terminal of
R3 for the preceding problem, the voltmeter to the negative

31
 terminal of the battery, and the E = 2 x 12 = 24 volts
positive terminal of the volt-
meter to the positive terminal (h) You know that the sum of the
of the battery. voltage drops in a series
(c) See Fig. 1 and Fig. 3. Either circuit is equal to the source
figure is correct; they are the voltage. In this example, the
same circuit except in Fig. 3 source voltage is 35 volts. The
the resistor values are given. voltage drops across the three
(d) The polarity of the voltage resistors are 5 volts, 7 volts
drops across the resistors is and 10 volts. Adding these three
indicated in Fig. 8. voltage drops, we get 22 volts.
(e) The total resistance in the cir- Therefore the voltage drop
cuit will be equal to the resist- across the remaining resistor
ance of the sum of the resistors. must be 13 volts.
Therefore (i) This problem is exactly the
same as the preceding problem.
Rt = 3 + 4 + 5 = 12 ohms
In a series circuit, the sum of
(f) To find the voltage across any the voltage drops is equal to the
one of the resistors you simply source voltage. The source
use Ohm's Law. You know that voltage is 250 volts, and there-
fore the voltage drops in the
E = IR
series circuit must add up to
You know the value of each of 250 volts. The voltage drop
the resistors and the current across R1 is 3 volts, and the
will be the same through all re- voltage drop across R2 is 125
sistors so you can find the volt- volts. Therefore the sum of the
age drop across each one. voltage drops across R1 and R2
is 128 volts. The remainder of
En = 2 x 3 = 6 volts the 250 volts must be dropped
between the plate and cathode
Er2 = 2 x 4 = 8volts of the vacuum tube. Therefore
the voltage drop across the tube
Er 3 = 2 x 5 = 10 volts must be 122 volts.
)This problem is the same as
(g) You can find the source voltage the preceding problem. The
in two ways. You can add the in- voltage drop across R1 plus
dividual voltage drops you ob- the voltage drop across R2 is
tained in the preceding section equal to 3.8 volts. Since the bat-
and you will find that the source tery voltage is 6 volts, the dif-
voltage is ference, which is 2.2 volts,
must be the voltage dropped be-
6 + 8 + 10 = 24 volts tween the emitter and the col-
You can also get the source lector of the transistor.
voltage from the current times (k) This problem is a review of
the total resistance, which you just about everything you have
found to be 12 ohms. Using this learned about series circuits.
you get To find the total resistance in

32
a series circuit you add the re- 20
sistance of the individual re- E1 -TO-071) )( 120

sistors. Therefore
Notice that we wrote the current
as
Rt = 120 + 150 + 180 + 120 +
330 = 900 ohms. 20
1000
To find the current flowing in The current must be in amperes
the circuit you use Ohm's Law and we convert 20 milliamperes
in the form to amperes by dividing it by
1000. Now continuing with the
E problem,
I=—
R
20 x 120
E1 -
Substituting 18 volts for E and 1000
900 ohms for R we get
2400
E1 -
18 1000
I=
900
24
El = = 2.4 volts
This will involve a decimal di- 10
vision and so we multiply it by
1000 and get our current di- 20
rectly in milliamperes. Thus E2 - 11,101:7 x 150

our problem becomes

3000
000 = 3 volts
18 E2 - -1-7---

I= x 1000
900
20 ,„
E3 - - 0 X 1i•nj
- 18000 100
I
900
3600
E3 -
Now we cancel two zeros above 1000
and below the line and then we
have 36
E3 = = 3.6 volts
10
180
I= = 20 ma
9 E4 = El = 2.4 volts

To find the voltage drop across 20

each of the resistors we use the Es - -J
717:1- >e 330
formula
6600
E = IR Es -
1000
We will refer to the voltage drop
across R1 as Ei and the voltage
Es 10=
= - 6.6 volts
drop across R2 as E2 and soon.
66

33
 Notice that we did not calculate (n) The current flow through each
the voltage across R4. R4 is resistor can be found from Ohm
equal to R1 and since in aseries Law's
circuit the same current flows
through the entire circuit then .,. E
i =—
the voltage drop across R4 must R
be equal to the voltage drop
across R1.Therefore calculat- The current through the 3-ohm
ing the voltage a second time resistor will be
would simply be awaste of time.
As a matter of fact, sometimes
I = 1-
2 = 4 amps
in a problem of this type you 3
can save yourself some work
by looking up the resistor and the current through the 4-
values. For, example, if one ohm resistor will be
resistor happened to be twice
that of the other, you would know
immediately that the voltage 12
I =•••=
4 3 amps
drop across it was twice as high
as the voltage drop across the
first resistor. Similarly if one The total current flow will be
resistor was three times an- the sum of these two currents
other you could expect three or 7 amps. You can use this
times as high a voltage drop value of current and the volt-
across it. age of 12 volts to find the re-
sistance of the two resistors
in parallel,
(1) 25 ohms. The total resistance
of two equal resistors connect- E
R =—
ed in parallel is always one I
half the resistance of either
resistor. 2
R = 1 = 1.7 ohms
(m) 8 ohms. You find the resistance 7
of the two resistors in parallel
by using the formula (o) 4 ohms. The resistance of two
8-ohm resistors in parallel will
R Ri X R2
be 4 ohms, one half the resis-
t- Ftl + R2
tance of either resistor. The
1000-ohm resistor is so large
and substituting 24 ohms and 12 that we can simply ignore it
ohms for R1 and R2 you get because it will not affect the
total resistance of the circuit
24 x 12 appreciably. As a matter of
R t - 24 + 12 fact, if you did consider it and
calculated the value of the three
288 in parallel you would find that
= - 8 ohms
36 the resistance worked out to be

34
 over 3.98 ohms. This is less R3
than two parts in four hundred,
an error which is so small it is
insignificant, and it can be
ignored.
(P) R1 is the larger resistor be-
cause the smaller current flows
through it. Since only half as
much current flows through R1
as through 112, then R1 must be
twice the size of R2.
(q) If the current through the 5-
ohm resistor is 2 amps, then
the voltage across it must be 10
volts. We use Ohm Law's in the
form E = IR to determine this
Fig. 21. Answer to Self-
voltage. Since the two resistors Test Question (t).
are in parallel and connected
across a battery we know that through the branch having the
the battery voltage must be 10 highest resistance.
volts, and the voltage across the (t) See Fig. 21.
10-ohm resistor must be 10 (u) 24 ohms. The total resistance
volts. With 10 volts across the of the parallel combination of
10-ohm resistor, a current of R1 and Ra can be found from the
1 amp will flow through it. We parallel resistor formula.Sub-
would also know that a current stituting these values we get
of 1amp must flow through the
10-ohm resistor since it is 20 x 30
twice the size of the 5-ohm re- Rt - 20 + 30
sistor, and therefore half the
current would flow through it 600
=— = 12 Ohms
that flows through the 5-ohm 50
resistor. The total current This resistance is in series
flowing in the circuit must be with R3, which also has a re-
the sum of the current through sistance of 12 ohms, so the
the two resistors or 3 amps. total resistance in the circuit
(r) In a parallel circuit, the volt- is 24 ohms.
age across all branches of the (v) With a voltage of 48 volts and a
parallel circuit will be equal. total resistance of 24 ohms, the
(s) In aparallel circuit, the current total current flowing in the cir-
through each branch of a par- cuit will be
allel circuit will depend upon
the resistance of the branch. T 48
=
-- = 2 amps
The largest current will flow 24
through the branch having the
lowest resistance, and the This means that the voltage drop
smallest current will flow across Ra will be

35
 E = 2 x 12 = 24 volts find the resistance of Ra, R3
and R4 in parallel and also the
Therefore the voltage drop resistance or R6 and Rry in
across the parallel combination parallel. We can substitute an
of R1 and R2 must also be 24 equivalent for these two paral-
volts. The current through R1 lel groups; then we have asim-
must be ple series circuit and we can
find the total resistance of this
24 circuit simply by adding the in-
I =--= 1.2 amps
dividual resistances.
Since Ra, R3 and R4 are each
The current through R2 must be 12-ohm resistors, then the
total resistance of the three re-
24 sistors in parallel will be one-
I= = .8 amps
30 third the resistance of any one
of the resistances or one-third
(w) 20 volts. If the current through of 12 which is 4 ohms.
Et z is 1amp, and the resistance The resistance of the parallel
of Ra is 10 ohms, thenthe volt- combination of Rg and Rry can
age across Ra must be be found using the parallel re-
sistance formula
E = 1 x 10 = 10 volts
48 x 24
Rt
- = 48 + 24 - 16 ohms
Since Ra and R3 are in paral-
lel, then the same voltage must
be across R3, and therefore the Now substituting 4 ohms for the
same current of lamp will flow parallel combination Ra, R3 and
through it, giving a total cur- R4 and 16 ohms for the paral-

rent of 2 amps through R2 and lel combination of Fig and Rry

R3. This current of 2amps must we have a series resistance
flow through R1 and since R1 circuit. The total resistance of
has a resistance of 5 ohms,the this circuit will be
voltage drop across it must be
Rt = 5 + 4 + 6 + 16 = 31 ohms
E =2 x 5 = 10 volts
(y) In a series-parallel circuit,the
current is the same in each
Since the source voltage in any series branch of the circuit.
circuit is equal to the sum of the (z) In a parallel branch of aseries-
voltage drops around the cir- parallel circuit, the sum of the
cuit, the source voltage in this currents through the branches
case must be 20 volts. of the parallel circuit is equal
(x) The total resistance is 31 ohms. to the total current flowing in
To solve this problem we must the series part of the circuit.

36
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B104-1.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

1. What is the total resistance of three 15-ohm resistors connected in

series?

2. What is the total resistance of three 15-ohm resistors connected in

parallel?

3. A 3-ohm, a 5-ohm and a 4-ohm resistor are connected in series

across a battery. The voltage drop across a3-ohm resistor is 6 volts.
What is the battery voltage?

4. If three resistors are connected in series across a 12-volt battery,

and the voltage drop across one resistor is 3 volts and the voltage
drop across the second resistor is 7volts, what is the voltage drop
across the third resistor?

5. If four resistors are connected in parallel and R1 equals 12 ohms and

R2 equals 9 ohms, R3 equals 24 ohms and R4 equals 18 ohms, what is

the resistance of the parallel combination?

6. R1 and R2 are two resistors of the same value connected in parallel.

This parallel combination is connected in series with R3 ,a 10-ohm
resistor. The series-parallel network is connected to a 15-volt
battery. If the voltage across R3 is 10 volts, what are the values of
R1 and R2 ?

7. If two resistors are connected in parallel,willthe voltage drop across

the two be (1) equal, (2) greater across the larger resistor, (3) greater
across the smaller resistor?

8. Resistors R1 and Ra are connected in parallel. The resistance of R1

is 4 ohms, and the current through it is 2 amps. The current through
Ra is .5 amps. Find the resistance of Ra.

9. Three 6-ohm resistors are connected in parallel. A fourth 6-ohm

resistor is connected in series with the parallel combination. The
series-parallel network is connected to a battery with the free end
of the single 6-ohm resistor going to the positive terminal. Draw a
schematic diagram of the circuit.

10. In the circuit of Question 9, if the battery voltage is 8volts, what

will the voltage across the three parallel-connected resistors be?
 HOW TO CONCENTRATE
The secret of rapid progress with any course of
study lies in being able to concentrate. If your mind
wanders from study while you are alone in a quiet
room, try moving to a noisy room, or try tuning in
an all-musical program on the radio. Stay away from
loud conversations, though.
If noise definitely bothers you, however, do your
studying in a quiet location. If you feel too sleepy to
concentrate, the room may be too hot. Open the
windows, and put on a coat if necessary, for it is
easier to study in a cool room. Sponge your face,
neck and eyes with cold water.
If you have difficulty in understanding a subject,
write down an explanation of it in your own words,
or try outlining the subject and studying your out-
line. Underlining important words as you study is
another aid to learning.
Try different studying techniques, until you find
the one that gives you complete mastery of a subject
in the shortest possible time. The faster you master
each lesson, the sooner you'll complete the Course
and be ready for a good job in electronics.
a
 I

Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-204
 HOW RESISTORS

ARE USED
-1

i_Ij Ijig iI nor] Writ!

B105-1

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

B105-1
 STUDY SCHEDULE
For each study step, read the assigned pages first at your usual
speed, then reread slowly one or more times. Finish with one
quick reading to fix the important facts firmly in your mind.
Study each other step in the same way.

a 1. Introduction Pages 1-4

In this section you learn about the various types of resistors,
and why resistors are important.

D 2. Using Resistors To Reduce Voltage Pages 5-12

You learn how series-dropping resistors are used to reduce
voltage and how a bleeder resistor is used to help keep the
voltage across aload constant.

E 3. Power In Electrical Circuits Pages 13 -19

You study the watt, the unit of electrical power. You learn
about the wattage rating of resistors and about transferring
power from asource to aload.

Li 4. Resistor Values Pages 19 -24

You learn about standard carbon resistor values, resistor
tolerances and the color code used to identify resistors.

a S. Resistors With Special Characteristics Pages 24 -28

You learn about temperature coefficients and study special
types of resistors.

D 6. Meters Pages 28 -36

You learn how a meter works, and how resistors are used to
extend meter ranges and uses.

D 7. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 36 -40

D 8. Answer the Lesson Questions.

D 9. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

JDL3M1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW RESISTORS
ARE USED

This is the first lesson in your nothing more than a group of coils
NRI course that will be devoted al- wound on a single core. If you under-
most entirely to one electronic part stand how a single coil works, then
- resistors. In your next lesson you you will be much better prepared to
will study coils in detail, and in the understand how several of them work
following lesson you will study ca- when used together to make up a
pacitors. These three parts - re- transformer.
sistors, coils and capacitors -along Resistors perform in essentially
with tubes and transistors are the the same way in both ac and de cir-
most important parts in electronic cuits. However, you will find when
equipment. You will find more re- you study coils and capacitors that
sistors in electronic equipment than this is not true of these parts.Actu-
any other part. Therefore it is im- ally, coils and capacitors have little
portant that you learn how they are or no value in dc circuits. They are
used so that you will be able to tell primarily used in ac circuits.
whether or not a particular circuit Therefore, when you study coils and
is working properly, and also so that capacitors, you will be learning
you will be able to select a suitable more about these parts, and we will
replacement for a resistor in acir- also go into more detail about ac
cuit, when a replacement is needed. and how it acts in circuits where
Resistors, coils, and capacitors these parts are present.
are important, not only because they
WHY RESISTORS ARE
are used so often in electronic equip-
IMPORTANT
ment, but also understanding how
these parts work will help you to Resistors are found in practically
understand how other parts work. every piece of electronic equipment.
For example, a transformer is As a technician you will have to re-

1
place many resistors. As we men- There is no end to the uses to
tioned earlier, there are more re- which resistors are put in electronic
sistors used in electronic equipment equipment, and therefore it is ex-
than any other parts. tremely important that you under-
Sometimes when you have to re- stand how they are used.
place a resistor you will be able to
refer to the schematic diagram of the TYPES OF RESISTORS
equipment, find the value of the re-
sistor and simply go ahead and in- You already know that there are
stall a new resistor in the circuit. several types of resistors used in
However, you will find that on many electronic equipment. The most fre-
occasions you will have to work on quently encountered resistor is the
electronic equipment for which there carbon resistor, which as we men-
is no diagram available and the tioned before is simply a carbon
original resistor may have been compound which is held together by
burned so badly that you will be un- a cement-type of binder. Carbon re-
able to tell what its value was.Then, sistorre
_ made
_ chiefly in 1/2-iii.tt,
you will have to fall back on your 1-watt and 2-watt sizes. Occasion-
knowledge of electronic circuits to ally you will run into very small
decide what size resistor to use. carbon resistors that are 1/3-watt
What you will learn in this lesson resistors, but these are notused too
will prepare you for this type of often. You will learn more about the
work. watt, which is the unit of power
There are many uses for resis- measurement, later in this lesson.
tors in electronic equipment. The You will soon learn to recognize
various electrodes in atube or tran- the wattage rating of a resistor by
sistor used in a piece of electronic its size. The resistors shown in
equipment do not all require the Fig. 1 are 1/2-watt, 1-watt and 2-
same operating voltages. However, watt carbon resistors. The body of
for economy, the required operating the resistor in each case is drawn
voltages must all be obtained from a full size to give you an idea of how
single power supply. Resistors are big each type of resistor is.
used to drop the voltage to the cor-
rect value for the tube or transistor. 1/2 WATT
Resistors are used to isolate parts
from each other, so that one will not
interfere with the operation or the IWATT
action of each other.
Special variable resistors called
potentiometers are used to control
the volume and tone in radio and
2 WATT
TV receivers, to control the picture
brightness and contrast in black and
white and color TV receivers, and Fig. I. Relative physical size of the three
to adjust the tint and color satura- different %.attage carbon resistors usually
tion of the picture in color sets. found in electronic equipment.

2
 Metal oxide resistors are also
widely used in modern electronic
equipment. These__ resistors _can
be made in higher wattage ratings
• MOUNTING BRACKETS -than
carbon re_sishl_stinhave
many of the advantages of the carbon

B
to-rs are made by windingwire in the
250 500
form of a coil on an insulated sup-
A port such as a ceramic type rod.
Since the resistor is made of a coil
Fig. 2. A tapped wire-wound resistor and êir-çviii-it tees on some_olthe&ar-
its schematic symbol. acteristics
_ _ of acoil. In some circuits
this may be undesirable and in ap-
In addition to carbon resistors you plications of this type a metal oxide
will run into wire-wound resistors. resistor can be used. It is made by
A wire-wound resistor is made by depositing a metal oxide film on a
winding a resistance wire on aform. ceramic or glass tube or rod. The
Wire-wound resistors are found with oxide film is in the form of a con-
_-
wattage ratings of 3 or 4 watts up to tinuous path rather than a coil and
very high wattas. therefore does not act like a coil.
In some electronic equipment you You will also run into variable
will find tapped wire-wound resis- resistors such as shown in Fig. 3.
tors that look like the resistor shown The resistor shown in Fig. 3A is a
in Fig. 2. The total resistance of this wire-wound type of variable resistor
resistor is 1000 ohms. This is the and is usually called arheostat. No-
resistance you would measure be- tice that this type of resistor has
tween terminals A and D. However, only two terminals. Another rheo-
there are two taps on the resistor; stat is shown in Fig. 3B. This rheo-
these are the taps B and C. The re- stat can either be awire-wound con-
sistance between terminal A and B trol similar to the one shown in A
is 250 ohms and the resistance be- or it might have a carbon element
tween terminals B and C is 250 ohms. and a slider that rotates along the
The remaining resistance between
terminals C and D is 500 ohms. This
type of resistor is usually quite a
large resistor and in most cases it
is mounted on the chassis by means
of mounting brackets which hold it in
place. The resistor is so large and o o o
heavy that if it were simply held in •«"SVIAVIINA• •—••••›Vele•••—•• •—/eASSWAWAWMW—•

place by wires connected to the vari-

ous terminals, the chances are that
if the equipment received any jarring Fig. 3. Variable resistors and the symbols
or bouncing the resistor would break for them. A and 11 are rheostats. and C is
loose from the wires. a potentiometer.

3
carbon element to provide the re- run into all three types of resistors:
quired resistance between the two carbon, wire-wound, and deposited-
terminals. The variable resistor film. Most often these will be fixed
shown in Fig. 3C is called apotenti- resistors; in other words, they will
ometer. This variable resistor has have a certain value which cannot
three terminals. The resistance be- be changed.
tween the two outside terminals re- You will also encounter many
mains constant and the slider moves tapped resistors; this type resistor
on the resistance element so the re- is always a wire-wound resistor.
sistance between the center terminal In addition, you will run into vari-
and the other two may be varied. A able resistors; these may be either
control of this type may be a wire- wire-wound or carbon resistors. If
wound control or it can also be a a variable resistor has two termi-
carbon control. Most potentiometers nals it is called a rheostat; if it has
are fairly high resistance units and three terminals it is called apoten-
are carbon controls. However, in tiometer.
some applications, for example in Thus resistors are classified as
color TV receivers, you will run carbon, wire-wound, and deposited-
into some very low resistance po- film; these resistors may be either
tentiometers, and these are wire- fixed, tapped, or variable. Variable
wound controls. Potentiometers will resistors are divided into rheostats
be found in all types of electronic and potentiometers.
equipment. Now let's study some of the im-
In electronic equipment you will portant uses of resistors.

4
 Using Resistors
To Reduce Voltage
We mentioned earlier that in a in some cases, the total voltage re-
radio or TV receiver as well as quired by the heaters connected in
industrial control equipment, many series may be somewhat less than
different operating voltages may be the power line voltage. In such a
required, and these voltages must case, a resistor is placed in series
be obtained from a single power with the heaters ,and part of the volt-
supply to keep down the cost of the age is used up by the resistor so that
equipment. Resistors are often used each tube heater gets the correct
to reduce the voltage from the power voltage.
supply to the required value. An example of a circuit of this
type is shown in Fig. 4. Here we
SERIES-DROPPING
have four tubes with their heaters
RESISTORS
connected in series. Notice that
One of the most common applica- three of the tubes operate with a
tions of a resistor where it is used heater voltage of 12.6 volts. When
to drop voltage is the series-drop- the three tubes are connected in
ping resistor. In this case, the re- series they will require three times
sistor is placed in series with the this voltage or 37.8 volts. These
load, and the current flowing through three tubes are connected in series
it produces a voltage drop across with the fourth tube that operates
the resistor. Small table model radio with a heater voltage of 50 volts so
receivers are an example in which that the total voltage required by the
this use of a resistor may be found. four tubes in series is 87.8 volts.
In these radio receivers, the heaters However, to operate this string of
bf the various tubes are connected four tubes from a 120-volt power
in series and they are operated di- line means that we have to get rid
rectly from the power line. However, of approximately 32 volts in some

SERIES
DROPPING
RESISTOR

AC

Fig. 4. A series tube heater string, with aseries-voltage-dropping resistor.

5
way in order to get the correct volt- that there will be a voltage drop of
age on each tube. Here the series- 150 volts across the series-dropping
dropping resistor is connected in resistor.
series with the tubes. If the tubes The value of resistance required
operate with a heater current of .15 In RI will depend upon the resistance
amps, you can find the value of the of R2 Normally the load will have a
resistor required by using Ohm's certain resistance, and when it is
Law operated at the correct voltage a
certain current will flow through the
E
R = resistance. As an example, if the
resistance of R2 is 50,000 ohms,
and substituting 32 for E and .15 for when a voltage of 100 volts is applied
I, we would find that a resistor with across this load, a current of 2 ma
a resistance of 213 ohms would be will flow through it.
required. Actually, it probably would We can use this information to de-
be impossible to get a 213-ohm re- termine the value of the series-volt-
sistor but a 210-ohm or a 215-ohm age-dropping resistor. We know that
resistor would certainly be close we must drop a voltage of 150 volts,
enough. As a matter of fact, even and since it will be in series with
with a 200-ohm resistor in the cir- R2 the current flowing through it
cuit, the heater voltage on the tubes will be the same as the current
would be only slightly over the rated through R2 in other words 2 ma.
value and should not appreciably af-
fect tube life.
Series-dropping resistors of this 150 V «ill
type are also to be sound in some
television receivers. Of course, in
R1
the TV receiver there will be far
more tubes, and the chances are VV\e
'
i
that the voltage that the resistor
must drop will be less than the value
in the preceding example, but its
purpose is the same, to reduce the E=100V
line voltage to the value required
by the series-heater string.
Series-dropping resistors are
also used in dc circuits An example 50,000.n_§
of this type of arrangement is shown
in Fig. 5. Here the load, which is
represented by R2, requires an op-
erating voltage of 100 volts. The
power supply voltage is 250 volts.
The series-dropping resistor RI is
used to reduce or drop the power
supply voltage from 250 volts down
to 100 volts for the load.This means

6
We can use this information and
1
Ohm's Law to find the value of R1.

R = E 75,000.n.

150
- 75,000 ohms
.002
Im 250V R2=
In this particular instance we do IBM
not even have to resort to Ohm's 50,000.n.
Law to find the value of R1.We know
+25,000.n.
the resistance of R2 is 50,000 ohms
and it will have avoltage of 100 volts
across it. We want R1 to have 150
volts across it or 1-1/2 times the Fig. 6. When the value of It 2 varies, the
voltage across R2 Therefore the voltage across it will also vary.
resistance of R1 must be 1-1/2
times the resistance of R2. Since can affect the voltage across it.No-
R2 has a resistance of 50,000 ohms, tice that here we have represented
then R1 must have a resistance of R2 as the variable resistance load.

75,000 ohms. Suppose the resistance of R2 goes

An arrangement of this type works down to 25,000 ohms. Now, we have
out very nicely as long as the re- a total resistance in the circuit of
sistance of R2 remains constant. 25,000 ohms for R2 and 75,000 ohms
However, in many cases in elec- for RI.This means the total resist-
tronic equipment the resistance of ance in the circuit will be 100,000
the load varies. When this happens, ohms. Using Ohm's Law we find that
the total resistance in the circuit the current will be
will vary and this will cause the
current to vary. When the current E
=—
in the circuit varies, the voltage drop R
across R1 will vary and when this
250
happens, the voltage across R2 will I - 100,000amps
also vary. In some cases a fairly
wide variation in voltage across R2 We can multiply the numerator in
will not present any problem, but this expression by 1,000 and get our
there are many applications where answer directly in milliamperes, or
we may want to keep the voltage perform the division as indicated.
across R2 reasonably constant. If we perform the division as indi-
Under these circumstances asimple cated we will find that the current
series-dropping resistor of the type is .0025 amps. If we multiply by
shown in Fig. 5 is not particularly 1,000 first, we will get our answer
satisfactory. in milliamperes, and in this case
Let us look at Fig. 6to see how
a variation in the resistance of R2 I= 2.5 ma

7
 In either case, we see that the
current has increased from 2 ma to
2.5 ma. Now the voltage drop across
R1 will be greater than 150 volts. 50,000
The actual voltage drop will be 187.5
11. _n.
volts. Since the power supply voltage
is 250 volts this leaves us with a
voltage of 62.5 volts across the load. 250
Now let us see what happens when VOLTS 2 R3
the resistance of R2 increases.Sup-
pose a resistance of R2 increases 50,000n.
by 25,000 ohms and becomes 75,000 +25,000n
ohms. Now we have R1 and R2 in
series and since each resistor has
a value of 75,000 ohms, half of the
voltage will be across each resistor. Fig. 7. The bleeder resistor R3 is con-
This means that the voltage across nected in parallel %.ith the load 112 to sta-
R2 will increase from 100 volts to
bilize the voltage across the load.

125 volts.
From the preceding we see that if flowing through R1 is constant then
the resistance of R2 does change,we the voltage drop across it will be
get quite asubstantial voltage varia- constant and this in turn will mean
tion across the resistor. If the re- that the voltage across the load will
sistance goes down 25,000 ohms,the remain constant.
voltage across the load drops to 62.5 The higher the bleeder current,
volts, and if the resistance goes up the more closely we can keep the
25,000 ohms, the voltage goes up to voltage constant across the load.
125 volts. A change of this type could This is due to the fact that if the
appreciably affect the performance bleeder current is large, it makes
of a circuit and in most cases we up most of the current flowing
would have to take steps to prevent through RI,and since it will remain
such a wide voltage variation. constant, the current changes
through R1 due to variations in the
BLEEDER RESISTORS load resistance will be held to a
minimum.
Wide voltage variations such as Let us look at an example and see
we encountered in the circuit shown how the bleeder actually can help
in Fig. 6 can be reduced substan- regulate the voltage. Let us take R2
tially by means of a bleeder resis- with a nominal resistance of 50,000
tor. Fig. 7 shows how a bleeder re- ohms, as before, and connect a
sistor is connected into the circuit. bleeder resistor, R3 ,in parallel with
Notice that the bleeder, R3 is con- R2. Let us select a bleeder that also
nected in parallel with the load R2. has a resistance of 50,000 ohms.As
The idea in back of the bleeder is before, we want to maintain the volt-
to help keep the current flowing age across the load constant at 100
through R1 constant. If the current volts.

8
 With a voltage of 100 volts across 37,500 ohms, or a total of 54,000
the load resistor, with its value at ohms. The current that will flow in
50,000 ohms, the current through the the circuit can be found from Ohm's
load will be 2 ma as before. Since Law
the bleeder is in parallel with the
load, 2 ma will also flow through it. 250
1= -- - 0046 amps
This means that the total current in 54,000
the circuit will be 4 ma.
Now we need to select a series- A current of .0046 amps (4.6 ma)
dropping resistor, R1. As before, flowing through R I. will produce a
since the power supply voltage is voltage drop of
250 volts, the series-dropping re-
sistor must drop 150 volts. Going E = .0046 x 37,500 = 172.5 volts
back to Ohm's Law, we have
With a voltage drop of 172.5 volts
150 volts across R 1,the remainder of the volt-
R1 = - 37,500 ohms
.004 age will be dropped across R2 and
the bleeder resistor Ra.Subtracting
Therefore with a series-dropping 172.5 from 250 will give us 77.5
resistor of 37,500 ohms we will get volts. Remember that in the preced-
a voltage drop of 150 volts across ing example shown in Fig. 6, when
R1,and with a load, R2 of 50,000 the value of R2 went down to 25,000
ohms, and a bleeder of 50,000 ohms ohms, the voltage across it dropped
we will have a voltage of 100 volts to 62.5 volts. Simply connecting the
across the load and across the bleeder resistor with the same value
bleeder. as the nominal value of R2 in par-
With the load and the bleeder in allel with the load improved the volt-
parallel, the total resistance of the age regulation by 15 volts when the
two in parallel will be 25,000 ohms. resistance of R2 went down.
Remember that they are of equal When the resistance of R2 in-
value and therefore the parallel re- creases by 25,000 ohms, you will
sistance is one-half the resistance have the load R2, which will then
of either resistor. Now let's see have a resistance of 75,000 ohms,
what happens when the value of R2 in parallel with the bleeder R3 ,which
decreases to 25,000 ohms. We will has a resistance of 50,000 ohms.
see how this affects the voltage The parallel combination of a
across the load. 75,000-ohm and a 50,000-ohm re-
When R2 goes down to 25,000 sistor will give us aparallel resist-
ohms, we have the 25,000 ohms ance of 30,000 ohms. This resist-
load in parallel with the 50,000 ohms ance in series with R1 will give us
bleeder. The parallel resistance of a total resistance of 67,500 ohms in
the combination is 16,666 ohms which the circuit. With this resistance in
we can round off to 16,500 ohms to the circuit the current flow in the
simplify our calculations. Total re- circuit will be .0037 amps and the
sistance in the circuit will be 16,500 voltage drop across R1138.75 volts.
plus the resistance of RI, which is This means that the remainder of

9
the voltage will appear across the from 100 volts to 96 volts. Similarly,
load and bleeder and in this case if the resistance of R2 increased
would be 111.25 volts. This com- from 50,000 ohms to 75,000 ohms,
pares with the voltage of 125 volts the current in the circuit would drop
which we found we would get across only about one half a milliampere
the load without the bleeder when and the voltage drop across R1 would
the resistance of the load increased change from 150 volts to approxi-
by 25,000 ohms. mately 147 volts. Therefore the volt-
In other words, without a bleeder age across the load would increase
connected across the load, as the to 103 volts. As you can see, with
value of the load resistance varied a low-resistance bleeder that draws
25,000 ohms above and below its a high bleeder current, the voltage
nominal value of 50,000 ohms, its across the load remains almost con-
voltage varied from 62.5 volts to stant, even with the same variation
125 volts. With a 50,000-ohm bleeder in the load that produced awide volt-
connected across the load, when the age variation before.
load resistance varied 25,000 ohms Since a bleeder that draws alarge
above and below its nominal value, current regulates the voltage so well
the voltage across the load varied you might wonder what the problem
from 77.5 volts to 111.25 volts. You Is. In a circuit where we want to
will notice that connecting the bleed- keep the voltage across the load con-
er in parallel with the load has had stant, why not simply put a bleeder
a substantial effect in maintaining across the load that will draw ahigh
a more constant voltage across the current and maintain the voltage
load. constant? The answer is that the
The larger the bleeder current, bleeder current serves no purpose
the better the voltage regulation other than to regulate the voltage
will be. In fact, if the nominal across the load. In so far as per-
value of R2 is 50,000 ohms and we forming any other function is con-
put a 5,000-ohm bleeder in parallel cerned, it is wasted. There is alimit
with it we get very little voltage to how much current we can take
change at all as the resistance of from a power supply. The more
R2 varies between 25,000 and 75,000 bleeder current we draw the bigger
ohms. With a bleeder of this size, and more costly the power supply
the total series current flow would must be. Therefore in applications
be about .022 amps. This would re- where a bleeder is used, in most
quire a series-dropping resistor of cases some compromise is reached
approximately 6800 ohms. When the and a value of bleeder is selected
resistance of R2 dropped from that will give the voltage regulation
50,000 ohms to 25,000 ohms, the required, and no more. Of course
current in the circuit would increase in some applications where very
from .022 amps to slightly less than precise regulation is required, we
.023 amps. The increase in the volt- have to waste the power in the
age drop across R1 would be only 4 bleeder in order to get this regula-
volts, which means that the voltage tion. In this case, we must build a
drop across the load would change power supply capable of supplying

10
the required current even though it rent, but this extra current that
may be quite costly. flows through the bleeder remains
Series-dropping resistors and constant and helps maintain the volt-
bleeders are often used in tube and age drop across the series-dropping
transistor circuits. You have al- resistor constant. The larger the
ready studied the triode tube and will current consumed by the bleeder in
remember that it has three ele- comparison to the current consumed
ments, a cathode, a grid and aplate. by the load, the better the regulation
The pentode tube is a tube with five across the load will be. However,
elements. It has the same three ele- since the bleeder current is waste
ments as the triode tube plus asup- current and performs no useful pur-
pressor grid and a screen grid. The pose other than to regulate the volt-
suppressor grid is usually connected age across the load, we normally do
to B- or to the cathode. The screen not use any more bleeder current
grid is connected to B+ and usually than is necessary to get the degree
operated at a voltage somewhat less of regulation that is required across
than the plate voltage. The voltage the load. We keep the bleeder cur-
required for the screen is obtained rent as low as possible in order to
through a series-dropping resistor keep the cost and size of the power
from the same power supply that supply as low as feasible. However,
supplies the plate voltage. If the in some applications where very
screen voltage must be maintained precise regulation is required, a
constant then you will often find a large bleeder current is used and
bleeder in the screen circuit for this we simply have to go to the expense
purpose. of making the power supply as large
as necessary to supply this current
SUMMARY along with the load current.
Now to help you be sure that you
Now let us review what you have understand this section of the les-
studied in this section on resistors son and to review it, answer the
and how they are used to reduce volt- following self-test questions.
age. Resistors are sometimes used
in the heater circuit of small radios SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
or in the heater circuit of television
receivers to reduce the line voltage (a) What is the purpose of a
to the value required by series-con- series-dropping resistor?
nected tube heaters. Resistors are (b) If two tubes that each require
also used to reduce the voltage to a a heater voltage of 35 volts
load so that the load can be operated are connected in series with
from apower supply that has asome- two additional tubes that re-
what higher voltage than the voltage quire a heater voltage of 6
required by the load. volts each and the four heaters
Resistors are used as bleeders to connected in series are to be
stabilize or regulate the voltage operated from a 120-volt
across aload. The bleeder consumes power line, how much voltage
or wastes a certain amount of cur- must the series-dropping re-

11
 sistor drop in order to pro- bleeder that draws a substan-
vide the correct heater volt- tial current?
ages for the tubes? (f) What consideration other than
(e) In the preceding example, if regulation must be kept in
the current drawn by the tubes mind in selecting a bleeder?
is .3 amperes, what would be (g) If a load, which has a resist-
the value of the series-drop- ance of 20K ohms and requires
ping resistor to use? an operating voltage of 200
(d) What is the purpose of a volts, is connected across a
bleeder? power supply that has an out-
(e) Which type of bleeder is more put voltage of 300 volts, what
effective, a high-resistance should the resistance of the
bleeder that draws very little series-voltage-dropping re-
current, or a low-resistance sistor be?

12
 Power In Electrical Circuits
We have already mentioned sev- we see that the current used by a
eral times that the unit of electrical 100-watt electric light bulb will be
power is the watt. The watt tells us slightly less than 1 amp when the
how much electrical energy or power bulb is operated from a 120-volt
is being expended or used in a cir- power line. Since the product of the
cuit. You have probably run into this voltage times the current equals
unit many times, and you are no 100 watts, we can find the current
doubt familiar with different size by rearranging the power formula
light bulbs - they are rated in watts. to
A 60-watt bulb consumes 60 watts of
electrical energy when it is lit. A
I=
100-watt electric bulb consumes 100
watts of electrical energy - almost
twice as much power as a 60-watt and substituting 100 watts for P and
bulb. 120 volts for E
Now let us go ahead and learn more
about exactly how much electrical 100
I= — = .83 amps
energy the watt represents. 120

THE WATT A 60-watt bulb will draw somewhat

less current,
The power in an electrical circuit
is equal to the product of the voltage —60
times the current. Expressing this I = - .5 amps
120
as a formula we have
The power in an electrical circuit
P=E XI can also be expressed in terms of
voltage and resistance or in terms
We generally drop the times sign of current and resistance by com-
and simply write the formula as bining the power formula with Ohm's
Law. For example from Ohm's Law
P = EI we know that

This formula tells us that if agen- E =I xR

erator is supplying a voltage of 1
volt to acircuit and the current flow- If we substitute I x R for E in the
ing in the circuit is lamp, the power power formula we have
being supplied by the generator is 1
watt. If the generator is supplying P =I x RxI=IxIxR
a voltage of 10 volts and a current
of 2 amps, the power being supplied If we drop the times sign and write
by the generator is 10 x2 =20 watts. I x Ias 12 (this is called Isquared)
From the expression for power we will have the formula

13
 P =I
2R P = EI

You will see this expression many P =I

2R

times in electronics. Remember that

the term 12 means Ix I. This form u E2
of the power equation is often used R
to determine the wattage rating of a
resistor in a circuit where the cur- WATTAGE RATING
rent through the resistor and the re- OF RESISTORS
sistance of the resistor are known.
Going back to our original power Earlier we mentioned that resis-
formula tors were made with different watt-
P=E XI age ratings. When current flows
through a resistor a certain amount
and Ohm's Law in the form of power is used, or as we say dis-
sipated. The wattage rating of a re-
E
I =— sistor tells us how much power the
R
resistor can dissipate. If the power
being dissipated by the resistor is
E
if we substitute Tt-for Iwe will get greater than its wattage rating, the
resistor will soon burn out.
We mentioned previously that car-
P =Ex— E
R
-
bon resistors are made in 1/2-watt,
1-watt and 2-watt sizes. Also, you
will occasionally run into very small
which we usually write as
carbon resistors that are rated at
1/3-watt.
E2
P = When we say that a resistor is a
1-watt resistor we mean that the
where the expression E2 means E power it can dissipate or handle is
X E. This form of the power equation 1-watt. This means that the product
can be used where we know the volt- of the current squared through the
age across a part and the resistance resistor times the resistance of the
of the part or circuit. resistor must be equal to 1 watt
These three forms of the power or less.
formula are extremely important; Actually, in the case of carbon
you will have many occasions to use resistors, it is not agood idea to use
them. Therefore you should take the them at their maximum rating. Car-
time now to memorize them to save bon resistors have a tendency to
having to look them up in the future. change value if they get too hot. A
Even though you may not have to do 1-watt carbon resistor that is actu-
a great deal of calculating involving ally dissipating one full watt of elec-
these formulas you should know what tric power will get quite warm after
the formulas are so you will be able it has been in operation for some
to approximate the power used in a time. Eventually, this will cause the
circuit. The three formulas are: resistor to change value. There is

14
no way of predicting how much the and in industrial control equipment
resistor will change value - the you may find wire-wound resistors
change might be slight and may not that are capable of dissipating sev-
affect the performance of the circuit. eral thousand watts or more. These
On the other hand, the change might high-wattage resistors are made
be large enough to appreciably affect with a large-size resistance wire
the performance of the circuit. The that can carry the high current and
usual practice is to use resistors are wound on a large diameter tube
having a wattage rating almost in order to provide room for the
double that actually required. In wire needed to get the required re-
other words, if the power that a re- sistance.
sistor must dissipate is 1 watt or The same safety rule for carbon
slightly over 1 watt then you would resistors is generally followed in
use a 2-watt resistor, 1f the resistor the case of wire-wound resistors.
must dissipate approximately 1/2 Usually a resistor having approxi-
watt, it is best to use a 1-watt re- mately twice the wattage rating that
sistor to avoid any possible problem the resistor must dissipate is used.
in the future due to the resistor Manufacturers follow this practice
overheating and changing value. because the larger wattage resistor
The deposited film type of resis- will be a larger physical size and
tor is made in ratings of 2 watts up better able to get rid of the heat
to about 10 watts. These resistors that is produced by the electrical
are somewhat larger than carbon energy that the resistor must dis-
resistors and are able to handle the sipate and also because it provides
larger power. They do not have the a safety factor - there is far less
tendency to change value that carbon chance of the resistance wire burn-
resistors have and therefore can be ing out if the overrated resistor is
operated closer to their full wattage used.
rating. However, even in the case of
deposited film resistors, most TRANSFERRING POWER
manufacturers usually allow a rea-
sonable safety factor to prevent the A common problem in electronics
resistors burning out after they have is transferring power from one cir-
been in service for some time. As cuit to another or from one device
an example, if the wattage being dis- to another. As an example, consider
sipated by a deposited film resistor the output tube or transistor in a
is almost four watts, a 5-watt re- radio receiver and the loudspeaker
sistor is usually used to provide in the receiver. The output tube or
some safety factor. transistor develops audio power; in
There is almost no limit to the other words it develops sound power
wattage ratings in which wire-wound in electrical form. The problem is
resistors can be made. In radio and to get the maximum amount of power
television receivers you will seldom over to the speaker from the output
find wire-wound resistors rated at tube or transistor. Now let us con-
higher than 50 watts. However, in sider what is involved in this power
radio and TV transmitting equipment transfer.

15
 The tube or transistor acts as the have shown is a 10-volt battery with
power source. The speaker acts as an internal resistance of 5 ohms.
a load. Thus we have a situation Thus in any circuit we consider,the
somewhat similar to a battery with total resistance in the circuit will
a load connected across it. We have be the resistance of R1 plus the in-
seen this circuit many times. ternal resistance of the battery,
However, there is one thing we which is 5 ohms. This total resist-
have omitted in the circuits we have ance is the opposition to current
looked at before. All electrical parts flow in the circuit, and is the value
have resistance. This is true of we must use in performing any cal-
transistors, tubes, coils, trans- culations to find the current flowing
formers, generators and batteries. in the circuit or the power dissipated
The usual practice is to simply in the circuit.
represent a battery by the battery The fact that the battery has in-
symbol. However, to be precise, we ternal resistance brings about sev-
should represent it by the battery eral interesting things. First, let
symbol and a resistor in series with us assume that the resistance of R1
it to represent the internal resist- in the circuit is 20 ohms; this means
ance of the battery. By internal re- that the total resistance in the cir-
sistance of the battery we mean the cuit will be 25 ohms. Since the bat-
opposition that current encounters tery potential is 10 volts this means
in flowing from the positive terminal that the current flowing in the cir-
of the battery through the battery to cuit will be
the negative terminal.
10
In Fig. 8we have shown a circuit I= = .4 amps
25
representing a battery with internal
resistance and a load connected The .4 amps flowing through the
across the battery. The battery we battery resistance will produce a
voltage drop across this resistance.
This voltage drop will be

E = .4 x 5 = 2 volts
INTERNAL
RESISTANCE Thus the actual voltage available at
the battery terminals will be only 8

_
volts. This is quite common in bat-
LOAD teries and generators; part of the

1
R1 voltage produced by the battery or
generator is lost due to the internal
10V resistance of the device.
BATTERY Now let us find how much power
is actually being supplied by the bat-
tery, and how much is being received
by the load. The power supplied by
Fig. 8. Circuit representing a battery with the battery is equal to the battery
internal resistance and a load across the voltage times the current or P =
battery. 10 x .4 = 4 watts.

16
 The power being dissipated by the for R1 the total resistance in the
load can best be found by the power circuit will be 9 ohms and the cur-
formula rent flow 1.1 amps. The power dis-
sipated by R1 will then be 4.8watts.
P = I2 R If we continue to reduce the size of
P = .4 x .4 x 20 = 3.2 watts the resistance we will find that the
power dissipated by the resistor
Now let us replace the 20-ohm will continue to go down.
resistor that we have in the circuit Notice that as we started with a
for R1 with a 10-ohm resistor and 20-ohm resistor and reduced the
see what happens in the circuit. With size of it to 5 ohms, that the power
a 10-ohm resistor in the circuit the dissipated by the resistor increased
total resistance in the circuit will be until it reached a maximum value at
10 ohms plus the 5 ohms internal 5 watts. When we reduced the resist-
resistance of the battery or a total ance of the resistor below 5 ohms,
of 15 ohms. The value of the current the power starts to decrease.
in the circuit will be The significant thing to notice here
is that we obtain maximum power in
10 the -resistor when the resistance of
I= = .67 amps
15 the resistor is equal to the internal
resistance of the battery.
Now the power being supplied by the This situation will always exist.
battery will be We will get maximum power in the
load when the load resistance is
P = 10 x .67 = 6.7 watts equal to the generator resistance.
However, this condition may not al-
and the power dissipated by the re- ways be desirable because the total
sistor R1 will be power being generated by the gen-
erator when we have a5-ohm resist-
P = .67 x .67 x 10 = 4.5 watts ance in the circuit is 10 watts.Since
(approximately) we are dissipating only 5 watts in
the resistor, half of the power is
If we replace R1 with a6-ohm re- being wasted in the battery itself.
sistor, we will have a total resist- Thus, when maximum power trans-
ance of 11 ohms in the circuit. This fer is being obtained, the over-all
will give us acurrent flow of .9 amps efficiency of the system is only 50%
and the power dissipated in R1 will - half the power being produced by
be 4.8 watts. the source is transferred to the load.
If we substitute a 5-ohm resistor With a higher load resistance, the
for R1,the total resistance in the efficiency improves and under some
circuit will be 10 ohms and the cur- circumstances we may be willing to
rent will be 1amp. The power dis- get something less than full power
sipated by R1 will then be 5 watts. transfer to get better efficiency. For
The total power generated by the example, when the value of R1 was
battery will be 10 watts. 20 ohms we had a power of 3.2 watts
If we substitute a 4-ohm resistor in the resistor and the total power

17
produced by the generator was 4 and over again in your career in
watts. This is an efficiency of 80%; electronics.
in other words, 80% of the power Remember that resistors are
produced by the battery is trans- made in different wattage ratings.
ferred to the load. Even though this Remember too, that carbon resis-
is less than the power we get when tors have a tendency to change value
the load is matched or equal to the if they are operated near their maxi-
battery resistance, the efficiency of mum wattage rating. If you have to
the power transfer is much better. replace a carbon resistor in apiece
The important point for you to re- of electronic equipment you can use
member from this section of the les- the same wattage rating resistor as
son is that we will get maximum used by the manufacturer or one
power transfer from a voltage having a higher wattage rating, if
source to a load when the resistance there is room for the larger resis-
of the load is equal to the internal tor in the circuit. The usual safety
resistance of the source. Under factor allowed in electronic equip-
these conditions we say that the load ment is to use a resistor having
is matched to the generator. Under twice the wattage rating that it must
these conditions, the efficiency of dissipate. This will reduce the pos-
the power transfer will be 50% - sibility of resistor failure after the
half the power will be dissipated in equipment has been in use for some
the load and the other half lost in time.
the generator or the voltage source. Remember that maximum trans-
Under some circumstances it is fer of power from a generator to
better to get somewhat less power a load can be obtained when the re-
transferred from the source to the sistance of the load matches the re-
load in order to get better efficiency. sistance of the generator. When
maximum power transfer is obtained
SUMMARY the efficiency is only 50%; this means
that only half the power produced by
This section of this lesson is an the generator reaches the load.
extremely important one, and you Under some circumstances we will
should be sure that you understand be satisfied with a somewhat lower
it completely before going on. power in the load in order to obtain
You learned that the unit of power better efficiency.
is the watt. The power in a circuit Now do the self-test questions on
can be obtained from any one of the this section carefully. If you have
three formulas difficulty with any of the questions
it is a sign that you need to spend
P = EI
more time on this important section.

P =1
2R
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
E3
P =—
R
(h) What is the unit of electrical
You should memorize these three power or energy?
formulas; you will need them over (i) If a battery has a voltage of

18
 15 volts, and it is supplying a (n) If the current through a 100K
current of 3 amps, what is the resistor is 10 ma, how much
power being supplied by the power is the resistor dissi-
battery? pating?
(j) What do we mean when we say (o) A battery has a voltage of 9
that a resistor is dissipating volts and an internal resist-
10 watts? ance of 3 ohms. What size re-
(k) If the voltage across a 1000- sistor should be used as aload
ohm resistor is 100 volts, how in order to get maximum
much power is the resistor power transfer?
dissipating ? A 20-volt battery has an in-
(1) If the voltage across a 5000- ternal resistance of 10 ohms.
ohm resistor is 50 volts, what What size resistor should be
is the power dissipated by the be connected across it as a
resistor? load in order to get maximum
(m) If the current through aresis- power transfer? How much
tor is 2 amps, and the resist- power will be produced by the
ance of the resistor is 25 battery and how much power
ohms, what is the power dis- will be transferred by the
sipated by the resistor? load?

Resistor Values
We mentioned earlier that there resistor, the resistance of the re-
are more resistors used in elec- sistor is 1ohm. You will remember
tronic equipment than any other this important relationship is ex-
parts. A small radio receiver gen- pressed in Ohm's Law.
erally has somewhere between ten You are also familiar with the fact
and fifteen resistors. A black and that large values of resistors are
white TV receiver usually has ap- found in electronic equipment and
proximately 50 resistors and acolor that we use the symbol K to repre-
TV receiver may have twice that sent 1000 and the letter M for meg-
many. Usually you can figure that ohms which represents 1,000,000
a piece of electronic equipment will ohms. Thus a 2,200-ohm resistor
have somewhere between three and will often be marked 2.2K on a dia-
five resistors at least, for each tube gram and a 4,700,000-ohm resistor
or transistor used in the equipment. will often be marked 4.7M or 4.7
We have already gone into the megs.
methods used to indicate the value Since there are 1000 ohms in 1K-
of a resistor. You know that the unit ohm and 1,000,000 ohms in a meg-
of resistance is the ohm. If the volt- ohm, it follows that there are
age across a resistor is 1volt and 1000K-ohms in a megohm. You need
a current of 1amp flows through the to be able to convert between K-ohms

19
and megohms because on some dia- 100 ohms. 10% of 100 is 10 ohms and
grams a resistor having a resist- therefore the resistance of this re-
ance of 100K-ohms may be marked sistor can be any value between 90
as .1 meg, and you must realize that ohms and 110 ohms. A 20% resistor
both represent the same value. To can have a tolerance of 20 ohms and
convert from ohms to K-ohms you therefore the resistance could be any
move the decimal point three places value between 80 ohms and 120 ohms.
to the left, and to convert from K- The closer the tolerance of a re-
ohms to ohms you move it three sistor, the more expensive the re-
places to the right. To convert from sistor is. Thus a5% resistor is more
ohms to megohms you move the deci- expensive than a 10% resistor and a
mal point six places to the left and 10% resistor is more expensive than
to convert from megohms to ohms a 20% resistor. However, with to-
you move it six places to the right. day's modern automatic resistor
To convert from K-ohms to meg- making machinery, there is very
ohms you move the decimal point little difference between the price
three places to the left and to con- of a 10% resistor and a 20% resis-
vert from megohms to K-ohms you tor and therefore you don't run into
move it three places to the right. too many 20% resistors in electronic
Remember that to convert from the equipment any more. There is con-
smaller unit to the larger unit you siderable difference between the
move the decimal point to the left, price of a 5% resistor and a10% re-
and to convert from the larger unit sistor, and therefore most manu-
to the smaller unit you move the facturers will use 10% resistors
decimal point to the right. wherever they can. The 5% resistors
are found only in the more critical
TOLERANCES
circuits where it is important that
The most frequently encountered the value of the resistor be held to
resistor is the molded-carbon re- a close tolerance.
sistor. The molded-carbon resistor
EIA VALUES
is made with three different toler-
ance values. The resistor is made The EIA (Electronic Industries
with a 5% tolerance, a10% tolerance Association) has set up standard
or a 20% tolerance. The tolerance carbon resistor values. You cannot
indicates how much the resistor may buy any value carbon resistor you
vary in resistance from its indicated might want - you have to buy one of
value. For example, a 100-ohm re- the standard values. The standard
sistor with a 5% tolerance will be values are arranged so that you can
within 5% of 100 ohms. This means get a resistor within 5% of any re-
that its value might be 5% below or quired value. For example, if you
as much as 5% above 100 ohms. 5% determined that in a certain circuit
of 100 is 5 ohms and therefore the you needed a 53,000-ohm resistor,
resistance of the resistor may be you cannot buy a 53,000-ohm carbon
any value between 95 and 105 ohms. resistor - they are not made in this
In this case of a 10% resistor, the size. However, you can buy a51,000-
value may vary 10% above or below ohm resistor and a 56,000-ohm re-

20
 Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Oh= Ohmo Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Meg. Mega

0.24 1.1 5.1 24 110 510 2400 11K 51K 240K 1.1 5.1

0.27 1.2 0.0 27 IMO 000 2700 12K WOK 370K 1.2 it..

0.30 1.3 6.2 30 130 620 3000 13K 62K 300K 1.3 6.2

0.93 1.5 •.• 39 IMO SOO 3300 111K 05K 930K 1.5 0.0

0.36 1.6 7.5 36 160 750 3600 16K 75K 360K 1.6 7.5

0.115 IS 5.2 se Ise 020 3500 11111 02K 3110K 1.• 21.11

0,43 2.0 9.1 43 200 910 4300 20K 91K 430K 2.0 9.1

0.47 2.2 10 47 220 1000 4700 32K 100K 470K 2.2 10

0.51 2.4 11 51 240 1100 5100 24K 110K 510K 2.4 11

0.55 2.7 12 MO 270 1200 mime 27K 130K 550K 2.7 12

0,62 3.0 13 62 300 1300 6200 30K 130K 620K 3.0 13

0.00 3.3 IS 15111 330 1500 4000 1118K 150K 000K 3.11 115

0.75 3.6 16 75 360 1600 7500 36K 160K 750K 3.6 16

0.52 11.5 10 111111 350 1000 0200 115K 100K 5110K 3.5 IS

0.91 4.3 20 91 430 2000 9100 43K 200K 910K 4.3 20

1.0 4.7 22 100 470 3200 10K 47K 220K 1 meg 4.7 22

Fig. 9. Standard E1A carbon resistor values.

sistor and therefore you would se- the four color bands will be either
lect one of these two values - the 5% or 10% resistors depending upon
exact one that you would select would the color of the tolerance band. If
depend upon whether you want the the fourth band is a gold band the
resistance to be a little higher than resistor has a tolerance of 5%, and
the calculated value or alittle lower. if it is a silver band the resistor
Standard EIA carbon resistor val- has a tolerance of 10%.
ues are shown in Fig. 9. All are The color bands are placed on
available with a 5% tolerance; the the body of the resistor nearer to
values in bold type are also avail- one end than the other as shown in
able in 10% tolerances. You normally Fig. 10. To read the color band,
cannot buy 20% resistors for re- hold the resistor as shown in Fig.
placement purposes, but either 5% 10. The fourth band, if there is a
or 10% resistors are satisfactory fourth band, will be either gold or
replacements. silver and it will be on the right and
tell you the tolerance of the resis-
COLOR CODE tor. To read the value of the resis-

Carbon resistors are identified

by means of a color code.There will
4
be three or four colored bands on a TOLERANCE
BAND
carbon resistor. The resistors with
only three color bands are 20% tol- Fig. 10. Resistor values and tolerance
erance resistors. The resistors with are identified by color bands as shown.

21
Color 1st 2nd No. of tiply the first two numbers by .1 to
Figure Zeros get the resistor value. Thus aresis-
Figure
tor coded red, red, gold, gold is

.01 22 x .1 = 2.2 ohms, 5%. If the third

Silver
color band is silver, you multiply
Gold .1
by .01. A resistor coded red, red,
Black 0 0 none
silver, gold is 22 x .01 = .22 ohms,
Brown 1 1 0
5%.
Red 2 2 00 When you start to work on your
Orange 3 3 000 experimental kits, you will have to
Yellow 4 4 0000 use the color code to identify the
Green 5 5 00000 various resistors in the kit. It is
Blue 6 6 000000 worthwhile to memorize the color
Purple 7 7 code. However, do not spend agreat
Gray 8 8 deal of time trying to do it all at
White 9 9 once. Look over the color code shown
in Fig. 11 two or three times and
learn at least what a few of the
Fig. II. Standard resistor color code. colors represent. Then after you
have finished this lesson go back
tor start at the left end. The first and take a look at it again and read
color band gives you the first sig- it through two or three times. If you
nificant figure of the resistance will do this several times, this, and
value. The second color band gives working with your experimental kits,
you the second figure and the third will soon teach you the code so that
tells you how many zeros to add to you will know it by heart. In your
get the resistance of the resistor. early experimental kits we will give
Values assigned the various colors you the resistance value and the
are shown in Fig. 11. For example, color code to help you learn the code
a resistor with (left to right) red, and learn to identify the resistors,
red, black, and gold bands would but you must learn to do this your-
have a resistance of 22 ohms. The self so you will be able to identify
first and second bands each indi- resistors in any electronic equip-
cate 2; the black band indicates no ment you may be called upon to
zeros. The gold band indicates 5% maintain or service.
tolerance. If the resistor were col- DEPOSITED CARBON
ored orange, orange, red, the first RESISTORS
and second bands would each indi-
cate 3, and the red band two zeros, There is another type of carbon
so the value would be 3300 ohms or resistor known as the deposited car-
3.3K. If the fourth band is silver, bon resistor. The carbon resistors
the tolerance is 10%, if gold 5%. If that you will run into most frequently
there is no fourth band, the toler- in electronic equipment can easily be
ance is 20%. identified because they are color
If the third color band on aresis- coded by bands as shown in Fig. 10.
tor is gold, it indicates that you mul- The deposited carbon resistors are

22
not made in the same way as these The reason why it is important that
carbon resistors. They are made by you can convert from one unit to the
depositing a layer of carbon on a other is that all three units are used
form. The layer can be controlled by manufacturers on circuit dia-
closely and can be varied as neces- grams and you have to know what is
sary in order to make resistors that meant when any one of the units is
can be held to avery close tolerance. used.
These resistors are usually made in It is important for you to remem-
tolerances of 1% and 1/2%. It is not ber that resistors are made in only
likely that you will run into this type
certain standard sizes and that all
of resistor in commercial entertain- molded carbon resistors have cer-
ment type equipment such as radio tain tolerances. The standard tol-
or TV receivers, but you will run erances are 5%, 10% and 20%. You
into them in meters and test equip- will find mostly 10% resistors used
ment where the accuracy of ameter in radio and TV receivers; both 10%
reading will depend upon the accu- and 5% resistors will be found in
racy of the resistors in the equip- industrial control equipment.
ment. This type of resistor is iden- You should start to learn the re-
tified by stamping the value of the sistor color code by memory. You
resistor on the body of the resistor will have to use it over and over
again to identify resistors in elec-
along with its tolerance. If you should
have to repair ameter or some other tronic equipment. However, as we
test instrument and replace one of point out don't try to memorize it
these resistors, it is important that all at once. Read it through two or
the replacement have exactly the three times whenever you think about
same resistance and tolerance as it and you will soon have It mem-
the original. Of course, if you have orized.
to replace a 100K-ohm, 1% resistor Remember that 1% and 1/2% re-
and can't get a 1% resistor, you can sistors are used in test equipment
use a 1/2% tolerance resistor if one and if you should have to replace
is available. 1/2% and 1% resistors any of these resistors be sure that
are not nearly as readily available you use an exact value replacement
from radio and TV parts wholesalers and areplacement having atolerance
as are the standard 5% and 10% of at least as close as the tolerance
molded carbon resistors. Often of the original.
these precision resistors, as they Now answer the following self-
are called, must be obtained by test questions on this section of the
ordering them specially through lesson.
your parts wholesaler.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
SUMMARY
(q) What is 4.7K-ohms equal to
You have reached a point in your in ohms?
course now where you should be able (r) Express .39 megohms in K-
to convert from ohms to K-ohms and ohms and in ohms.
megohms or from the larger units (s) What is 680,000-ohms in K-
back to ohms without any trouble. ohms and in megohms?

23
 A 2200-ohm, 10% resistor brown, black, green and
actually has a value of 2000 silver, what is its value and
ohms. Is this resistor within tolerance?
its rated tolerance? (x) If a resistor is color coded
(u) A 10,000-ohm resistor has a green, blue, orange and gold,
tolerance of 5%. What is the what is its value and toler-
maximum value resistance ance?
that the resistor might actu- (Y) A resistor is colored red, red,
ally have and still be within red and silver. What is its
tolerance? value and tolerance?
(v) Reading from left to right the (z) In acertain piece of test equip-
color bands on a resistor are ment a 100K, 1% resistor has
orange, white, yellow and gold. burned out. You have available
What is the value and tolerance a 100K, 1/2% resistor. Can you
of the resistor? use this resistor as areplace-
(w) If a resistor is color coded ment ?

Resistors With Special

Characteristics
We have already mentioned one of the resistor is made and due to the
the important characteristics of type of material used as a binder to
carbon resistors, that is the fact hold the resistor together, the re-
that they change resistance with sistor might actually have a small
changes in temperature. Carbon it- positive temperature coefficient.
self has what we call a negative What happens is that the carbon in
temperature coefficient. Most ele- the resistor has anegative tempera-
ments that carry electricity have a ture coefficient which tends to cause
positive temperature characteris- a resistance to go down with an in-
tic. This means that if acopper wire crease in temperature but the other
is carrying a current and the tem- material has a positive temperature
perature of the wire increases the coefficient greater than the carbon
resistance will increase - the wire temperature coefficient and this
has a positive temperature coeffi- causes the resistance to go up when
cient. Carbon, as an element, does the temperature increases. Withthe
the opposite - if it is heated, its re- two fighting each other, it is hard
sistance goes down; it has a nega- to predict what will happen. Some
tive temperature coefficient. resistors will go down slightly in
Most carbon resistors have a resistance when they are heated,
negative temperature coefficient. others will increase slightly in re-
However, sometimes due to the way sistance.

24
 Wire-wound resistors and de- perature depends upon the type of
posited-film resistors in general material from which the thermistor
have a positive temperature coeffi- is made.
cient. Their resistance will increase Thermistors are quite often used
as the temperature is increased. in circuits where there is liable to
Actually, as far as a general pur- be a large current surge when the
pose resistor is concerned, we would equipment is first turned on. An ex-
prefer to have them with azero tem- ample of this type of application is
perature coefficient. In other words, in the power supply of a television
we would like their resistance to re- receiver that is designed for opera-
main constant as their temperature tion without a power transformer.
changes. Changes in resistance due When the equipment is first turned
to temperature changes often pro- on, a very high surge current will
duce undesirable results in elec- flow for a short time. A thermistor
tronic equipment. However, with placed in the circuit can limit this
modern manufacturing techniques, current to asafe value. As the equip-
most carbon, deposited-film and ment starts to operate, the current
wire-wound resistors have such a flowing through the thermistor
low temperature coefficient that any causes it to heat so that its resist-
change in their temperature in nor- ance value drops very rapidly and
mal operation will not cause their by the time the equipment has
resistance to change sufficiently to reached operating temperature and
cause any serious problem. is ready to operate, the resistance
In some special applications, how- of the thermistor has dropped to
ever, it is desirable to have a re- such a low value that it has very
sistor whose resistance value will little effect upon the performance
change with temperature. In this of the equipment. Thermistors of
section of the lesson we are going this type may have a resistance of
to briefly study two of these devices. 100 ohms or more when they are
cold, and a resistance of only a few
THERDIISTORS
A thermistor is a type of resis-
tor that is made of amaterial whose
resistance value varies with changes
in temperature. The material used
is a form of a semi-conductor ma-
terial quite similar to the material
used in the manufacture of transis-
tors.
Thermistors have anegative tem-
perature coefficient. This means
that as the temperature increases,
the resistance of the thermistor de-
creases. The amount that the re- Fig. 12. A typical thermistor, such as
sistance of the thermistor will might be found in a TV receiver, and its
change with a given change in tern- schematic symbol.

25
ohms when they have reached their
normal operating temperature in the
receiver.
A photograph of athermistor such
as you might find in the application
we mentioned in the television re-
ceiver is shown in Fig. 12. Notice
that the thermistor is made in the
form of a round disc with leads
attached to each side of it. The sche-
matic symbol used to represent the
thermistor is also shown in Fig.12.
The thermistor type shown in Fig.
12 is the type you are most likely to
encounter in TV receivers. How- Fig. 14. A typical varistor and its sche-
ever, there are many other different matic symbol.
types. A photo of a number of dif-
ferent types is shown in Fig. 13. across it. In other words ,as the volt-
age across the varistor increases,
the resistance of the varistor de-
creases.
Varistors are used in circuits to
protect components from damaging
high voltage transients. This could
cause componed failure. With ava-
ristor in the circuit, as the voltage
Fig. 13. Thermistors are made in many dif- rises the resistance of the varistor
ferent shapes as shown above. decreases, drawing a large current
from the voltage source which will
These types are often found in lower the voltage.
industrial electronic equipment. Varistors will be found in some
Sometimes they are used to control color TV receivers. A photo of a
current surges, in other applications varistor is shown in Fig. 14 along
they are used to measure tempera- with the schematic symbol used to
tures. You can tell the temperature identify it. You will notice that the
of the thermistor by measuring its varistor looks very much like a
resistance and thus the thermistor thermistor - as a matter of fact, it
can be used for temperature meas- is sometimes difficult to tell them
uring applications. apart from their appearance alone.

VARISTIORS HIGH-VOLTAGE
Another special type of resistor RESISTORS
is the varistor. This resistor is also In some applications resistors
called a voltage-dependent resistor. will be used across circuits where
This means that the resistance of the there is a comparatively high volt-
device depends upon the voltage age. Examples of this type of resis-

26
tor will be found in many television of 66 megohms. It would be difficult
receivers. to get this much resistance in a re-
High-voltage resistors must be sistor of this size and type by any
made quite long in order to keep the method other than the spiral-wound
voltage from jumping across the method. If you should have occasion
resistor. Usually the resistance ele- to replace a resistor of this type in
ment is placed on a form in the a television receiver or in any other
shape of a spiral curve. An example device where high voltages are used,
of this type of resistor is shown in you must be sure to use this special
Fig. 15A. The resistor is about 2-1/2 type of high-voltage resistor.
inches long and is used in a circuit
in a color TV receiver where the SUMMARY
operating voltage is in excess of
6000 volts. The resistor is made by In this section of the lesson we
putting the carbon on a form shaped have briefly studied three special
like a spiral that winds around the types of resistors - the thermistor,
resistor from one end to the other the varistor or voltage-dependent
as shown in the drawing in Fig. 15B. resistor, and the high-voltage re-
Resistors of this type are made sistor. A few years ago these three
with a spiral type element because types of resistors were unknown to
they normally have a very high re- the electronics technician, but mod-
sistance and by spiralling the re- ern technology has developed these
sistance element around the form in resistors and they are appearing
this way it is possible to get amuch more frequently in modern elec-
longer path, and therefore the high tronic equipment. Color TV in par-
resistance needed can be obtained in ticular has brought these resistors
a reasonable size. The unit shown into considerably more importance.
in the photograph has a resistance If you have to replace one of these
resistors, you should try to obtain
an exact duplicate replacement. Not
only is the cold resistance of a
thermistor or varistor important,
but also the way that the resistance
changes either with changes in tem-
perature in the case of the thermis-
tor or changes in voltages in the case
of the varistor is important. The
manner in which the resistance
changes is usually of even more im-
portance than the cold value of the
part.
High-voltage resistors are used
in circuits where the length of stand-
ard resistors is so short that if you
r‘r,
tried to use one the voltage would
Fig. 15. high-voltage resistor. simply arc across the resistor.

27
These resistors are usually made by (ac) Draw the schematic symbol
the spiralled-carbon ni ,thod so that for a thermistor.
a long path can be obtained in order (ad) What is a varistor?
to get a very high resistance. (ae) Where are varistors used?
(af) How do you tell the difference
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS between a thermistor and a
varistor?
(aa) What is a thermistor? (ag) What is a high-voltage resis-
(ab) Where are thermistors used? tor?

Meters
We have already mentioned that meter itself works and then we will
resistors made with tolerances of see what changes we can make in the
1% and 1/2% are used in electronic basic meter to make it more usable.
test equipment. Resistors made to
THE BASIC METER
these close tolerances are often
MOVEMENT
called precision resistors. Preci-
sion resistors are used with meters A simplified drawing of ad 'Arson-
in order to increase the usefulness val type meter is shown in Fig. 16.
of a given meter movement. Since Notice that we have a permanent
this represents another important magnet and that the faces of the poles
use of resistors, and since meters of the magnet have been curved.Be-
are very important, we are now tween the poles of the magnet we
going to present some of the basic have a coil that is wound on a very
fundamentals about meters. light frame. Usually the frame is
The meter most frequently used made of a thin piece of aluminum.
in electronics for current, voltage The frame and coil are attached
and resistance measurements is the to light-weight pivots, and these
d'Arsonval* meter. The meter gets pivots fit into jewel bearings. The
its name from the scientist who in- bearings are securely supported by
vented it. the meter frame so that the coil and
Basically the d'Arsonval meter the pivots are held in position and
is a current-indicating device, but can rotate freely between the poles
by arranging it in suitable circuits of the magnet. Attached to each pivot
it can be used to measure voltage and anchored to the meter frame is
and resistance as well as current. a spring. There is a spring on each
Let us go ahead and learn how the pivot and these springs are arranged
to rotate the coil into approximately
*Pronounced dar -son -val. The dar is the position shown in the figure. Also
I
ike ar in car, son like son or sun, and attached to the pivot is a pointer as
the val like all in ball. d'Arsonval . can be seen in the drawing. When

28
 POINTER
higher the current flowing through
MINUS JEWEL
TERMINAL
the coil, the more torque is pro-
BEARING
duced and the more the coil will be
SPRING able to rotate against the opposing
torque of the springs. As the coil
rotates, the meter pointer moves in
a clockwise direction and moves up
the scale of the meter, indicating
the current that is flowing through
the coil.
A typical current scale is shown
on the meter in Fig. 17. Notice that
when the meter pointer moves all
the way to the right side of the scale,
SPRING
the current flowing is 1 amp. We
call this meter an ammeter because
JEWEL
PLUS it measures the current in amps.
BEARING TERMINAL
We call it a 1 amp ammeter be-
Fig. 16. Ilms a d'Arsonval type of meter cause a current of 1 amp gives a
is made. full scale deflection. If a current of
1/2 amp flows through the meter
the coil rotates this pointer will coil, only half as much torque, or
rotate in a clockwise direction. rotating force will be developed, and
Notice that the ends of the coil as a result, the meter pointer will
are connected to the springs and move only halfway up the scale. If
the other ends of the springs are the current flowing through the
connected to terminals. One termi- meter coil is one quarter of an amp,
nal is the negative terminal and the then one-fourth the torque needed to
other terminal is the positive ter- produce a full-scale deflection will
minal. be produced and the meter pointer
When a current flows through the will move only one-quarter of the
meter coil, the coil will become an way up the scale.
electromagnet. If the current enters We mentioned earlier that the coil
the negative terminal of the meter
and leaves the positive terminal a
field will be set up in the electro-
magnet that will be attracted by the
field of the permanent magnet. The
attraction between the two fields will
produce a force called torque that
will try to rotate the coil. The torque
will cause the coil to rotate in a
clockwise direction against the force
or torque of the springs until the
torque in the coil is balanced by the
opposing torque of the springs. The Fig. 17. A 1-amp ammeter.

29
was generally wound on alightweight of fact, d'Arsonval meters that can
aluminum frame. The aluminum indicate currents of only a few
frame acts like a coil made of one microamps can be made, tut usu-
turn of wire that is shorted. When ally the most sensitive d'Arson-
a current flows through the meter val meters used by technicians
coil and the coil begins to rotate, for routine measurements are 50
the one turn coil made up of the microampere meters. More sensi-
aluminum frame also rotates. As tive meters are quite expensive and
the aluminum frame rotates, it will very delicate and are usually used
cut through the field produced by the in laboratory-type measurements
permanent magnet and avoltage will rather than in the type of measure-
be induced in it. Although the voltage ments that the service technician
induced in the one turn coil made up will normally make.
of the frame will be low, a fairly
MEASURING CURRENT
high current will flow through the
coil because it has a very low re- To measure the current flowing
sistance. This in turn sets up a in a circuit, the meter is placed in
significantly strong magnetic field the circuit so that the current flow-
that opposes the motion of the meter ing in the circuit must flow through
coil. The net effect is that this op- it. Fig. 18 shows how a meter can
position damps the movement of the be connected in a simple series cir-
coil. It prevents the coil from swing- cuit to find the current flowing in
ing too rapidly in aclockwise direc- the circuit. Notice the schematic
tion - this would cause the coil to symbol for the meter at B. The letter
swing past the position it is supposed I, for current, may be placed inside
to reach and oscillate back and forth of the circle as in the figure. Some-
around the position it should reach. times the letter A, meaning am-
The field produced by the current peres, is placed in the circle and
flowing in the aluminum frame will sometimes MA, meaning milliam-
prevent this from happening and as peres, is used. A is also used to
a result the pointer will move up- indicate microamps.
scale at a reasonable speed and in- Before you measure the current
dicate the value of current flowing in a circuit, you need to have some
with a minimum of oscillation back idea of what the current might be.
and forth past the correct value due D'Arsonval meters are made in
to the coil rotating too rapidly when many different ranges. We already
the current is first applied to it. mentioned that this type of meter
The d'Arsonval meter can be made can be made very sensitive so that
very sensitive. By using avery light- it can measure a current of only a
weight frame and many turns of very few microamperes. If the meter is
fine wire to wind the coil and keeping designed to measure currents in
the weight of the moving part of the microamperes, it is called amicro-
meter as low as possible, it is pos- ammeter. Some d'Arsonval meters
sible to build a meter of this type have a scale on them that indicates
that will indicate a current of 50 the current in milliamperes. This
microamps quite easily. As amatter type of meter is called a milli-

30
ammeter. Still other meters are use the highest range meter you
made to measure higher currents have. You can always put a more
and the scale indicates the current sensitive meter in the circuit later,
in amperes; this type of meter is if you find that the current is small
called an ammeter. All work on the and will not damage a more sensi-
same principle; they get their dif- tive meter.
ferent names from the current val- We mentioned that meters are
ues they are designed to measure. available in many different ranges.
If you should connect a micro- Actually, meter manufacturers do
ammeter in a circuit where the cur- not make a large number of dif-
rent flow is several amperes, the ferent meter movements. Instead,
current flow through the meter would they make a few standard meter
be so high that either you would burn movements and then extend the range
out the meter coil or else the very of the meter by means of shunts.
strong current flowing through the You have already studied parallel
coil would cause the coil to rotate circuits and you know that when two
so violently, that it would either resistances are placed in parallel,
bend the meter pointer by starting part of the current will flow through
too fast or else slam the meter one resistance and part through the
pointer up against the end of the other. The coil in ad 'Arsonval meter
scale and ruin the meter. There- has a certain resistance. For ex-
fore, as we mentioned earlier you ample, if you have a meter that in-
need to have some idea of what the dicates a current of 10 milliamperes
current flow in the circuit is so you and the coil has a resistance of 100
can be sure to use a meter that is ohms, and if you place a 100-ohm
capable of measuring the current resistor in parallel with the meter,
flowing in the circuit. If you don't half the current flowing in the cir-
know what the current is, you should cuit would flow through the meter

1\-MITTTPrrp7

Fig. 18. .N meter connected into a series eireuit to measure current. Pictorial of meter
is shown at ..1.; schematic symbol, at B.

31
 you buy a 50 ma meter and a500 ma
meter, they will both be either 5ma
or 1ma meters with suitable shunts
inside the meter to give the higher
Imo flaws through ranges.
cml of motet

9m0 loam tIrceugh

VOLTAGE PAILLIAIAMETER
=SOURCE
shunt retold*.
DC VOLTMETERS

m
LOAD
s y wew, Load crrrrr tIt 10 ma
A d'Arsonval meter can be used to
read voltages by connecting aresis-
tor in series with the meter. This
Fig. 19. By adding a shunt resistor, this resistor is called a multiplier. In
0-1 ma de milliammeter can he made to Fig. 20 we have shown how a
read current up to 10 milliamperes. d'Arsonval meter can be used with
a multiplier to measure voltage. The
coil and half through the resistance. basic meter is a 1 milliampere
In this case, if the total current is meter. This means that at full scale
10 milliamperes, only 5 milliam- the meter will indicate a current of
peres will flow through the meter 1 milliampere. Now, you know from
coil. The remainder will flow Ohm's Law that when a voltage is
through the shunt resistor. This applied to aresistance acurrent will
means that the meter pointer would flow through the resistance and the
move only to half-scale. value of the current will depend upon
An example of a meter used with the voltage and on the resistance. If
a shunt is shown in Fig. 19. Here we put enough resistance in series
the basic meter movement is de- with the meter so that the total re-
signed to give afull-scale deflection sistance is 1000 ohms, then it will
with a current of 1 milliampere take a voltage of 1 volt to cause a
through the coil. The meter has a current of 1ma to flow through the
resistance of 100 ohms. A shunt has resistance and the meter. If we con-
been placed across the meter coil nected the combination across abat-
having one-ninth the resistance of
the coil. Now, the current divides
so that nine-tenths of the current
will flow through the shunt and one-
tenth through the coil. Therefore,
it is possible to place a scale on 10,000
the meter that indicates 10 milli- OHMS

amperes at full scale. When the total

current flowing is 10 milliamperes,
1will flow through the coil and cause
the meter to read full scale and 9 VOLTMETER
TERMINALS
will flow through the shunt.
Manufacturers use shunts to pro-
vide a large number of meters with Fig. 20...1 de voltmeter made from a 0-1 ma
different ranges. The chances are if de milliammeter and a 10,000-ohm resistor.

32
tery and the battery voltage was 1 cussing so far has been a 1milli-
volt, a 1 milliampere current would ampere meter. However, if instead
flow and the meter pointer would in- of using a 1 milliampere meter as
dicate full scale. If the voltage was a voltmeter we start with a basic
only 1/2 volt, then only half amilli- meter movement of 50 microam-
ampere would flow in the circuit and peres we will have a much more
the meter pointer would move up to sensitive meter. If we convert a 50
half scale. u amp meter to a voltmeter when
If instead of a 1000-ohm resist- the meter pointer reads full scale,
ance we add enough resistance in it means that the current flowing
series with the meter to give us a through the meter and its multiplier
total resistance of 10,000 ohms, is 50 microamperes. If we want to
then it would take 10 volts to cause build a meter that will indicate full
a current of 1 milliampere to flow scale when a voltage of 1volt is ap-
in the circuit. Under these condi- plied to it, we can use Ohm's Law to
tions the meter pointer would again find out how much resistance we need
move up to full scale. in the circuit. Using
With a multiplier in series with
E
the meter we can calibrate the meter R =—
I
directly in volts rather than in milli-
amperes. With a total resistance of and substituting 1volt for E and 50
10,000 ohms in the circuit we can microamperes for Iwe get
mark the full scale reading as 10
volts and half scale reading as 5 1
R -
volts and so on. If the total resist- .000050
ance in the circuit is 100,000 ohms
then a full scale reading would be and we can multiply by 1,000,000 to
100 volts. convert this current to amperes and
Notice that for each volt we have then we will have
added a resistance of 1000 ohms in
series with the meter. If we want R - 1 x 1,000,000
the meter to read 1 volt full scale 50
then we need a total resistance of
1000 ohms. If we want the meter to R - 1 000 '000
' 50
read 10 volts full scale then we need
a total resistance of 10,000 ohms
and if we want the meter to read and now cancelling one zero above
100 volts full scale then we need a and below the line, and dividing 5
total resistance of 100,000 ohms. into 100,000 we find that
We call this type of meter a 1000-
ohms per volt meter. We say that R = 20,000 ohms
the meter sensitivity is 1000 ohms
per volt. You will see later that the We say that the sensitivity of this
sensitivity of the meter is impor- meter is 20,000 ohms per volt. If
tant in taking voltage measurements. instead of a 1-volt meter we want a
The meter we have been dis- 10-volt meter we need to add ten

33
times as much resistance or a total As you can see in the circuit the
of 200,000 ohms. If we want a 100- ohmmeter consists of a 4.5 volt bat-
volt meter then we would have to add tery, two resistors (one a fixed re-
100 x 20,000 or 2,000,000 ohms in sistor and the other a variable re-
series with the meter. sistor), and a 1 ma meter. The fixed
Since the higher sensitivity meter resistor has a resistance of 4000
actually draws less current from the ohms. The adjustable resistor has
circuit, the meter will have less a resistance of 1000 ohms and under
tendency to upset the circuit when normal circumstances you would
voltage measurements are taken. short the test probes of the ohm-
This is particularly important in meter together and then adjust the
electronic circuits where the re- variable resistor to get a full scale
sistance is high. If you use a 1,000- reading. If the battery voltage is
ohm per volt meter to take avoltage exactly 4.5 volts, you will get a full
measurement, the chances are that scale reading, in other words, acur-
the meter itself will take more cur- rent of 1 ma through the meter when
rent than is actually being used to the resistance of the potentiometer
operate the circuit. This means that is set at slightly less than 500 ohms.
the meter will upset the circuit so With this setting of the potentiome-
that the voltage reading you will ter you will have a total resistance
obtain will not be the actual voltage in the circuit of 4500 ohms. The
that is present in the circuit when potentiometer is set at a value
the meter is disconnected. On the slightly less than 500 ohms to make
other hand, a 20,000-ohm per volt up for the internal resistance of the
meter has twenty times the resist- battery and the resistance of the
ance; it takes far less current from meter. In any case, with a voltage
the circuit and is much less likely of exactly 4.5 volts, the resistance
to upset the voltages in the circuit. in the circuit will be 4500 ohms.
Now if you separate the test
OHMMETERS
probes, the circuit will be open and
An ohmmeter is a device used to the meter pointer will drop back to
measure resistance. Actually, an 0. If you place a 4500-ohm resistor
ohmmeter is nothing more than a between the test probes, then the
d'Arsonval type meter used in con- total resistance in the circuit will
junction with a battery and a series be 9000 ohms, and the current that
resistor. A circuit of atypical ohm- will flow in the circuit will be .5 ma.
meter is shown in Fig. 21. In other words, you will get a half-
scale deflection on the meter. If you
were measuring the resistance of an
unknown value and you got a half-
scale reading, you would know im-
mediately that its resistance was
4500 ohms.
As a matter of fact, you can take
Fig. 21. A schematic diagram of an ohm- any current reading that you might
meter. get on the meter scale and use Ohm 's

34
Law to calculate the total resistance MULTIMETERS
in the circuit. Knowing that the bat-
tery voltage is 4.5 volts, you simply A multimeter is simply ameter in
use the formula which asingled 'Arsonval type meter
is arranged with a series of
switches, resistors and batteries,
R =E so that by rotating the switches it
can be used to perform alarge num-
ber of functions. One switch is usu-
and substitute 4.5 volts for the bat- ally called the function switch. By
tery voltage and the value of current putting this switch in the correct
indicated on the meter. This will give position, you can use the meter
you the total resistance in the cir- either to measure voltage, current
cuit. From this value you subtract or resistance. The other important
4500 ohms, which is the fixed re- switch on the multimeter is called
sistance in the circuit and this will the range switch. This switch con-
give you the resistance of the un- trols the full-scale reading that you
known resistor. will obtain on the meter. In other
Instead of going through this pro- words, with the switch in one posi-
cedure of calculating the resistance tion, when you are measuring volt-
value each time you make a meas- age, a full-scale reading might in-
urement, these calculations can be dicate 10 volts. With the switch in an-
worked for various current values other position the full-scale reading
and the meter calibrated directly in might indicate a voltage of 100 volts,
ohms. This is what is done in an and in a third position it might in-
ohmmeter. dicate a voltage of 500 volts.
If you need to measure higher re- Multimeters are widely used by
sistances, you can use a higher bat- service technicians because the
tery voltage. For example, if you basic d'Arsonval meter movement
used a 45-volt battery then you have is quite expensive, and it is more
to put a total of 45,000 ohms in the economical to use a single meter
circuit to get a full-scale meter with suitable switches and resistors
reading. Then a center scale read- to perform all types of measure-
ing would represent a resistance of ments than it is to have a number
45,000 ohms, instead of 4500 ohms of separate meters for different
as before. measurements.
Another way of building a meter
that will give higher resistance SUMMARY
readings conveniently is to use a
more sensitive meter. If you use a As an electronics technician, you
50 microamp meter, you will need will not have to know how meters
a total resistance in the circuit of are designed or built. You should
90,000 ohms to give you afull-scale understand the basic operation of a
reading. Thus with this type of meter so that you will know how it
meter, a center scale reading will works - this will help you use it to
indicate aresistance of 90,000 ohms. the best advantage. You must know

35
that meters are very delicate and go into it in this lesson because it
must be handled carefully. If you will be much easier to learn to read
drop a meter or bang it hard you the scale when you actually have the
are liable to knock the pivots out of meter in front of you.
the jewel bearings, in which case
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
the meter pointer will stick as it
moves upscale. (ah) What is the name given to the
You must avoid overloading a basic meter movement most
meter. The coiled springs in ameter frequently used in voltage,
are made of phosphor bronze. If they current and resistance meas-
are overloaded they overheat and urements?
their shape is distorted. If adjacent (ai) What causes the pointer of a
turns of a spring touch enough, fric- meter to move upscale when
tion is produced to upset the meter a current flows through the
accuracy. meter?
Technicians seldom have to take (aj) What force must the coil in a
current measurements, but you meter overcome before it can
should know how to connect a meter rotate?
in order to take a current measure- (ak) What purpose, other than to
ment. You must remember to use a hold the coil, does the alumi-
meter that is capable of measuring num frame on which the coil
the current in a circuit. If you have is wound serve?
no idea what the current is you should (al) How is a meter connected to
start with the largest meter you have measure current flowing in a
first and then work down to asmaller circuit?
range meter after you are sure that (am) How do you connect a volt-
the current is low enough not to meter in order to measure the
damage it. voltage across a part?
Voltage measurements are prob- (an) Which type of voltmeter will
ably the most important measure- upset the circuit performance
ment to the technician. You need to less, a 1000-ohm-per-volt
know how to take a voltage meas- meter or a 10,000-ohm-per
urement and you need to understand volt meter?
what effect the meter sensitivity will
have on the accuracy of the voltage ANSWERS TO SELF-
measurement. A meter with high TEST QUESTIONS
sensitivity will take less current
from the circuit and there will be (a) A series-dropping resistor
less chance of the meter upsetting drops the available voltage to
the circuit so that you will obtain the value required by the load.
an erroneous voltage measurement. 38 volts. The two 35-volt tubes
When you start working on your will require a total voltage of
kits, you will use your meter to take 70 volts in series, and the two
both current and voltage measure- 6-volt tubes will require an
ments. You will learn how to read additional 12 volts, giving a
the scale on the meter - we will not total required voltage of 82

36
 volts. Subtracting 82 volts bleeder is wasted current in-
from the 120-volt power line sofar as performing any other
gives us a voltage of 38 volts useful function other than
which the series-dropping re- regulating the voltage across
sistor must drop. the load is concerned. Since
; (e) 126.6 ohms. Using Ohm's Law the more current you draw
to find the value resistor we from a power supply, the
have a voltage of 38 volts and larger the components (hence
a current of .3 amps. Using the more expensive they must
the formula be), the bleeder current should
be no larger than necessary to
E give you the regulation re-
R =
quired. Excessive bleeder
current with regulation better
and substituting the values for than is required is costly and
current and voltage we get can run the cost of the power
supply substantially higher
38 than necessary.
R = = 126.6 ohms
.3 (g) 10K ohms. You can determine
the resistance of the series-
Since it would be impossible dropping resistor two ways.
to obtain a resistor of this The easy way: if you notice
value you use the nearest that the voltage across the load
standard size which is 130 is 200 volts and you have to
ohms. If you get 126 or 127 drop 100 volts across the
ohms as your answer your an- dropping resistor, you can see
swer is close enough; when that the resistance of the
you went to buy a resistor you dropping resistor must be half
would simply have to take a the resistance of the load. The
resistor having a resistance other way is to calculate the
as close as you could get to current through the load re-
the calculated value. sistor using Ohm's Law. Once
A bleeder is used to regulate you have the current you can
or help maintain constant the then calculate the size resis-
voltage across a load. tor required as the series-
A bleeder that draws a sub- dropping resistor to drop 100
4
stantial current will be more volts. From Ohm's Law the
effective than a high-resist- current through the load will
ance bleeder that draws only be
a small current. The greater
the bleeder current in propor- 200
- .01 amps
tion to the load current, the 20,000
more effective the bleeder will
be insofar as regulating the Now to find the value of the
load voltage is concerned. dropping resistor you have to
(f) The current consumed by the use the formula

37
 100 Substituting 50 volts for E and
- 10K ohms.
.01
5000 ohms for R we have
(h) The watt.
(i) 45 watts. You use the formula 50 x50 2500
P-
5000 5000 -1/2 watt.
P=E XI
(m) 100 watts. To solve this prob-
and substituting 15 for E and
lem we use the formula
3 for Iwe get

P = 15 x 3 =45 watts. P = I2R

substituting 2 for Iand 25 for

(i) When we say aresistor is dis-
R we have
sipating 10 watts ,we mean that
the resistor is using 10 watts
P = 2 x 2 x 25 = 100 watts.
of electrical energy. We say
it is dissipating the power be-
(n) 10 watts. To solve this prob-
cause it changes the power
lem we must convert milli-
from electrical energy to heat.
amps to amps and K-ohms to
It is taking 10 watts of elec-
ohms and then use the for-
trical energy out of the cir-
mula
cuit and converting it to heat.
(k) 10 watts. To find the power
P =I
3R
dissipated by the resistor we
use the formula
10 ma = .01 amps.
100K = 100,000 ohms.

Substituting these values in the

formula we get
Remember that E2 = E x E.
Substituting 100 for E and 1000 P = .01 x .01 x 100,000
for R we have P = .0001 x 100,000.

- 100 x 100 To multiply 100,000 by .0001

P
1000 we simply move the decimal
point four places to the left
and cancelling three zeros thus
above the line and three zeros
below the line we have: P = 100,000 x.0001= 10 watts.

P = 10 watts. (o) 3 ohms. Maximum power

transfer will be obtained when
(1) 1/2 watt. Again, to solve this the load resistance is equal to
problem we use the formula: the battery resistance.

38
 You would use a 10-ohm re- within tolerance will be10,000
sistor to get maximum power plus 500 equals 10,500 ohms.
transfer to the load; resist- (v) 390,000 ohms, which is also
ance should equal the battery equal to 390K-ohms. The tol-
resistance. With a 10-ohm erance is 5%.
load resistance, the total re- 1,000,000 ohms or 1megohm.
sistance in the circuit will be The tolerance is 10%.
20 ohms, and therefore the 56,000 ohms or 56K-ohms.
current flow in the circuit will The tolerance is 5%.
be 2200 ohms or 2.2K-ohms. Its
20 tolerance is 10%.
I =-
2-0-= 1amp.
Yes. The 1/2% resistor has a
closer tolerance than the 1%
The total power produced by
resistor. This means that it
the battery will be
will vary less from the indi-
cated value than the 1% re-
P =ExI
sistor - in other words it is
P = 20 x 1 = 20 watts.
a better resistor. You can al-
ways use a better resistor -
The power transferred to the
one with a closer tolerance as
resistor can be found using the
a replacement.
formula
(aa) A thermistor is a special re-
P =I2R sistor with a negative tem-
P = 1 x 10 = 10 watts. perature coefficient. In other
words, as the resistor heats,
(c1) 4700 ohms.
(r) .39 megohms equals 390K- its resistance will decrease.
ohms; .39 megohms is also (ab) Thermistors are used in cir-
equal to 390,000 ohms. cuits in which high current
surges are often obtained when
(s) 680,000 ohms equals 680K
equals .68 megs. the equipment is first turned
(t) The resistor is within its rated on. The high cold resistance
tolerance. A 2200-ohm resis- of the thermistor limits the
tor with a tolerance of 10% initial current surge. As the
may vary as much as 220 ohms thermistor heats up, the re-
above or below its indicated sistance drops so that it has
value. Subtracting 220 from very little effect on the cir-
2200 gives us 1980 as the lower cuit performance.
limit of the resistor. Since (ac) See Fig. 12.
2000 ohms is between this (ad) A varistor is avoltage-depen-
lower limit and the indicated dent resistor. A voltage-de-
value of the resistor, the re- pendent resistor is a resis-
sistor is within tolerance. tor whose resistance depends
(u) 10,500 ohms. 5% of 10,000 upon the voltage applied
ohms is 500 ohms. Therefore across it. If the voltage in-
the maximum value that the creases, the resistance of the
resistor can have and still be varistor decreases.

39
(ae) Varistors are used in circuits (aj) The opposing torque of the
where sudden increases of springs. The springs are used
voltage could damage compo- to hold the meter coil and
nents or otherwise upset the pointer in a 0 position when
performance of the circuit. no current flows through the
With a varistor in the cir- coil, and to oppose the move-
cuit, as the voltage increa se s, ment of the coil when current
the resistance of the varistor flows through the coil.
decreases, drawing a large (ak) The aluminum frame acts as
current from the voltage a shorted turn. The motion of
source. The increased cur- the coil in the magnetic field
rent drain tends to lower the of the permanent magnet in-
voltage to a safe level. duces a voltage in the coil
(af) Often you cannot tell the dif- which opposes the movement
ference between a thermistor of the coil and frame. This
and a varistor simply by look- tends to damp the coil move-
ing at them. You should refer ment and prevent its oscil-
to the schematic diagram of lating or swinging back and
the equipment in which they forth past the indicated value.
are used to identify eachtype. (al) The meter is connected in
(ag) A high-voltage resistor is a series with the circuit to
resistor made for use in high measure current flowing in the
voltage circuits. The resistor circuit.
is longer than most resistors (am) You connect the voltmeter di-
in order to prevent a voltage rectly across the part where
arc across the resistor. High- you want to measure the volt-
voltage resistors are usually age. The voltmeter must be
made by the spiral-wound connected with the proper po-
carbon technique in order to larity; the negative side of the
provide a carbon path long meter must be connected to
enough to produce the required the end of the part that is con-
resistance. nected closest to the negative
(ah) The d'Arsonval meter. terminal of the voltage source,
(ai) The current flowing through and the positive terminal must
the meter coil sets up a mag- be connected to the end of the
netic field. This field working part closest to the positive
with the magnetic field of the terminal of the voltage
permanent magnet in the source.
meter produces atorque which (an) A 10,000-ohm-per-volt meter
causes the coil and its frame will have less effect on the cir-
to rotate. The meter pointer cuit because it will take less
is attached to the coil frame current from the circuit when
and so the meter pointer you take a voltage measure-
moves upscale. ment.

40
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B105-1.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the
next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable. However, don't hold your answers too long;
you may lose them. Don't hold answers to more than two sets at a time
or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. Name three important kinds of wire-wound resistors.

2. What is a series-voltage-dropping resistor?

3. A 750-ohm load must be operated with avoltage of 75 volts. The out-

put voltage from the power supply is 125 volts. What value of series-
dropping resistor should be used to drop the power supply voltage to
the correct value for the load?

4. A 15-volt battery is supplying a current of 3 amps to a load. What is

the power the battery is supplying?

5. The voltage across a5000-ohm resistor is 100 volts. How much power
is the resistor dissipating?

6. What is the purpose of a bleeder?

7. What is a thermistor?

8. Express the following resistance values in ohms:

(a) 2.2K, (b) 470K, (c) 3.3 megs, (d) .17 mega. (e) .47 megs.

9. An ammeter has a full scale reading of 1 amp and an internal resist-

ance of 1 ohm. A separate external 1-ohm shunt is connected in paral-
lel with the meter. If the meter and shunt are connected into a cir-
cuit, and the meter indicates a current of .5 amps, what current is
actually flowing in the circuit?

10. What do we mean when we say that a meter has a sensitivity of 1000
ohms per volt?
 A PLAN FOR YOUR FUTURE
In a radio interview a few minutes after a cham-
pionship heavyweight boxing match, one of the fighters
stated his plans for the future as follows:

"I'm going to get myself in shape, fight

my own fights, and listen to nobody:"

You can use these dynamite-packed words as your

plan for the future, too. Here's the way:

"GET MYSELF IN SHAPE." You're doing this

right now, because the NR! Course gets you in shape
for a career in electronics. But remember that it takes
the complete NR! Course, with all its associated
practical work, to get you completely in shape.

"FIGHT MY OWN FIGHTS." In real life, the only

person who can bring you success is YOU yourself.
Expecting somebody else to do your work and fight
for your success is just wishful thinking.

"LISTEN TO NOBODY." Even friends and rela-

tives will at times ridicule your studies -- they can't
help it, because seeing you get ahead makes them
feel uncomfortable about their own laziness. So,
remember human nature, and don't give anyone a
chance to discourage you.

,---,-----i
à
 I

Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139- LT-205
 HOW COILS ARE USED

irr±
- ii.pFrO WI I'
iirj JWI
B106
"Iry

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

HOW COILS ARE USED

B106
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NR! Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

1. Introduction Pages 1-3

Here we describe how coils are used, different types of coils,
and basic coil action.

2. Magnetic Circuits Pages 4-9

Similarities between magnetic circuits and electrical circuits are
brought out.

3. Using Coils to Produce Voltage Pages 10 -16

You learn how flux linkages can be changed to produce
voltage, and you study Lenz's Law of coils.

4. Inductance Pages 16 -23

We take up the basic property of coils and learn about
self-induced voltages and mutual inductance.

5. Ohm's Law for Coils Pages 24 -36

You learn how to find the current in an ac circuit by using
vectors or mathematics and you also study ICirchhoffs Voltage
Law, the importance of phase and what the Q of acoil is.

[11 6. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 36 -40

7. Answer the Lesson Questions.

8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

JDL3M1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW COILS ARE USED
.41;;,i4egil¡M4 :
:M4 ,
r

Coils are important to the elec- nal and reject the signals from the
tronics technician because they are other radio stations. Similarly, coils
used in all types of electronic equip- are used in television receivers to
ment. They are used in many dif- enable you to tune from one channel
ferent ways to perform different to another. The coils used for this
jobs. Many different types of coils purpose in radio receivers will have
are used in electronic equipment - many turns on them whereas the
some coils may have only one or two coils used to select the different
turns whereas other coils may have channels in a TV receiver will have
several thousand turns. You will find only a few turns on them.
all types of coils in industrial elec- Coils are used in power supplies
tronic equipment, in radio and tele- to help smooth the pulsating de out-
vision receivers, and for that mat- put from a rectifier to pure dc. Coils
ter, in practically every type of elec- used for this purpose are called
tronic equipment you will encounter. filter chokes or simply chokes. They
Since you will find coils used in all act to permit direct current to flow
types of electronic equipment, it is through them without any opposition,
important for you to understand what but offer a high opposition to ac cur-
they are used for and how they work. rent or any change in the amplitude
of the direct current.
HOW COILS ARE USED Coils are used to produce motion.
During the daytime you can prob- You have already seen an example of
ably find somewhere between ten and this in the d'Arsonval meter. The
twenty-five different stations op- current flowing through the coil pro-
erating on the standard broadcast duces a magnetic field which acts
band on your radio receiver. During with the field from the permanent
the evening hours you can probably magnet to cause the coil to rotate.
find even more stations coming in. Coils are used in motors in much
Coils are used with capacitors in the same way; the magnetic field
special circuits called resonant cir- produced in a coil wound on a form
cuits to enable you to select one sig- called an armature opposes or at-

1
tracts the field produced by a sta- a form about an inch in diameter
tionary magnet and the armature ro- and having close to one thousand
tates. Coils are also used in gen- turns. Both coils perform the same
erators to produce electricity; ro- task - they are used along with ca-
tating the coil so that the turns of pacitors to select one radio fre-
the coil cut through the magnetic quency signal and reject others.
lines of force produced by the field We mentioned that choke coils
or stationary magnet of the genera- were used in power supplies to help
tor results in a voltage being in- provide smooth dc. A choke coil of
duced in the turns of the coil. this type found in a typical color TV
Coils are used in transformers. receiver will be wound on an iron
You already know that atransformer core. The coil itself will usually
is nothing more than two or more have several hundred turns and the
coils wound on a common core. If complete assembly may weigh two or
ac is fed to one of the coils, which three pounds. On the other hand, the
we call the primary coil, a voltage choke coil used for the same pur-
will be induced in the other coil, pose in a large radio transmitter
which we call the secondary coil. If will be much larger. The iron core
the secondary coil has more turns itself will be much larger and a
on it Ulna the primary coil, the total much larger size of wire will be
voltage produced by the secondary used because the wire will have to
coil will be higher than the primary carry a heavier current. Chokes of
voltage, but if the secondary coil has this type will weigh one hundred
fewer turns on it than the primary pounds or more.
coil, the voltage produced by the You will also run into small chokes
secondary winding will be lower than called radio frequency chokes (ab-
the voltage applied to the primary breviated rfc). A radio frequency
coil. choke may have only a few turns
and may be completely self-support-
TYPES OF COILS
ing or it may have several hundred
We have already mentioned that turns and be wound on some non-
a coil used to select Lie various magnetic type of material. The num-
channels in a TV receiver may have ber of turns required on aradio fre-
only a few turns. In fact, a coil used quency choke depends on the fre-
in a UHF TV tuner is often made quency at which the choke is to be
with a wire shaped something like used and how much opposition it must
a ribbon rather than a round piece offer to the flow of radio frequency
of wire. The material is usually currents through it. Generally
silver plated to cut down losses and speaking, the higher the frequency at
the total coil will consist of about which the choke is to be used, the
three quarters of a turn with a di- fewer the number of turns the choke
ameter of about an inch and a half. will have.
On the other hand, in a long wave In spite of the great difference in
receiver (a receiver designed to re- the size of the coils we have de-
ceive stations lower in frequency scribed, their operation is basically
than the standard radio broadcast the same. Thus it is important for
band) you may find coils wound on you to understand the basic facts

2
about how a coil works. Once you the magnetic lines of force all go
have learned these facts you will through the loop in the same direc-
know exactly what a coil does in the tion. This concentrates the mag-
circuit whether it is a small coil netic flux around the loop. If, in-
having two or three turns or alarge stead of being bent into a single
coil with many turns wound on an loop, the wire is bent into a number
iron core. of loops so that the coil has a num-
ber of turns, additional magnetic
COIL ACTION flux will be created, which will re-
In its simplest form a coil is sult in a stronger magnetic field.
nothing more than one or two turns Because of the magnetic flux, the
or loops of wire, usually wound in a coil offers more opposition to the
circular or helical (spiral) shape. If flow of alternating current than it
the coil is self-supporting so that it does to the flow of direct current.
has no core other than air, it is called You will see in this lesson why this
an air-core coil. If the coil is wound is so. Once you understand why a
on a cardboard, ceramic, or non- coil offers more opposition to ac than
magnetic type of material, it is also to dc, you will have a good under-
called an air-core coil. The card- standing of how a coil works.
board form or ceramic form are Since the operation of a coil de-
used only to hold the turns of wire pends upon the magnetic flux pro-
in place, and have no appreciable duced by the coil, it is important
effect on the performance of the coil. that you know more about magnetic
On the other hand, if the coil is wound circuits. Therefore, before going
on a form made up of a magnetic ahead with our study of coils, we
type of material such as iron, it is will study magnetic circuits.
called an iron-core coil. Air-core
ELECTRON
coils are frequently placed inside FLOW
THROUGH
metal shields or housings to prevent WIRE

their picking up interference from

outside sources or producing inter-
ference in other circuits. These
shields may have some effect on the
performance of the coils, but it is
MAGNETIC
quite different from the effect of an LINES OF
iron-core and so they are still con- FORCE ALL 4, I ELECTRON
GO THROUGH I + FLOW
sidered as air-core coils. MAGNETIC LINES LOOP IN SAME THROUGH
LOOP OF
OF FORCE DIRECTION WIRE
You already know that when acur- AROUND WIRE
rent is flowing through a wire there
is a magnetic field around the wire ig. I. When current flows through a wire,
as shown in Fig. 1A. The current magnetic lines of force are set up around
produces magnetic lines of force, the wire as at A. When the wire is bent
which are also known as magnetic into a loop, the lines of force all go
flux or flux lines. When the wire is through the loop in the same direction, as
bent into a loop as shown in Fig. 1B, shown at B.

3
 Magnetic Circuits
You already know that the mag- MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
netic lines of force produced by a
current flowing through a coil exist
only as long as current flows. Once
the current flowing through the coil
stops, the magnetic lines of force
will disappear.
Another important fact is that the
magnetic lines of force are complete
loops, having no ends. Notice that in
Fig. 1, the magnetic lines of force
around the wire and around the single
coil were represented as complete
loops. When two turns of wire are Fig. 3. When current flows through acoil,
placed close together, the magnetic magnetic lines of force are produced.
lines of force form complete loops These are complete loops, passing through
around the two turns as shown in and around the coil.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3 shows a coil made up
of a number of turns and shows how coil may have thousands of such
the lines of force come out of the magnetic lines each forming acom-
left of the coil and circle around to plete loop and passing through all
or part of the coil and radiating out
BACK FRONT from the ends of the coil. The path
OF OF
of these magnetic lines of force is
COIL COIL
the magnetic circle of the coil. Al-
though most of the lines of force will
be concentrated near the coil, some
will extend quite some distance
from it.

AIR -CORE COILS

As we mentioned previously, some
coils are completely self-supporting
or wound on a cardboard or ceramic
—LINES OF FORCE —
form. The purpose of these forms is
Fig. 2. Lines of force loop around both simply to support the turns of wire
turns of the coil. making up the coil. Cardboard or
ceramic serves no useful purpose as
the right end of the coil. Notice that far as the operation of the coil is
all of the lines of force are actually concerned. The actual core of the
complete loops. We have not tried coil is simply air. This means that
to draw all the magnetic lines of the lines of force must travel through
force that exist around the coil air. This is the basic definition of
having a current flow through it. The an air-core coil: it is acoil in which

4
 the lines of force must travel through
air or some other material that acts
just like air insofar as the magnetic
lines of force are concerned.

IRON-CORE COILS

Frequently a coil is wound on an nnüii

iron or steel form or on acardboard
form with an iron or steel slug in-
Fig. 5. Construction of an iron-core coil
side it. The iron or steel core makes with laminated core.
a better magnetic circuit than air,
and there will be a greater number cient. You will learn more about
and concentration of the magnetic this in a later lesson.
lines of force. This means there will In high-frequency circuits a pow-
be more flux lines produced by the dered iron core is often used. This
coil. This type of coil is called an type of core is made by pulverizing
iron-core coil. In coils designed for iron filings and mixing them with a
use in a power line or at audio fre- binder to hold them together and to
quencies, the iron-core is made up insulate the particles from each
of thin strips of iron or steel called other. A core of this type, called a
"laminations." These pieces of steel slug, is often inserted in a coil by
means of a screw so it can be ad-
LAMINATED CORE justed in and out of the coil. This
type of coil is shown in Fig. 6. The
schematic symbol is shown beside
it. Two or three lines drawn beside
a coil indicate that it has an iron
COIL core, and the arrow indicates that
it is movable. A coil with this type
of core is called a slug-tuned coil.

Fig. .1. Iron cores are frequently made of

thin sheets of metal bolted together.
SLUG -TUNED
CO ILS
are fitted together to make a core,
as shown in Fig. 4. As you can see,
the core actually surrounds the coil
and goes through the center as well.
Fig. 5 shows how such a coil is con-
structed. This type of construction
is used rather than a solid iron or Fig. 6. A slug-tuned coil and its schematic
steel core because it is more effi- symbol.

5
NAGNETONOTIVE FORCE This opposition to flux is called
reluctance.
The force that sends current The reluctance in a magnetic cir-
around an electric circuit is called cuit is distributed along the entire
an electromotive force or voltage. path taken by the flux. In other words,
The force that sends magnetic flux there is reluctance all the way
around a magnetic circuit is called around the path followed by each
magnetomotive force. It exists in magnetic line of force both in the
every current-carrying coil. core and in the air. We can actually
The unit of magnetomotive force make a very close comparison be-
is the ampere-turn. If a coil has one tween a magnetic circuit and an
turn and the current flowing through electric circuit. In Fig. 7A we have
it is 1amp, the magnetomotive force the magnetomotive force sending the
is 1ampere-turn. If the coil has 10 flux around the magnetic circuit
turns and the current flowing is 1 against the opposition offered by the
amp, the magnetomotive force is the reluctance of the circuit. In Fig. 7B,
product of the two, or 10 ampere- we have a wire connected across a
turns. If a coil has 5turns, and the battery. Here the electromotive
current flowing through it is 5 am- force of the battery is forcing cur-
peres, the magnetomotive force is rent around the circuit against the
25 ampere-turns. Thus, to find the opposition or resistance of the wire.
magnetomotive force in a coil, you
simply multiply the current flowing
through it in amperes by the number
of turns on the coil. You can increase
the magnetomotive force of the coil
by increasing the current flowing
through the coil or by adding more Magneto-
motive
turns to the coil and keeping the Force
current constant. (N
As an electronics technician it is
very unlikely that you will ever have
to calculate the magnetomotive force
produced by a coil in acircuit. How-
ever, you should know what it is. It
is essential to understand magnetic
circuits in order to understand mag- BATTERY

netic devices. INTERNAL

BATTERY
RELUCTANCE RESISTANCE

You already know that every elec-

tric circuit has resistance. Resist- o
ance is the opposition to current flow RESISTANCE
OF WIRE
in the circuit. Just as there is op-
position to current flow in an elec-
tric circuit so also is there opposi- Fig. 7. Comparison between a magnetic
tion to flux in a magnetic circuit. circuit (A) and an electrical circuit (B).

6
 LOW R low in comparison to the reluctance
/IN LEADS
of the air gap. One of the choke coils
used in the power supply of a radio
HIGH transmitter often has an air gap like
this.
In an electric circuit, if we lower
o the resistance or opposition we can
increase the current, and if we in-
crease the resistance we reduce the
LOW-RELUCTANCE IRON CORE
current. Exactly the same situation
exists in the magnetic circuit. If we
HIGH-RE-
LUCTANCE lower the reluctance or opposition
AIR GAP
we increase the flux, and if we in-
o crease the reluctance we reduce the
flux.
The reluctance in a magnetic cir-
cuit can be reduced by providing a
Fig. 8. In the electrical circuit at 1, most
better path through which the mag-
of the opposition (resistance) to the cur-
rent is in the resistor. The total resistance netic lines of force can flow. Ma-
in the circuit is only slightly higher than terials such as iron and steel have
the resistance of the resistor. In the mag- a low reluctance, just as copper has
netic circuit at B, most of the reluctance a low resistance in an electric cir-
or opposition to the flux is in the air gap. cuit. Therefore if a coil is wound
The total reluctance in the circuit is only on an iron core shaped like the one
slightly higher than the reluctance of the shown in Fig. 9, the magnetic lines
air gap. will flow through the core as shown
in the drawing. Because the iron has
We have shown the whole length of a low reluctance, there will be a
the wire as a resistor. Here we see much greater flux than there would
that the magnetomotive force is the
equivalent of the electromotive
force, the magnetic flux the equiv-
alent of current, and the reluctance
the equivalent of resistance.
We have a magnetic circuit that
is similar to an electric circuit con-
sisting of a resistor connected
across a battery as shown in Fig.
8A. Here most of the resistance in
the circuit is concentrated in the re-
• sistor; the resistance of the leads
is small compared to that of the re-
sistor. In the magnetic circuit of
Fig. 8B, the iron core of the coil
has an air gap. Most of the reluc- Fig. 9. There will be much greater flux if
tance is concentrated in the air gap; a coil is wound on an iron core like this
the reluctance of the iron core is than if the coil has an air core.

7
be if the same coil had an air core. MAGNETIC FLUX
Thus the flux in a magnetic circuit
can be increased by providing apath You already know that magnetic
of amagnetic material through which flux in a magnetic circuit corre-
the magnetic lines of force can flow. sponds to current in an electric cir-
Making a frame like the one shown cuit. In an electric circuit, current
in Fig. 9 of nonmagnetic material is equal to the voltage in volts di-
such as paper, glass, aluminum, or vided by the resistance in ohms. In
copper would not increase the flux, a magnetic circuit the flux is equal
because these materials do not have to the magnetomotive force divided
a lower reluctance than air. by the reluctance.
There are other factors that af- In practical magnetic circuits you
fect reluctance. Increasing the cross will not have to calculate the mag-
sectional area of the core will reduce netic flux. Even if you performed
the reluctance and increasing the this calculation it would be of no
length of the magnetic circuit will value to you. However, it is impor-
increase the reluctance. tant that you understand what re.g-
netomotive force, reluctance, and
PERMEABILITY magnetic flux are, and how they are
related to each other.
Silver, copper, and aluminum have You can increase the amount of
different conductivities. Silver has flux in a magnetic circuit either by
the highest conductivity and is the increasing the magnetomotive force
best conductor, then copper and then or by decreasing the reluctance. You
aluminum. A copper wire has less can decrease the amount of flux
resistance than an aluminum wire of either by decreasing the magneto-
the same size and length. motive force or by increasing the
Similarly, different magnetic reluctance. Every change in flux is
materials have different permea- thus due to a change in either mag-
bilities. The permeability of the core netomotive force or to a change in
material determines the total re- reluctance.
luctance of the coil; when the per-
SUMMARY
meability goes up, the reluctance
goes down and vice versa. Magnetic circuits are like elec-
The permeability of air and all trical circuits in many ways. In a
other nonmagnetic materials is con- magnetic circuit there is a force
sidered to have the numerical value which is the equivalent of voltage
of 1. Magnetic materials all have in an electrical circuit. We call this
higher permeability values than 1, force a magnetomotive force. This
ranging from about 50 all the way up force produces flux or magnetic
to 10,000 or even higher for certain lines of force which travel around
special alloys. Thus if the permea- the magnetic circuit. The flux or
bility of a material is 10,we can ex- magnetic lines of force have some
pect 10 times the magnetic flux opposition; the opposition is known
through this material than we would as reluctance. The magnetic lines of
have through air for the same num- force are roughly the equivalent of
ber of ampere turns. the current in an electrical circuit

8
and the reluctance is the equivalent sure you have mastered the mate-
of the resistance. In a circuit with rial in the lesson, do the self-test
a given magnetomotive force, if the questions. Again, if you have trouble
reluctance is lowered, the flux in with any of the self-test questions,
the circuit will increase. On the don't hesitate to go back to the text
other hand, if the reluctance in- and restudy it. The purpose of the
creases, the flux decreases. self-test questions is to help you be
Remember that the unit of mag- sure you have mastered the impor-
netomotive force is an ampere-turn. tant points in the section of the les-
A current of 1 ampere flowing son. If there is any self-test ques-
through a coil of one turn produces tion you are not sure of, this indi-
a magnetomotive force of lampere- cates that you need to go back and
turn. If we double the number of spend some extra time on this sec-
turns so that we have two turns and tion of the lesson before going ahead.
the current remains the same, the
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
magnetomotive force produced will
be two ampere-turns. (a) Fill in the missing word:Mag-
Remember the term permeability. netic lines of force form
The permeability of a material in- loops.
dicates the ability of the material (b) Where will most of the lines
to pass magnetic lines of force. The of force produced by a coil be
permeability of air is 1. Other non- concentrated?
magnetic materials such as paper, (e) What type of coil is a coil
ceramic, glass etc. also have a wound on a cardboard form?
permeability of 1 - in other words (d) What are laminations?
they act just like air insofar as a (e) What purpose does an iron-
coil is concerned. However, mag- core serve in a coil?
netic materials such as iron and )What is magnetomotive force?
various alloys of magnetic mate- (g) What is the unit of magneto-
rials have a much higher permea- motive force?
bility than air. When we speak of (h) If the current flowing through
a coil with a high permeability core a 25-turn coil is 2 amperes,
we are talking about a coil with a how many ampere-turns are
core that has a much higher ability produced?
to pass magnetic lines of force than What is reluctance?
air. Does the magnetic circuit in
Make sure that you remember an air-core coil have ahigher
these important terms used in con- reluctance than a magnetic
junction with magnetic circuits.You circuit in an iron-core coil?
will run into them many times in (k) Which has the lowest reluc-
the future, and if you understand tance, paper, air, aluminum
them now, then you'll understand or copper?
the way in which they are used later. (1) What is permeability?
If you have any doubts about this (m) What is the relation between
section of this lesson be sure to re- flux, magnetomotive force and
view before going on. Orce you are reluctance ?

9
Using Coils To Produce Voltage
In most of the electronics appli-
cations of coils with which you are
concerned, coils will be used to pro-
duce a voltage. An obvious example
of this application is the trans-
former. In a transformer, a voltage
is applied to one winding and this
voltage causes a current to flow
through this winding. This sets up
a magnetic field, which in turn in-
duces a new and completely sepa-
rate voltage in another coil. Here
two coils have been used to produce
a voltage.
Another type of device where a
coil is used to produce voltage makes
use of a coil placed in the field of
a permanent magnet to take a wave
or signal other than an electrical
signal and produce an electrical
signal from it. Such a device is
called a transducer. An example of a
transducer using this principle is a o
dynamic microphone. A dynamic
microphone uses coils placed in a Fig. 10. How the number of flux linkages
magnetic field to convert an audio can be changed. In A there is one flux
signal, which is actually a wave or linkage; in B. ten; and in C. six.
vibration in air, to an electrical
signal, which is the electrical equiv- that produces a single magnetic line
alent of sound. of force. If the magnet is brought
If you understand how a voltage near a coil having one turn such as
can be produced by a coil, you will shown in Fig. 10A, we will have one
have mastered the most important magnetic line linking with or passing
point in understanding how coils through a one-turn coil, and we will
work. To see how a voltage can be have one flux linkage. If we had ten
induced in a coil, we must first turns on the coil and the one mag-
learn something about flux and flux netic line of force passed through
linkages and then see how changing all ten turns, then we would have
the flux linkages of a coil will pro- ten flux linkages as shown in Fig.
duce a voltage in a coil. 10B. However, if the single mag-
netic line passed through and linked
FLUX LINKAGES
only six turns of the 10-turn coil,
Let us see what we mean by flux as shown in Fig. 10C, we would have
linkage. Suppose we have a magnet only six flux linkages. Thus the term

10
"flux linkage" is an indication of the magnet is moved slowly so that the
number of magnetic lines of force number of flux linkages changes
passing through and linking the turns slowly, the voltage induced in the coil
on the coil. If we have a magnetthat will be small. However, if the mag-
produces 100 magnetic lines ,and the net is moved rapidly so that the
entire 100 lines linked to a coil change in flux linkage occurs very
having 80 turns, the number of flux quickly, the voltage induced in the
linkages would be 80 times 100, or coil will be higher. If it took one
8000 flux linkages. second to move the magnet so that
Changing Flux Linkages. the number of flux linkages changed
Now let's look at Fig. 11A. Here from 10 to 50, we would get acertain
we have a magnet with 10 magnetic voltage induced in the coil. The exact
lines of force, but actually only two value is not important to this dis-
of them are cutting through a coil cussion. However, if we were to
with 5 turns on it, so we have a total move the magnet so that the num-
of 10 flux linkages. As you can see, ber of flux linkages was changed
part of the flux is lost--it does not from 10 to 50 in 1/100th of a sec-
cut through the coil. This is called ond, we would get exactly 100 times
leakage flux or flux leakage. If we as much voltage as before. The
suddenly move the magnet to the faster the rate of change in flux link-
position shown in Fig. 11B so that ages, the greater the induced volt-
the magnet is placed inside the age will be.
coil and all ten lines cut throughthe
five turns of the coil, we have atotal
of 50 flux linkages.Whenthe number
of flux linkages increases from 10
to 50 there will be a voltage induced
in the coil. This voltage is blown as
an induced voltage.
If the magnet is then moved away
from the coil so that the number of
flux linkages is changed from 50 back
to 10, we will again have a voltage
induced in the coil.
In each of the two examples given,
we had a change of 40 flux linkages.
If we had a stronger magnet so that
the number of lines of force was
greater, and therefore the change in
flux linkages was greater, we would
have a greater voltage induced in the
coil.
In moving the magnet either to-
wards or away from the coil, the
voltage that will be induced in the Ilg. 11. In A we have 10 flux linkages; in
coil will depend upon the speed with 11 1%e have 50 when the same magnet is
which the magnet is moved. If the moved inside the coil.

11
 LENZ'S LAW FOE COILS magnet is moved away fromthe coil,
reducing the number of flux linkages
The voltage induced in a coil al- as shown in Fig. 12B, a voltage will
ways acts in a definite direction. In be induced in the coil, and current
other words, the voltage has a defi- will flow through the coil. Current
nite polarity. This polarity at any flowing through the coil will set up
given instant depends on just two a magnetic field which will aid the
things--on the flux linkages already existing. As
direction of the origi-
nal flux, and on whether the flux long as the number of flux lines is
linkages are increasing or de- changing, the induced voltage will
creasing. be present and will cause the induced
The exact relationship between current to produce flux lines as
these things is expressed by a shown.
famous electrical law known as If, as shown in Fig. 12C, the mag-
Lenz 1S Law. The law is named after net is moved back into the coil, the
the man who was the first to realize number of flux linkages would tend to
that the direction in which an induced increase. However, avoltage will be
voltage will act can always be pre- induced in the coil that will cause
dicted before it is produced.
When the number of flux linkages
cutting a coil is changed, a voltage
will be induced in the coil. This in-
duced voltage will have a polarity
such that if the circuit is complete,
it will send a current through the
coil which opposes the change in
magnetic flux. In other words, if
the flux linkages are increasing, the
induced voltage will tend to send a
current through the coil that would
produce a magnetic flux whichwould
oppose the original coil flux to try
MOTION OF
to keep it from increasing. On the MAGNET

other hand, if the flux linkages are

decreasing, the induced voltage will
be of such a polarity that it will
produce a current which in turn will
produce a flux which aids the origi-
nal flux and tends to prevent the
flux from decreasing.
MOTION OF
This is an extremely important MAGNET

law and can be better understood by

referring to the circuits shown in Fig. 12. Changing the number of flux link-
Fig. 12. In Fig. 12A, we have amag- ages induces a voltage in the coil. the
netic circuit with two flux lines polarity of the voltage depends upon
cutting through a 5-turn coil, which t‘hether the number of flux linkages is
gives us ten flux linkages. As the increasing or decreasing.

12
a current to flow in the opposite di- single wire through amagnetic field,
rection and set up its own lines of a coil is rotated in the magnetic
force to oppose the flux lines from field. As the coil is rotated, it moves
the magnet. In other words, if there through and cuts through the mag-
is any change in the number of flux netic lines of force produced by a
linkages through the coil, a voltage permanent magnet or an electro-
is induced in that coil that will cause magnet, and a voltage is induced in
a current to flow which in turn pro- the coil. The voltage induced in the
duces its own flux to oppose the coil will have a polarity such that
change in flux linkages. the current that will flow when the
If the number of flux linkages is coil is connected to an external cir-
decreasing, the induced voltage will cuit will set up a magnetic field in
have a polarity such that it will cause the coil which opposes the change in
a current to flow to oppose this de- flux linkages producing the voltage.
crease in flux linkages; and on the Changing the Reluctance.
other hand, if the flux linkages are Any change in the reluctance of a
increasing, then the induced voltage magnetic circuit will change the
will have a polarity that will cause a amount of flux which passes through
current to flow to oppose this in- the coil, thus changing the flux link-
crease in flux linkages. ages through the coil and inducing a
voltage. Remember, whenever there
METHODS OF CHANGING is a change in flux linkages, a volt-
age is induced.
FLUX LINKAGES An example of this method of pro-
ducing a voltage is the variable re-
There are three methods of pro- luctance phono pickup used in many
ducing changes in the flux linkages record players. A simplified draw-
in a coil. They are: by cutting ing of one is shown in Fig. 13. The
through magnetic lines of force; by needle, or stylus, is mounted on a
changing the reluctance; and by cantilever spring, which moves be-
changing the current flowing in the tween two coils. The other end of
coil. the cantilever spring is connected
Cutting Lines ot Force. to the south pole of apermanent mag-
You have already seen an example net. A T-shaped yoke connects the
of this method of producing changes other end of the magnet to two pole
in flux linkages when you studied
generators in an earlier lesson. You YO E

learned that when a conductor is

moved through a magnetic field it
cuts the magnetic lines of force, COILS
PERMANENT
and a voltage is induced in the con- MAGNET

ductor. We get this induced voltage

because the motion of the conductor
changes the flux linkages as the con-
STYLUS ------'' CANTILEVER SPRING
ductor passes through the magnetic
lines of force. Fig. 13. A variable reluctance phono pick-
In a generator, instead of moving a up.

13
pieces on which two coils are wound.
The flux path goes from the magnet
through the yoke, and the two pole
pieces, across the air gap to the
cantilever spring, and through it
back to the magnet. As the needle
follows the record grooves, it moves
from side to side, nearer one or the
other of the two coils. As it does so,
the air gap on one side decreases,
o
so the reluctance on that side de-
creases, and the flux increases. At
the same time, the air gap on the
other side becomes wider, in- AC POWER
creasing the reluctance and de- lNEcu

creasing the flux. Since the flux

changes are in opposite directions,
the voltages induced in the two coils
will be of the opposite polarity. The PRIMARY SECONDARY

two coils are connected in such a

way that the two voltages are added
Fig. 15. A power transformer. The primary
in the output. The change in flux 1%inding is connected directly to the power
linkages will induce a voltage in line. As the current through the primary
the coil. working varies, the flux produced by Li
Changing the Coll Current. will vary, resulting in a change in flux
When two coils are arranged as linkages through the secondary winding,
shown in Fig. 14, the flux produced inducing avoltage in the secondary.
by coil Li passes through coil L2.
As long as the current through Li setting of the rheostat, there will
remains constant, the flux produced be a change in the flux produced by
by this coil will remain constant, Li and hence a change in the num-
and there will be no change in the ber of flux linkages in L2. This will
flux linkages in L2. However, if the induce a voltage in L2.
current is changed by changing the Of course, this is not a practical
way of inducing a voltage in L2 be-
RHEOSTAT CHANGES cause the rheostat setting would have
COIL CURRENT VOLTS to be changed continually and at a
rapid rate in order to produce any
appreciable voltage in L2. A more
practical application would be to
apply an ac voltage to Li in place
, of the battery and the rheostat.
Li L2 Since the ac voltage is continually
changing, this means that the flux is
Fig. 14. %hen two coils are arranged as constantly changing, which in turn
shown above, the flux produced by one will result in there being a voltage
passes through the other. continually induced in L2.

14
 A practical application of this cuit or by changing the current flow-
principle is in the power trans- ing through the circuit.
former as shown in Fig.15.We have In the next section of this lesson
already mentioned the transformer you will learn more about coils. You
several times before and you are will learn how the electrical char-
aware that a transformer is simply acteristics of coils are expressed
two coils wound on a common and also see why the opposition that
core. In the transformer shown in a coil offers to the flow of ac
Fig. 15, the one winding called the through it is much higher than it
primary is connected directly to the is to dc. However, before going ahead
ac power line. The ac voltage which with the next section of the lesson,
is a varying voltage will cause a it is important that you understand
varying current to flow through the the material covered in this section.
primary winding. As the current Therefore you should review this
varies, the flux produced by the pri- section if necessary and then an-
mary will change, resulting in a swer the self-test questions. Be sure
change in the flux linkages cutting you are able to answer all of the
the secondary winding. This change following self-test questions before
in flux linkages will induce a volt- you go ahead with the next section
age in the secondary winding. As of the lesson.
we pointed out before, whether this
voltage is higher or lower than the SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
primary voltage will depend upon
whether the secondary winding of (n) What is meant by flux link-
the transformer has more or fewer ages?
turns than the primary winding. (0) If three magnetic lines of flux
cut through four turns of acoil,
SUMMARY how many flux linkages have
we?
There are several important facts (P) If one hundred flux linkages
that you should remember from this cut through a coil, and this
section of the lesson. First, remem- number of flux linkages does
ber that a voltage is induced in a not change, what will the volt-
coil when the number of flux link- age induced in the coil be?
ages changes. Either an increase in (q) According to Lenz 's Law, if a
the number of flux linkages or ade- change in the number of flux
crease in the number of flux linkages linkages cutting a coil occurs,
will induce a voltage in the coil. will the voltage induced in the
Lenz 's Law of coils is important. coil produce a current, which
It states that the induced voltage al- in turn will build up a mag-
ways acts in such a direction that netic flux that will aid or op-
it tends to oppose the original change pose the original change in
in flux linkages. flux linkages?
Changes in flux linkages can be (r) When the number of flux link-
produced by cutting through mag- ages cutting a coil is reduced,
netic lines of force, by changing will the field produced by the
the reluctance in the magnetic cir- induced voltage aid or oppose

15
 the original lines of force? in a magnetic circuit is used
(s) Name three methods of chang- to produce a voltage.
ing flux linkages. (u) Give a practical example of
(t) Give a practical example where changing the coil cur-
where changing the reluctance rent produces a voltage.

Inductance
In the preceding section of this coil that is completely removed from
lesson you learned that if the num- any external magnetic field. If avolt-
ber of flux linkages cutting the turns age source is connected to the coil,
of acoil changes, there will be avolt- current will flow through the coil
age induced in the coil. The exact and this current will set up a mag-
amount of voltage that will be in- netic field. The magnetic field pro-
duced in the coil will depend upon duced by the coil will produce lines
how great the change in flux linkages of flux. These lines of flux will link
is, and how rapidly it occurs. 'twill through the turns of the coil as shown
also depend upon the coil itself. The in Fig. 16.
property of the coil that will_gov-ern If the current flowing through the
or determine the voltage induced in coil is suddenly changed, the
the coil T1 called-Inductance. The strength of the magnetic field will
inductance of a coil will depend upon change and this will result in there
the number of turns of wire on the being a change in the number of flux
coil and upon the permeability of the linkages passing through the turns
core material. Saying that acoil has of the coil. This will have exactly
inductance is just about the same as the same effect as changing the flux
saying a resistor has resistance. In-
ductance is a basic property of a
coil and it indicates how much volt-
age will be induced in the coil for
a given change in flux linkages. Be-
fore we go further with this idea of
inductance, you should learn some-
thing about self-induced voltages.

SELF -INDUCED VOLTAGES

When a coil is brought near amag-
netic field and the strength of the
field is suddenly changed, there will
be a change in the number of flux
linkages through the coil. You know
that this will result in a voltage Fig. 16. If a voltage source is connected
being induced in the coil. to a coil. current %%ill flo%% through the coil
However, now let us consider a and amagnetic field %%ill he set up.

16
linkages produced by an external There are a number of scientific
magnet will have. There will be a ways of defining the henry, but these
voltage induced in the coil and this are of no importance to the elec-
voltage will be such that it will tend tronics technician. One simple defi-
to oppose the change produced. In nition of the henry that can be used
other words, the induced voltage will is as follows: if the voltage induced
cause a current to flow in such adi- in a coil is 1volt when the strength
rection as to produce a magnetic of the current flowing through the
field which tends to oppose the coil changes at a rate of 1ampere
change in the magnetic field. The per second, the coil has an induc-
voltage induced in this manner is tance of 1henry. In other words, if
known as self-induced voltage. a coil has an inductance of 1henry,
It is important for you to realize a current change of 1 ampere per
that an induced voltage in a coil al- second will induce a voltage of 1volt
ways opposes the change producing in the coil.
It. For example, in the circuit shown Large iron-core coils frequently
In Fig. 16, if the voltage is reduced have quite high inductances.You will
to lower the current and hence the find iron-core coils in electronic
number of flux linkages, the self- equipment having inductances of 20
induced voltage induced in the coil or 30 henrys. In some cases you may
will have a polarity that both aids find iron-core coils having induc-
the applied voltage and tries to keep tances ranging as high as 1000
the current constant so that the num- henrys.
ber of flux linkages will not change. Most air-core coils have a very
On the other hand, if the applied small inductance. For convenience
voltage is suddenly increased, then in specifying inductance values of
the voltage induced in the coil will air-core coils and some small iron-
oppose the applied voltage to, once core coils, two other units are used,
again, try to keep the current flow- the millihenry and the microhenry.
ing through the coil constant and Just as the milliampere is one thou-
hence the number of flux lines con- sandth of an ampere, the millihenry
stant. is one thousandth of a henry; just
The induced voltage in acoil obeys as a microampere is one millionth
Lenz's Law. Its polarity is suchthat of an ampere, the microhenry is one
it tries to oppose the change that millionth of a henry. The unit milli-
produced it. henry is usually abbreviated mh and
the microhenry is abbreviated _J.h.
UNITS OF INDUCTANCE To convert from henrys to milli-
henrys or microhenrys you use ex-
For a given change in flux link- actly the same procedure as in con-
ages, the voltage that will be in- verting amperes to milliamperes or
duced in a coil will depend upon the microamperes. To convert henrys
inductance of the coil. The unit of to millihenrys, you multiply by 1000
inductance is the henry. It is named or simply move the decimal point
after Joseph Henry, an outstanding three places to the right. To con-
scientist who did a great deal of ex- vert henrys to microhenrys you mul-
perimenting with coils. tiply by 1,000,000 or move the deci-

17
mal point six places to the right. To lines will cut through each turn of
convert millihenrys to microhenrys, the coil, resulting in agreater num-
you multiply by 1000 or move the ber of flux linkages, which in turn
decimal point three places to the will give the coil a greater induc-
right. tance.
To convert from microhenrys to The inductance of acoil is affected
henrys, you divide by 1,000,000, or by the core material. If a magnetic
move the decimal point six places material is placed in the core of a
to the left. To convert from milli- coil, the magnetic path will have a
henrys to henrys, you divide by 1000 much lower reluctance; there will be
or move the decimal point three more flux and a much greater num-
places to the left. To convert from ber of flux linkages thanthere would
microhenrys to millihenrys you di- be in a similar coil without an iron-
vide by 1000 which is the same as core. The exact material placed in-
moving the decimal point three side the coil also affects the induc-
places to the left. If you have no dif- tance. The higher the permeability
ficulty converting from amperes to of the core material, the greater the
milliamperes and microamperes inductance of the coil will be.
and back again to amperes you should Before leaving this section of the
have no problem converting be- lesson it should be pointed out that
tween henrys, millihenrys and inductance is not limited to coils
microhenrys . alone. Even astraight wire has some
inductance, because when a current
FACTORS AFFECTING flows through the wire, a magnetic
INDUCTANCE field is set up around the wire and
There are several factors that the wire will be cut by magnetic
affect the inductance of a coil. As lines. Of course, the inductance of
you might expect, one of the chief a straight wire is much lower than
factors is the number of turns on it would be if the wire were wound
the coil. You can expect acoil having into a coil, but nevertheless every
200 turns to have ahigher inductance piece of wire does have inductance.
than a coil having 100 turns would on In most cases this inductance is so
the same type of core. low it has no effect on the circuit
The inductance of a coil is also performance, but in some ultra-
affected by the shape and size of the high-frequency electronic equip-
coil. As an example, an air-core ment straight wires or tubing are
coil wound on around form six inches actually used as "coils."
in diameter will have ahigher induc- Because the most important prop-
tance than a coil with the same num- erty of a coil is its inductance, elec-
ber of turns wound on a form one tronics men often call coils "induc-
inch in diameter. In the coil with tors" or "inductances." The term
the smaller diameter, many of the inductance not only includes coils,
lines of flux will escape or cut but in the case of ultra-high-fre-
through only a few turns of the coil; quency equipment may include a
in other words there will be con- straight piece of tubing that is to
siderable flux leakage. On the other be used as the inductance in one of
hand, in the larger coil more flux the circuits.

18
 INDUCTIVE REACTANCE voltage that appears across the coil.
This ac voltage drop is just the same
You have learned that when a coil as the voltage drop across a resis-
is connected to a voltage source as tor caused by current flowing
In Fig. 16, and the voltage is changed, through a resistor. In other words,
there is a voltage induced in the coil the counter emf is the ac voltage
that opposes the change in voltage. drop across a coil caused by the
Now let us consider what happens opposition that the coil offers to the
when a coil is connected to an ac alternating current. This opposition
voltage source as in Fig. 17. Here that the coil offers is not the same
the voltage is continually changing. as resistance because it affects only
ac, and not dc. The opposition is
known as inductive reactance and it
is measured in ohms.
The amount of voltage induced in
IRON-CORE
a coil will depend upon how rapidly
COIL
the change in flux linkages occurs.
When an ac voltage is applied to a
coil, the speed with which the num-
ber of flux linkages changes depends
upon the frequency of the ac voltage.
Fig. 17. A coil connected to an ac voltage Thus the change in flux linkages
source. occurs more rapidly if the frequency
is 100 cycles than it would if the fre-
During the first quarter cycle quency were only 10 cycles. There-
when the ac voltage is increasing and fore an ac current with a frequency
has the polarity shown in Fig. 17, the of 100 cycles flowing through a coil
polarity of the induced voltage will will induce more voltage than acur-
be as shown so it will oppose the ac rent of the same strength but a fre-
voltage as it tries to increase. Thus, quency of only 10 cycles. This means
the induced voltage acts to oppose that the inductive reactance depends
and limit the change in current in the upon the frequency.
coil. If there were no voltage induced The inductive reactance of a coil
in the coil, the current would in- can be determined by multiplying the
crease as the voltage increased, and inductance of the coil in henrys times
the actual value of current flowing 6.28 times the frequency in cycles.
at any instant would depend only on Electronics technicians use sym-
the voltage applied and the de resist- bols to provide a short convenient
ance of the coil. However, since the way of expressing this relationship.
induced voltage is of the opposite po- The symbol used for reactance is X.
larity to the applied voltage, the in- A small capital letter L following
duced voltage has the effect of op- the X and written X, is used to in-
posing the applied voltage and limit- dicate inductive reactance. The
ing the current change in the coil. letter f is used to represent fre-
This self-induced voltage is known quency, and the letter L is used to
as "counter" or "back" emf (electro- represent inductance. Thus the ex-
motive force). It is the induced ac pression for inductive reactance of a

19
 coil in ohms can be written: quency decreases, the reactance
also decreases.
X, = 6.28 xfxL Example 2: Suppose we want to
know the inductive reactance of a
The number 6.28 is two pi. Pi is 10-henry choke at a frequency of
the Greek letter y (pronounced pie) 100 cycles. Substituting 100 for fand
which represents the number 3.14. 10 for L gives us:
You have probably seen this num-
ber before--it is used to find the XL = 6.28 x 100 x 10
area of a circle. Remember that the Multiplying this gives us:
area of a circle is Tr times the radius
squared. 27r is 6.28, which is anum- X L = 6280 ohms.
ber that appears in many electrical Notice that this is less than in the
formulas. Sometimes you will see case of the 50-henry coil. Thus the
the expression for inductive re- inductive reactance also varies di-
actance written: rectly as the inductance of the coil
varies. Reducing the inductance re-
X L = 27rfL duces the reactance and increasing
the inductance increases the re-
Now let's see how we use this for- actance.
mula to find the inductive reactance As an electronics technician you
of a coil. will seldom have to work on aprob-
Example 1: Suppose we want to lem of this type. However, it is im-
know the inductive reactance of a portant for you to remember that
50-henry choke at 100 cycles. The the inductive reactance of a coil
formula is: varies directly both with the fre-
quency and with the inductance of a
X L =6.28 xfxL coil.
You might wonder what the induc-
Substituting 100 for f and 50 for L tive reactance is of a small coil
gives: consisting of only afew turns. At low
frequencies of a few hundred cycles,
XL = 6.28 x 100 x 50 the reactance is so low that in most
cases it can be ignored. However,
Multiplying these numbers gives us when small coils are used in high-
31,400 ohms. This is the inductive frequency circuits, their inductive
reactance of the coil at a frequency reactance can be appreciable. Let's
of 100 cycles. At a frequency of 50 take as an example a10-microhenry
cycles, the inductive reactance coil used at afrequency of 100 mega-
would be half this figure, and at a cycles.
frequency of 200 cycles per second, 10 microhenrys is .000010 henry, ii
the inductive reactance would be and 100 megacycles (abbreviated %
twice this figure. We say that the in- me) is 100,000,000 cycles.
ductive reactance of a coil varies
directly as the frequency varies. If X L =6.28 xfxL
the frequency increases, the re- X L = 6.28 x 100,000,000 x .000010 =
actance increases, and if the fre- 6280 ohms.

20
Thus, even though the inductance of coupled, any change in the flux in one
the coil is quite small, at the fre- coil will induce avoltage in the other
quency of 100 mc it has as high an coil.
inductive reactance as the 10-henry Mutual inductance is measured in
coil had at 100 cycles. henrys, just as the inductance of a
We mentioned previously that in- single coil. The mutual inductance is
ductive reactance is the opposition a usually represented in formulas by
coil offers to the flow of ac current the letter M. The greater the value
through it. A coil has no inductive of mutual inductance, the greater
reactance to dc. You can see that will be the voltage in one coil when
this must be true from the formula the current through the other
for inductive reactance. The fre- changes.
quency of dc is zero and so if we Mutual inductance is defined in the
substitute zero in the formula for same way as inductance - when a
inductive reactance, then we have primary current changes at a rate
6.28 x 0 x L. Whenever you mul- of 1ampere per second, if the volt-
tiply anything by 0, no matter how age induced in the secondary coil is
large it is, the result is 0, so the 1 volt, the mutual inductance is 1
inductive reactance is 0. The only henry.
opposition a coil will offer to the Mutual inductance depends upon
flow of de through it is due to the the size of both coils, the number of
resistance of the wire used to wind turns of each coil and how many flux
the coil. The wire will have acertain linkages from one coil cut the turns
resistance, and this resistance will of the other coil.
oppose the flow of de through the coil
in just the same way as it would if it COILS IN SERIES
were one long piece of wire and we AND PARALLEL
tried to pass dc through it. The ac When we consider coils connected
reactance of a coil, on the other in series or in parallel, there are
hand, is an entirely different thing; two different cases to consider. The
it is the opposition the coil offers first and simplest is if the coils are
to the flow of ac through it due to located some distance from each
the inductance of the coil, and it other so that their magnetic fields
will be much higher than the de re- do not affect each other. When the
sistance of the coil. coils are connected in series as
shown in Fig. 18A, the combined in-
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
ductance is the sum of the individual
When two coils are placed near inductances. In other words, the total
each other so that some of the flux inductance is obtained simply by
produced by one coil will cut through adding the inductances of the indi-
the turns of the other coil, the coils vidual coils. This should be easy to
are said to be mutually-coupled remember because in this respect
through their magnetic fields. The coils are like resistors.
coils might actually be wound on the When coils are connected in paral-
same iron core or they might simply lel as shown in Fig. 18B, the total
be placed near each other. When inductance will be less than the in-
coils are placed so they are mutually ductance of the smallest coil in the

21
o LI L2 L3
vidual coils. In this situation, we
must consider the mutual induc-
tance in the circuit and also how
the coils are connected together.
Let us look at the first case, where
the two coils are connected in series

o LI L2 D L3 so that the flux from one coil aids

the flux from the other. In other
words, the magnetic lines are flow-
ing in the same direction. Here if
Fig. 18. Coils connected in series (A); the inductance of the two coils is
coils connected in parallel (B). represented by Li and L2 and the
mutual inductance by M, the total in-
group. Again, this is Just like re- ductance (LT) of the two coils con-
sistors connected in parallel - re- nected in series will be equal to:
member that when resistors are
connected in parallel, the total re-
LT = Li + L2 + 2M
sistance is always less than the re-
sistance of the smallest resistor.
It is easy to see why coils con- If the connections to one of the
nected in parallel act this way. For coils are reversed, its magnetic
example, looking at Fig. 18B, if Li field will oppose the magnetic field
has an inductive reactance of 100 of the other. Under these circum-
ohms and is connected across a100- stances the total inductance of the
volt source, an ac current of 1amp two coils connected in series will
would flow through the coil. If the be:
second coil of equal inductance is
connected in parallel with it, an ac L T = Li + L2 - 2M
current of 1 amp will also flow
through it. Now we have a current SUMMARY
of 2 amps flowing in the circuit and
therefore, the opposition or induc- You have studied a great deal of
tive reactance must have decreased. important material about coils in
This means that the total inductance this section and it would be worth-
of the two coils in parallel must while to read the section over sev-
have decreased. In fact, with two eral times to be sure that you have
equal coils, the effective inductance understood everything covered.
of the two in parallel will be equal You have learned that the elec-
to one half the inductance of either trical property that describes coils
coil. is called inductance, and that induc-
When coils connected in series tance is measured in henrys. A coil
are placed close together so that has an inductance of 1henry when a
some mutual inductance exists, current change of 1amp per second
there is interaction between the induces a voltage of 1 volt in the
coils, and the combined inductance coil.
can no longer be figured simply by You learned that when the current
adding the inductances of the indi- flowing through acoil changes, there

22
is voltage induced in the coil that op- is suddenly increased, will the
poses the change that produces it. self-induced voltage produced
This voltage is a self-induced volt- in the coil aid or oppose the
age and is called counter emf or applied voltage?
back emf. (y) What is the unit of inductance?
Coils have a property called in- (z) How is the unit of inductance
ductive reactance. Inductive react- defined?
ance is the opposition that a coil (aa) Name three factors which af-
offers to the flow of ac through it. fect the inductance of a coil.
Inductive reactance is measured in (ab) What is the inductive react-
ohms and is somewhat similar to ance of a coil?
resistance inasmuch as it opposes (ac) What is the unit in which the
the flow of ac through the coil. inductive reactance of a coil
When two coils are placed near is measured?
each other, the flux lines of one coil (ad) What is the inductive react-
will cut through the other coil, and ance of a 10-henry coil at a
the coils are said to be mutually- frequency of 60 cycles?
coupled. The amount of coupling (ae) What is meant by mutual in-
is determined by the nearness of the ductance?
coils to each other and by the shape (af) If two coils, one having an in-
and size of the coils. This coupling ductance of 6henrys and the
is called mutual inductance. The other having an inductance of
mutual inductance of two coils is 8henrys are placed some dis-
measured in henrys. tance apart so that there is no
When coils are connected in mutual inductance between
series, the total inductance is equal them, what will the total in-
to the sum of the individual induc- ductance of the two coils be if
tances, and when they are in parallel, they are connected in series?
the total inductance is less than the (ag) Two coils, one having an in-
inductance of the smallest coil. When ductance of 4 henrys and the
mutually-coupled coils are connec- other having an inductance of
ted in series, the total inductance is 3 henrys have a mutual induc-
Li + L2 + 2M when the magnetic tance of 2 henrys. If the coils
field of the two coils aid each other, are connected in series aiding,
and Li + L2 -2M when the magnetic what will the total inductance
fields oppose each other. be?
(ah) If an 8-henry coil and a 7-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS henry coil that have a mutual
inductance of 3 henrys are
(v) What is the name given to the connected in series opposing,
property of a coil which will what will the total inductance
determine the voltage induced of the two coils be?
in it? (ai) Convert 2.2 henrys to milli-
(w) What is a self-induced volt- henrys.
age? (aj) Convert 100 microhenrys to
(x) If the voltage applied to a coil henrys.

23
 Ohm's Law for Coils
You will remember from earlier stantly; if the voltage decreases,the
lessons that the current that will current decreases instantly. The
flow in a circuit depends upon the current is in phase with the voltage.
voltage applied and upon the resist- This idea simply means the change
ance of the circuit. This rule can in the voltage will produce the same
be applied to ac circuits as well as change in the current flowing in the
de circuits, but in an ac circuit, you circuit.
substitute the total opposition of- This is not true of circuits con-
fered to the flow of current for the taining coils. If you have a constant
resistance. In an ac circuit, the total de voltage connected across a coil,
opposition to current flow is called the current that flows depends only
impedance and is represented by the on the de resistance of the coil; in
letter Z. In this section of this les- other words, the resistance of the
son, you will study Ohm's Law for wire used to wind the coil. If you
coils, you will learn what impedance suddenly increase the voltage ap-
is and how to find impedance in ac plied to the coil, there is immedi-
circuits, and you will learn about ately a change in the number of flux
another important thing in ac cir- linkages cutting the various turns of
cuits which is called phase. the coil. This induces a voltage in
the coil, and the induced voltage op-
PHASE poses the change in applied voltage.
When the current changes because
Before you can understand why of the increase in applied voltage,
impedance is important in ac cir- it will be limited by the induced volt-
cuits you must understand what we age as well as the resistance. The
mean by phase. Phase is important. inductance of the coil opposes the
It is something that you will run in- change in current through the coil -
to all the way through your study in this effect is called inductive re-
electronic circuits. Time and time actance. Gradually the current will
again you will see the expressions, increase from the value that it was
"in phase", "out of phase" and "phase originally if the voltage were in-
shift." Since phase is so important, creased. As the current increases,
learning what it is now will simplify it finally reaches its new value; the
your studies later. self-induced voltage in the coil de-
In a circuit made up only of re- creases until finally when the cur-
sistance, if we increase the volt- rent becomes constant, the self-
age, the current will increase im- induced voltage in the coil will dis-
mediately. Changes in current can appear.
be produced instantly by changing Now let us look at the circuit
the voltage in the circuit. In other shown in Fig. 19. Here we have a
words, the current follows the volt- resistor and a coil connected in
age changes instantly. If the voltage series and the two are connected
increases, the current increases in- across an ac generator. We are

24
 Fig. 19. At the present, we are not
worried about the voltage across the
generator, we are simply concerned
with the current. Remember that the
ac voltages and current waveforms
from the generator will be sine
waves. The start of the sine wave
cycle is marked point A. Let's con-
sider that at this instant current is
Fig. 19. A coil and resistor connected in just starting to flow from terminal
series across an ac source. 1 of the generator around the cir-
cuit towards terminal 1 of the re-
going to examine the ac current sistor. At the instant the cycle starts
flowing through the circuit to see at terminal A, the current is in-
what happens to the voltage across creasing at its maximum rate of
the resistor and the voltage across change. Notice that as the cycle
the coil, as the current goes through moves from point A to point B, the
its cycle. curve is flattening out until finally
In Fig. 20A we have shown asingle at point C the current is neither de-
current cycle from the generator in creasing or increasing, it is at a
constant value for just an instant.
From point C to point D the current
begins to decrease. The rate at which
it decreases is increasing from C
to D and it continues to change at an
even more rapid rate until it reaches
point E at which instant the current
is at 0 for just a moment. However,
even though the current is at 0 for
an instant at point E, the rate of
change is very rapid; the instant
before it reaches point E it is flow-
ing in one direction, exactly at point
E it drops to 0and then at the instant
it passes point E and starts towards
G
point F, it begins to flow in the op-
posite direction. As the cycle moves
from E to F, the rate at which the
current is changing begins to de-
crease until finally at point G, once
again while the current is flowing
at its maximum value, the rate at
which it is changing for just an in-
stant at point G drops to O. From
point G to point H, the current again
Fig. 20. Generator current is shown at A, starts to drop to 0 and the rate at
resistor voltage at B and coil voltage at which it is dropping to 0 begins to
C.
25
increase from point G to point H the current and voltage are in phase.
and continues to increase until it Now let us consider what happens
reaches its maximum rate of change across the coil. We already men-
at point I. tioned that in curve A at point A,
Now let us see what happens as the current is changing at its maxi-
this current cycle flows around the mum rate. Current is leaving ter-
circuit. Let us consider the voltage minal 1 of the generator and flowing
across the resistor R first. As the around the circuit back to terminal
current flows from terminal 1 to 2. This means the current will try
terminal 2 of resistor R, the volt- to flow through the coil from ter-
age that will be produced across the minal 1 to terminal 2. The instant
resistor will depend upon the cur- the current tries to build up through
rent flowing through the resistor. the coil a voltage will be induced in
As the current wave builds up from that coil which will oppose the change
point A to point B and then to point in current through it. The amplitude
C as shown in Fig. 20A, a voltage of the voltage will depend on the rate
wave will be built up as shown in at which the current is trying to
Fig. 20B. Point A represents Ovolt- change. Since at point A on curve A,
age and point C represents maxi- the change in current is at its maxi-
mum voltage. Maximum voltage at mum value, the maximum voltage
point C on the curve B will be will be built up across L. The po-
reached at exactly the same instant larity of the voltage will be such
as the maximum current flow is that it will oppose the current flow-
reached at point C on curve A. As ing in the circuit. This means that
the current through the resistor be- we could get the same effect by
gins to decrease and finally reaches putting a battery in the circuit that
0 at point E on curve A, the voltage would prevent the current from flow-
across the resistor will follow curve ing through the coil. In order to do
B reaching 0 at the same instant or this we would have to connect the
at point E on curve B. As the cur- battery so that terminal lwas nega-
rent goes through the other half tive and terminal 2 positive; this
cycle and flows in the opposite di- would oppose the current trying to
rection, a voltage with the opposite flow around the circuit.
polarity will be produced across the In Fig. 20C we have represented
resistor. When the current reaches the voltage at the beginning of the
its maximum value at point G on current cycle as A. Notice that the
curve A, the voltage will reach its voltage is at its maximum value be-
maximum value with the opposite po- cause the rate of change of current
larity at point G on curve B. As the as shown on curve A is at its maxi-
last quarter of the cycle is com- mum value at point A.
pleted and the current curve A drops As the current in the circuit in-
from G to I, the voltage curve B will creases from A to B, the rate at
also drop from G to I. which it is changing decreases. This
Notice that throughout the entire means that the voltage induced in
cycle the voltage across the resis- the coil will decrease until the cur-
tor was exactly in step with the cur- rent cycle has reached point B on
rent flowing through it. We say that curve A, and the voltage will have

26
reached point B on curve C. Finally, of current change is 0to the maxi-
when the current shown on curve A mum value at point Iwhere the rate
reaches point C where its rate of of current change is at a maximum.
change has dropped to 0, the voltage From examining curves A and C,
will have dropped to point C on we can see that the changes in cur-
curve C and since the rate of change rent and voltage across the coil do
of current is 0 the voltage induced not occur at the same instant. As a
in the coil will be 0. matter of fact, since the current
At point C on the current curve, waveform from A to I represents
the current begins to decrease in one complete cycle, from A to E and
value. The rate at which it decreases from E to Irepresents a half cycle.
begins to increase from point C to We also refer to this as 180° .(There
point D and reaches its maximum are 360° in a circle and half acircle
value at point E. Since the current is 180° .) From point A to C is one
is decreasing, the voltage induced quarter cycle as is from C to E,
in the coil will have the opposite from E to G and from G to I. Notice
polarity because it will try to preventthat the voltage waveform is identi-
this decrease. It will reach maxi- cal to the current waveform except
mum value at point E where the rate that it is one quarter of acycle ahead
of current change is at a maximum. of the current waveform. In other
This is shown by the voltage wave- words, as the current starts at point
form between points C. D and E on A to build up to a maximum value at
curve C. From point E to point G point C, the voltage is already at its
the current is still changing in the maximum value at point A and starts
same direction, but its rate of change to drop to its minimum value at point
is decreasing from E to F until fi- C. During the next quarter cycle
nally when it reaches G, its rate when the current drops from its
of change is 0. The voltage induced maximum value with one polarity at
in the coil is represented by the por- point C to point E, the voltage is
tion of the curve between point E, ahead of it by one quarter of acycle
F and G on curve C. Notice that once and goes from 0 to its maximum
again when the current wave has value with the opposite polarity at
reached point G where its rate of point E. We say that the current and
change is 0, the voltage waveform voltage are out of phase. We refer
will also be at G. Notice that it is to this as one quarter of a cycle or
the rate of change of current which 90 ° phase difference. Since the volt-
controls the voltage induced in the age is ahead of the current we say
coil, not the actual value of the cur- that the voltage leads the current by
rent flowing in the coil. 90° or one quarter cycle.
From point G to Ion the current Summarizing what we have seen
waveform shown in Fig. 20A, the from Fig. 20, we notice that in the
current begins to change and the rate case of a resistance the voltage and
of change increases until it reaches current are in phase, but in the case
its maximum value at point I. The of a coil the voltage leads the cur-
voltage waveform is shown at C and rent by 90° .In any pure inductance,
the amplitude of the voltage in- the voltage will always lead the cur-
creases from point G where the rate rent by 90° - this is an extremely

27
Important point; be sure that you re- rent, resistor voltage, coil voltage
member it. We can also say that the and generator voltages can be shown
current lags the voltage by 90° - by means of a diagram called a
this is the same thing as saying the vector diagram. The first step in
voltage leads the current by 900 ; drawing a vector diagram is to draw
the voltage is ahead of the current, a vector to represent the current. We
therefore, the current must be be- usually draw a horizontal line with
hind or lagging the voltage. an arrow on it and label it Ito repre-
Now what about the generator volt- sent the current.
age - so far we have considered only We know that the voltage across
the generator current. What is the the resistor is in phase with the cur-
phase relationship between the gen- rent and therefore we draw avector
erator voltage and the generator E, to represent the resistor voltage
current? and this vector will fall on top of the
To simplify our problem let us current vector as shown in Fig.21A.
assume that R has a resistance of We can select any arbitrary length
1000 ohms and that L has an induc- for this vector since we do not know
tive reactance of 1000 ohms. There- the generator voltage or the current
fore, any current flowing through R flowing in the circuit.
and through L will produce equal We know that the voltage across
voltages across them. The voltage the coil will lead the current by 90° .
across the resistor will be IR and Therefore, we draw another vector
the voltage across the coil will be EL which is rotated 90° counter-
1XL. • clockwise from the current vector
The waveforms in Fig. 20 tell us as shown in Fig. 21A. Since the value
that the voltage across the coil is of the resistance of R is equal to the
not in phase with the voltage across inductive reactance of L, the volt-
the resistance. This means that the age across the coil will be equal to
two do not have their maximum val- the voltage across the resistor,
ues of voltage at the same instant therefore, we draw EL the same
nor do they have their minimum val- length as ER.The diagram shown in
ues at the same instant. Therefore, Fig. 21A represents the voltage
since the voltages are ac voltages across the resistor and the voltage
and are not occurring at the same across the coil.
time, we can't simply add them to- To find the generator voltage we
gether to find the total voltage across complete the vector diagram as
the two. For example, when the volt- shown in Fig. 21B. In this diagram
age across the resistor is at its we have drawn a dotted line from
maximum value as shown at point the end of the vector E, parallel to
C and G in Fig. 20B, the voltage vector EL . We have drawn another
across the coil will be at 0. Simi- dotted line from the end of vector
larly, when the voltage across the EL parallel to vector ER.The point
coil is at its maximum value as at which the two vectors intersect
shown at point A, E and I in Fig. gives the value and phase relation-
20C, the voltage across the resist- ship between EG and I. Since EL and
ance is 0. E, are equal, the angle between E,
The relationship between the cur- and I will be a 45° angle, and the

28
length of E a will be 1.4 times the Instant their sum will be equal to
length of either EL or E,. This means the generator voltage.
that the generator voltage will be 1.4
IMPEDANCE
times the voltage across either the
coil or the voltage across the re- In Fig. 19, we considered the coil
sistor. as a pure inductance. We treated the
Perhaps you noticed an apparent resistance of the wire used to wind
contradiction between what we have the coil as 0; the only opposition the
learned about the voltages in the cir- coil offered was inductive reactance.
cuit shown in Fig. 19 and Kirchhoff's Of course the wire will have resist-
Voltage Law. You will remember ance as well as certain other re-
that Kirchhoff's Voltage Law stated sistive effects to the ac current. The
that the sum of the voltage drop in ac resistance of the coil is the sum
a closed circuit is equal to the source of the resistance of the wire plus
voltage. If this is true for ac cir- these other losses which increase
cuits then the voltage drop across R the resistance. The impedance of the
plus the voltage drop across L must coil is the total opposition to cur-
be equal to the generator voltage. Yet rent flow. It is made up of the op-
in Fig. 21 we found that the genera- position due to the inductive react-
tor voltage was only 1.4 times ance of the coil and the opposition
either E, or E,. At first glance you due to the ac resistance of the coil.
might think it should be twice E, The practical way of studying how
or EL.However, remember that E, a coil behaves in an ac circuit is to
and EL are not in phase. This means consider the coil as being made up
that if you add these voltages at any of a pure inductance with a resistor
in series with it. This is essentially
EL
the type of circuit used in Fig. 19.
Here you see that in the circuit the
current lags behind the generator
voltage. Where the resistance was
equal to the inductive reactance,the
phase difference was 45 ° .In actual
practice, the resistance will usu-
ER 0 ally be much smaller than the in-
ductive reactance so that the phase
EL
difference will approach 90° . The
higher the ratio of inductive react-

o
ance to resistance, the closer the
phase difference will approach 90 ° .
In studying a complete circuit in
which there is a coil and a resist-
>I ance in the circuit, you can simply
ER lump together the resistance of the
Fig. 21. Vector diagrams showing relation- resistor and the coil resistance and
ship between current, generator voltage, consider this the resistance in the
coil voltage and resistor voltage of the circuit and then treat the inductance
circuit shown in Fig. 19. of the coil separately. However, if

29
you are interested in finding the volt- ohm resistor. The two are connected
age across the coil, then you have across a 60-cycle generator having
to keep the resistance of the coil an output voltage of 500 volts. The
separated and use it with the induc- resistance of the coil is so small,
tive reactance of the coil since both that compared to the 1000-ohms in
will have an effect insofar as de- the circuit, it is insignificant so we
veloping voltage across the coil is can ignore it. The problem is to find
concerned. the current that will flow in the
circuit.
FINDING THE CURRENT Vector Solution.
First, we must find the inductive
IN AN AC CIRCUIT reactance of the coil. To do this we
use the formula:
If you want to find the current
flowing in this type of circuit when XL = 6.28 xfxL
an ac voltage is applied, you must
find the impedance of the circuit. The and substituting 60 for f and 2 for
impedance is the total opposition to L we get:
the ac current flow in the circuit.
There are several ways of finding XL = 6.28 x 60 x 2
the total flow of ac current in the
circuit. We have already briefly which equals 753.6 ohms. Since this
started to introduce one in Fig. 21. is a practical problem, we simply
We will go through this procedure call it 750 ohms.
in detail now and then show you an- Now we know that the inductive
other method. You may use which- reactance of the coil is 750 ohms
ever way is easier for you. and the resistance in the circuit is
As an example, let us find the cur- 1000 ohms. You might at first think
rent flowing in the circuit shown in that we can obtain the total opposi-
Fig. 22. Here we have a coil with tion to the ac current flow simply
an inductance of 2 henrys. This coil by adding these two together. How-
is connected in series with a 1000- ever, this is not true--you cannot
simply add inductive reactance and
resistance. Let us see why. We know

I 2 HENRYS
that when voltage is applied to an
inductance, the current that flows
will be out of phase with the applied
500 V voltage. When voltage is applied to
the re sista.nce ,the current that flows
1000
will be in phase with the applied volt-
age. The inductance and the resist-
ance have different effects on
current.
Fig. 22. There are two ways to find the Adding the effect of the two to-
current in the circuit shown above: by gether can be done by means of vec-
using vectors or by using a mathematical tors.
solution. You have already seen how vectors

30
can be used to indicate phase differ- A
ences in quantities having the same
frequency. Now we will see how they
can be used to add similar quantities
having the same frequency but adif-

30 VOLTS
ference in phase.
As before, the angle between the
vectors represents the phase differ-
ence between the quantities. The
arrows are all drawn to the same
scale, so that the length of the arrows ob
indicates the amplitudes of the quan- 40 VOLTS
tities to be added.
For example, suppose we wanted Fig. 24. How to find the vector sum of two
to show the relationship between two ac voltages differing in phase.
60-cycle ac voltages A and B. A is
30 volts, and B is 40 volts, and they of the difference in phase. This is
are 90 ° out of phase with each other. where the vector diagrams will help
us. We can add these two voltages,
A
taking into account the phase differ-
ence as shown in Fig. 24. We say
we are finding the "vector sum" of
the two.
u)
To do this, we complete a rec-
o tangle by drawing lines parallel with
o the two vectors. Then we draw in a
rn diagonal to the point where the two
90° lines intersect. This diagonal repre-
sents the vector sum of voltages A
B and B. When we measure it, we see
40 VOLTS it is 2-1/2 inches long. Since we used
the scale of 1/2 inch to 10 volts, we
Fig. 23. In this diagram, the lengths of the
arrows show the amount of voltage and the see that the vector sum is 50 volts.
angle between them shows their phase re- Now let us see how we can apply
lationship. They are considered to rotate this principle to find the total op-
counterclockwise. position or impedance in the circuit
we have been studying. As we have
A is leading B. Fig. 23 shows how already mentioned, when consider-
we would draw this, using a scale ing phase in a circuit, the phase of
of 1/2-inch equals 10volts.We draw the current is always used as aref-
B 2 inches long, and we draw A, erence. The current vector is drawn
1-1/2 inches long. Since A is leading horizontally and pointing to the right,
B by 90 ° ,we draw it 90 ° counter- and voltage vectors are drawn in the
clockwise from B. positions corresponding to their
Now, suppose we wanted to find phase relationship to the current. So
the sum of these voltages. We could the first thing we do is to draw an
not simply add 30 and 40, because arrow to represent the current, as

31
 the resistance voltage vector and
mark it R as shown in Fig. 26. Here
Fig. 25. The current vector is drawn hori- you should notice that it is drawn
zontally and used as a reference point for right on top of the current vector.
the other vectors. The current vector is not drawn to
shown in Fig. 25. We do not know scale, but the resistance voltage
what the current is, so its length vector is drawn 2 inches long.
does not matter, but we do know it Next, we draw the vector for the
should be drawn horizontally and voltage drop across the coil. Since
pointing to the right. The next step we have a reactance of 750 ohms,
in our procedure depends upon an this vector should be 1-1/2 inches
important fact--that the voltage long. Since the coil voltage is 90
across the resistor will be indirect degrees out of phase with the re-
proportion to its resistance. We also sistor voltage, this vector is drawn
know that the voltage across the re- as shown in Fig. 27 and labeled X L.
sistor will be in phase with the cur- Now we have a vector diagram that
rent, and the voltage across the coil represents the voltage across the
will be 90 ° ahead of the current. resistance and the reactance in the
Therefore, we can draw two vectors, circuit shown in Fig. 22. To get the
one on top of the current vector to impedance, we draw dotted lines as
represent the voltage across the re- shown in Fig. 28 to complete the
sistor, and one 90° ahead of (coun- rectangle. The vector representing
terclockwise from) the current vec- the voltage across the impedance
tor to represent the voltage across is drawn in as shown in Fig. 28 to
the coil. We do not know what these the point where these lines meet,
voltages are, but since the voltage and the impedance is obtained by
is in direct proportion to the resist- measuring the length of this vector.
ance and reactance, we can draw On the diagram we have drawn, the
the arrows using a scale that is in impedance voltage vector is 2-1/2
proportion to the ohmic values of the inches long. Since we have used the
resistance and reactance and label scale of 500 ohms to the inch, the
the vectors R and X,. impedance in the circuit must be
2-1/2 times this value, or 1250
ohms. This is the total impedance
or opposition to current flow in the
Fig. 26. The voltage across aresistor is in
circuit. Now that we have this fig-
phase with the current, so the vector for
ure, we can quickly determine the
the resistor voltage is drawn on top of the
current that will flow.
current vector.
To find the current we use Ohm's
First we draw a vector to repre- Law for coils. The current is equil
sent the voltage across the resist- to the voltage divided by the imped-
ance. If we use the scale of an inch ance. The letter Z is usually used
to 500 ohms, the vector representing to represent impedance. This can
the voltage across the resistor will be expressed
be 2 inches long. Since the current
flowing through the resistor will be E
I =—
in phase with the voltage, we draw Z

32 r:/Z
XL The mathematical sign means
to find the square root. Therefore,
you square the resistance and the
reactance, add the two together, and
then take the square root of the sum.
Once you have the impedance, pro-
ceed as before to get the current.
Again,this is not the type of prob-
lem that the technician will have to
solve, but it is important to remem-
ber the general method of obtaining
am- R the impedance in a circuit of this
type. If you know how to do square
root problems, the mathematical
Fig. 27. The vector for the voltage across solution is the simpler; if you don't,
the inductance is drawn in at right angles the graphical solution is the one to
to the resistor voltage vector. use. It is particularly important to
realize that you cannot obtain the
Substituting 500 volts for E and 1250 impedance simply by adding the
ohms for Z we get: resistance and the reactance to-
gether. The impedance in a circuit
500 will always be somewhat less than
I = 1250 - .4 amp
the sum of the two because of the
difference in phase.
Mathematical Solution.
KIRCHHOFF ' S VOLTAGE
Another method of solving for the
impedance in an ac circuit is by LAW
means of the formula:
You will remember that Kirch-
hoff's voltage law stated that the sum
Z =/R2 +
of the voltage drops in a complete
circuit is equal to the source volt-
XL
age. Now let's see how this applies
to an ac circuit consisting of induc-
tance and resistance.
Using the same example as before,
we have already calculated the re-
actance of the coil at 750 ohms and
we kepw the resistance of the resis-
tor is 1000 ohms. We can use Ohm's
Law in the form:

E=IxR

to find the voltage drop across the

resistor. In the case of the coil, the
Fig. 18. The vector representing the volt-
voltage drop is:
age across the impedance is the vector
sum of the other two. E = IxXL

33
 To find the voltage drop across the together would give us more than
coil, we simply multiply 750 by the 500 volts.
current, which we have already de- To add these two voltages we must
termined as .4 amp. 750 x .4 = 300. again resort to vectors. The vector
Therefore the voltage across the coil addition of these two voltages using
is 300 volts. The voltage across the a scale of 200 volts equals 1inch is
resistor is 1000 x.4 =400volts.Now shown in Fig. 30. Notice that the vec-
look at Fig. 29 where we have indi- tor representing the voltage across
cated the voltages. We have 300 volts the resistor is drawn 2 inches long,
across the coil and 400 volts across and the one representing the voltage
the resistor, but our source voltage across the coil is drawn 1-1/2 inches
is only 500 volts. These are the read- long. When we complete the vector
ings we would actually obtain if we diagram to find the sum, as before,
had meters connected as shown: we obtain a vector which is equal to
the generator voltage of 500 volts.
The mathematical solution that we
used before can also be used to obtain
the source voltage. If we let the sym-
300
VOLTS bol E, equal the source voltage we
500 have:
VOLTS

400 Ea =/E-7 4----

EL2
VOLTS

If we substitute 400 for E„ ER2

equals 160,000. Similarly EL
squared equals 90,000. Adding the
Fig. 29. With a source voltage of 500 two together we get 250,000; the
volts, we have 300 volts across the coil, square root of 250,000 is 500, so as
and 400 volts across the resistor, hut before we find that E, = 500 volts.
they are not in phase. Importance of Phase.
A general knowledge of phase and
This may appear to be a contra- vector diagrams helps you to under-
diction of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, stand the action of coils and capaci-
but actually it is not. You must re- tors in ac circuits and will make you
member that the voltage across the a better-than-average technician.
resistor will be in phase with the You will understand why you do cer-
current, but the voltage across the tain things when making adjustments
coil will not be in phase with the or repairs instead of just blindly
current flowing through it. The volt- following instructions. It is the men
ages that we have just determined who know the "How" and the "Why"
are effective voltages. At any given who command the highest salaries
instant the sum of the voltage across in the modern world of electronics.
the coil plus the voltage across the Later in your course, you will
resistor will be equal to the voltage learn that the opposition of a coil,
across the generator. However, the which we have called inductive re-
effective voltage across the coil and actance, can be balanced or can-
the resistor if they are simply added celled by the opposition of acapad -

34
 A high-Q coil is a coil in which the
EL IEG
value of the inductive reactance is
much higher than that of the resist-
ance. Coils with a Q of 100 or more
are quite common.
Since the reactance of a coil in-
creases with frequency, you might
expect the Q to increase with fre-
quency. This is true up to a certain
point, but R is the ac resistance of
a coil and it increases with frequency
ER also. As long as X, increases with
frequency faster than R,the Q of the
coil will increase, tut if R increases
Fig. 30. Finding the vector sum of ER and faster than X, the Q of the coil will
EL. decrease as the frequency increases
so the coil cannot be used at high
tor, which is called capacitive re- frequencies.
actance, because the two are of op- Q is particularly important in
posite phase. You will see the im- tuned circuits when coils are used
portance of phase in many other with capacitors. You will see why
practical examples. Phase, how- this is so later when you study these
ever, is not a subject you can grasp circuits.
in one lesson; you will understand
it better and better with each suc- SUMMARY
ceeding lesson.
This section of your lesson is al-
Q OF A COIL most too important to try to sum-
marize. However, to help you to re-
We mentioned that since a coil is view, here are the important things
wound of wire and wire has resist- you should understand.
ance, there is no such thing as a You should have a general under-
perfect inductance. All coils have standing of what we mean by phase.
both inductance and resistance. When the current in an ac circuit is
As you might expect, when manu- increasing exactly in step with the
facturers make a coil, they usually voltage, and reaches the maximum
try to keep the resistance as low as value at the same time as the volt-
possible. Generally, the lower the age reaches the maximum value and
resistance is in proportion to the in- reaches its minimum value at the
ductive reactance of a coil, the bet- same time as the voltage reaches its
ter the coil. The relationship be- minimum value, we say that the cur-
tween inductive reactance and re- rent and voltage are in phase. In a
sistance is called the Q of the coil. circuit consisting of a pure induc-
This is represented by the formula: tance the current will lag the voltage
by 90 degrees. This means that it is
= XL one-quarter of a cycle behind the
R voltage.

35
 Impedance is the vector sum of (aq) In the preceding problem, find
resistance and reactance. The im- the voltage across the coil and
pedance in a circuit will be greater the voltage across the resis-
than the resistance or the reactance tor.
alone. Impedance cannot be deter-
mined simply by adding the resist- LOOKING AHEAD
ance and the reactance.
The voltage across a component You have now finished the study
in an ac circuit can be found by of the basic facts of resistors and
Ohm's Law. The sum of the indi- coils. When you complete a similar
vidual voltage drops in an ac circuit study of capacitors in the next les-
is equal to the source voltage, pro- son, you will have abasic knowledge
viding we add these voltages vec- of these three important parts. In a
torially. We cannot add them by later lesson you will learn more
means of simple arithmetic and ex- about how these three parts work to-
pect their sum to be equal to the gether and what effect they have on
source voltage. If we could measure ac signals. Remember that the ac
the source voltage and the voltage supplied by the power company,
across each of the parts in the cir- audio signals, and radio frequency
cuit at any instant, we would find signals are all ac signals differing
that the sum of the voltage drops at only in frequency and in some cases
that instant would be equal to the in wave shape. The important facts
source voltage. you learned about ac and coils in
this lesson apply to all ac signals
SELF -TEST QUESTIONS regardless of their frequency.
Most students are anxious to go
(ak) What do we mean when we say ahead as quickly as possible with
that the voltage and current in their course, particularly in the
a circuit are in phase? early lessons. However, do not be so
(al) What is the phase relationship anxious to go ahead with later les-
between the voltage and cur- sons that you leave the earlier les-
rent across a resistor? sons without completely understand-
(am) What is the phase relationship ing them. The information given in
between the voltage and cur- these early lessons is basic and is
rent across a coil? information that you will use over
--(an) At what point in an ac cycle is and over again in more advanced
the current changing at its lessons. If you do not understand how
maximum rate? basic parts such as resistors, coils,
(ao) What is meant by impedance? and capacitors affect circuit per-
(ap) An ac generator with an out- formance, you will not be able to
put voltage of 250 volts is con- understand some of the later
nected across a1.5-henry coil lessons.
and a 900-ohm resistor in
series. The frequency of the
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
QUESTIONS
generator is 100 cycles. Find
the current flowing in the cir- (a) Magnetic lines of force form
cuit. complete loops.

36
(b) Near the coil. the less reluctance it will offer
to magnetic lines of force.
(c) An air-core coil. The card-
board form merely supports (m) In a magnetic circuit the flux
the turns of the coil; it has no is equal to the magnetomotive
appreciable effect on the op- force divided by the reluc-
eration of the coil. tance.

(d) Laminations are thin strips (n) A flux linkage is a magnetic

of iron or steel used to pro- line of flux cutting through a
duce an iron core for a choke single turn of a coil. If the
or transformer. magnetic line of flux cuts
through two turns then we have
(e) An iron core provides abetter two flux linkages, and if it cuts
path for the magnetic lines of through five turns then we have
force. We say it has a lower five flux linkages.
reluctance.
(o) Twelve. A magnetic line of
(f) Magnetomotive force is the flux cutting through a single
force that sends magnetic flux coil produces one flux linkage.
around a magnetic circuit. Therefore three lines cutting
through four turns produces
(g) The ampere-turn. 3 x4= 12 flux linkages.

(h) 50 ampere - turns. (P) Zero. If the number of flux

linkages cutting a coil does
(I) Reluctance is the opposition not change, there will be no
to flux in a magnetic circuit. voltage induced in the coil.
It is the equivalent of resist-
ance in an electrical circuit.
(q) The induced voltage will pro-
duce a current which will in
(j) Yes. The reluctance in the
itself produce amagnetic field
magnetic circuit of an iron-
which will oppose any change
core -coil is much lower than
in flux linkages.
the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit in an air-core coil.
(r) It will aid the original lines of
(k) They all have the same reluc- force. ff the field is reduced,
tance. Non-magnetic mate- the induced voltage produced
rials have the same reluctance in the coil will cause a cur-
as air. rent to flow in such a direc-
tion that the magnetic field
1 ) The permeability of amaterial
( produced will tend to prevent
indicates the ability of the the number of flux linkages
material to pass the magnetic from decreasing. In order to
lines of force. The higher the do this it must aid the original
permeability of the material, field.

37
(s) (1) cutting lines of force, (2) ductance.
changing the reluctance (3)
changing the coil current. (z) If the voltage induced in acoil
is 1 volt when the strength of
(t) The variable reluctance phono the current flowing through the
pickup. In this type of pickup coil changes at a rate of 1am-
the needle moves between two pere per second, the coil has
coils. As the needle follows an inductance of 1henry.
the record groove it moves
from side to side decreasing (an) (1) the number of turns on the
the air gap on one side so that coil, (2) the diameter of the
the reluctance on that side de- coil, (3) the permeability of
creases and the flux increases. the core material.

(u) The transformer. Varying ac (ab) The inductive reactance of a

applied to the primary of the coil is the opposition the coil
transformer causes a varying offers to the flow of ac through
current to flow. This current it due to the inductances of the
in turn causes a varying flux; coil.
the varying flux cutting the
secondary induces a voltage (ac) The inductive reactance of a
in the secondary of the trans- coil is measured in ohms.
former.
(ad) 3768 ohms. To find the induc-
(v) Inductance.
tive reactance of a coil you
(W) A self-induced voltage is a use the formula:
voltage induced in a coil that
is caused by a change in the
XL = 6.28 xfxL
current flowing through the
coil. The changing current
and substituting 60 for f and
causes a change in magnetic
10 for L we have:
flux. The change in magnetic
flux produces a self-induced
XL = 6.28 x, 60 x 10
voltage which tends to produce
XL = 3768 ohms.
a current which in turn will
produce a magnetic field op-
posing the original change. (ae) When two coils are placed near
each other so that the flux from
(x) It will oppose the applied volt- one coil cuts through turns of
age. The self-induced voltage the other coil, any change in
will try to keep the current the flux from one coil will in-
constant so that the flux will duce a voltage in the other
remain constant. To do this coil. We call this coupling be-
it must oppose the applied tween the two coils mutual in-
voltage. ductance.

(y) The henry is the unit of in- (af) 14 henrys. When two coils that

38
 are not mutually coupled to- six places to the left requires
gether are connected in that we add three zeros to the
series, the total inductance is left of 1 and then simply move
simply the sum of the two in- the decimal point.
inductances.
(ah) When we say that the voltage
(ag) 11 henrys. To find the total and current are in phase we
inductance of the two coils we mean that any change in volt-
use the formula: age produces a corresponding
change in current. In other
words, an increase in voltage
LT = Li + L2 + 2M causes an instant increase in
current or a decrease in volt-
age causes an instant decrease
and substituting 4 henrys for
in current.
Li and 3 henrys for L2 and
2 henrys for M we get:
(al) The voltage and current
across aresistor are in phase.

LT = 4 + 3 + (2 x 2)
(am) The voltage across a coil will
LT = 11 henrys. lead the current by 90° .An-
other way of expressing the
(ah) 9 henrys. To find the induc- same thing is to say that the
tance of the two coils we use current lags the voltage by
the formula: 90° .

LT = Li + L2 - 2M (an) The current is changing at

its maximum rate when the
and substituting 8 henrys for current wave is going through
Li, 7 henrys for L2 and 3 0.
henrys for M we get:
(ao) Impedance is the total opposi-
L T = 8 + 7 - (2 x 3) tion to current flow. It is made
L 1 = 9 henrys. up of the reactive opposition
and the resistive opposition to
(ai) 2200 millihenrys. To convert current flow.
henrys to millihenrys you
just multiply by 1000 which is (ap) XL = 6.28 x 100 x 1.5
the same as moving the deci- = 942.0 ohms
mal point three places to the
right. 2.2 x 1000 =2200. Z =/R
- 2 -1•
•X
- L2

(4) .0001 henry. To convert mi- =/900

crohenrys to henrys you di-
vide by 1,000,000 or move the =/ 810,000 + 887,364
decimal point six places to the
left. Moving the decimal point =/1,697,364

39
 = 1303 ohms (aq) ER = IR
= .19 x 900 = 171volts

E 250 EL = IX L
/= T = 1303 = '
19 amps = .19 x 942 = 179 volts

40
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B106.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

1. If the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is increased, what will happen

to the flux?

2. If the number of flux linkages cutting a coil decreases, a voltage will

be induced in the coil that will cause a current to flow, which will
produce magnetic flux that will tend to prevent the original flux from
decreasing. Is this statement true or false?

3. Explain what inductive reactance is.

4. What is the inductive reactance of a1-henry coil at a frequency of 100

cycles?

5. If two 15-henry coils have amutual inductance of 5 henrys, what is the

total inductance when they are connected in series if the flux of one
coil aids the flux of the other?

6. Explain what is meant when we say "the voltage and current are out
of phase."

7. What do we mean by the impedance of a circuit?

8. What is the impedance of the circuit shown?

9. If the frequency of a voltage source connected to a circuit consisting

of a coil and resistor in series is increased, will the current flowing
in the circuit increase, decrease, or remain the same?

10. If the current flowing in the circuit shown is 1amp, find:

(1) the voltage across the coil

(2) the voltage across the resistor.
SINCERE APPRECIATION PAYS
Have you ever watched a dog respond to a friendly
pat as a reward for obedience? Have you noticed
how a child glows with joy when praised for good
behavior? Have you ever felt your own brain cells
respond with increased effort when you praise them
by saying, "That's a fine piece of work, even if Idid
do it myself:"

Yes, everyone responds to sincere and merited

praise. It is a tonic to both giver and receiver. It
brings greater praise and appreciation back to you.
It costs nothing more than a smile and a few sincere
words, bet it can truly achieve miracles in happiness
and success, and put real money in your pocket.

Time spent in figuring how to give sincere and

deserved praise is well worth while. Let people know
that you appreciate their fine work, and watch the
breaks come your way.
li›

I
 4

in learning
i by a McGraw-Hill
— II ..
I iii Continuing Education School 139-LT-206
 HOW CAPACITORS

ARE USED
eted15114sel'
,
_,LecTW_iWr
e WI WI
B107

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

B107
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

u I. Introduction Pages 1-3

This section gives abrief picture of what acapacitor is and the
different types in use.

(II 2. How Capacitors Store Electricity Pages 4-12

You learn about charging a capacitor, the factors affecting
capacity, and the voltage rating of capacitors.

Li 3. Typical Capacitors Pages 13 -23

You study variable capacitors and paper, mica, ceramic, and
electrolytic fixed capacitors.

u 4. Capacitors in AC Circuits Pages 24 -28

You learn how ac flows in capacitive circuits, and you study
the effect of connecting capacitors in series and in parallel.

o 5. Simple R-C Circuits Pages 29 -36

Here we take up time-constants, phase, voltage distribution,
and impedance in resistor-capacitor circuits.

D 6. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 36 -40

E 7. Answer the Lesson Questions.

D 8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

PII2M375 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

Of the three major electronic cir- age by 90 degrees; in other words

cuit parts, resistors, coils and ca- we would have just exactly the op-
pacitors, it would be impossible to posite effect. You will see more of
pick the one that is the most essen- this later in this lesson and also
tial. All three parts are extremely find out exactly why it is that in a
important. In many circuits all three capacitive circuit the current leads
are used together; in some circuits the voltage. For the present, let's
two of the three are used together. start this lesson by learning a little
When used in combination, these about what a capacitor is and some
parts are able to perform jobs that of the fundamentals of how it works.
one cannot do alone.
In the preceding two lessons, you WHAT IS A CAPACITOR?
studied resistors and coils. In this
lesson you will study capacitors in In its simplest form, a capacitor,
detail. After you have completed or condenser, as many old-timers
this lesson, you should have a good call it, consists of nothing more than
understanding of how these three two pieces of metal separated
basic parts work. Later, you will see either by air or by some other non-
how they are used together. conducting material placed between
In many respects a capacitor is them. The material between the two
the opposite of a coil. You will re- plates, whether it is air, aliquid, or
member that in an ac circuit with a a solid, is called the dielectric. If
coil in it, the current flowing in the there is nothing between the plates
circuit will lag or follow the applied but air, we say the capacitor has an
voltage by 90 degrees. If instead of air dielectric.
a coil we put a capacitor in the cir- The electrical size of a capacitor
cuit, the current would lead the volt- is called its capacity. A large ca-

1
 PLATE A When the plates of the capacitor
are connected to the battery, elec-
trons flow from the negative termi-
nal of the battery into the plate of
the capacitor connected to the nega-
tive terminal. There will be a sur-
plus of electrons built up on this plate
PLATE 8 of the capacitor.
You know that one of the charac-
teristics of an electron is that it re-
Fig. 1. A simple capacitor is nothing but pels other electrons. Remember the
two pieces of metal separated from each rule of charges, like charges repel.
other. Therefore, the surplus electrons on
the one plate of the capacitor will
pacitor has a large capacity. There repel electrons from the other plate
are a number of things that affect back to the positive terminal of the
the capacity of a capacitor, which battery. At the same time, the posi-
you will study in a little while. tive terminal of the battery attracts
electrons and pulls them from the
HOW A CAPACITOR WORKS plate connected to it, leaving ashort-
age of electrons on this plate, giving
A simple capacitor made of two it a positive charge. This positive
metal plates with an air dielectric charge will attract electrons from
between them is shown in Fig. 1. To the negative terminal of the battery
see how a capacitor works, let's see to the plate connected to it. Thus,
what will happen when we connect there will be a surplus of electrons
this capacitor to a battery as shown on one plate and a shortage of elec-
in Fig. 2. trons on the other. The electron flow
will continue until plate A is just as
SHORTAGE OF negative as the negative battery ter-
SURPLUS OF
ELECTRONS minal, and plate B is just as positive
ELECTRONS
as the positive battery terminal.
0,000 When this condition exists we say the
0
00
0
0 o
o capacitor is charged.
If we suddenly disconnect the ca-
o pacitor from the battery, the condi-
tion of unbalance that has been set
up on the capacitor plates will re-
-111111+ main. We will have asurplus of elec-
trons on one plate and a shortage of
electrons on the other. Thus, we
Fig. 2. Whet' acapacitor is connected to a have electricity stored in the capaci-
battery, a surplus of electrons is accumu- tor.
lated on one plate. This forces electrons You will remember that one of the
off the other plate. leaving it with a posi- characteristics of a charged object
tive charge. is that it tries to give up its charge

2
in order to become neutral as quickly unpleasant and possibly dangerous
as possible. Therefore, if we con- shock:
nect a wire from one plate of a ca-
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
pacitor to the other, the electrons
will flow from the side having asur- Capacitors can be divided into two
plus of electrons over to the side types, according to what type of
having a shortage of electrons until material (called the dielectric)
the number of electrons on the two separates the plates. One type has
plates is balanced, and there is no an air dielectric, and the other has
longer a charge on them. a solid or liquid dielectric. When
This is a very brief explanation we say a capacitor has an air dielec-
of how a capacitor works, how it is tric, we simply mean that there is
charged, and how it can store elec- nothing but air between the plates of
tricity. We will look into this more the capacitor. When we say a ca-
thoroughly in the next section of this pacitor has a solid or liquid dielec-
lesson, but this is enough to give you tric we mean that some insulating
a general idea of how a capacitor material other than air has been
works. Keep in mind that a capaci- inserted between the plates.
tor can store electricity. Before You will see typical examples of
touching the leads of alarge capaci- all these types of capacitors later;
tor you should short the leads to- you will learn more about them, what
gether with ascrewdriver or similar they look like, and where they are
object to be sure the capacitor is used in electronic circuits; but first
discharged, otherwise you may dis- let us learn more about how they
charge the capacitor and receive an work.

3
How Capacitors Store Electricity
In considering a capacitor, you not the case. There is resistance in
may at first wonder how a capaci- the leads used to connect the capaci-
tor can be used in an electronic cir- tor to the battery, and in addition
cuit because there is no complete there is the internal resistance of
circuit through the capacitor. In the the battery itself. These two resist-
sketch of the simple capacitor shown ances will limit the rate at which
in Fig. 1 you can see that the two the capacitor can charge.
plates of the capacitor do not touch Because it does take sometime to
each other. There is a space be- charge a capacitor, there will be a
tween the two plates so that the elec- current flowing in the circuit shown
trons on one plate cannot normally in Fig. 2 when the capacitor is first
flow from one plate to the other. connected to the battery. This cur-
When we connected a battery to a rent will flow as long as the battery
capacitor we saw that the plates of is charging the capacitor. The longer
the capacitor became charged, one it takes the battery to charge the ca-
plate picking up a surplus of elec- pacitor the longer there will be a
trons and the other losing electrons current flowing in the circuit.
so that it had a shortage. Therefore, you can see that even
The usefulness of a capacitor de- though the electrons cannot cross
pends upon its ability to store elec- from one plate of the capacitor to
tricity or to hold a charge. Let's the other plate there is a current
learn a little more about how a ca- flow in the circuit, at least for the
pacitor is charged, so we can better short time it takes to charge the
understand some of its more im- capacitor.
portant uses. A question that sometimes comes
up when considering a charged ca-
CHARGING A CAPACITOR pacitor is whether or not the capaci-
tor has any more electrons than it
A capacitor cannot be charged in- has in the discharged state. The an-
stantly. It takes time for the charge swer to this question is no--the ca-
to build up after the electrons start pacitor will have the same number
to flow from the negative terminal of of electrons whether it is charged
the battery into one plate of the ca- or discharged. The only difference
pacitor and from the other plate to is that when a capacitor is dis-
the positive terminal of the battery. charged there is no charge on any
The length of time that it takes de- of the atoms making up the metal on
pends upon two things, the size of either plate. In other words, each
the capacitor and the amount of re- atom has enough electrons to exactly
sistance in the circuit. neutralize the charge in its nucleus.
You might think that there was no However, when the capacitor is
resistance in the circuit we have charged, some of the electrons are
shown in Fig. 2. However, this is moved off one plate so there is a

4
 shortage of electrons on that plate, than a capacitor with a lower ca-
and the same number of extra elec- pacity. Thus the capacity of a ca-
trons are forced onto the other plate, pacitor indicates its electrical size
so there is a surplus of electrons to the technician just as the resist-
on it. Thus the total number of elec- ance of aresistor indicates the elec-
trons in the material making up the trical size of the resistor.
capacitor does not change. We can express the capacity of a
-4 The Amount of Charge. capacitor in terms of charge and
The charge on a capacitor de- voltage. The capacity of a capacitor
pends upon the battery voltage used is equal to the charge it will take
to move electrons onto one plate and divided by the voltage used to put
away from the other. A battery with that charge on the capacitor. The
a higher voltage can exert more amount of charge is expressed in
force on the atoms making up the units called "coulombs." A cou-
capacitor plates and thus move more lomb represents a certain quantity
electrons than a battery with alower of electrons. If a current of 1am-
voltage could. However, there are pere flows in a circuit for one sec-
other things that affect the charge ond, the number of electrons moving
we can store in a capacitor. The past a given point in the circuit
electrical size of the capacitor is represents one coulomb of elec-
just as important as the charging tricity. If when we connect a one-
voltage. The electrical size of the volt battery across a capacitor we
capacitor is called the capacity of can store a charge of 1coulomb in
the capacitor. Now let's see what the capacitor, its capacity is 1farad.
we mean by capacity. If the capacitor would take a charge
of 2 coulombs with an applied volt-
CAPACITY age of 1volt, the capacity would be
two farads. The farad actually
The term capacity is used to de- represents an extremely large ca-
scribe the electrical size of a ca- pacity. It is so large in fact that it
pacitor. It is used in the same way is never used in electronics. Let us
as inductance is used to describe look at the smaller units of capacity
the electrical size of a coil, and that are used.
resistance is used to indicate the Unite of Capacity.
electrical size of a resistor. Since the farad is so large a unit,
Just as the henry is the unit of in- capacity in electronic circuits is
ductance and the ohm is the unit of usually expressed in smaller units,
resistance, the "farad" (pronounced which are fractions of a farad. They
FAIR-ad) is the unit of capacity. It are:
was named after the scientist 1. The microfarad, which is equal
Michael Faraday, who did a great to one-millionth of a farad. Micro-
deal of the early work with capaci- farads are abbreviated in several
tors. The capacity of a capacitor is ways; the most common abbrevia-
a measure of its ability to store tions are u.f, mf, and mfd.
electricity. A capacitor with a high 2. The picofarad, which is equal
capacity can store more electrons to 1-millionth of a microfarad. It

5
is abbreviated pf. In addition to the zeros. A capacitor that has a ca-
picofarad you will also run into the pacity of .0005 microfarads has a
micro-microfarad, which is also capacity of 500 picofarads. You
equal to 1-millionth of amicrofarad. simply move the decimal point six
The micro-microfarad was used for places to the right.
many years to designate a millionth To convert from picofarads to
of a microfarad, but in recent years microfarads you divide by one mil-
the picofarad has replaced it. If you lion, and this can be done by moving
should be looking at a diagram of a the decimal point six places to the
modern radio or TV receiver the left. To do this, you can add zeros
chances are you'll find that the ab- to the left. Thus 100 picofarads,can
breviation pf has been used to indi- be written 000,000,100 picofarads.
cate picofarads but if you are work- All the zeros to the left of the 1
ing on an older set then you will find have no meaning. To convert this
micro-microfarad used. The abbre- value to mie rota rads, move the deci-
viations used for micro-microfarad mal point six places to the left and
are uuf, mmf, and mnifd. you get 000.0001 microfarad. The
Because all seven abbreviations zeros preceding the decimal point
are frequently found in electronics, have no meaning, so they can be
you should learn them all. The Greek dropped, and you have .0001 micro-
letter u is the Greek letter "mu" farad or .0001 mfd.
which is pronounced MEW. Since the micro-microfarad is
You should have no difficulty in also equal to one millionth of a
remembering that the prefix micro microfarad - in other words it is
means one millionth, because you equal to a picofarad - if you should
have run into this several times pre- run into an older receiver where the
viously. The microfarad is simply values are given in micro-micro-
one millionth of a farad. Actually, farads and you want to convert the
you will not be dealing with farads value to microfarads you use ex-
at all because this is such a large actly the same procedure as used
unit and for practical purposes you in converting picofarads to micro-
can consider that the unit of capacity farads.
in electronics is the microfarad. The No doubt as you are reading the
smaller unit, which you will have to preceding section you noticed how
deal with, is the picofarad, which is long the words microfarad and pico-
a millionth of a microfarad. farad are. Technicians have short-
Sometimes it is necessary to ened these words. The word micro-
change from microfarads to pico- farad is frequently abbreviated to
farads and vice-versa. To change "mike". Thus if you went to awhole-
from microfarads to picofarads, you saler to buy a 2-microfarad capaci-
simply multiply by one million or tor you would probably simply say,
move the decimal point six places to "I want a 2-mike capacitor". Tech-
the right. In other words, a capaci- nicians have shortened picofarad to
tor that has a capacity of 5 micro- simply the abbreviation pf. Thus if
farads has a capacity of 5,000,000 you were ordering a 100 picofarad
picofarads. You simply add six capacitor you would probably order

6
 it as a 100-pf capacitor rather than changed and also help you to under-
pronouncing the entire word. stand the other capacitors you will
Another abbreviation is as fol- encounter in electronics work, we
lows: instead of saying decimal will now discuss some of the factors
point, 0, 0, 1 microfarad to identify affecting capacity.
a .001 trifd capacitor technicians 1. Arabia of Plato..
usually say "point double oh one The capacity of a capacitor de-
4 mike". Similarly for .00025 mfd they pends upon the area of the plates.
would say "point triple oh two five Thus, if the area of each plate of a
mike". simple capacitor such as the one
shown in Fig. 1 is doubled, the ca-
FACTORS AFFECTING
pacity would be doubled.
CAPACITY There are other ways in which the
If you have ever looked into tne area can be increased in order to in-
back of a radio receiver you have
probably noticed what we call a
variable capacitor. A variable ca-
pacitor consists of a set of fixed
plates and a set of plates that can
be rotated. As the receiver is tuned
across the broadcast band the rotat-
ing plates will move into position
and mesh between the fixed plates.
The actual capacitor in the receiver
might have been made of two or three
separate capacitors all connected
together so that the rotating plates
all rotate at the same time. A ca- Fig. 3 Wiling plates to a capacitor in-
pacitor with two sections is called creases the capacity.
a 2-gang capacitor and one with three
sections is called a 3-gang capaci- crease the capacity. For example,
tor. This type of capacitor is called look at the capacitor shown in Fig.
a variable capacitor because its ca- 3A. Notice that instead of a simple
pacity is varied as you rotate the capacitor made up of two plates as
movable plates and mesh them be- we had in Fig. 1, here we have three
tween the stationary plates. When plates. Two of the plates, marked
the plates are completely meshed Al and A2, are connected together.
the capacitor has its maximum ca- If we start off with acapacitor having
pacity and when they are rotated the two plates Al and B, and then add
so that they are separated as far the plate A2 to the capacitor, we
as possible the capacitor has its would double the capacity. You can
minimum capacity. see why this is so when you consider
There are a number of factors what happens to the area of the plates
that affect the capacity of a capaci- when we add plate A2. Let's assume
tor. So you will understand how the that each plate has an area of one
capacity of a variable capacitor is square inch. Thus the area of plate

7
Al opposite plate B is one square larger or smaller areas of the two
inch. When we add plate A2, we will sections to each other.
have the areas of Al and A2 exposed 2. Spacing.
to both sides of B. Thus the effective The distance between the plates of
area of the plates is doubled and a capacitor will also affect the ca-
therefore the capacity is doubled. pacity. Capacity is inversely pro-
Additional plates can be added as portional to the spacing between
shown in Fig. 3B. Adding additional plates. For example, if the spacing
plates to a capacitor actually in- is reduced to one half, there will be
creases the area of the plates, which twice the capacity. If it is reduced
in turn increases the capacity. to one quarter, there will then be
In considering the area of the four times as much capacity. Also,
plates, we must consider only the if you double the space between the
overlapping area. For example, if plates you will have one half of the
we have a capacitor made up of two capacity; if you triple the space you
plates each having an area of 1 will have one third of the capacity.
square inch, and positioned as shown This is due to the fact that when the
in Fig. 4A, we will have a certain repelling effect of the electrons on
capacity. However, if without chang- one plate and the attracting force of
ing the size of the plates we move the shortage of electrons on the other
them as shown in Fig. 4B, the ca- plate must act over a greater dis-
pacity will be reduced, because the tance, they are not able to drive as
overlapping area of the plates is re- many electrons out of the one plate
duced. The part of plate A that is of the capacitor and pull as many
not directly opposite part of plate B onto the other plate. As a result,
will have little or no effect on the the capacitor is not able to store as
capacity. Similarly, the part of plate great a charge. You already know
B that is not opposite part of plate that the capacity of a capacitor is
A will have little or no effect. equal to the charge in coulombs di-
vided by the voltage required to give
that charge. Thus, if the charge a

;
o capacitor can hold is reduced, the

-11-- OVERLAPPING
capacity will go down. Moving the
plates farther apart will reduce the
charge that you can get on acapaci-
AREA
tor for a given applied voltage. Con-
versely, bringing the plates closer
Fig. 4. Only the overlapping areas of the together will increase the charge
plates affect the capacity of a capacitor. you can get on a capacitor for a
given applied voltage.
This is the principle that is used 3. Dielectric.
in variable capacitors. Here anum- We have already mentioned that
ber of plates are arranged so that the type of dielectric used between
one section of plates is movable and the plates of the capacitor has an
can be made to overlap more or less effect on the capacity. If instead of
of the other section, thus exposing air between the plates we place a

8
piece of mica, paper, or ceramic from about 2 up to about 10. The
material, the capacity will be in- ceramic materials used in ceramic
creased. As a matter of fact, if we capacitors have a wide range of di-
slide a piece of mica between the electric constants going up to as
plates of a capacitor so that the micahigh as about 1500. You can see from
exactly fills up the space we will this why it is possible to make ce-
find that the capacity will increase ramic capacitors with large capaci-
somewhere between 6 and 8times. ties in small physical sizes.
We already mentioned that the ef-
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT fect of a dielectric is to increase the
capacity of the capacitor. If there
In the preceding section we men- were a perfect vacuum between the
tioned that inserting a piece of mica plates of acapacitor, electrons flow-
between the plates of a capacitor ing into one plate of the capacitor
would increase the capacity some- would place anegative charge on this
where between 6 and 8 times. The plate and electrons flowing from the
amount that a certain material will other plate would place a positive
increase the capacity when used as a charge on it.
dielectric, compared to the capacity However when we place any di-
when air is used, is called the "die- electric material, which of course
lectric constant" of the material. In includes air, between the plates of
other words, the dielectric constant the capacitor, the electrons on the
tells us the number of times that the negative plate of the capacitor dis-
capacity will be increased by insert- tort the atoms of the material be-
ing a certain material between the tween the plates. Before the plates
plates of a capacitor. Actually, the of the capacitor are charged, the
dielectric constant is based on the atoms in the dielectric will be in
number of times the capacity would their normal state with the electrons
be increased over the capacity we revolving around the nucleus as
would have if the dielectric were a shown in Fig. 5A. However, when the
perfect vacuum. However, air be- electrons flow onto the negative plate
tween the plates affects the capacity of the capacitor, they will tend to
very little. The capacity is practi- repel the electrons in the dielectric.
cally the same with an air dielectric Since the dielectric is an insulator,
as it would be with aperfect vacuum the electrons are not free, but are
between the plates so we say bound to the atoms; however the re-
that the dielectric constant of air is pelling effect of the electrons onthe
1; in other words it is the same as a negative plate will shift the path of
vacuum between the two plates. the electrons in the dielectric so
Different materials have different that the path around the nucleus will
dielectric constants. Paper has adi- be like that shown in Fig.5B.Notice
electric constant of somewhere be- that the electrons are pushed away
tween 1.5 and 3, depending upon the from the negative plate and towards
grade of paper. Mica has adielectric the positive plate. As these elec-
constant between 6 and 8. Different trons move closer to the positive
types of oil have dielectric constants plate, they tend to repel the electrons

9
 DIELECTRIC course, in a practical case you can't
CAPACITOR ATOM have the plates practically touching,
PLATES
BOUND ELECTRON because they would probably short
o together and then the capacitor would
be of no value. However, by using
the right dielectric we get just as
much capacity as we would with the
plates practically touching and at
the same time the dielectric between
MOVEMENT OF
FREE ELECTRONS
BATTERY the plates holds the plates rigid and
reduces the possibility of the plates
accidentally shorting together.

VOLTAGE RATINGS
Fig. 5. Electrons in the dielectric are
bound to their atoms, but their paths are We mentioned previously that the
shifted when abattery is connected across charge that can be placed on a ca-
the capacitor, so that they come closer to pacitor depends upon the electrical
the positive plate, thus transferring the size or the capacity of the capacitor
effect of the extra electrons on the nega- and also on the voltage used to place
tke plate. the charge on the capacitor. You
might think from this that you could
on the positive plate. Because the put more and more charge on a ca-
electrons from the atoms in the di- pacitor simply by increasing the
electric move over towards this voltage higher and higher. However,
plate of the capacitor, the dielectric this is not the case because there is
has the effect of reducing the space a limit to how much voltage can be
between the plates. This places the applied to a capacitor.
negative charge very close to the Manufacturers design capacitors
positive plate and drives many more with a certain spacing between
electrons off the positive plate of plates. If the plates are put very
the capacitor than could be removed close together, you cannot put a
if the two plates were in a vacuum. very high voltage on the capacitor,
As we mentioned, air acts almost because the electrons forced onto the
like a perfect vacuum. There is very one plate of the capacitor would jump
little of this effect occurring when right across the space between the
the dielectric is air. However, with plates to reach the other plate of the
materials of ahigher dielectric con- capacitor which has a shortage of
stant this effect is more pronounced. electrons. Once this happens cur-
This is particularly true in the case rent will flow across the point where
of ceramic materials where there is the capacitor breaks down, at least
considerable distortion of the atoms until you eliminate the short by
in the dielectric so that the net effect shutting off the power. Sometimes
is to get the same result as you would when the electrons jump across the
get by having the plates of the ca- capacitor in this way the capacitor
pacitor practically touching. Of is permanently damaged.

10
Working Voltage.
output voltage from the power supply
When a manufacturer designs a is 450 volts, during part of the time
capacitor he designs it for use in a when the pulses from the rectifier
circuit with a certain maximum op- tube reach their peak, the voltage
erating voltage. The voltage is will exceed this value. As long as
marked on the capacitor and is usu- this voltage peak does not exceed
ally called the working voltage. The 525 volts, a capacitor marked with
capacitors you will find in small a 450-volt working voltage and a
pieces of electronic equipment such 525-volt peak voltage will work
as radio and TV receivers will usu- satisfactorily.
ally have a working voltage some- Some manufacturers do not mark
where between 200 and 600 volts. electrolytic capacitors in this way.
Some of the capacitors in a TV re- They simply mark them with the
ceiver may have a working voltage working voltage with the assumption
as low as 200 volts. These capaci- that the peak voltage will not exceed
tors are used in circuits where the a safe value.
operating voltage does not exceed
200 volts. Others used in higher volt- SUMMARY
age circuits may have a working
voltage of 400 volts and still others There are a number of important
used in circuits with an even higher points that you should remember
voltage may have a working voltage from this section of the lesson.
of 600 volts or more. First, remember that the basic
One point to keep in mind when action of a capacitor depends upon
servicing electronic equipment is its ability to store an electric
that the manufacturer of the equip- charge. Also remember that there
ment usually uses as low a working is no complete circuit through aca-
voltage as possible in order to keep pacitor, but current will flow in a
the cost of the equipment low. How- circuit in which a capacitor is con-
ever, there is no reason why a ca- nected while the capacitor is being
pacitor with a higher working volt- charged and while it is being dis-
age cannot be used providing there charged. Remember that acapacitor
is room to do so. is not charged instantly, but there is
Peak Voltage. some time involved in charging a
Sometimes you will find acapaci- capacitor. The actual time it takes
tor with two voltage markings on it. to charge a capacitor fully will de-
It may be marked "working voltage pend upon the capacity and the re-
450 volts, peak voltage 525 volts". sistance in the circuit.
This type of marking is usually found Remember that the electrical size
on an electrolytic capacitor designed of a capacitor is measured in farads,
for use as a filter capacitor in a but the farad is such a large unit
power supply. Here you know that that the practical values are the
the output of the rectifier in the microfarad, which is a millionth of
power supply is pulsating dc. Thus a farad, and the picofarad, which is
the actual voltage at the output of the a millionth of a microfarad.
rectifier is not constant. If the de The capacity of a capacitor de-

11
pends upon the area of the plates, amount of charge a capacitor
the spacing between the plates, and can hold for a given applied
the dielectric between the plates. voltage?
The dielectric constant of the ma- (e) What is the basic unit of ca-
terial is a number which tells you pacity?
the number of times the capacity of (f) What two practical units are
a capacitor will be increased when used in electronics to indicate
this type of material is placed be- the capacity of a capacitor?
tween the plates of the capacitor. (g) Convert .0033 mid to pico-
Different materials have different farads.
dielectric constants; one of the high- (h) Convert 680 pf to mid.
est is ceramic, which has a di- (i) Name the three factors that
electric constant as high as 1500. affect the capacity of acapaci-
The voltage rating of a capacitor tor.
tells you the maximum safe voltage (j) If you cut the spacing between
that you can apply to a capacitor. the plates of a capacitor in
Capacitors having a higher voltage half, will this double the ca-
rating can always be used in re- pacity of the capacitor or will
placing a defective capacitor in a it cut the capacity of the ca-
piece of electronic equipment if pacitor in half?
there is room. (k) What is the dielectric constant
of a material?
(1) What is the dielectric constant
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS of air?
(m) What type of material has the
(a) What do we mean when we say highest dielectric constant?
a capacitor is charged? (h) Why does a material with a
(h) What two factors affect the dielectric constant greater
length of time it takes to than air have the effect of in-
charge a capacitor? creasing the capacity of a ca-
(c) Does a capacitor have any pacitor?
more electrons on its plates (o) A capacitor is marked .02
when it is charged than when microfarads, 400 volts; what
it is discharged? does the marldng 400 volts
(d) What factor determines the mean?

12
 Typical Capacitors
Capacitors can be divided into two acts as the dielectric.You will study
types, fixed capacitors and variable these capacitors in detail shortly
capacitors. A fixed capacitor is a and learn more about them at that
capacitor which has a fixed capacity time.
- in other words, the capacity of the All capacitors, regardless of
capacitor cannot conveniently be type, can store a charge. Of course,
varied. A variable capacitor, on the some capacitors can store more
other hand, is a capacitor that is charge than others because they have
designed so that its capacity can be a greater electrical size. In this sec-
varied. tion you will see that there is area-
Capacitors can be further divided son for having these different types
into types depending upon the di- of capacitors, and also you will learn
electric material used. Most vari- more about the common types of ca-
able capacitors have an air dielec- pacitors that you will encounter in
tric and therefore are also referred electronics work.
to as air capacitors. Some variable
capacitors have a mica dielectric VARIABLE CAPACITORS
and these are referred to as vari-
able mica capacitors. A typical variable capacitor is
Most fixed capacitors use some shown in Fig. 6. This capacitor is
dielectric other than air. Many ca- actually two capacitors coupled by
pacitors use a paper dielectric and a common shaft, and as you know this
these are usually referred to as type is called a two-gang capacitor.
paper capacitors. Some capacitors In some receivers you will find 3-
of this type are dipped in a mylar gang capacitors, and in some old
coating to seal the capacitor and sets and in some communications
these are sometimes called paper
mylar capacitors. Some fixed ca-
pacitors use a mica dielectric and
these are called mica capacitors.
Mica capacitors might also be sealed
in a mylar case and these are some-
times called mylar-dipped mica ca-
pacitors.
Ceramic is widely used in capaci-
tors as the dielectric and this type
of capacitor is called a ceramic
capacitor.
Large capacitors used in power
supplies are called electrolytic ca-
pacitors. These capacitors use an
electrolyte which forms a film that Fig. ‘ariable capacilor.

13
SHADED AREAS INDICATE ACTIVE SURFACES STATOR
ROTOR /

\\\ nROTOR
uSHAFT
am make

11

o o o
THICKNESS OF
AIR DIELECTRIC

Fig. 7. iim% avariable capacitor %%ith straight-line capacity plates %%olio,.

receivers you will find 4-gang ca- There are two different types of
pacitors. Sometimes all sections are plates found in variable capacitors.
identical; sometimes you will find One type of plate is called the
that one section has smaller plates straight-line capacity type; the other
than the others. is called the straight-line frequency
Each section of avariable capaci- type. An example of the straight-
tor is made up of two sets of plates. line capacity type of plate is shown
The one set of plates that do not in Fig. 7. Notice that in A of Fig. 7
move are all connected together and the plates are completely separated
insulated from the capacitor frame. so that the capacity is at aminimum.
These plates are called the stator Actually there will be some capacity,
plates, in other words, the stationary because even though the plates are
plates. The other set of plates are not meshed, the ends of the plates
connected directly to the shaft and of the rotor have a certain capacity
to the capacitor frame. These plates to the ends of the plates of the stator.
rotate and hence are called the rotor In B the capacitor plates have been
plates. Since these plates are con- rotated through one eighth of a turn
nected directly to the capacitor shaft and the overlapping area of the two
and to the frame, if you mount the sets of plates is one quarter of the
capacitor on a metal chassis, the total area. We now have approxi-
plates are automatically connected mately one quarter of the total ca-
to the chassis. This does not present pacity. As the capacitor is turned
any problem, because in most cir- another eighth of a turn, from posi-
cuits where a capacitor of this type tion B to position C, so that it has
is used, it is desirable to connect completed a quarter turn, one-half
one set of plates to the chassis.The of the area of the plates is over-
chassis acts as a ground or common lapping and we have one half of the
connection for all rf (radio fre- total capacity. Similarly, when the
quency) circuits. capacitor has been moved to three

o o e
Fg. 8. llov% avariable capacitor ‘sith straight-line frequency plates %%orks.

14
eighths of a turn, three-quarters it does at the low end of the broad-
of the area is overlapping and we cast band. Therefore if you use the
have three quarters of the total ca- straight-line capacity type of ca-
pacity, and finally with a half turn pacitor, stations at the high-end fre-
the entire two areas are completely quency of the dial will be squeezed
overlapping and we have maximum together and stations at the low-
capacity. end frequency will be spread out.
There is another type of plate that This makes it difficult to tune sta-
is called the straight-line frequency tions at the high frequency end of the
type. Here the plates are shaped as dial. With the straight-line fre-
shown in Fig. 8. Now when the plates quency type, however, the different
are moved from position A to posi- frequencies are spread evenly
tion B, less than aquarter of the area
is overlapping even though the ca-
pacitor has gone through an eighth
of a turn and we have less than a
quarter of the total capacity.
Similarly when it is moved to posi-
tion C, although the capacitor has
been turned through a quarter of a
turn, less than half of the two areas
are overlapped and we will have less
than half the total capacity. How-
ever, the increase in capacity ob-
tained by rotating the capacitor from
B to C is greater than was obtained
in rotating it from A to B because
the increase in overlapping area is
greater. Similarly we get a still Fig. 9. A single-section variable capacitor
greater increase in capacity in going of the transmitting type.
from C to D and an even greater in-
crease in capacity in going from D across the dial of the receiver so
to E. that it is just as easy to tune in a
The reason for this type of capaci- station at the high end of the dial
tor is that capacitors are used in as one at the low end of the dial.
conjunction with coils in the tuning Most modern broadcast receivers
circuits of radio and TV receivers, use the straight-line frequency type
to select one station and reject of capacitor because it is somewhat
others. For example, in a radio de- easier to tune the receiver.
signed for the standard broadcast A single-section tuning capacitor
band you will find a coil and a ca- such as might be found in a radio
pacitor used to select the desired frequency transmitter or any other
station and reject the others. At the device where a variable capacitor is
high end of the broadcast band it needed and high voltage is present is
takes a smaller change in capacity shown in Fig. 9. Notice that this ca-
to get a given frequency change than pacitor is basically similar to one

15
 section of the capacitor shown in Fig.
6. The big difference is that the spac-
ing between the plates is greater.
The greater spacing is needed in
high-voltage circuits to avoid arcing
between the plates. Arcing is simply o
a flash-over that occurs where the PLATE I
PLATE I
voltage is so high that the electrons V
are able to jump from one plate of
WAXED
the capacitor to the other. -
-- PAPER

Trimmer Capacitors.
Trimmers are small variable ca- PLATE" ; o PLATE 2E)
pacitors, so called because they are
Fig. 1l. How a paper capacitor is made.
used to trim or adjust resonant
circuits whose main tuning capacitor PAPER CAPACITORS
is much larger. A paper capacitor is made by tak-
Most ganged variable capacitors ing two sheets of tinfoil and placing
are equipped with trimmers so each a sheet of paper between them as
ganged section can be individually shown in Fig. 11A. The tinfoil and
adjusted. These trimmers use a the paper are then rolled as shown
mica dielectric, and the movable in Fig. 11B until they are shaped
plate is of spring material which like Fig. 11C. Wire leads are then
tends to stay away from the fixed attached to the foil sheets that pro-
plate, as shown in Fig. 10. A screw trude from each end of the capacitor.
electrically insulated from the mov- After the leads have been attached
able plate draws it closer to the to the capacitor it is then encased
fixed plate when tightened, thus in- in asuitable container. In older radio
creasing the capacity. and TV receivers you will find ca-
In some cases the trimmer is a pacitors of this type that have been
miniature air dielectric capacitor, encased in a cardboard case with
just like a single tuning capacitor. wax or some other sealing compound
poured into both ends. However, this
ADJUSTING SCREW
type of capacitor frequently caused
trouble and is seldom used in modern
electronic equipment. Modern paper
capacitors are completely encased
in a molded ceramic type of mate-
rial or are encased in a mylar type
of material. Either type completely
MOVABLE PLATE
AIR SPACE
seals the capacitor so that moisture
ADJUSTING SCREW cannot seep into it. Capacitors of
MICA
RIVET
this type are referred to as molded
FIXED PLATE
capacitors, molded paper capaci-
tors, mylar capacitors or mylar
INSULATING BASE
paper capacitors.
Fig. 10. A typical trimmer capacitor. A photo of two typical paper ca-

16
 EOM
defects that occur in them. There
are a number of different types of
defects that can occur in paper ca-
pacitors. As we mentioned earlier,
in older receivers you will find paper
capacitors encased in a cardboard
case. Moisture can seep into this
type of capacitor, resulting in leak-
age from one plate to the other or
an eventual breakdown in the paper
insulation, so that for all practical
purposes one plate is touching the
other. Of course, when this happens
the capacitor can no longer store a
charge and acts as though there were
Fig. 12. T>pical paper capacitors. a wire connected between the two
pacitors is shown in Fig. 12. Notice leads of the capacitor.
that in one capacitor the leads come Occasionally in a molded or a
out the ends. This type of lead ar- mylar type of capacitor the mate-
rangement is referred to as axial rial encasing the capacitor will
leads. In the other type of capacitor crack, particularly around the point
the leads come out the side and this where the leads are brought out.
is referred to as a radial-lead type. When this happens moisture can seep
Capacitors with radial leads are into this type of capacitor and you
frequently used in electronic equip- get exactly the same effect as moist-
ment in which printed circuitry is ure in the cardboard-encased ca-
used. This type of capacitor is very pacitor.
convenient for mounting in this type It is usually not too difficult to
of construction. However, axial lead identify a completely shorted ca-
capacitors can also be used in the pacitor, but one that has ahigh leak-
same application simply by bending age may cause almost as much trou-
the leads at right angles to the body ble as a shorted capacitor and it is
of the capacitor. much more difficult to find. There
Paper capacitors are made in a is no such thing as aperfect capaci-
wide range of capacities. You will tor. There is some leakage between
find paper capacitors as small as the plates of all capacitors. How-
.0005 mfd and as large as 1mfd or ever, a good paper capacitor will
2 mfd. Paper capacitors can be made usually have a leakage resistance of
in a larger size, but it is usually several thousand megohms. When
more economical to make other the leakage resistance drops below
types when the capacity needed in a this figure it is a sign that the ca-
•
circuit exceeds about .5 mfd. pacitor is deteriorating. hi some
Defects. circuits a leakage resistance as low
Since you are training as an elec- as 2 or 3 megohms can be tolerated
tronics technician, one of your chief and the circuit may work perfectly,
concerns with capacitors will be the but in other circuits acapacitor with

17
a leakage resistance as high as 10
or 20 megohms may be totally un-
usable. It is too early for you to try
to distinguish between these cases;
the important thing for you to re- SHEET
member at this time is that leakage MICA

between the plates and direct shorts

between the plates of capacitors are
two defects that paper capacitors can
develop. WIRE LEAD
Another defect found in paper ca-
pacitors is an open. The open is usu-
ally where one of the leads breaks
loose from the tinfoil. Sometimes the NT-OVER FOIL
MOLDED
lead will pull right out of the ca- BAKELITE
pacitor, and of course this is easy
to spot because you can see it. But
In most cases the break will be in-
side the capacitor so you cannot see
it and you will have to rely on the
way the circuit performs to give you
a clue that this is a possible cause
of trouble. Fig. 13. 11cos a mica capacitor is made.
Another defect found in paper ca-
pacitors is an intermittent defect. pf. Some mica capacitors found in
Part of the time the capacitor will transmitters are designed for op-
operate normally, but other times it eration in circuits where the volt-
may short or it may open. Again, ages are extremely high; capacitors
we do not expect you to be able to with working voltages of 5000 volts
find these defects at this time; the are quite common.
important thing is to remember that The construction of amica capaci-
these types of defects can and do tor is shown in Fig. 13. Notice that
occur. there are simply two sets of plates,
and that the plates are separated by
MICA CAPACITORS thin sheets of mica placed between
the metal plates. Because mica is
Mica capacitors are somewhat brittle, this type of capacitor can-
larger physically than paper capaci- not be rolled into a tube like apaper
tors of equal capacity. However, capacitor and therefore most mica
mica is used in some capacitors that capacitors are rectangular in shape.
are to be used in high-frequency cir- The plates and the mica are enclosed
cuits. Mica capacitors are also used in a ceramic or Bakelite case that
in the rf signal circuits of trans- is molded over the unit.
mitters. Mica capacitors are made Mica capacitors seldom cause
with capacities ranging from a few trouble. About the only defect that
picofarads to approximately 10,000 they ever develop is a short. Oc-

18
casionally one of the leads will pull can also be made to quite close
loose and the capacitor will open, tolerance s.
but it is very rare to find any defect The feed-through capacitor is a
at all in a mica capacitor. special type of ceramic capacitor
In spite of the fact that mica ca- used exclusively as a bypass ele-
pacitors are almost trouble-free, ment, particularly at very high and
they are not used too often in radio ultra high frequencies. The unique
or TV receivers because they are construction of the feed-through ca-
more expensive than ceramic ca- pacitor, shown physically and sche-
pacitors. However, in some critical matically in Fig. 14, makes it a
circuits you will still find mica ca- particularly effective bypass capa-
pacitors. You may find them used in citor for filament, bias, age and B+
the tuners of TV receivers or in leads in UHF and VHF TV tuners.
critical sections of color TV re- One lead of the tubular feed-through
ceivers. They are still used almost capacitor connects directly to
exclusively in transmitting equip- ground, whereas the fed through
ment. lead forms the other lead of the
As with paper capacitors, mica capacitor. The capacitor leads,
capacitors are available with both therefore, are very short, making
types of leads. Leads coming out of the capacitor extremely effective at
the end which are called axial leads UHF and VHF.
are probably more common, but Disc capacitors are made with ca-
mica capacitors that have been pacities from about 1pf up to almost
dipped in mylar or some similar 1 mfd. These capacitors are made
sealing compound are available with with different tolerances. Common
radial leads coming out of the side tolerances are± 5%, or ±10% or± 20%.
of the capacitor.

CERAMIC CAPACITORS
There are three types of ceramic
capacitor found in electronic equip-
ment. One type is the tubular, an-
other is the disc. The third type is
the feed-through. All three types
are shown in Fig. 14.
Tubular ceramic capacitors are
made in sizes ranging from less
than 1 pf to about 1500 pf. They can
be made to rather close tolerances
and at one time were quite widely
used in electronic equipment where
small electrical size capacitors
were needed. Most modern equip-
ment, however, uses disc capaci-
tors, because they are more econ- Fig. IL Three types of ceramic capacitor.
omical than tubular capacitors and (A) Tubular; (B) Disc ;(C) Feed-Through.

19
Sometimes the tolerance is indicated a better or closer tolerance tem-
by a letter rather than by the actual perature coefficient.
tolerance figure. The letter Jis used Ceramic capacitors normally
to represent a 5% tolerance, K a have a voltage rating of at least 500
10% tolerance and M a20% tolerance. volts. Many have a voltage rating of
Ceramic capacitors are also made 1000 volts. However, some will have
with a tolerance of +100% or -0. The a voltage rating as low as 100 volts
letter P is used to represent this where size is an important consider-
tolerance, and with a tolerance of ation. High-voltage ceramic capaci-
+80%, -20% the letter Z is used. tors having a voltage rating of 6000
Many types of ceramic capacitors volts or more are also available.
change capacity with changes in tem- Usually if the voltage rating is higher
perature. For example, a capacitor than 1000 volts or less than 500 volts,
that is labelled Z5U is a ceramic the voltage rating will be stamped on
capacitor designed for operation be- the capacitor.
tween 10° and 85 ° C. The Z5 gives Defects.
you this information. The letter U Occasionally a lead will break off
indicates that the capacity may a ceramic capacitor, but other than
change as much as +22% or -56% over this they seldom open. Ceramic ca-
that temperature range. In many cir- pacitors do short sometimes, but a
cuits where ceramic capacitors are shorted capacitor is usually not too
used a change in capacity is not difficult to locate. A low resistance
particularly important and therefore reading across any capacitor indi-
you will find many capacitors used cates either that there is something
as bypass capacitors with the label directly across the capacitor
Z5U. causing the reading or else the ca-
Ceramic capacitors are made with pacitor itself is defective.
lower temperature coefficients. For
example, a capacitor labelled Z5F ELECTROLYTICS
has a temperature coefficient of only
±7.5%. Z5P indicates a temperature There are two types of electrolytic
change of 10% within the operating capacitors, dry and wet. In the wet
range. electrolytic capacitor aliquid called
When you have to replace a ce- an electrolyte is used whereas in
ramic capacitor you can use one the dry electrolytic capacitor the
with the same temperature coeffi- electrolyte is in a paste form in-
cient or one with a better tempera- stead of a liquid. Wet electrolytic
ture coefficient. The letter A indi- capacitors are no longer used.
cates the smallest temperature Modern electrolytic capacitors are
coefficient, a change of ± 1%; the all of the dry type.
letter V is the poorest temperature A dry electrolytic capacitor is
coefficient. When you have to replace made of two plates with an electro-
a ceramic capacitor, use one having lyte in paste form placed between
the same temperature coefficient or the two plates as shown in Fig. 15.
a coefficient indicated by a letter The anode plate is treated chemi-
closer to the letter A -this will be cally before the capacitor is as-

20
 PURE ALUMINUM clans frequently shorten electrolytic
FOIL BLACK COLORED LEAD capacitor to "electrolytic") is con-
PLATES
CHEESE CLOTH,
nected into the circuit backwards it
PAPER OR will act as a low resistance, and a
GAUZE FILLED high current will flow through the
WITH ELECTROLYTE capacitor, destroying it.
IN PASTE FORM Dry electrolytic capacitors may
ALUMINUM "FORMED" be rolled into a tubular form and
OR COVERED WITH look very much like large paper ca-
RED COLORED LEAD A DIELECTRIC FILM
pacitors. Flexible leads are brought
out of the ends of the capacitor and
Fig. 15. !low dry eleetrolyties are made. the polarity of the leads is shown
either by marking one end with a +
sembled to produce acoating of oxide sign and the other end with a -sign,
on the surface of the plate. The oxide or by using a wire of one color as
then acts as the dielectric and the one lead and a wire of another color
paste electrolyte acts as the other as the other lead. The polarity is
plate of the capacitor. The plate thus identified by the color of the
marked the cathode is the means of lead. Usually a black wire 18 used to
making contact to the paste. identify the negative lead and a red
Most electrolytics that you will wire is used to identify the positive
encounter in commercial electronic lead.
equipment are made with aluminum In some capacitors of this type
plates. These capacitors are re- there may actually be two electro-
ferred to as aluminum electrolytic lytic capacitors in the one container.
capacitors. However, in some spe- The capacitor might be made with a
cial applications, particularly where common negative lead; in other
small size is important, the capaci- words one negative lead for the two
tor may be made with tantalum capacitors and separate positive
plates. This type of capacitor, how- leads so that there are only three
ever, is seldom found in radio or leads coming from the capacitor or
television receivers, because the it can be made with separate posi-
tantalum plate electrolytic capacitor tive and separate negative leads so
is much more expensive than an that there are four leads brought out
aluminum plate capacitor. of the capacitor. The type with three
Polarity. leads, where acommon negative lead
Electrolytic capacitors have po- is used, is found far more frequent-
larity. This means that they can be ly than the type with the four sep-
used only in circuits having de or arate leads.
pulsating de. The plate called the Dry electrolytics are also some-
anode must always be connected to times placed inside a metal can.
the positive side of the voltage The can is the negative terminal of
source and the plate called the the capacitor and the positive termi-
cathode must always be connected to nal is brought up through an insulated
the negative side of the voltage wafer at the bottom of the capacitor.
source. If an electrolytic (techni- Sometimes there may be several

21
separate capacitors in the one can.
The can will be the common nega-
tive terminal and the separate posi-
tive leads will be brought out the
bottom wafer. Symbols such as a
small triangle, a half-moon or a
square are cut into the wafer near
the terminals to identify the various
sections of the capacitor. An ex-
ample of a can type electrolytic ca-
pacitor with four separate capaci-
tors in the one container is shown Fig. 16. typical four-section electrolytic
In Fig. 16A. Fig. 16B shows a bot- capacitor.
tom view of the capacitor; you can the capacitor and when all the mois-
see the symbols near the terminal ture has escaped the capacitor will
lugs. The symbols identify the vari- really be dry and it will no longer
ous terminals of the capacitor; the work. Electrolytic capacitors also
code used to identify the symbols is develop leakage. Leakage in an elec-
stamped into the metal capacitor trolytic capacitor can be detected
can. quite easily; you will notice that the
Defects. capacitor starts to get hot. In nor-
As we mentioned previously, most mal operation there is some leakage
electrolytic capacitors manufac- through an electrolytic capacitor and
tured today are dry electrolytic ca- this will cause the capacitor to get
pacitors. These capacitors deteri- warm, but if you notice that an elec-
orate, particularly if they are not trolytic is getting extremely hot, it
put into use. An electrolytic capaci- is a sign that the leakage through the
tor that has been unused for six capacitor is too high, and the ca-
months or more should be formed pacitor should be replaced.
before the capacitor is put into serv-
ice. An electrolytic can be formed SUMMARY
by placing a low voltage on the ca-
pacitor and gradually increasing the In this section of the lesson you
voltage until it is equal to or slightly learned that there are a number of
exceeds the rated working voltage of different types of capacitors. There
the capacitor. If a450-volt capacitor are two types of variable capacitors,
that has been sitting around unused those with an air dielectric and those
for six or seven months is simply with a mica dielectric such as com-
installed in a circuit, and has a full pression-type trimmers. You also
450 volts applied to it without first learned that there are paper, mica,
being formed, the chances are that ceramic, and electrolytic capaci-
it will short and the capacitor will tors. You are likely to run into all
be destroyed. types, tut you will probably have
Electrolytic capacitors also dete- more to do with electrolytics than
riorate with use. The moisture in the the other types because electrolytic
electrolytic will slowly escape from capacitors cause more trouble than

22
the others. (u) Why are paper capacitors
It is not important that you re- molded in a ceramic type of
member how the various types of material or dipped in a mylar
capacitors are made; the important type of material?
thing to remember is that capaci- (v) If the resistance of a paper
tors can open, they can short, or capacitor is 100,000 ohms,
they can develop intermittent de- would you replace the capaci-
fects. A low resistance reading tor or is it satisfactory for
across a capacitor indicates that the continued use?
capacitor is shorted or has de- (w) Why are mica capacitors not
veloped excessive leakage. Exactly more widely used in radio and
how low aresistance can be tolerated television receiving equip-
through the capacitor depends upon ment?
the type of capacitor and the circuit (x) In what type of circuits would
in which it is used. you expect to find mica capaci-
tors used?
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
(y) What two types of ceramic ca-
(I)) What two types of dielectrics pacitors are used in electronic
are found in variable capaci- equipment?
tors such as trimmer capaci- (z) What does Z5F stamped on a
tors? ceramic disc capacitor indi-
(q) What is the disadvantage of cate?
using avariable capacitor with (aa) What are the two types of elec-
straight-line capacity plates trolytic capacitors, and which
as a tuning capacitor in aradio type is used in modern elec-
receiver ? tronic equipment?
(r) Which type of capacitor plate (ab) What do we mean when we say
is best suited for use in a that an electrolytic capacitor
tuning capacitor in aradio re- has polarity?
ceiver? (ac) If you notice that an electro-
(8) What is the main difference lytic capacitor in a TV re-
between a variable capacitor ceiver is getting very hot, what
such as might be found in a should you do?
radio receiver and a variable (ad) If you have a replacement
capacitor that might be found electrolytic on hand that you
in a broadcast transmitter? have had for about ayear, what
What is the name given to the should you do with it before
leads that come off the ends installing it in apiece of equip-
of a paper capacitor? ment ?

23
 Capacitors in AC Circuits
Capacitors actually have very erator which will attract these elec-
little use in circuits where there is trons because it is positive. During
nothing other than pure dc. Once a the next half cycle when the polarity
capacitor is placed in a de circuit of the generator reverses, electrons
and charged, there will be no further that have been piled up on the side
current flow in the circuit. The chief of the capacitor marked A will be
importance of a capacitor comes pulled out by terminal 1 which is
from the way in which it works in positive, and electrons will be forced
ac circuits, and in circuits where into side B of the capacitor by ter-
there are ac and de mixed together. minal 2 of the generator, which is
Capacitors are used in all types of negative. Extra electrons will be
ac circuits found in electronic equip- forced on this side of the capacitor
ment ranging from the low frequen- so the side marked B will become
cies found in power supplies and negative and side marked A will be-
audio equipment up to the very high come positive.
frequencies found in microwave This action continues as the gen-
equipment. Microwave equipment is erator goes through first one half
that used at frequencies of 3000 mc cycle and then the other. Electrons
(megacycles) and higher. The im- will flow back and forth in the cir-
portance of the capacitor in ac cir- cuit. They will flow first into one
side of the capacitor and force elec-
cuits depends upon its ability to store
an electrical charge. Because a ca- trons out of the other side and then
pacitor can store a charge, it can electrons will flow out of the side on
be used in an ac circuit. which they built up asurplus and into
the side on which there was ashort-
HOW AC FLOWS IN CIRCUITS age. It is important that you notice
USING CAPACITORS that electrons do not flow through
the capacitor. You will remember
In Fig. 17 asimple circuit is shown that the plates of the capacitor are
in which a capacitor is connected separated by a dielectric and the
across an ac generator. In this type dielectric is a non-conducting ma-
of circuit there will be a current terial. However, because the capaci-
flow. The exact amount of current tor can store a charge, we have the
flowing will depend upon the voltage effect of a current flowing in the cir-
of the generator, its frequency, and cuit.
the capacity of the capacitor.
When the terminal of the genera-
tor marked 1is negative and the ter- ¿A
minal marked 2 is positive, elec-
trons will flow from terminal 1into
the side of the capacitor marked A
2
T
B
and force electrons out of the side Fig. 17. A capacitor connected across a
generator.
marked B to terminal 2 of the gen-

24
 The action inside the capacitor can 1. Thus we have the effect of current
be seen in more detail In Fig.18. At flowing through the capacitor in the
the start of the ac cycle when the opposite direction, although the
voltage of the generator is zero, electrons flowing into the one plate
there will be a certain number of never do get through the dielectric
electrons on both plates of the ca- into the other plate of the capacitor.
pacitor. The electrons in each atom You can see that there is a back
of the dielectric will be revolving and forth motion of the electrons in
around the nucleus as shown in Fig. the conductors connected to the ca-
18A. However, when electrons be- pacitor. The electrons in the dielec-
gin to move into one plate, as shown tric will move back and forth and
In Fig. 18B, and out of the other therefore we are justified in saying
plate, the electrons in the dielectric that ac current flows "through" a
will be forced out of their normal capacitor, even though the electrons

Fig. 18. When ac is applied to acapacitor, the bound electrons in the dielectric move
first one way, then the other, so in effect, alternating current flows through the ca-
pacitor.

path as shown. Thus, although the never get through the dielectric into
electron flowing into plate 1 does the other plate. Because of this ef-
not reach plate 2, it does force an- fect, capacitors can be used in ac
other electron in the dielectric over circuits. They are very useful in cir-
near plate 2, and this in turn forces cuits where we have both ac and de.
an electron out of plate 2. The capacitor can be used to block
As the ac voltage decreases and de, while at the same time allowing
finally drops to zero, the electrons ac to flow through the capacitor.
in the dielectric will return to the The action of acapacitor in allow-
normal position as shown in Fig. ing electrons to flow back and forth
18C. During the next half cycle, is a good demonstration of what ac
when the polarity of the generator Is. The actual movement of each
reverses, electrons will be forced electron is very small; however,
into plate 2 and they in turn will there may be alarge number of elec-
force the electrons in the dielectric trons moving back and forth over a
out of their normal positions and very short distance. The distance
they will push electrons out of plate of the electron's travel is unimpor-

25
tant; the important thing is the num- From this formula there are sev-
ber of electrons in motion. If we eral important things that you can
have a large number of electrons see. First of all, let us consider
in motion, we have a large current. the effect of a change in frequency
The capacitor does not allow elec- on the reactance of a capacitor. Let
trons to move back and forth without us find the reactance of a 1-mfd ca-
offering opposition. Capacitors do pacitor at a frequency of 10 cycles
offer opposition to the flow of ac cur- per second. Using the formula:
rent through them and this opposition
is called capacitive reactance. 159, 000
Xc = f x C

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Since work must be done to move and substituting 10 for f and 1for
the electrons in the dielectric back C we get:
and forth to permit ac current to
159, 000
flow, in a capacitive circuit there Xc - 10x 1 - 15,900 ohms
is opposition to the flow of current.
This opposition is called capacitive When the frequency is 100 cycles,
reactance. This opposition is meas- we get:
ured in ohms, just as the inductive
159,000
reactance of a coil is measured in Xc = 100 - 1,590 ohms
x 1
ohms. However, there is a great
deal of difference between inductive Notice that at the higher frequency,
reactance and capacitive reactance. the capacitive reactance is lower.
Capacitive reactance is repre- As the frequency increases, the
sented by the symbol Xe. It can be capacitive reactance decreases. In
expressed by the formula: an inductive circuit we had just the
opposite effect; if the frequency in-
1 creased, the inductive reactance in-
Xc - 6.28 xfxC creased.
We have the same situation when
In this formula the frequency fis the capacity is increased. If the ca-
the frequency expressed in cycles pacity is made larger, the capacitive
and C is the capacity in farads. We reactance decreases. We can see
can write this formula in another way this if we find the reactance of a 1-
by expressing C in microfarads. To mfd capacitor at a frequency of 100
do this, we divide 6.28 into 1 and cycles per second and then find the
multiply this result by 1,000,000. reactance of a 10-mfd capacitor at
We get: 100 cycles per second. We already
know that the 1-mfd capacitor has a
159, 000 reactance of 1590 ohms. To find the
Xc - f xC reactance of the 10-mfd capacitor
we use:
In this expression f is the fre-
quency in cycles per second, and C 159,000
Xc - 100 x 10ohms
- 159
is the capacity in microfarads.

26
Notice that this is one tenth the re- ohms. This effect is the same as
actance of the 1-mfd capacitor at connecting acapacitor twice as large
100 cycles per second. Therefore in as either capacitor into the circuit.
a capacitive circuit, we have exactly To find the total capacity of ca-
the opposite effect to what we had in pacitors connected in parallel you
an inductive circuit. We can say that simply add the capacities. In other
the capacitive reactance varies in- words, if a 4-mfd capacitor is con-
versely with the frequency and the nected in parallel with a 6-mfd ca-
capacity. This simply means that if pacitor, the total capacity in the cir-
the frequency or capacity increases, cuit is 10 mfd. The reactance in the
the reactance decreases, and if the circuit would be exactly the same
frequency or capacity decreases, as you would obtain by connecting a
the capacitive reactance increases. 10-mfd capacitor in the circuit.
While we are discussing capaci- This is an important rule to re-
tive reactance it might be well to member—to find the total capacity
point out that the reactance of even of parallel-connected capacitors you
a small capacitor becomes quite simply add the capacitors together.
small if the frequency is made high The working voltage that can be ap-
enough. For example, a 100-pf ca- plied to the parallel combination is
pacitor has areactance of 1590 ohms the lowest working voltage of the ca-
at a frequency of 1megacycle. One pacitors connected in parallel.
megacycle is not a high radio fre- Capacitors in Series.
quency; as a matter of fact this fre- When capacitors are connected in
quency falls in about the middle of series, we have two reactances in
the standard radio broadcast band. series. The total capacitive react-
At a frequency of 10 megacycles, ance in the circuit is equal to the
which is in the short-wave bands, sum of the two reactances, just as
the reactance is only 159 ohms, and the total resistance in acircuit made
at a frequency of 100 megacycles, up of resistors connected in series
which is in the FM broadcast band, is equal to the total resistance in the
the reactance is only 15.9 ohms. circuit. Thus connecting capacitors
Even a 1-mmf capacitor has a re- in series increases the total react-
actance of only 1590 ohms at a fre- ance in the circuit. If the reactance
quency of 100 megacycles. Thus, if in the circuit increases, then the ca-
the frequency is made high enough pacity must decrease.
even small capacitors have a com- When two capacitors are con-
paratively low reactance. nected in series, you can find the
Capacitors in Parallel. total capacity by using the formula:
When two capacitors are con-
Cl x C2
nected in parallel we have two ca- CT -
Cl + C2
pacitive reactances in parallel. If
the capacitive reactance of each ca- When three or more are in series,
pacitor is 100 ohms, we have the use the formula:
same effect as we would have with 1
two 100-ohm resistors in parallel. C T - 1 1 1

+-+-- + •••
The reactance would be only 50 Cl C2 C3

27
 When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacity is equal
series, the total capacity is always to the sum of the capacities. When
less than the capacity of the smallest capacitors are connected in series,
capacitor. the total capacity is always less than
You will seldom actually have to the capacity of the smallest ca-
calculate the value of series and pacitor.
parallel-connected capacitors. How-
ever, it is important for you to re- SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
alize that connecting capacitors in
series results in a lower total ca- (ae) When a capacitor is connected
pacity, while connecting them in across an ac generator, does
parallel results in a higher total current flow from the gen-
capacity in the circuit. erator?
(af) When a capacitor is connected
SUMMARY across a generator, does cur-
There are several important rent flow through the capaci-
things that you should remember tor?
from this section of the lesson. (ag) What is the name given to the
First, remember that although cur- opposition that a capacitor
rent does not actually flow through offers to the flow of ac?
a capacitor, the effect produced in (ah) What is the formula used to
the circuit is the same as though determine the capacitive re-
current does flow through the ca- actance of a capacitor?
pacitor. Thus we say that an ac cur- (ai) What is the capacitive react-
rent flows through a capacitor. ance of a .02 mfd capacitor
Remember that we call the op- at a frequency of 150 cycles
position offered to current flow in per second?
an ac circuit by a capacitor the (aj) What is the total capacitance
capacitive reactance, and the ca- of a .1 mfd and a .22 mfd ca-
pacitive reactance is measured in pacitor connected in parallel?
ohms. The capacitive reactance is (ak) A 27 pf capacitor and a 56 pf
equal to: capacitor are connected in
series. What is the total ca-
159, 000 pacity of the series-connected
Xc - f x C capacitors?
(al) In what unit is capacitive re-
where fis in cycles per second and actance measured?
C is in microfarads. (am) Complete the following state-
Increasing the capacity or the fre- ment: Increasing the capacity
quency in the circuit will result in a or the frequency in a circuit
lower capacitive reactance and de- will result in a ca-
creasing the frequency or capacity pacitive reactance and a de-
will result in a higher capacitive crease in frequency or ca-
reactance. pacity will result in a
When capacitors are connected in capacitive reactance.

28
 Simple RC Circuits
An RC circuit is a circuit con- of the resistor will limit the amount
taining resistance and capacity. of current that can flow for any given
These circuits are found in alltypes voltage source. At this instant, al-
of electronic equipment. RC circuits though the current flowing in the cir-
are used to shape signals. We can cuit is high, the voltage across the
apply a signal with one type of wave capacitor is zero. In other words,
shape to an RC circuit and get asig- when the current flowing into the
nal having a different wave shape at capacitor is at a maximum, there
the output. RC circuits are used to is no voltage across it.
feed signals from one stage to an- Gradually the capacitor is charged
other in electronic equipment. There and as the capacitor charges, the
are many applications of RC cir- voltage across the capacitor builds
cuits, but before you can understand up and the current flowing in the cir-
how these circuits are used, you cuit decreases. This is due to the
must learn something about the fact that the actual voltage driving
fundamentals of the circuit. electrons in the circuit is equal to
You already know that when a ca- the source voltage minus the voltage
pacitor is connected across avoltage across the capacitor. As the volt-
source it does not charge instantly, age across the capacitor increases,
but takes a certain length of time to the voltage forcing electrons through
charge. The length of time depends the circuit goes down. In other words
upon the size of the capacitor and the current flowing into the capacitor
the resistance in the circuit. The decreases as its voltage increases.
length of time it takes to charge up If We draw agraph showing the way
to a certain value is called the time in which a capacitor charges, it
constant. Time constant is an im- would look like Fig. 2O. In this graph,
portant consideration in circuits time is measured along the hori-
using resistance and capacitance. zontal axis. The extreme left of this
Let's learn a little more about it. axis represents the instant we con-
nect the capacitor and resistor
TIME-CONSTANT across the source. Notice that at this
instant there is no voltage across
When a resistor is connected in the capacitor, but the voltage starts
series with a capacitor and the two
are connected across a battery as
shown in Fig. 19, current begins to
flow in the circuit to charge the ca-
pacitor. At the first instant that the
resistor and capacitor are connected
across the battery, a rather large
current flows because there is no Fig. 19. A resistor and a capacitor con-
charge on the capacitor. The size nected in series across abattery.

29
 volt battery, the time-constant is the
o same. If a certain resistor and ca-
—a
o pacitor are connected across a 10-
«
volt battery and the time-constant
—J
is
e
is one second, the capacitor will
o
4
charge up to 63% of 10 volts, or 6.3

.-COTIME TIME IN SECONDS volts in one second. On the other

I NSTANT hand, if the same resistor-capaci-
tor combination is connected across
a 100-volt battery, the capacitor will
Fig. 20. How a capacitor charges. The charge up to 63% of 100 volts, or 63
time-constant is the time it takes for the volts, in one second. The voltage
capacitor to charge to 63% of the total across which the resistor-capacitor
voltage. combination is connected does not
determine the time-constant; the
only factors that affect the time-con-
to build up rapidly. Then, as the stant are the resistor and capacitor
charge on the capacitor increases, values.
the rate of charge decreases so that If a.05-mfd capacitor is connected
when the capacitor is almost charged in series with a 100,000-ohm resis-
to avalue equal to the source voltage, tor, the time-constant will be .05 x
the rate of charge becomes very .1 (100,000 ohms = .1 meg) = .005
slow. second. Thus, you can see that the
When we speak of the time-con- time-constant of the combination
stant of an RC circuit, we mean the using a smaller capacitor and re-
time it takes the capacitor to charge sistor is much shorter than the
up to about 63% of the total source time-constant of the combination of
voltage. This value is shown on Fig. the two-mid capacitor and the one-
20. The time-constant of any RC cir- megohm resistor. Decreasing the
cuit in seconds can be found by mul- size of either the resistor or the
tiplying the resistance of the resis- capacitor decreases the time-con-
tor in megohms times the capacity stant of the circuit, and increasing
of the capacitor in mid. Thus, if a the size of either the resistor or
2-mfd capacitor is connected in the capacitor increases the time-
series with a 1-megohm resistor, constant of the circuit.
the time-constant will be 2 x 1 =2
seconds. This means that it will take
two seconds for the capacitor to
VOLTAGE-CURRENT PHASE
charge up to 63% of the source volt-
age. In the preceding example, you will
One important thing to note is that notice that when the capacitor and
the source voltage has nothing to do resistor combination is first con-
with the time-constant of the circuit. nected across the battery, a very
In other words, whether a resistor- high current flows in the circuit.
capacitor combination is connected However, at this first instant when
across a 10-volt battery or a 100- they are connected across the bat-

30 4-

Aie »yec C free

tery, there's no voltage across the VOLTAGE

capacitor. Here we have a situation

where the current is at amaximum,
o
and the voltage across the capacitor
is at a minimum or zero voltage.
As the voltage across the capaci-
tor builds up, the current flowing in
the circuit decreases until finally, o
when the capacitor is fully charged I I

to a value equal to the battery volt- IVOLTAGE

age, the current drops to zero, be-

o
cause the source voltage is unable
to force any additional electrons
onto the one plate of the capacitor CURRENT

or pull electrons off the other plate.

Essentially the same situation
exists when a capacitor is used in Fig. 21. The phase relationship between
an ac circuit. When the ac voltage current and voltage in acapacitive circuit.
across the capacitor builds up, the
current decreases until, by the time In Fig. 21 the relationship be-
the capacitor is fully charged, the tween the current and voltage in a
current has dropped to zero. When capacitive ac circuit is shown. No-
the voltage across the capacitor be- tice that in Fig. 21A two cycles of
gins to decrease, then current must an ac sine wave are drawn.Immedi-
flow in the opposite direction in ately beneath the voltage sine wave,
order for the electrons to remove in Fig. 21B, the current that will flow
the excess electrons from the plate at the corresponding instant is
of the capacitor having a surplus of shown. The voltage and current
electrons and to replace the missing waves are superimposed in Fig.21C.
electrons on the plate of the capaci- In this circuit the effect is exactly
tor having a shortage of electrons. opposite to that obtained when acoil
During the second half of an ac cycle, is used. You will remember that in
as the capacitor voltage drops from inductive circuits the current lags
a maximum value to zero, the dis- behind the voltage. Here, in a ca-
charge current flowing in the circuit pacitive circuit, the current is lead-
increases until, at the time the volt- ing the voltage. In a circuit contain-
age reaches zero and begins to ing only capacity, the current will
change polarity, the current flowing lead the voltage by 90 degrees. In a
in the circuit is at maximum. As the circuit containing both resistance
voltage across the capacitor builds and capacity, the current will lead
up in the opposite direction, the cur- the voltage by avalue somewhat less
rent begins to decrease until, at the than 90 degrees; the actual phase dif-
instant when the capacitor is fully ference between the voltage and cur-
charged with the opposite polarity, rent will depend upon the size of the
the current flowing in the circuit capacitor and resistor in the circuit.
has dropped to zero again. Thus, you have now seen two im-

31
portant examples of phase. In an in- there will be a current flow while
ductive circuit, the current lags the the capacitor is charging. However,
voltage by 90 degrees. In acapacitive once the capacitor is charged, there
circuit, the current leads the voltage is no further current flow inthe cir-
by 90 degrees. cuit and the meters would read like
those shown in Fig. 22A.
VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION If the same resistor and capacitor
are connected across a 115-volt ac
If we connect acapacitor in series source and the meters are replaced
with a resistor and connect the two by ac voltmeters, we might en-
across a de voltage source, we will counter the situation shown in Fig.
eventually have the situation shown 22B. Here we have 98 volts across
in Fig. 22A. Here, all the voltage the capacitor and 60 volts across the
appears across the capacitor and resistor. 98 plus 60 adds up to 158
there is no voltage across the re- volts, which is more than the source
sistor. Since there is no voltage voltage. It is obvious that we cannot
across the resistor, we know im- add these two voltages in order to
mediately that there is no current get the source voltage, because we
flowing in the circuit. Of course, know that the sum of the voltage
you know that at the instant the re- drops in a circuit must be equal to
sistor and capacitor in series are the source voltage. The reason for
connected across the voltage source, the apparent contradiction is that
the voltmeters indicate the FtMS or
0 VOLTS
effective voltage appearing across
the capacitor and across the resis-
tor. These voltages are not in phase
and hence cannot be added by simple
116
VOLTS addition. You will remember that we
encountered exactly the same thing
when a resistor was connected in
60 VOLTS series with a coil. We found that we
could not simply add the voltages
appearing across the two and get the
source voltage, but instead had to
116
VOLTS add the two by means of vectors.
Let us see how we can do the same
thing with these two voltages.
First, we start by drawing the cur-
Fig. 22. When a resistor and a capacitor rent vector as shown in Fig. 23A.
are connected in series across adc source This vector is always drawn in this
as at A, there is no current flow in the position since we use this as astart-
circuit. when the resistor and capacitor ing point. We consider this vector
are connected in series across an ac gen- as rotating in a counterclockwise
erator as at II, there is current flowing, direction around its starting point
and hence there are voltage drops across as the current goes through its cycle.
R and C. If we use a scale of 50 volts to an

32
 o pearing across the capacitor. We
know that in a capacitor the current
leads the voltage by 90 degrees. An-
ER other way of saying this is that the
voltage lags the current by 90 de-
ER grees. Since the current vector is
rotating in a counterclockwise di-
rection, to show the voltage vector
90 degrees behind the current vec-

o
tor, we draw it as shown in Fig.23C.
Since the voltage across the capaci-
tor is almost 100 volts, we can draw
this vector 2 inches long as shown.
Now we have only to draw in the
dotted lines as shown in Fig. 23D
and complete the vector diagram by
drawing in the vector Ea which is
Ec the vector sum of the two voltages.
If you measure this vector, you will
ER find that it is alittle more than 2-1/5
inches long, indicating a voltage of
about 115 volts. In other words, when
we used this scheme of adding the
two voltages, we found that the volt-
age across the capacitor plus the
voltage across the resistor, when
o added by means of vectors, are equal
to the source voltage.
Another method of arriving at the
same result is by means of the for-
mula:
Ec EG
ET =/ER 2 + Ea 2

To solve this we take E, 2,which is

Fig. 21. Vertor addition of h%o voltages. 60 x 60 = 3600, and add this to Ea 2
which is 98 x 98 = 9604. The sum is
Inch, we can draw the vector E„ 13,204. ET = /121.--Tf, and the square

representing the voltage across the root of 13,204 is approximately 115.

resistor, 1-1/5 inches long as shown Therefore the sum of the two volt-
in Fig. 23B. We know that this vector ages is 115 volts. As we pointed out
must be drawn right on top of the before, if you know how to handle
current vector because the voltage squares and square roots, the
across the resistor is in phase with mathematical solution is somewhat
the current flowing through it. quicker but if you do not know how
The next vector to draw is the to do square root, then the vector
vector representing the voltage ap- solution is entirely satisfactory.

33
 IMPEDANCE appearing across the resistor will
be in phase with the current flowing,
Because the voltage that will ap- we draw a resistance voltage vector
pear across each component in an immediately on top of the current
RC circuit will depend upon the re- vector. The voltage across the re-
sistance or reactance of the particu- sistor will depend on its resistance.
lar part, we can draw impedance If we use ascale of 1000 ohms equals
diagrams to obtain the total imped- 1 inch, the resistance vector R is
ance in the circuit using the same drawn, as shown in Fig. 24B, 1inch
procedure we used to add the volt- long.
age in a circuit. As an example, Next, draw the vector shown in
suppose we have a 1000-ohm resis- Fig. 24C to represent X. This vec-
tor connected in series with a ca- tor also should be 1 inch long. It is
pacitor having a reactance of 1000 drawn as shown, because the voltage
ohms. If we want to find the total appearing across the capacitive re-
impedance in the circuit, we proceed actance will lag the current flowing
as follows: in the circuit by 90 degrees.
First, draw the current vector as We now complete the impedance
shown in Fig. 24A. Since the voltage diagram as shown in Fig. 24D, and
you will find that the impedance vec-

o tor Z will be 1.41 inches long. Since

the scale we used was 1000 ohms
per inch, the impedance of the cir-
cuit is 1410 ohms.
The same result could have been
obtained mathematically by squaring
the resistance and the capacitive re-
actance and adding the two together

o and taking the square root of the sum

as indicated in the formula:

xc
It is important to notice the differ-
ence between the capacitive react-
ance and the inductive reactance.
Notice that one is simply the op-
o posite of the other. Notice that the
impedance diagrams are drawn dif-
ferently. In Fig. 25A, we see the
solution of a circuit using a scale
XC of 1000 oluns per inch where a1000-
ohm resistor is connected in series
Fig. 21. Vector addition of resistance and with the capacitor having a react-
capacitive reactance to find impedance. ance of 1000 ohms. In Fig. 25B we

34
 used in a de circuit, and the length
of Ume depends upon the size of the
capacitor and the resistance in the
circuit. The time-constant of a cir-
cuit is equal to the product of the
resistance in megohms times the ca-
pacity of the capacitor in micro-
farads. The time-constant of the cir-

o
Xc cuit is the length of time it would take
to charge the capacitor to a value of
63% of the total voltage applied to the
circuit.
Fig. 25. Rhen resistance and capacitive You learned that in an ac circuit
reactance are added as at A. the imped- the current flowing in a capacitive
ance vector lags the current; but when re- circuit will lead the voltage by 90
sistance and inductive reactance are added degrees. In other words, a capaci-
as at H, the impedance vector leads the
tive circuit acts exactly the opposite
current. to an inductive circuit.
In an ac series circuit with a re-
see an impedance diagram using the sistor and capacitor in series the
same scale, where a 1000-ohm re- voltage appearing across the resist-
sistor is connected in series with a ance is not in phase with the voltage
coil having areactance of 1000 ohms. across the capacitor. If we have to
Notice that we end up with the same add these voltages together, we must
impedance, 1410 ohms, in each case, add them by means of vectors.
but also notice the fact that in one You also have learned that the im-
case, the impedance vector leads the pedance in an ac circuit using a re-
current vector, whereas in the other sistor and a capacitor is the total
case, the impedance vector lags the opposition to current flow. The im-
current vector. In a later lesson, pedance can be obtained by means of
you will see more about these cir- the vector addition of the resistance
cuits and will also see the effect of plus the capacitive reactance in the
having capacitive reactance and in- circuit.
ductive reactance in the same cir-
cuit. SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

SUMMARY (an) What do we mean by the time-

constant of an re circuit?
In this section of the lesson you (ao) What is the time-constant of a
began the study of a very important .02 infd capacitor charging
phase of your course; you began to through a 2.2 meg resistor?
see what happens when resistance (ap) If the time-constant of an re
and capacitance are both used in circuit is 2 seconds when it is
the same circuit. You found that it charged across a 10-volt bat-
takes a certain length of time for a tery, what will the time-con-
capacitor to charge when the two are stant be when it is connected

35
 across a 100-volt battery? important things you will study, be-
(aq) When a capacitor is connected cause if it were not for resonant cir-
across an ac generator, what cuits many of the electronic mira-
is the phase relationship be- cles that we have today would not be
tween the voltage and current possible.
in the circuit?
(ar) If a resistor and a capacitor
ANSWERS TO
are connected in series across SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
an ac generator, what will the
phase relationship between the (a) When we say a capacitor is
voltage and current be? charged, we mean there is a
(as) If a generator is connected surplus of electrons on one
across a resistor and a ca- plate and a shortage of elec-
pacitor In series, what is the trons on the other. When aca-
generator voltage if the volt- pacitor is completely charged
age across the resistor is 9 by connecting it across avolt-
volts and the voltage across age source, the voltage exist-
the capacitor is 12 volts? ing across the plates of the
(at) What do we mean by the im- capacitor will be equal to the
pedance in a series re circuit source voltage used to charge
in which a resistor is con- it.
nected in series with acapaci- (b) The length of time it takes to
tor ? charge a capacitor is affected
(au) If a 6-ohm resistance is con- by the resistance in the circuit
nected in series with acapaci- and the capacity of the capaci-
tor having a capacitive react- tor.
ance of 8 ohms, what will the (c) A charged capacitor does not
impedance of the combination have any more electrons on its
be 9
plates than when it is dis-
charged. Although the number
LOOKING AHEAD of electrons on the two sets of
plates is the same, some elec-
Up to this point in your course, trons have been removed from
you have been studying the basic one plate and added to the other
action of afew important components when the capacitor is charged.
found in electronic circuits. Other (d) The capacity of the capacitor
than tubes and transistors, the parts determines the amount of
you will run into most frequently are charge a capacitor can hold
resistors, coils, and capacitors or for a given applied voltage.
parts made of these three basic com- (e) The farad is the basic unit of
ponents. Now that you have studied capacity.
each of these three parts separately, (f) The microfarad and the pico-
you are in a position to go ahead to farad are the two practical
see how they work together. A later units used in electronics. A
lesson will discuss resonance. microfarad is equal to one
Resonance is perhaps one of the most millionth of a farad, and the

36
 picofarad is equal to one mil- than any other type of capaci-
lionth of a microfarad. tor.
(g) 3300 pf. To convert micro- (n) A material with a dielectric
farads to picofarads, you mul- constant greater than air in-
tiply by 1,000,000 or move the creases the capacity because
decimal point six places to the it has the effect of reducing
right. the spacing between the plates
(h) .00068 rad. To convert pico- of the capacitor.
farads to microfarads you di- (o) The marking, 400 volts, on the
vide by 1,000,000 or move the capacitor means that the ca-
decimal point six places to the pacitor can be used in circuits
left. having a de voltage up to 400
(1) (1) the area of the plates (2) volts. In other words, the rated
the spacing between the plates maximum voltage at which the
(3) the dielectric of the medi- capacitor can be used is 400
um between the plates. volts. If you use a capacitor
) The capacity will be doubled. in a circuit where the dc volt-
The capacity of a capacitor is age is 500 or 600 volts, the
inversely proportional to the chances are it will breakdown
spacing between the plates. If in a short time. On the other
you cut the spacing in half, the hand a capacitor rated at 400
capacity will be doubled, but volts can be used in a circuit
on the other hand if you double where the voltage is 300 volte
the spacing between the plates, or any value less than 400
the capacity will be cut in half. volts.
(k) The dielectric constant of a Air and mica.
material tells you how many The stations on a high end of
times the capacity of the ca- the band will be very close to-
pacitor will be increased by gether and difficult to sepa-
substituting the material be- rate. On the other hand, the
tween the plates of the capaci- stations on the low end of the
tor in place of air. In other band will be spread out much
words, if a material has a di- more than they need be.
electric constant of 5, if you (r) A capacitor with straight-line
fill the spacing between the frequency plates.
plates completely with that (s) The transmitter capacitor will
material, then the capacity have a much greater spacing
will be increased five times between the plates than the re-
from what it would be if the ceiver capacitor. The greater
dielectric was air. spacing is required to prevent
1 ) The dielectric constant of air
( arc over due to the high volt-
is 1. ages used in the transmitter.
(m) Ceramic-type materials have (t) Axial leads.
the highest dielectric. This is (u) To seal the capacitor so mois-
why ceramic capacitors of a ture can 't seep into the capaci-
given capacity will be smaller tor and cause it to break.

37
(v) The capacitor should be re- not reform the capacitor and
placed; a leakage resistance simply install it in the re-
of 100,000 ohms is much too ceiver, the chances are that it
low for a paper capacitor. will break down.
(w) There are more economical (ae) Yes. Current flows from the
types available which are al- generator to charge the ca-
most as good as mica capaci- pacitor with one polarity dur-
tors. ing one-half cycle, and then
In critical circuits where ex- flows in the opposite direction
tremely stable capacitors are to charge the capacitor with
required. the opposite polarity during
Tubular ceramic capacitors the next half cycle.
and disc type ceramic capaci- (af) No. Electrons flow into one
tors. plate and out of the other to
Z5 indicates that the capaci- charge the capacitor with one
tor is designed for operation polarity during one half cycle,
between 10 C and 85° C. The and then electrons flow out of
F indicates that the capacity the first plate and into the sec-
will not change more than ond to charge the capacitor
±7.5% within the capacitor's with the opposite polarity dur-
normal operating range. ing the second half cycle. Cur-
(an) The two types of electrolytic rent flows back and forth in
capacitors are the wet and dry the circuit so that it has the
type. The dry type is used in effect of flowing through the
modern electronic equipment; capacitor and often we say
the wet type of capacitor is that ac flows through acapaci-
no longer made. tor, but actually there is no
(ab) When we say a capacitor has electron flow across the di-
polarity it means that it is electric of a capacitor unless
made so that one plate must the capacitor breaks down.
always be connected to aposi- (ag) Capacitive reactance.
tive voltage and the other al-
ways to the negative voltage. 1
(ah) Xc - where fis
(ac) You should replace the 6.28 xfxC
electrolytic capacitor. The
fact that it is getting very hot in cycles/second and C is in
indicates that there is exces- farads. Also
sive current flow through it
due to excessive leakage. 159 000
(ad) The capacitor should be Xe - f x C

formed. You can form it by

placing a low voltage on it and where f is in cycles/second
gradually increasing the volt- and C is in microfarads.
age until it is equal to or (ai) To find the capacitive react-
slightly exceeds the rated volt- ance of the capacitor we use
age of the capacitor. If you do the formula:

38
 creasing the frequency or ca-
Xc - 159 '
000
fx C pacity will result in a higher
capacitive reactance.
and substituting 150 for fand (an) The time-constant of an rc
.02 for C we get: circuit is the length of time
it takes the capacitor to charge
up to approximately 63% of the
159, 000 total source voltage.
Xc - 150 x .02
(ao) .044 seconds .To find the time-
constant you multiply the re-
sistance in megohms by the
Xe - 159 '
000
3 capacity in microfarads. 2.2
X .02 = .044 seconds.
Xc = 53,000 ohms (ap) 2 seconds. The time-constant
will be exactly the same be-
cause the charging voltage has
(aj) .32 tnfd. To find the capacity no effect on the time-constant.
of capacitors which are con- The time-constant is deter-
nected in parallel you simply mined solely by the value of
add the capacities. the resistance and the capaci-
(ak) To find the capacity of the two tor in the circuit. In each case
capacitors connected in series the capacitor will charge upto
we use the formula: 63% of the applied voltage in
2 seconds.
Cl x C2 (aq) The current will lead the volt-
Cl + C2 age by 90° .
(ar) The current will lead the volt-
and substituting 27 pf for Cl age by some angle less than
and 56 pf for C2 we get: 90° .
(as) 15 volts. You can use either
a vector solution to get this
r 27 x 56 answer or the mathematical
= 27 + 56 solution using the formula:

1512
Ct 83 Eg =/E„ 2 + Ec

Eg =/9 2 + 12 2
= 18.2 pf

Eg =/81 + 144

(al) Ohms.
Eg =
(am) The complete statement
should be: Increasing the ca-
= 15 volts.
pacity or the frequency in the
circuit will result in a lower
capacitive reactance and de- (at) By impedance we mean the

39
 total opposition to the flow of and substituting 6 ohms for R
ac in the circuit. The imped- and 8 ohms for Xe we have:
ance will be the vector sum
of the opposition offered by
the resistance plus that of- Z = /6 3 + 82
fered by the capacitive re-
actance of the capacitor. Z =/36
---- 64
-
(au) We can find the impedance
using the formula: Z =i.
T.F).

Z =/R 2 + Xc a Z = 10 ohms.

40
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B107.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

1. Name three types of solid dielectric capacitors.

2. Express .0001Ctfifd (microfarads) in pf (picofarads).

3. Can you use a .01-mfd, 600-volt capacitor in place of a .01-mfd, 400-

volt capacitor?

4. What will happen to an electrolytic capacitor if you install it in a cir-

cuit with the wrong polarity?

5. What is the capacitive reactance of a10-mfd capacitor at a frequency

of 10 cycles?

6. What is the total capacity of a 6-mfd capacitor and an 8-mfd capaci-

tor connected in parallel?

7. What is the total capacity of two 8-mfd capacitors connected in series ?

8. What do we mean by the time-constant of an RC circuit?

9. What is the phase relationship between the voltage across a capacitor

and the current flowing through the capacitor in an ac circuit?

10. If the voltage across R is 3 volts

and the voltage across C is 4 volts,
what is the generator voltage In
the circuit shown?
 THE VALUE OF COURTESY
A recent survey showed that people complain more
about discourteous clerks than about any other fault
a business could have. In fact, many people pay
extra at higher-priced stores just to get the courtesy
and respect they feel entitled to.
Regardless of whether you work for someone else
or have a radio business of your own, plain ordinary
courtesy can bring many extra dollars to you.
Courtesy becomes a habit if practiced long enough.
Be courteous to everyone -- to members of your
family, to those who don't buy from you, even to
the very lowest persons who serve you -- then you
can be sure you'll be courteous when it really counts.
Give your courtesy with a smile. There is an old
Chinese proverb which says, "A man who doesn't
smile shouldn't keep a shop." And you're keeping
a "shop" even if you are selling only your ability
and knowledge to an employer. A friendly smile is
itself courtesy of the highest type, bringing you un-
expected returns in actual money as well as friend-
ship.
Pre Innovation in learning

Itrii ii by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-207
 HOW RESISTORS, COILS

AND CAPACITORS

aleidle41' rrei ARE USED TOGETHER

r*--1
wilwwwr *gri
B108
7-#.telt5;

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

HOW RESISTORS, COILS,
AND CAPACITORS
ARE USED TOGETHER
B108
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

E 1. Introduction Pages 1-2

Here you get a general idea of how resistors, coils, and
capacitors are used together.

a 2. Series-Resonant Circuits Pages 3-16

You study RL and RC series circuits, and learn the effects of
varying inductance, capacitance, and frequency.

a 3. Parallel-Resonant Circuits Pages 17 -23

You study the effect of varying resistance, capacity, induc-
tance, and frequency in aparallel-resonant circuit.

a 4. Comparison of Series-Resonant
and Parallel-Resonant Circuits Pages 23 -26
You learn how to tell whether acircuit is aparallel-resonant or
a series-resonant circuit, and study the important character-
istics of each.

a 5. How Resonant Circuits Are Used Pages 27 -31

You learn how resonant circuits are used to select desired
signals and reject undesired ones.

(II 6. RC Circuits Pages 32 -36

You study coupling circuits, differentiating circuits, and
integrating circuits.

7. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 37 -40

8. Answer the Lesson Questions.

9. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

JDL3M1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW RESISTORS, COILS, AND
CAPACITORS ARE USED TOGETHER

In the preceding lessons you have study all three types of circuits but
studied resistors, coils and capaci- will spend most of the time on LC
tors. Other than tubes and transis- circuits because these are perhaps
tors, these are the three most im- the most important of the three.
portant parts you will run into in From your studies of the coil and
electronic equipment. In your the capacitor you might remember
studies of these parts you have been that in many ways one is the opposite
primarily concerned with the part of the other. For example, in a cir-
itself, with its characteristics and cuit having only inductance, you will
briefly with how it is made. In elec- recall that the voltage leads the cur-
tronic equipment these parts are rent by 90° .On the other hand, in a
seldom used alone; in most cases circuit having only capacitance, the
two or more of these parts will be voltage lags the current by 90° .In
used together. For example, in cou- other words, we will get the exact
pling circuits, you will often use opposite effect; with a coil we have
combinations of resistors and ca- a 90° leading voltage and with a
pacitors to feed the signal from one capacitor a 90° lagging voltage.
audio stage to a second audio stage. In circuits where coils and capa-
Circuits of this type are referred citors are used together the two
to as RC coupling circuits. more or less work against each
You will run into circuits where other. In some of these circuits,
coils and resistors are used to- the circuit may act like a coil and
gether. Circuits of this type are re- the voltage will lead the current by
ferred to as RL circuits. You will some angle less than 90° .In other
also encounter circuits where coils circuits you may find that the cir-
and capacitors are used together. cuit acts like a capacitor and the
These circuits are referred to as voltage lags the current by some
LC circuits. In this lesson we will value less than 90° .In still other

1
circuits the effect of the coil will to separate the stations.
cancel the effect of the capacitor There are two types of resonant
so that the voltage and the current circuits. One is called a series-re-
will be in phase. Circuits of this sonant circuit, and the other is called
type are called resonant circuits. a parallel-resonant circuit. Whether
Resonant circuits are extremely a circuit is series-resonant or par-
important. They are used in radio allel-resonant depends upon how the
and TV receivers to separate the voltage is applied to the coil and the
various stations. In other words, a capacitor in the circuit. Both types
resonant circuit is used in a broad- are important; we will study both
cast-band receiver to select the and you will soon see how to dis-
station you want to listen to and at tinguish one type from the other.
the same time reject the unwanted Since it is a little easier to see ex-
stations. Resonant circuits are used actly what is happening in a series-
In TV receivers to tune the set to resonant circuit than it is in a par-
the channel you want. Without reso- allel-resonant circuit, we will study
nant circuits there would be no way the series-resonant circuit first.

2
 Series-Resonant Circuits
A resonant circuit is a circuit in In this simple circuit we know
which the inductive reactance of the that the current will be in phase
coil is equal to the capacitive re- with the voltage, because the only
actance of the capacitor. When the element connected in the circuit is
voltage is applied to the coil and the resistance. This means that the volt-
capacitor in series we call the cir- age across the resistor will reach
cuit a series-resonant circuit. To its peak at the same time that the
help you get a clear understanding current flowing in the circuit is at
of what a series-resonant circuit a maximum.
is, let us start with a simple series
circuit and review some of the things 1.1AMP
you already know.

A SERIES CIRCUIT
Let's begin with the circuit shown
in Fig. 1, consisting of a 500-cycle
ac generator that is generating a
voltage of 120 volts. Across this
generator we will connect a vari- Fig. 1. A simple series circuit.
able resistor, which is set so that
it has a resistance of 120 ohms. If Remember that the voltmeter and
we have a voltmeter connected the ammeter are measuring the ef-
across the resistor, the voltage fective value (or the rms value) of
reading will be close to 120 volts. the ac voltage and current and that
This is true because the resistor during part of the cycle, the gen-
is connected directly across the gen-erator voltage actually exceeds 120
erator, and the voltage being sup- volts. You will recall that the peak
plied by the generator is 120 volts. voltage of an ac sine wave will be
An ammeter connected in series with 1.41 times the effective voltage.
the resistor will indicate that the Therefore, even though the meter
current flowing in the circuit is 1 is reading 120 volts, the voltage will
ampere. Actually, we do not need be greater than this value during
the ammeter to tell us this, because part of the cycle and less than this
we know that we can determine the value during the other part of the
current by dividing the voltage by cycle. The voltage will actually be
the resistance. Remember this for- zero twice each cycle. Likewise,
mula for Ohm's Law: the current is the effective current
and its actual value will be greater
E
I= than 1amp twice each cycle and less
than 1amp the remainder of the time.
Therefore The current will reach a peak value
of 1.41 amps twice each cycle and
will actually drop to 0 twice each
= 120 = 1amp
120 cycle.

3
 AN RL CIRCUIT voltage readings are obtained. You
may at first think this looks com-
Now let us see what happens when plicated, but actually it is not nearly
we modify the simple circuit of Fig. as difficult as it might appear.
1 by adding a 100-mh (millihenry) First, we have a series circuit.
coil in series with the resistor as We know that the total opposition to
shown in Fig. 2. In Fig. 1we showed the current flowing in the circuit
the resistor as a variable resistor. will be the impedance of the circuit,
We did this deliberately because you which in turn is made up of the 120-
know that any coil will have some ohm resistance plus the inductive
resistance. If the 100-millihenry reactance of the coil. We can find
coil has a resistance of 10 ohms, the inductive reactance of the coil
we can adjust the variable resistor from the formula:
so that its resistance is only 110
ohms. Now we will still have a total X L =6.28 xFxL
of 120 ohms resistance in the cir-
cuit: the 110 ohms from the resis- Since 100-mh is .1 henry, L = .1
tor and the 10 ohms from the coil. and F = 500 cycles, we have:
In Fig. 2, we have represented the
total resistance made up of the coil X L = 6.28 x 500 x .1
resistance and the resistance of the = 314 ohms
variable resistor as only one 120-
ohm resistor. Notice that in Fig. 2 As you might expect, it is ex-
we have the ammeter in series with tremely difficult to make a coil with
both the coil and resistor and have an inductance of exactly 100 milli-
added a second voltmeter across henrys. Furthermore, we are not in-
the coil. But look at the readings on terested in exact calculations in
the meters: The ammeter shows that most electronic circuits. To sim-
the current flowing is .35 amp. The plify things, we are going to call the
voltmeters show that the voltage inductive reactance of the coil 315
across the resistor is 43 volts, and ohms. The impedance of the circuit
the voltage across the coil is 112 is therefore equal to 120 ohms plus
volts. You have already seen this the reactance of 315 ohms. To show
type of circuit, and probably know this by means of symbols, electron-
why we have obtained these read- ics men write this as
ings, but let's go through this again
to be sure you understand why such Z = 120 + j315

35 AMP
The letter jis used to indicate that
315 ohms is a reactive component
which cannot be added directly to
120 ohms to get the total impedance
of the circuit. If we simply wrote the
impedance as 120 + 315, it would
be very easy to forget that 120 was
L.100 MN
resistance and 315 was reactance
and simply add the two and get 435
Fig. 2. 1simple RI. series circuit. ohms, which of course, is incorrect.

4
 The value of Z can be determined XL
either by vectors as shown in Fig.3
or from the formula

Z = /R 2 +X 2

In this case R is 120 ohms, and X

is the inductive reactance, which is
315 ohms. So we have:

Z= 1120 2 + 315 2

Remember that the small 2 to the

right of 120 and 315 means that the
number is to be squared, and that
120 squared is equal to 120 times
120. If you want to go through the
arithmetic, the actual operations of
squaring these numbers are as
follows

315
120 X 315
X 120 1575
2400 315
120 945
14400 99225
Fig. 3. Vector addition of R and X1, using
Now that we have the value of 120 a scale of 100 ohms = 1 inch, when R =-
and 315 squared, we have 120 ohms, and Xi, =315 ohms. R is drawn
1.2 inches long, and Xi, is drawn slightly
Z = / 14,400 + 99,225 less than 3.2 inches long. The impedance
vector Z is then found by completing the
rectangle and drawing Z from zero to the
and by adding these we will get
junction of the dotted lines. Z will meas-
ure between 3.25 and 3.5 inches, giving a
14400
Z of about 340 ohm s.
+ 99225
113625
/ 11' 36' 25' 1337
Therefore Z 9
236
To get the value of Z we have to 189
take the square root of 113,625. This 6671 4725
is done by first writing the number 4669
down and then marking it off in 56
groups of two numbers working from
the decimal point to the left. The Therefore, the impedance of the
steps in getting this square root are circuit is 337 ohms. We need not
as follows: be concerned if there is a slight

5
remainder when we work out the Important. It is not particularly
square root because electronic parts necessary that you sit down and
have considerable tolerance, and follow through the multiplication and
337 ohms is close enough. As a division unless you want to do so.
matter of fact, in many practical If you expect to go into radio and
problems you could probably round TV servicing you will have no occa-
this off either to 335 or 340 ohms. sion to do this type of work, but if
However, we'll use 337 ohms. you intend to go into industry as an
Now that we know the total im- electronics technician, you should
pedance in the circuit, we can de- be sure you understand the various
termine what the current flowing steps in this circuit explanation.
in the circuit would be in this man- Whether you go through the math-
ner: ematics or not, there are several
important points you should see.
E 120 The current flowing in the circuit
=337
T
= .356 amp
is limited by the impedance of the
circuit. The impedance, as you know,
The ammeter we have connected in is the total opposition to current
the circuit should and does read flow in the circuit. The voltage that
about .35 amp. will appear across each part in the
Now that we know the current flow- circuit will depend upon the resis-
ing in the circuit, we can determine tance or reactance of that part and
the voltage that will appear across upon the current flowing in the cir-
the coil by multiplying the reactance cuit. Also, you should remember
of the coil by the current flowing in that in this example, although it may
the circuit. In other words: appear that the sum of the voltage
across the coil plus the voltage
Eu =IXX L across the resistance is greater
than the source voltage, the meters
Multiplying .356 x 315 we get 112.14 are measuring the effective value of
volts. We do not have to be con- the voltage and that these voltages
cerned with such accuracy as this; are not in phase. These voltages are
we will simply call the voltage 112 ac voltages and hence continually
volts. As a matter of fact this is the changing, but the voltage across the
voltage indicated by the voltmeter resistor plus the voltage across the
connected across the coil; you can- coil at any given instant is exactly
not get a more accurate reading. equal to the source voltage at that
Similarly, the voltage across the re- instant.
sistor is
THE RC CIRCUIT
Er,=IxR
Now, let's remove the 100-mh
which is equal to .356 x 120, or coil from the circuit and put a1-mfd
42.72 volts. We will round this off capacitor in its place. We will re-
to 43 volts, which is what the meter adjust the variable resistance so that
will indicate. the total resistance of the circuit
Each of the steps that we have is 120 ohms. We will then have the
shown in the preceding example is circuit shown in Fig. 4. Notice that

6
 .35 AMP
6.28
X 500
3140.00

Next, multiplying 3140 by .000001,

we will get

3140
X .000001
Fig. 4. A simple RC series circuit. .003140

the voltage across the resistance is The next step in our problem is
the same as in Fig. 2, and also notice to divide 1 by .003140. To perform
that the voltage across the capaci- the division we must get rid of the
tor in Fig. 4 is the same as the volt- decimal point; to do this we move
age across the coil in Fig. 2. the decimal point six places in the
We can verify all the meter read- divisor and six places in the divi-
ings shown in Fig. 4 as we did for dend so that our problem becomes
the circuit shown in Fig. 2. To do 1000000 divided by 3140:
this, we start by finding the re-
actance of the 1-mfd capacitor at .003140 1.000000
500 cycles from the formula:
1 318
Xc 6.28 xFxC 3140 fi000000
9420
The capacitive reactance of the 5800
capacitor turns out to be 318 ohms. 3140
We will round this off to 315 ohms, 26600
because it is unlikely that the capa- 25120
citor will have a capacity of ex- 1480
actly 1microfarad. You do not have
to go through the solution of this As we mentioned we will round off
formula unless you want to, but for the value of the capacitive reactance
the benefit of those who want to workto 315 ohms. The difference is so
it out step by step we'll go through small that whether it is 315 or 318
it. you won't be able to detect any dif-
First, remember that in the for- ference in the meter readings in Fig.
mula the frequency must be in cycles 4. Using 315 ohms as the capacitive
and the capacity must be in farads. reactance makes the total impedance
Therefore, F = 500 cycles and C = of the circuit
1 mfd = .000001 farad. Substituting
these values in the formula we have Z = 120 -j315

1 Notice that in this case we have

X e 6.28 x 500 x .000001 used -j to indicate that 315 ohms is
a capacitive reactance. Actually,
Now we can start by multiplying 6.28 whether the sign is minus or plus
X 500 and we will get will make no difference in deter-

7
 IAMP
mining the value of the impedance.
We still use the formula:

Z = /R 2 +X 2

In this case, X is the capacitive re-

actance. Even though it is shown as
-j315, it will still be +when squared,
because any number squared is po-
sitive. Our formula is therefore the Fig. 5. .1 series-resonant circuit.

same as before:
with the 100-mh coil and the 1-mfd
Z = /120 2 + 315 2 capacitor, and the series combina-
tion connected across the 120-volt,
The impedance works out again to 500-cycle generator. The inductive
be 337 ohms. The current flowing reactance of the coil and the capaci-
in the circuit can then be found by tive reactance of the capacitor will
dividing the voltage by the imped- each be approximately 3.15 ohms as
ance; this is 120 + 337, or .356 amp. before, because the frequency In the
We can find the voltage across the circuit has not changed. Therefore,
resistor by multiplying the current, the total impedance in the circuit
.356 amp, by the resistance, 120 will be
ohms. Thus, .356 x 120 = 43 volts.
Similarly, the voltage across the Z = 120 + j315 -j315
capacitor is .356 x 315, or 112 volts.
It is worthwhile to notice that We have already pointed out that
since the circuit shown in Fig. 2 capacitive reactance is essentially
contains inductance and resistance the opposite of inductive reactance.
the current will be lagging the volt- We have indicated this by using +j
age. In the circuit shown in Fig. 4 to represent inductive reactance and
the current will be leading the volt- -j to represent capacitive reactance.
age since we have capacitance and In the expression for the imped-
resistance. Nevertheless, the total ance of the circuit you see +j315 and
impedance is the same in the two -j315, and, as you might expect,
circuits; therefore, the currents these two cancel so that the total
flowing in the circuits are equal, impedance of the circuit is equal to
which accounts for the equal voltage the resistance of the resistor alone,
appearing across the resistors in or 120 ohms.
each circuit. Now let's see what happens to the
Now let us see what happens when voltages and current throughout the
we go one step further and put the circuit. First, look at the current
100-mh coil in series with the 120- flowing; it is 1amp. It is higher than
ohm resistor and the 1-mfd capa- it was in Fig. 2 and Fig. 4. The rea-
citor. son for this is that the current is
equal to
THE RESONANT CIRCUIT
In the circuit shown in Fig. 5, we
have 120-ohm resistance in series

8
Z in Fig. 5 is 120 + j315 -j315, or voltage drop across the capacitor
120 ohms. Therefore I= 120 + 120, is equal to 2 amps X 315 ohms, or
or 1amp. 630 volts. Similarly, the voltage
The voltage across the coil is 315 appearing across the coil will be
volts. This is equal to the current 630 volts and the voltage across the
times the inductive reactance: 1amp resistor will be 2 amps X 60 ohms,
X 315 ohms = 315 volts. Similarly, which is equal to 120 volts as before.
the voltage across the capacitor will Now we have an even greater reso-
be equal to 315 volts. The voltage nant voltage step-up than we had
across the resistor is 120 volts. previously. Reducing the resistance
Notice what we now have across the still further will result in an even
capacitator and across the induct- greater voltage appearing across the
ance: a voltage several times the coil and across the capacitor.
source voltage. This is referred to In a practical resonant circuit, we
as a "resonant voltage step-up." In will have only a capacitor and acoil
other words, the voltage across the in series. However, there will
coil and the voltage across the capa- always be resistance in the circuit
citor in a series-resonant circuit because the coil is made by winding
may be several times the source turns of copper wire on a coil form,
voltage. and the copper wire has resistance.
In the preceding example we saw However, the lower that resistance
that the impedance of the circuit at can be made, the lower the imped-
resonance is equal to the resistance ance of the circuit and the greater
in the circuit. Now you might wonder the resonant voltage step-up will be.
what happens when you change the This can be expressed in another
resistance in the circuit. If you re- way. The Q of a coil is equal to the
duce the value of the resistance in inductive reactance divided by the
the circuit, you will reduce the im- resistance of the coil. In other
pedance. If we cut the resistance in words:
half so that the total resistance in
Q 3
4L.
= .1
the circuit is only 60 ohms, the cur-
rent flowing in the circuit will be
doubled. We will then have the sit- In a coil where the resistance is
uation shown in Fig. 6. Here the low, the value of Q will be high. Since
the lower the resistance we have, the
1• 2AMP
greater the resonant step-up voltage
will be, we say that there will be
more resonant voltage step-up in a
high-Q circuit than in a low-Q cir-
cuit.
Serles-Resonant Facts.
Before going ahead with our study
1MFD 100 MH
of series-resonant circuits, we
should review several of the things
Fig. 6. Reducing the resistance in the that we have already discussed.
series-resonant circuit results in a First, in a series-resonant cir-
greater current flow and a higher resonant cuit at resonance the inductive re-
voltage step-up. actance is exactly equal to and can-

9
cels the capacitive reactance in the whether the circuit is resonant or
circuit so that the impedance of the not. This current is also equal tothe
circuit is equal to the resistance in current flowing through the resistor
the circuit. The impedance in the and to the current flowing through
circuit will therefore be low, and the the capacitor.
current flowing in the circuit will If the circuit shown in Fig. 7A is
be high. Second, there is a resonant a resonant circuit, we can make use
voltage step-up in aseries-resonant of the fact that the current is the
circuit. same at all times in all parts of the
Remember these two facts --they circuit to get a better idea of what
are important: in a series-resonant is happening. We can do this by
circuit you will have low impedance studying the voltage and current
and high current and the voltage waveforms throughout the circuit.
appearing across either the capa- For example, we have shown two
citor or inductance may be several cycles and have identified a number
times the source voltage. of points on these cycles by numbers
Resonance occurs when the induc- in Fig. 7B. This waveform repre-
tive reactance of the coil exactly sents the entire current flowing in
equals the capacitive reactance of the series-resonant circuit.
the capacitor. In other words, Look at the current waveform at
point 1 and notice that the current
XL =Xc begins swinging in a positive direc-
tion. Let's assume that at this in-
1 stant the voltage at terminal a of
6.28x FxL
6.28xFxC

and from this we can get:

F -
1
6.28 xi L
o
This is the frequency at which a
coil and acapacitor will be resonant.
0
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
WAVEFORMS IN THE
SERIES-RESONANT CIRCUIT

In any series circuit, the current 0

is always the same in all parts of the
circuit. This is true whether it is a
resonant circuit or a simple series
circuit consisting of a number of
resistors. Therefore, in a circuit 0
such as the one shown in Fig. 7A
the current flowing through the gen-
erator will be equal to the current
flowing through the coil at all times, Fig. 7. Series-resonant circuit waveforms.

10
the generator begins to swing in 3. Thus, the current goes through a
a negative direction so that cur- complete change - the instant before
rent starts flowing at terminal a it reaches point 3 it is flowing in
through the coil and around the one direction, it drops to 0 exactly
circuit back to terminal b of the at point 3 and then an instant later
generator. As the waveform in- it is flowing in the opposite direction.
creases in amplitude from point 1 Now let us consider what effect
to point 2, current increases in the this changing current has on the
circuit going from 0 at point 1to its voltage across the coil. Remember
maximum value at point 2. that the self-induced voltage in a
Although we have started the coil depends upon the rate at which
waveform shown in 7B at point 1, the current flowing through the coil
we are actually representing what changes. Therefore, at point 1, since
happens in a series-resonant cir- the current is changing at its maxi-
cuit in which the current has been mum rate, the self-induced voltage
flowing for some time. In other induced in the coil will be at maxi-
words, the circuit has been con- mum. As the current increases in
nected to the generator (which is amplitude towards point 2, the rate
producing the current) and we simply at which it is changing decreases
started to analyze what is happen- so the voltage induced in the coil
ing in the circuit at the given in- decreases. At point 2, where the
stant designated at point 1 on the current is not changing at all, the
curve B. At this instant the current voltage induced in the coil will be
flowing in the circuit has just 0. This is shown by the portion of
reached 0and has begun to increase curve C between points 1 and 2.
towards point 2 as electrons move Now, as the current begins to de-
from terminal a of the generator crease from point 2 to point 3 the
around the circuit towards terminal rate at which the current is chang-
b of the generator. ing increases. Since the current is
Fig. 7B is a sine wave. A sine decreasing, a voltage is induced
wave changes value at a maximum in the coil which tends to oppose
rate at the instant it is going through the direction in which the current is
O. In other words, at point lthe rate changing. Therefore, as the current
at which the value of the current goes from point 2 to point 3 (as
(represented by the sine wave) shown in the curve at B), the voltage
changes is at a maximum. As the across the coil will increase from 0
actual current amplitude increases at point 2 to its maximum value at
towards point 2, the rate of change point 3 (as shown in the curve at C).
decreases until for an instant at Notice that the voltage across the
point 2 there is no change in current. coil is leading the current by 90° .
The current has reached its maxi- If you remember your earlier
mum value, it remains constant for studies, this is exactly what you
just an instant at point 2, and then might expect. As the current goes
begins to decrease. The rate at which through the remainder of its cycle
it decreases increases until it is (as shown from point 3 on over to
changing at its maximum rate when point 9), the voltage across the coil
it reaches point 3. For just an in- will at all times be 90° ahead of this
stant the current drops to 0 at point current.

11
 Now let us consider what must be capacitors in earlier lessons, you
happening across the resistor and learned that the voltage lags the
capacitor in the circuit. At point 1 current in a capacitor by 90° .
on curve B the actual value of the The curves in Fig. 7 show what
current flowing is O. Therefore, the happens in aseries-resonant circuit
voltage across the resistor must be and why the voltages around the cir-
0 because it will be in phase with cuit (if they are measured separate-
the current. We have not drawn a ly, then added together)will be equal
wave shape to represent the voltage to a value greater than the source
across the resistor because it will voltage. If you measure the capacitor
be in phase with the current wave- voltage you'll be measuring the rms
form shown at B at all times. value of the waveform shown at D.If
Since the voltage across the gen- you measure the coil voltage you will
erator is 0 at point 1and the voltage be measuring the rms value of the
across the resistor is also Oat point curve shown at C. While these volt-
1, we immediately see that the volt- ages do exist across the components,
age across the capacitor must be they are always 180 ° out of phase and
exactly equal to and opposite to the therefore as far as the total voltage
voltage across the coil. We know across the two is concerned they
this must be true because in any cancel each other.
closed circuit of this type the alge- In a series-resonant circuit that
braic sum of the voltage drops has a pure inductance and a pure
around the circuit must be equal to capacitance in series with a resis-
O. Indeed, if the circuit has been in tor, the voltage across the induc-
operation the capacitor would be tance is exactly cancelled by the
charged with a polarity equal to and voltage across the capacitance. In
opposite to the voltage across the this case, the applied voltage is de-
coil at the instant that the current veloped across the resistor. How-
was at 0, as at point 1. As the cur- ever, pure inductors and capacitors
rent increases from point 1 to do not exist. All coils have some re-
point 2, electrons will flow into the sistance and all capacitors have
capacitor to reduce the charge until some leakage. Therefore, the volt-
at point 2 the charge on the capa- ages across the coil and capacitor
citor will be exactly equal to O. As do not exactly cancel. Thus, asmall
current continues to flow in the same voltage can be measured across the
direction (as shown from point 2 coil-capacitor combination.
to point 3 on curve B) electrons will Before going on to the next section
continue to flow into one plate of of the lesson it would be worthwhile
the capacitor and charge it (as shown to study carefully the waveforms
between points 2 and 3 on curve D). shown in Fig. 7to be sure you under-
Notice what has happened.At each stand what is happening. It might
instant, the voltage across the capa- make it easier for you if you can
citor is equal to and opposite to the redraw the circuit and place aresis-
voltage across the coil. Also notice tor next to the generator instead of
that the voltage across the capaci- between the coil and the capacitor.
tor is lagging the current flowing Actually, insofar as the current flow
in the circuit by 90° .This is as we in the circuit and the voltage across
should expect; when you studied the individual parts in the circuit

12
are concerned, it makes no differ-
RESONANCE
ence where the parts are placed.
However, to see how the voltages

CURRENT IN AMPERES
across the coil and capacitor are
cancelling, it might be easier to see 6
this if you move the resistor so that
it is not between the two. 4
L.100 NH
VARYING L, C, F, AND R f.500

2
When the inductive reactance in a
series circuit is equal to the capa-
o
citive reactance, the circuit is at 3 1
1
resonance, the two cancel each
other, and we will have a low-im- CAPACITY OF C

pedance circuit in which we will get Fig. 8. How current varies in a series-
a high current flow. Let us see what resonant circuit when L is 100 mh, F is
happens if we use other values of C 500 cycles, and C is varied from 0 to 3
and L and if we vary the frequency mid.
of the voltage applied to the circuit.
Let's start by seeing what will hap- As the capacity is increased above
pen when we vary the value of the 1-mfd, the capacitive reactance de-
capacitor. creases so that the inductive react-
Varying C. ance in the circuit is greater than
We can vary the value of C by the capacitive reactance. Therefore,
inserting capacitors of different the inductive reactance cancels out
sizes in the circuit in place of the all of the capacitive reactance and
1-mfd capacitor, while leaving the there is still some inductive re-
source frequency at 500 cycles and actance left over. The circuit begins
the coil inductance at 100 milli- to act like a circuit having only in-
henrys. The current in the circuit ductance in it and the current will
will vary as shown in Fig. 8. Notice lag the voltage.
that we have the highest current In either case, when the capacity
flowing exactly at resonance. As the is too small or too high for reson-
capacity is reduced, the current ance, the impedance of the circuit
drops off rather sharply. It is im- is greater than it is at resonance;
portant for you to realize that as the this accounts for the reduction in
capacity is made smaller than it current flow in the circuit.
should be for resonance, the capa- Varying L.
citive reactance in the circuit in- If the inductance in the circuit is
creases so that it is greater than varied instead of the capacity, the
the inductive reactance. Therefore, current will vary as shown in Fig.
the inductive reactance does not 9. Here, when the size of the in-
completely cancel out all the capa- ductor or coil is reduced, the in-
citive reactance in the circuit, and ductive reactance is decreased, and
the resonant circuit begins to act it will not completely cancel out the
like a circuit having only capacity. capacitive reactance in the circuit.
In other words, the current flowing The circuit will act like acapacitor,
in the circuit will lead the voltage. and the current will lead the voltage.

13
 actance of the capacitor so that its

500MFD
RESONANCE reactance will now be 630 ohms at

Hf
.
500 cycles. This means that with a
200-mh coil and a .5-mfd capacity,
we will again have a situation where
the inductive reactance will be equal
to the capacitive reactance; there-
fore, these components will be re-
sonant at 500 cycles.
You can see that many values of
coil and capacitor may be used to
o
obtain resonance at 500 cycles. Once
3
we select a coil, it will have a cer-
o
2 e,
INDUCTANCE OF L
o
e, tain inductive reactance at a fre-
quency of 500 cycles. All we need
is to obtain a capacitor that will
Fig. 9. How current varies in a series- have a capacitive reactance equal to
resonant circuit when C = 1mfd, F = 500 the inductive reactance of the coil
cycles, and L is varied from 0 to 300 mh. at this frequency, and we will have
a resonant circuit at 500 cycles.
When the inductance is made Varying P.
greater than 100-mh, then the in- If we go back to the 100-mh coil
ductive reactance is greater than and the 1-mfd capacitor and then
the capacitive reactance and the vary the frequency of the voltage
circuit will act as an inductance. applied to this combination, we will
This means that the current will lag obtain a curve like the one shown
the voltage. Again, the current will in Fig. 10. Notice that in this case
be lower than at resonance when the we have maximum current flow at
inductance is made either too large resonance, because at resonance the
or too small because the impedance impedance of the circuit is lowest.
in the circuit increases. Lowest im- When the frequency applied to the
pedance is obtained in a series-re- coil and capacitor combination is
sonant circuit at resonance, when less than 500 cycles, the capacitive
the inductive reactance cancels the reactance of the capacitor is greater
capacitive reactance. Current will than the inductive reactance of the
always be at maximum at this point. coil, so the combination acts like
Varying Moth L and C. a capacitor and the current will lead
The combination of a 100-mh coil the voltage.
and a 1-mfd capacitor is not the When the frequency applied to the
only combination that will give re- combination is above 500 cycles,
sonance at 500 cycles. If we double then the inductive reactance of the
the inductance of the coil by using coil is greater than the capacitive
a 200-mh coil in the circuit, the in- reactance of the capacitor, and the
ductive reactance of the coil will be circuit will act like a coil. In either
doubled. It will be twice 315 ohms, case, the impedance of the circuit
or 630 ohms. If we reduce the size will be minimal at resonance and
of the capacitor from 1-mfd to higher either above or below the re-
.5-mfd, we will also double the re- sonant frequency. The fact that the

14
impedance reaches its minimum at
the resonant frequency of 500 cycles
Curve A
is the reason the current is at maxi- L s100 rnt,
C s1rntd
mum. R s12011

CURRENT IN AMPERES
Varying R.
Curve B
Under certain circumstances, the s100 rnh
C slmtd
total resistance in the circuit may R s10011

be varied. As the resistance in the

circuit is changed, the Q of the cir- Curve C
L 50 mh

cuit changes and the current that C 2 nstd

R • 120

will flow in this circuit changes. In

Fig. 11, we have shown three reson-
ance curves. The curve marked A
is the one we had in Fig. 10 with a o ‘'% 4
.
< 2eee
100-mh coil, a 1-mfd capacitor, and SOURCE FREQUENCY IN CYCLES

a series resistance of 120 ohms. In

the curve marked B, the inductance Fig. 11. How the current varies in a
and capacity are the same, but the series-resonant circuit when F is varied,
series resistance is 100 ohms. and (A) C = 1mid, L = 100 mh, and R =
Changing the resistance has an 120 ohms; (II) C = 1mid. L = 100 mh, and
important effect on the shape of a R = 100 ohms; (C) C =2 mid. L = 50 mh,
resonant curve, as shown in Fig. 11. and R = 120ohms. In each case the prod-
uct of L and C is the same, and resonance
1.2
occurs at 500 cycles.
100 MH.
C 1 MFD.
R 120 SI With a high-Q circuit, which is ob-
1.0
tained when the resistance of the
circuit is low, we have a very sharp
curve. This means that we will get
a much higher current flow at the
resonant frequency of the circuit
than we will get at afrequency either
slightly above or slightly below the
resonant frequency. However, with a
low-Q circuit, we have a broad
curve. This means that we can vary
.2 the frequency quite abit either above
RESONANT
or below the resonant frequency
FREQUENCY
1 I without causing a very great change
o
o o in the current that will flow in the
§ §§ circuit.
0 0 0
0 0 0 o o
CV CI

SOURCE FREQUENCY IN CYCLES The effect of resistance on a

4.1>
series-resonant circuit is impor-
tant. Sometimes a series-resonant
Fig. 10. flow current varies in a series- circuit may be used to select one
resonant circuit when C = 1mid, L - 100 frequency and reject all others. Ob-
mh, H = 120 ohms, and F is varied from 0 viously, if we have a high-Q cir-
to 1000 cycles. cuit it will do a much better job of

15
selecting one frequency and reject- shown in Fig. 2, why can we
ing others than a low-Q circuitwill. not simply add the voltage
However, there are other instances across the coil and the voltage
when we are interested in selecting across the resistor to find the
a band of frequencies rather than one total circuit voltage?
particular frequency. In this case, (d) The impedance of a circuit is
a low-Q series-resonant circuit is given as Z =50 +j50; what does
used rather than a high-Q circuit the jmean?
which might not select the entire (e) In an RC circuit, which part
band or group of frequencies in which will have the greater voltage
we are interested. across it?
The curve marked C in Fig. 11 is (f) In a series-resonant circuit,
the one we would obtain with a50-rnh how will the phase of the volt-
coil, a 2-rnfd capacitor and aseries age across the various com-
resistance of 120 ohms. Compare ponents compare with the
this curve with curve A. Notice that phase of the current flowing in
curve A is considerably sharper the circuit?
than curve C. The ratio of the in- (g) What do we mean by the Q of
ductance to the capacity is called a coil? .
the L to C ratio. In a series-reso- (h) When a coil and a capacitor
nant circuit a high L to C ratio will are connected in series, and
give you a sharper resonance curve the frequency of the voltage
than a low L to C ratio. applied to them is varied, at
what point will the current
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
flowing in the circuit reach
(a) What is a resonant circuit? its maximum value?
(b) What do we mean when we say (i) What effect on the current
that the current flowing in the flowing in a series-resonant
circuit in Fig. 1 is 1 amp? circuit will reducing the re-
(c) In a circuit such as the one sistance in a circuit have?

16
 Parallel-Resonant Circuits
When the source voltage for are- and another voltmeter across the
sonant circuit is supplied across the resistor.
coil and capacitor (that is, in parallel In this type of circuit you can
with them), as in Fig. 12, we have a notice immediately that the current
being supplied by the generator is
very low. In addition, the voltage
across the resistor is very low and
nearly the entire source voltage ap-
pears across the resonant circuit.
The fact that the current flowing
in the circuit is low immediately
Fig. 12...1 parallel-resonant circuit. points out one important fact -- if
the current flowing in the circuit
parallel-resonant circuit. In a par- is low, the impedance of the circuit
allel-resonant circuit, as in a must be high. In fact, this is the
series-resonant circuit, the induc- case; one of the most important
tive reactance of the coil is exactly characteristics of a parallel-re-
equal to and cancels the capacitive sonant circuit is that at the reso-
reactance of the capacitor. This is nant frequency it acts as a high-
essentially where the similarity be- value resistance. Notice that this
tween the two types of resonant cir- is just the opposite of a series-
cuits ends. In most respects, apar- resonant circuit: at resonance a
allel-resonant circuit acts in the op- series-resonant circuit acts as a
posite way to aseries-resonant cir- low resistance.
cuit. Let's investigate the charac- The fact that the parallel-resonant
teristics of this type of resonant circuit acts like a high resistance
circuit and see why it performs as explains why most of the source volt-
it does. age appears across the resonant cir-
cuit and very little voltage appears
CIRCUIT CURRENT across the 12 0-ohm resistor. The
AND IMPEDANCE
E
In Fig. 13 we have shown a par-
allel-resonant circuit connected in
series with a 120-ohm resistor
across a 12 0-volt, 500-cycle gen-
erator. The coil has an inductance
of 100 mh and the capacitor has a
capacity of 1 mfd. All the conditions
are as they were when we studied
the series-resonant circuit. We have
connected an ammeter in series with Fig. 13. In a parallel-resonant circuit, the
the resistor and the parallel-re- current supplied by the generator is low,
sonant circuit, a voltmeter across and most of the generator voltage appears
the coil and capacitor combination, across the resonant circuit.

17
120 volts supplied by the generator the inductive branch. The fact that
is simply divided between the resis- the currents I. and 12 are 180° out
tor and the resonant circuit, with of phase means that the capacitor
most of the voltage appearing across is discharging during one half cycle
the higher resistance. Now let's while the coil stores up electrical
study the parallel-resonant circuit energy. During the next half cycle
in detail to see why it acts like a when the coil is releasing the elec-
high value resistance. trical energy it has stored, the ca-
Since the coil and capacitor in the pacitor is charging. When the re-
parallel-resonant circuit are con- actance of the coil is equal to that
nected in parallel, there are two of the capacitor, as it will be at
paths or branches through which resonance, the energy stored by the
current can flow. We call the path capacitor equals the energy released
with the capacitor in it the capaci- by the coil; and during the other half
tive branch, and the one with the of the cycle, the energy stored by the
inductance in it the inductive branch. coil equals the energy released by
If we connect an ac ammeter in each the capacitor.
branch of the parallel-resonant cir- Thus the coil and the capacitor
cuit as shown in Fig. 14, we will dis- pass current back and forth to each
cover that although we have a very other inside the resonant circuit.
low current being supplied by the The actual amplitude of the current
generator, we have a very high cur- will depend upon the amount of re-
rent in each branch of the resonant sistance in the circuit. You know
circuit. You might wonder how this that the coil will have some resis-
could be, but if we consider each tance, and in addition, the leads con-
branch separately we can see what necting the coil and capacitor to-
is happening. gether have some resistance. How-
First, in a capacitive circuit we ever, because the resistance is usu-
know that the current leads the volt- ally kept quite low there can be a
age by 90° ;in an inductive circuit very high current flowing back and
the current lags the voltage by 90 ° . forth between the coil and the capa-
Therefore, the current flowing in citor.
the capacitive branch will be 180° out The fact that there is resistance
of phase with the current flowing in in the circuit means that there will
be some energy lost during each
cycle. The very low current being
supplied by the generator actually
replaces the energy lost as heat
because of the resistance in the re-
sonant circuit.
The situation in the parallel-re-
sonant circuit may be compared to
the pendulum of a clock. The pen-
dulum swings back and forth, and
Fig. It Although the current supplied by the current does essentially the
the generator is low, the current flowing same thing; it flows out of the coil
in each branch of a parallel-resonant cir- into the capacitor and then back from
cuit is high. the capacitor into the coil. If the

18
pendulum in a clock were swinging capacitive currents are equal to each
freely, it would lose energy each other and opposite in phase. The net
oscillation due to friction and each result is zero current. Since the
arc would be smaller than the pre- current is zero, the circuit acts as
vious one; finally, it would come to a high resistance. The current sup-
rest. In a parallel-resonant circuit plied to a parallel-resonant circuit
the current will flow back and forth by the generator will be in phase
and get smaller each cycle and even- with the generator voltage. The
tually drop to zero unless some out- actual resistance of the parallel-
side energy is supplied to it. The resonant circuit can be obtained by
mechanical drive in the clock sup- measuring the voltage across it and
plies the energy to the pendulum dividing it by the current supplied
to keep it swinging; in the resonant by the generator. This effective re-
circuit, the generator across the sistance is known as the resonant
circuit supplies the energy to make resistance of the circuit.
up the losses in the circuit. Once the There is a resonant voltage step-
action of the current flowing back up in aseries-resonant circuit. This
and forth in aparallel-resonant cir- is not the case, however, in a par-
cuit has started, it will continue for allel-resonant circuit since the coil
a number of cycles until all the and the capacitor are connected in
energy is used up in the resistance parallel. The current flowing be-
in the circuit. Similiarly, the pen- tween the coil and the capacitor is
dulum of a clock will swingback and much higher than the current sup-
forth for a number of cycles once it plied by the generator. Therefore,
is started in motion even if no ad- we have a resonant current step-up
ditional energy is supplied to it. in a parallel-resonant circuit. In a
The situation we have found in the high-Q circuit of the latter type ,the
parallel-resonant circuit exists at current flowing back and forth may
all times when a coil and capacitor be many times the line current.
are connected in parallel in an ac
circuit. One feeds energy or current VARYING II, L, C, AND F
back into the circuit while the other
draws current. Therefore, the cur- Varying R.
rent supplied by the generator at You will remember that all coils
any instant will be the difference have a certain amount of resistance
between the two currents. When the which gives the effect of a resistor
reactances are equal, as they are at connected in series with the coil.
resonance, then this current be- This resistance can be changed by
comes the minimum current needed changing the size of the wire used
to make up the losses in the parallel- to wind the coil while at the same
resonant circuit. Because the cur- time keeping the inductance of the
rent does drop to a minimum value coil constant.
at resonance, the parallel-resonant If we use a circuit like the one
circuit acts like a resistor of high shown in Fig. 15 to study the effect
ohmic value and reduces the line of varying the resistance in series
current supplied by the generator to with the coil, we will find that with
a very low value. the resistance set at a minimum,
At resonance, the inductive and the coil current is equal tothe capa -

19
 R. there will be very little energy lost
12 Oil
each cycle and the back and forth
action of the current may continue
for a large number of cycles.
Varying C.
In the parallel-resonant circuit
with a 100-millihenry coil, we will
obtain resonance at 500 cycles when
the capacity in parallel with the coil
is 1 mid. The line current will be
minimal at this point.
If we set R to zero and try differ-
ent values of capacitors in parallel
Fig. 15. Increasing R will increase the with the coil, recording the line cur-
line current, which means that the reso- rent for each capacitor, we could
nant resistance of the resonant circuit obtain the data to plot a curve like
has decreased. the one shown in Fig. 16. Notice
that at resonance the line current
citor current, and that the line cur- drops to a low value. When the ca-
rent is very low. If we increase the pacity is less than 1 mfd, the cur-
value of the resistance R, the coil rent rises until it is about .35 amp
current will decrease slightly and at zero capacity. Under these cir-
the capacitor current will remain cumstances, with no capacity in par-
the same, but the line current will allel with the coil, the current flow-
increase. This means that the reso- ing in the circuit will be limited by
nant resistance of the parallel-re- the inductive reactance of the coil
sonant circuit must decrease in and the amount of resistance in the
order for the line current to in- circuit.
crease. From this we can see that
the lower the coil resistance in a
parallel-resonant circuit, the higher
the resonant resistance and the
LINE CURRENT IN AMPERES

8
lower the line current will be.
We mentioned earlier that once
the current starts flowing back and RESONANCE
forth in a parallel-resonant circuit,
4
it will continue for a number of
cycles even though the generator L.100 MH
2 f
voltage may be removed. How R.0
quickly the current flowing in the
circuit drops to zero depends upon o
Ci o
the resistance in the circuit. If the 3 x
N
resistance in the circuit is high, the
energy in the circuit will be dis- CAPACITY OF C

sipated quickly in the resistor and

the current will drop to zero in a Fig. 16. How the line current varies when
few cycles. On the other hand, if the the capacity of the capacitor in aparallel-
resistance in the circuit is very low, resonant circuit is varied.

20
 When the capacity is reduced to
zero, we have a circuit like the one 6

in Fig. 2. However, as capacity is

LINE CURRENT IN AMPERES

Curve A
L •100 m4

placed in parallel with the coil, the 5 C •1 old

R1.0

line current begins to drop until 4

R •0

finally at resonance it is practically

zero.
As the capacity is increased be-
RESONANT
yond 1 mfd, its reactance decreases, FREQUENCY
so you will find that the capacitor
current will start to increase, the R •0

line current will increase, and the O

FREQUENCY IN CYCLES
coil current will remain essentially
unchanged. Here the increase in line
Fig. 17. How the line current varies when
current is due to the fact that the ca-
the frequency is varied in a parallel-reso-
pacitor current becomes greater
nant circuit.
than the coil current and hence part
of the capacitor current must be we will find that we have an effect
drawn from the line. somewhat similar to the effect of
When the capacity is less than that changing the value of the capacitor.
required for resonance, the increase The line current will be increased
in line current is due to the fact that when the inductance is made either
the coil current is greater than the too large or too small for resonance.
capacitor current and part of the If the inductance is below the value
coil current must be drawn from the needed for resonance, the circuit
line. will act exactly as it did when too
It is interesting to note that when low a capacity was used; when the
the capacity in the circuit is .5 mfd, inductance is too high for resonance,
the current is considerably higher the circuit will act as it did when
than it was when the circuit was at the capacity was too high.
resonance. This is because the ca- Varying F.
pacitive reactance in the circuit is In Fig. 17 we have a graph that
considerably higher than the induc- shows how the line current will vary
tive reactance. If the frequency ap- as the frequency applied to the re-
plied to the circuit were increased, sonant circuit is changed, if both
the inductive reactance would in- resistors are set at zero. If we
crease, and the capacitive reactance started with 0 cycles, which is dc,
would decrease. By increasing the we would have a very high current.
frequency by the correct amount, we At this frequency there would be no
could eventually reach the point current through the capacitor, and
where the inductive reactance would the inductive reactance of the coil
be equal to the capacitive reactance would be zero. The only thing limit-
of the .5 mfd capacitor; once again ing the current flow in the circuit
we would have resonance. would be the resistance of the coil
Varying L. and of the leads used to connect it
If we put different coils in the cir- to the voltage source. However, as
cuit, while at the same time keeping the frequency applied to the circuit
the source frequency at 500 cycles, increases, the line current drops

21
until at 500 cycles the current is to zero much more sharply than the
practically zero. As the frequency curve for the 100 mh coil and the 1
is increased beyond resonant fre- mfd capacitor. We say that curve B
quency, the current will increase is sharper than curve A. Curve A
slowly.'nie increase in line cur- was obtained with one LC ratio: a100
rent is due to the drop-off in the mh coil and a1mfd capacitor. Curve
capacitive reactance of the capaci- B was obtained with another LC
tor. Current flowing through the ratio: a 10-mh coil and a 10-mfd
coil will continue to decrease as the capacitor. The LC ratio for curve
frequency is increased, because the A is higher than the LC ratio for
inductive reactance of the coil will curve B. A low LC ratio gives a
increase with the frequency. sharp curve. This is an important
At a frequency below the resonant thing to remember.
frequency of the circuit, most of the A low LC ratio is essential if a
current flows through the coil, and parallel-resonant circuit is to be
hence the parallel-resonant circuit used to separate signals having
acts as a coil. Right at resonance nearly the same frequency (for ex-
the circuit acts as a very high re- ample, in radio receivers where sta-
sistance, and above the resonant tions operating on frequencies close
frequency the current flowing together must be separated). If the
through the capacitor will be great- resonant curve is sharp, we can tune
er than the current flowing through in the desired signal and reject the
the coil; hence, the resonant circuit undesired signals. However, if the
will act as a capacitor. resonant curve is broad, as the curve
The curve marked A in Fig. 17 marked A in Fig. 17, it will be diffi-
represents an inductance of 100 mh cult to separate the undesired
and a capacity of 1 mfd. This cir- signals from the desired one.
cuit is resonant at 500 cycles, be- The Q of a coil is another factor
cause the inductive reactance of the that will effect the sharpness of the
coil is equal to the capacitive react- resonance curves. A high-Q coil
ance of the capacitor at this frequen- will yield a much sharper response
cy. However, if we reduce the in- curve than a low-Q coil.
ductance to 10 mh and increase the In a series-resonant circuit, we
capacity to 10 mfd, we will again obtain a sharp response curve with
have a situation where the inductive a high LC ratio. We have the opposite
reactance is equal to the capacitive situation in a parallel-resonant cir-
reactance at 500 cycles. In other cuit, however: we obtain a sharp
words, a 10-mh coil will form a curve with a low LC ratio.
parallel-resonant circuit with a 10
mfd capacitor at a frequency of 500 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
cycles. The curve we would obtain
by varying the frequency of the volt- ) How do you distinguish be-
age applied to the parallel-resonant tween a series-resonant and
circuit made up of the 10-mh coil a parallel-resonant circuit?
and the 10-mfd capacitor is repre- (k) What does aparallel-resonant
sented by curve B in Fig. 17. Notice circuit act like at resonance?
that the current rises much faster (1) Does the generator supply a
on both sides of resonance and drops current of high value or of

22
 low value to a parallel-reso- (o) Will increasing the resistance
nant circuit? of the coil in a parallel-re-
(m) In circuits such as the one sonant circuit cause the gen-
shown in Fig. 13, why will the erator current to increase or
voltage across a 120-ohm re- to decrease?
sistor be small? (p) If a parallel-resonant circuit
(n) Does a current of high value is used in a radio receiver to
or low value flow in the coil select one signal and reject
and capacitor in a parallel- others, do you want a high LC
resonant circuit? ratio or a low LC ratio?

Comparison of Series-Resonant
And Parallel-Resonant Circuits
Series-resonant and parallel-re- site, so that at resonance it acts
sonant circuits are found in every as a very high resistance and the
radio and TV receiver and in many line current flowing through it will
other pieces of electronic equip- be at its lowest value.
ment. Resonant circuits are used in
receiving equipment to separate the RESONANCE CURVES
stations operating on different fre-
quencies and in transmitting equip- In Fig. 17 you saw that we used a
ment in conjunction with vacuum small inductance and a large capa-
tubes and/or transistors to gen- city to obtain a sharp resonance
erate radio frequency signals. curve with a parallel-resonant cir-
The chart shown in Fig. 18 com- cuit. This gave us a low LC ratio.
pares and summarizes the import- For a sharp resonant curve in a
ant characteristics of series-reso- series-resonant circuit you should
nant and parallel-resonant circuits. use a high LC ratio; in other words,
Notice that in many cases a series- you should use a large inductance
resonant circuit is the exact opposite and a small capacity. This is simply
of a parallel-resonant circuit. Per- another example of the difference
haps the most important character- between series-resonant and par-
istics of the two types are the re- allel-resonant circuits. As a tech-
sistance at resonance and the cur- nician you will not be called upon
rent at resonance. A series-reso- to design a series-resonant or a
nant circuit acts as alow resistance parallel-resonant circuit, but the
at resonance and the current flowing more you understand about the cir-
through it will be at its maximum cuits the better you will be able to
value. On the other hand the parallel- maintain the equipment for which you
resonant circuit is exactly the oppo- may be responsible.

23
 SERIES-RESONANT CIRCUITS PARALLEL-RESONANT CIRCUITS

I. The coil, the capacitor and the AC voltage 1. The coil, the capacitor and the AC voltage
source are all in aeries. source are all in parallel.

2. Resonance occurs when the reactance of I. 2. Resonance occurs when the reactance of I.
is equal to the reactance of C. is equal to the reactance of C.

3. At resonance. source current is a masinium 3. At resonance, source current is a minimum

(very high). (vary low).

4. At resonance, a series resonant circuit acts

4. At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit acts
like is resistor of lom ohmic value. like a resistor of high ohmic valise.

5. At resonance, the voltage, across L and C 5. At resonance, the voltages across L, C and
are equal in magnitude hut 180 degrees out the source are all the same in magnitude
of phase with each other.
and phase.

6. At resonance, the same current flows through 6. At resonance, the currents through L and
the entire circuit.
C are essentially equal in magnitude but are
180 degrees out of pilau.
7. At resonance, the voltage across either L
or C may be greater than that of the source,
7. At resonance, the current through either
giving resonant voltage step-up.
L or C is greater than the source current,
giving resonant current step-up.
8. At resonance, increasing the value of coil
resistance R lowers the circuit current. 8. At resonance, increasing the value of coil
thereby lowering the resonant voltage step-up. resistance R increases line current, thereby
lowering the resonant current step-up.
9. Off resonance, the circuit acts like that part
which has the higher reactance. 9. Off resonance, the circuit acts like that part
which has the lower reactance.
a. Increasing C above its at-resonance value
makes the circuit act like a coil. a. Increasing C above its at-resonance value
makes the circuit act like • capacitor.
b. Reducing C helnw its at-resonance velue
makes the circuit act like a capacitor. b. Reducing C below its at-resonance value
makes the circuit act like a coil.
c. Increasing L above he at-resonance value
makes the circuit act like a coil. o Increasing L above its at-resonance value
makes the circuit act like a capacitor.
d. Reducing L below its at-resonance value
makss the circuit act like a capacitor. d. Reducing L below its at-resonance value
makes the circuit act like a coil.
e. Applying a higher frequency than the reso-
nant one makes the circuit act like a coil. e. Applying a higher frequency than the
resonant one makes the circuit act like
f. Applying a lower frequency than the reso- a capacitor.
nant one makes the circuit act like e
capacitor. f. Applying a lower frequency than the reso-
nant one makes the circuit act like a coil.
The product LC is constant for any given
resonant frequency. 10. The product LC is constant in any given
resonant frequency.

Increasing L or increasing C lowers the II. Increasing L or increasing C lowers the

resonant frequency.
resonant frequency.

Decreasing L or decreasing C raises the 12. Decreasing L or decreasing C reises the

resonant frequency. resonant frequency.

The Q factor of the circuit is essentialls 13. The Q factor of the circuit is essentially
equal to the coil reactance divided by the equal to the coil reactanoe divided by the
AC resistance of the oeil. AC resistance of the coil.

Fig. 18. Comparison of series-resonant and parallel-resonant circuits.

24
 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN a number of small generators con-
SERIES AND PARALLEL- nected in series with the various
RESONANT CIRCUITS turns of the coil, and the coil might
look like Fig. 19E.
Sometimes, it is not easy to dis- Thus, the voltage induced in the
tinguish between a series-resonant coil is actually applied in series
and a parallel-resonant circuit. In with the turns of the coil rather than
Fig. 19A we have shown a series- in parallel with the coil and the ca-
resonant circuit. A series-resonant pacitor and could be represented by
circuit is a resonant circuit in which Fig. 19D (which is the same as Fig.
the source voltage has been applied 19A). Therefore, the secondary of
to the coil and capacitor in series. the transformer shown in Fig. 19C
There is no doubt that this is a is a series-resonant circuit and not
series-resonant circuit. a parallel-resonant circuit.
In Fig. 19B we have shown a par- You will run into this type of
allel-resonant circuit. The parallel- double-tuned circuit in many pieces
resonant circuit is a resonant cir- of electronic equipment. It is often
cuit in which the source voltage has used between two stages in a radio
been applied to the coil and capaci- receiver or a television receiver as
tor in parallel. Again, it is easy to shown in Fig. 20. Here the primary
see that this is a parallel-resonant is connected between the plate of one
circuit. tube and B+. The secondary is con-
Fig. 19C shows two resonant cir- nected between the grid and the cath-
cuits that again look like two par-
allel-resonant circuits. Here, the
secondary is inductively coupled to
the primary. Let's look at the pri-
mary first. The voltage source is
applied to the coil and capacitor in
parallel; there is no doubt that the
PRIMARY SECONDARY
primary is in a parallel-resonant
circuit. But how about the second-
ary? Since the coil and capacitor are
connected in parallel you might jump
to the conclusion that this is a par-
allel-resonant circuit, too. Actually,
this has no bearing--how the voltage
is applied to the circuit determines
whether the circuit is aseries-reso-
nant or parallel-resonant circuit. e
The voltage is induced in the
secondary. Actually, some voltages
Fig. 19. . 3t series-resonant circuit is
are being induced in each turn of the
shown at A, and a parallel-resonant cir-
coil and they act as if they are con- cuit is shown at II. In the primary of
nected in series, so that the total the transformer and the capacitor across
voltage induced in the secondary is it form a parallel-resonant circuit, and
the sum of the voltages induced in the secondary of the transformer and its
each turn. We can compare this to capacitor form a series-resonant circuit.

25
 tween the grid and cathode of V2 will
be considerably greater than the
voltage between the plate and ground
of Vi.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

(q) Explain the difference between

Fig. 20. The primary of T1 is a parallel- the current flowing in the coil
resonant circuit, but the secondary is a and capacitor in a series-re-
series-resonant circuit. sonant circuit and the current
ode of the second tube. The tube flowing in the coil and capa-
marked VI really acts as a genera- citor in a parallel-resonant
tor and supplies the ac signal across circuit.
the primary of the transformer. A (r) Explain the difference between
signal is induced in series with the the voltage across the coil and
secondary winding, because the sec- capacitor in aseries-resonant
ondary is inductively coupled to the circuit and the voltage across
primary. Because the coil and ca- the coil and capacitor in a
pacitor in the secondary form a parallel-resonant circuit.
series-resonant circuit, there is a (s) What is the difference between
high current flow with resulting re- the generator current in a
sonant voltage step-up so that this series-resonant circuit and
stepped up voltage is applied between in aparallel-resonant circuit ?
the grid and the cathode of V2. (t) How can the voltage across the
The resonant voltage step-up that coil or capacitor in a series-
occurs in the secondary winding of resonant circuit be greater
TI is quite important. Actually, the than the source voltage?
primary and secondary windings of (u) What happens if we increase
Ti will have the same number of the value of inductance or ca-
turns in most cases. Therefore, you pacitance in a resonant cir-
would expect the voltage induced in cuit?
the secondary to be approximately (v) Will the voltage across the
equal to the voltage across the pri- coil or the capacitor in a
mary. This is what would happen if high-Q series-resonant cir-
we simply had a transformer in the cuit be greater than the volt-
circuit. However, since there are age across the coil or capa-
capacitors across each coil and citor in a low-Q series-re-
since each circuit is aresonant cir- sonant circuit?
cuit we have the resonant voltage (w) Reducing L below its at-re-
step-up which occurs in the second- sonance value in a series-
ary winding due to the high current resonant circuit makes the
flowing in the series-resonant cir- circuit act as a capacitor;
cuit. Thus, there is actually a reducing L below its at-re-
step-up in voltage occurring in the sonance value in a parallel-
transformer even though the turns- resonant circuit makes the
ratio may be one to one. This means circuit act as a coil. Explain
that the signal voltage available be- why this happens.

26
How Resonant Circuits Are Used
Resonant circuits have many ap- signals picked up by the antenna
plications. In this section of the les- cause a current to flow through the
son we will look into some of the primary winding Li of Ti. Ti is
more common uses of resonant cir- called an antenna coil or transformer
cuits in radio and TV. These uses because the signals from the antenna
are important because they demon- are applied to this coil. The second-
strate how resonant circuits are ary L2 of Ti is inductively coupled
used to select one signal from a to the primary so that the current
number of signals of different fre- flowing in Li sets up a magnetic
quencies. field which cuts L2 and induces a
voltage in it. Remember that when
SELECTING A DESIRED a voltage is induced in a coil in this
SIGNAL way, there is a certain amount of
voltage induced in each turn of the
The antenna connected to a radio coil. The voltage induced in the coil
or a TV receiver picks up signals acts like a number of generators
from a large number of radio and connected in series with the coil.
TV stations. Even the antennas in- Thus L2 and capacitor Cl form a
stalled especially for television re- series-resonant circuit at some fre-
ceivers will pick up acertain amount quency within the broadcast band.
of signal from radio broadcast-band Notice the symbol used for the
stations. This happens even though capacitor Cl. This symbol indicates
the antenna is designed for operation that the capacitor is variable. Thus,
on a much higher frequency than by changing the setting of Cl, the
that of the broadcast-band station. frequency at which the combination
Therefore, some means must be of L2 and Cl is resonant can be
provided inside the receiver to changed.
select the desired signal and reject Let us suppose that the antenna
the unimportant one. Resonant cir- is picking up two signals of equal
cuits are used for this purpose. amplitude or strength, one having
In Fig. 21 we have shown the in- a frequency of 500 kc and the other
put circuit of a radio receiver. The having a frequency of 800 kc. If the
combination of Cl and L2 is reso-
ANTENNA
nant at 800 kc (CI and L2 thus form-
ing a series-resonant circuit), there
T VI
will be ahigh 800-kc current through
L2 and Cl, with resultant step-up
voltages appearing across L2 and Cl.
These voltages are applied between
the grid and the cathode of V1 to be
amplified by this tube.
GROUND At the same time there is a500- kc
signal being picked up by the an-
Fig. 21. The input circuit of a typical tenna. This will flow through the
radio receiver. primary of transformer Ti and will

27
induce a certain voltage in L2. Since receiver the signal is picked up by
the combination of L2-C1 is not the antenna and fed to a stage called
resonant at 500 kc, the impedance a mixer or first detector. Here, the
of this series circuit will be much signal is mixed with a signal gen-
higher at 500 kc than it was at 800 erated by the oscillator stage. The
kc. This means that the 500-kc cur- two signals mixed together produce
rent flowing through the series cir- two new signals, one equal to the
cuit will be low so that voltage de- sum of the two frequencies and the
veloped across L2 and across Cl by other equal to the difference of the
this current will be low. Therefore, two. Both new signals contain the
the 500-kc signal applied between modulation on the original signal.
the grid and the cathode of Vi will In a superheterodyne receiver we
be much lower in amplitude than the use the difference-frequency signal.
800-kc signal. Thus, although one In the output circuit of the mixer
resonant circuit is not able to reject stage we use a transformer called
the 500-kc signal completely, the an intermediate frequency trans-
amplitude of this signal (when ap- former (usually abbreviated as an
plied between the grid and the cath- i-f transformer). This transformer
ode of VI) is lower than the ampli- is tuned to resonance at the differ-
tude of the desired 800-kc signal ence frequency. One or more am-
that is applied to this tube. plifier stages (called i
-f amplifiers)
Better selectivity can be obtained are used to amplify the difference
in a receiver by using several re- signal. I-F transformers are used
sonant circuits. If each circuit is between the mixer and the various
tuned to the desired frequency, the stages in the i -f amplifier and be-
difference in signal strength between tween the last i -f amplifier stage
the desired and the undesired signals and the stage called the second de-
will become greater. If enough re- tector. The latter separates the
sonant circuits are used the only audio or picture signals from the rf
signal actually heard in the output carrier. Resonant circuits are used
of the receiver will be the signal in i-f transformers.
from the desired station. The schematic of a circuit used
I-F Transform ere. between the mixer and first i -f stage
Most modern radio and television in a superheterodyne receiver is
receivers use the superheterodyne shown in Fig. 22. The tube marked
principle. In the superheterodyne VI is the mixer; the tube marked
V2, the i-f tube.
You have already seen this type
VI I I TI V2
of circuit earlier in the lesson. You
know that the primary of Ti is a
parallel-resonant circuit because
the tube acts as a generator and
applies the signal in parallel with
the resonant circuit. This parallel-
B+
resonant circuit acts as a high re-
sistance at the resonant frequency
Fig. 22. Coupling between the mixer and and the voltage developed by the
the i-f tube in asuperheterodyne receiver. tube will be high. At frequencies

28
 formers like the one shown in Fig.
23. The selectivity of two transfor-
CAPACITORS mers in conjunction with the selecti-
vity obtained in other circuits will
make the receiver selective enough
1111113...
so that it will pick up the desired
signal even in the crowded broad-
lam/
cast band and in most cases reject
the signals from undesired sta-
COILS tions.
High-Frequency Circuits.
In some high frequency applica-
tions you might find a circuit like
Fig. 23. The inside of an i
-f transformer. the one shown in Fig. 24. The symbol
beside the coil indicates that the coil
other than the resonant frequency, has a slug which can be adjusted in
the primary circuit of Ti does not and out of the coil. This will change
act as a high resistance; as a the inductance of the coil.
matter of fact, it acts as a fairly Although no capacitor is shown
low impedance, so the voltage de- in the circuit, the circuit is actually
veloped at these frequencies by VI a parallel-resonant circuit. The tube
is low. has a certain capacity between plate
The primary of Ti is inductively and ground, and this capacity will be
coupled to the secondary winding so in parallel with the coil.At high fre-
that the secondary circuit is a quencies this capacity, along with
series-resonant circuit. Again at the coil, is all that is neededto form
the resonant frequency, a high cur- a resonant circuit. Circuits of this
rent flows and there is considerable type are frequently found in tele-
resonant voltage step-up across the vision receivers.
coil and across the capacitor. These In some applications the coil may
stepped-up voltages are applied be- consist of less than one turn of a
tween the grid and the cathode of flat ribbon-type material such as
the i-f stage.
A typical i-f transformer is shown
in Fig. 23. Notice that the two coils
are placed near each other so that
the primary and secondary are in-
ductively coupled together. At the
top of the transformer are two
trimmer capacitors. The adjusting
screws on these capacitors can be
reached through holes in the top of
the i-f transformer can or shield
and can be adjusted for exact reso-
nance after they have been installed
in the circuit. Fig. 24. Coil l in the plate circuit of VI
A modern superheterodyne re- along with the circuit capacities form a
ceiver uses at least two i
-f trans- parallel-resonant circuit.

29
shown in Fig. 25. This type of coil
is used in UHF TV circuits and al-
though the inductance in the cir-
cuit is extremely small, due to the
fact that the circuit must operate
at several hundred megacycles,this
inductance is all that is required.
As a matter of fact, in resonant cir-
Fig. 26. A low-pass filter.
cuits designed for UHF operation,
the problem is not in getting the
needed inductance and capacitance, pass through it with little or no at-
but rather in keeping the inductance tenuation, which means weakening of
and capacitance low enough to pro- signals above this specific fre-
duce resonance at the ultra-high quency. For example, if a low-pass
frequency desired. filter is designed to pass frequen-
cies below 10 megacycles, it will
pass all frequencies from zero
cycles per second, which is dc, up
to 10 mc with little or no opposition.
However, a signal with a frequency
of 15 mc, or 25 mc, or in fact any
frequency above 10 mc, will en-
counter a great deal of opposition
in going through the filter.
Fig. 25. A single turn of flat ribbon is all High-Pass Fillers.
the coil that is needed in UHF circuits. A high-pass filter is designed to
cut off all frequencies below a cer-
HOW DIFFERENT TYPES tain frequency and allow signals
above this frequency to pass through
OF FILTERS ARE USED with little or no attenuation. A
schematic of a typical high-pass
Another important use of resonant filter is shown in Fig. 27.
circuits is in the design of filters. High-pass filters are often used
There are three different types of on TV receivers to eliminate inter-
filters that you are likely to en- ference from stations operating on
counter as a technician. The ex- frequencies below the television
planation of exactly how each type channel. High-pass filters designed
works is rather complex, and since for this purpose are available com-
you need not know how each type of mercially.
filter operates, we will not go into
an explanation here. However, it is
•1•1

important that you know how the dif-

ferent types of filters are used.
INPUT • OUTPUT
Low-Pass Filters.
In Fig. 26 we have shown a sche-
matic diagram of a low-pass filter,
which is a filter that will allow sig-
nals below a certain frequency to Fig. 27. A high-pass filter.

30
Mand-Pass Filters. Resonant circuits are used in radio
Another type of filter is shown in and TV receivers to select one de-
Fig. 28. This type of filter, called sired signal and reject others. Both
a band pass filter, allows a certain series-resonant and parallel-reso-
band of frequencies to pass through nant circuits are used in the input
it with little or no attenuation but stages of a receiver. They are also
offers considerable opposition to used between the mixer and 1-f
signals above and below the fre- stages and between the 1-f stage and
quency of the band to be passed. the second detector.
Resonant circuits are used in fil-
ters. A low-pass filter is a filter
which will pass frequencies below
a certain frequency with little or no
INPUT OUTPUT
attenuation but offers high atten-
uation to signals above this fre-
FT
1 quency. A high-pass filter is a fil-
ter that will offer little or no at-
Fig. 28. A band pass filter. tenuation to signals above a certain
frequency, but offers high opposition
For example, if aband pass filter or attenuation to signals below this
is designed to have a band width of frequency. A band pass filter will
2 megacycles, and the center of the pass a certain band of frequencies,
pass band is 10 megacycles, then but attenuate signals either above or
the band pass filter will pass fre- below the band of frequencies which
quencies from 9 mc to 11 mc with it is designed to pass.
little or no attenuation. However,
a signal having a frequency of 7mc, SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
which is below the pass band, or a
signal having a frequency of 15 mc, (x) Is the resonant circuit made
which is above the pass band, will up of Cl and 12 in Fig. 21 a
encounter considerable opposition series-resonant circuit or a
going through the band pass filter. parallel-resonant circuit?
(y) What is a low-pass filter?
SUMMARY (z) What is a high-pass filter?
In this section of the lesson we (aa) What is a band pass filter?
have covered a few of the most im- (ab) What type of circuit is used
portant uses of resonant circuits. in making up filters?

31
 RC Circuits
Another type of circuit that is ex- various stages. An RC coupling cir-
tremely important in electronics cuit used between two tubes is shown
work is the RC circuit, so called be- In Fig. 29A and an RC coupling cir-
cause it contains resistance and ca- cuit used between two transistor
pacity. There are several types of stages is shown in Fig. 29B. The
RC circuits. purpose of the coupling circuit in
An RC circuit is used as acoupling each case is to pass the signal from
circuit. This type of circuit is de- one stage to the other without chang-
signed to pass a signal through it ing the shape of it; at the same time
without changing the shape of the the circuit keeps the operating volt-
signal. Circuits of this type are used ages from one stage out of the fol-
where an ac signal is mixed with do. lowing stage.
RC coupling circuits are widely used Another type of RC circuit is de-
in the audio sections of radio and signed specifically to change the
television receivers between the shape of the signal applied to it.
This type of circuit is used because
the signal being fed through the RC
circuit may be used to control the
following stage. The shape of the sig-
nal may not be the best possible
shape to control the stage; by means
of a suitable RC circuit, the shape
of the wave can be altered. In this
section we will study both coupling
and wave-shaping circuits, and you
will see what they look like, how they
work, and where each type is found.

RC COUPLING CIRCUITS

You will run into RC circuits most

frequently between stages where
they are used to feed the signal from
one stage to the next. Typical RC
coupling circuits are shown in Fig.
29. The RC coupling circuit in both
cases consists of Cl and Rl. These
are the two components that you will
be most concerned with in deter-
mining the characteristics of this
type of circuit.
The tube VI in Fig. 29A and the
transistor Q1 in Fig. 29B act essen-
Fig. 29. 1W coupling circuits used be- tially like an ac generator in RC
tweentube and transistor stages. coupling circuits. One end of re-

32
sistor 112 is connected to the tube cathode of V2 in Fig. 29A and be-
in A and to the transistor in B. The tween the base and emitter of the
other end is connected to the power transistor in Fig. 29B.
supply. However, as far as the ac Capacitor Cl and resistor R1 are
signal is concerned the end of 112 in series and they form a voltage
which is connected to the power sup- divider network. Part of the voltage
ply is in effect connected to ground, developed across 112 will be dropped
because there is a large capacity across Cl and part of it across Rl.
in the power supply output connected The more voltage there is across R1
between B+ and ground. This capa- the more voltage we have avail-
citor is so large that it has a very able to drive the second stage. It is
low reactance at all signal frequen- therefore important that the react-
cies. Therefore the first stage, ance of Cl be kept as low as possible
which is VI. in Fig. 29A and Q1 in in comparison with the resistance of
Fig. 29B, supplies the voltage to re- Rl. However, regardless of how
sistor 112. The resistor acts like it large the capacitor Cl is, its react-
is connected between the tube or ance will eventually become high
transistor and ground. enough at some low frequency so that
An equivalent circuit of the coup- an appreciable part of the voltage
ling network is shown in Fig. 30. developed across R1 is lost across
Here we have represented the tube Cl. At some frequency the reactance
or transistor as a generator with of Cl will be equal to the resistance
R2 connected across it. Notice that of Rl. When this situation occurs
Cl and R1 are connected in series 70.7% of the voltage appearing
with each other and this combination across 112 will be present across
is connected in parallel with the re- Rl. You might expect only 50% of the
sistor 112. The purpose of the coup- voltage to appear across Rl. How-
ling network C1-R1 is to feed the ever, 70.7% is correct because the
signal that is across 112 to the fol- voltage across R1 is not in phase
lowing stage, V2 in Fig. 29A and Q2 with the voltage across Cl. If the
in Fig. 29B. If the reactance of Cl frequency is made still lower, then
is low enough, it will act as a short the percentage of voltage appear-
circuit at signal frequencies so R1 ing across R1 will be lower.
will in effect be connected in paral- When the voltage across Rldrops
lel with 112. When this situation to 70.7% of the generator output, the
exists, all the voltage available at current flowing through R1 will be
the generator output will appear only 70.7% of the maximum it would
across Rl. In other words the volt- be with the full voltage across Rl.
age appears between the grid and When the voltage and current across
R1 drop to 70.7%, the power across
CI R1 will decrease to 50%. This point
is called the "half-power "point. The
amplifier is considered satisfactory
in most cases as long as the output
does not drop below this point.
Since Cl and R1 form a voltage
Fig. 30. The equivalent circuit of the RC divider network, we can keep the
coupling network shown in Fig. 29. frequency at which the reactance of

33
Cl becomes a problem to a fairly objectionable, but in high-fidelity
low value by making R1 as large as equipment and in TV equipment, this
possible. In the tube circuit shown type of distortion must be kept at a
In Fig. 29A, R1 is called agrid leak. minimum if satisfactory results are
Its value is relatively unimportant to be obtained.
and a comparatively large resistor For the present the important
can be used. Therefore, even with a thing you should remember is that
fairly small capacitor for Cl, the an RC coupling circuit has a long
resistance of R1 does not have much time constant. Remember that ca-
importance except at very low fre- pacitor Cl and resistor R1 are in
quencies. On the other hand, making series, but that at mot frequencies
R1 too large will upset the operating the reactance of Cl is so low com-
voltages in the transistor in the cir- pared to the resistance of R1 that it
cuit shown in Fig. 29B. In fact, the acts as a short circuit and can be
transistor itself affects the circuit ignored. However, at very low fre-
so that there is a maximum value quencies the reactance of this ca-
resistor that can be used; it is much pacitor is appreciable. We will dis-
lower than that used in the tube stage. cuss this situation in more detail
The capacitor Cl must be of amuch when you study vacuum tubes and
higher capacity in the transistor amplifiers.
circuit than in the tube circuit to
keep its reactance from becoming
high enough to drop an appreciable
percentage of the voltage. INPUT OUTPUT

Capacitor values from .01 mfd to

.05 mfd are typical in tube circuits
such as in Fig. 29A. In transistor Fig. 31. An HC differentiating circuit.
circuits the value of Cl will often
be 10 rnfd or more. RC DIFFERENTIATING
The importance of avoiding this CIRCUITS
voltage division can be seen if you
consider what happens to signals of Differentiating circuits are found
different frequencies when they are in TV receivers and in many other
amplified by the amplifier. If a sig- pieces of electronic equipment. Fig.
nal voltage of 1volt and afrequency 31 shows a circuit of this type --
of 1000 cycles appears across R2, al- notice that it looks like a coupling
most the full 1 volt will appear circuit. However, the latter has a
across Rl. But, at afrequency of 100 long time constant, whereas a dif-
cycles, somewhat less than 1 volt ferentiating circuit has a short time
will appear across R1; at a fre- constant. Because differentiating
quency of 10 cycles, even less will circuits are normally used with
appear across Rl. This means that pulses, you should know that apulse
the amplifier will not amplify sig- is a variation of a quantity whose
nals of different frequencies equally. value is normally constant.
When this situation exists, we say Fig. 32A illustrates a typical sine
we have frequency distortion. In the wave. Remember that the voltage
average radio receiver, a small starts at zero, builds up to a maxi-
amount of frequency distortion is not mum and drops back to zero.

34
 The capacitor must discharge
when the pulse drops from its peak
amplitude at point 2 to zero. At the
instant the applied voltage pulse dis-
appears the capacitor is charged,
although there is no longer a pulse
across it. Then it starts to dis-
charge through the resistor and a
high current flows through the re-
o sistor. Instantly, there is a high
voltage across it. The current flows
in the opposite direction from that
Fig. 32. A single cycle of a sine wave
in which it flowed while the capa-
is shown at A, and agroup of .three pulses
citor was charging, so the pulse
is shown at B.
appears in the opposite direction.
As the capacitor becomes dis-
A series of three positive-going charged, the current flowing drops
pulses is shown in Fig. 32B. Notice gradually to zero so that the voltage
that the signal voltage is zero, jumps appearing across the resistor also
instantly to its maximum value at drops to zero.
point 1, remains constant from point The reaction of a differentiating
1 to point 2, and finally drops to circuit to a series of pulses is shown
zero again at point 2. Let's see what in Fig. 33. At A we have shown the
will happen if a pulse of this type is pulse and below it at B the output
fed to a differentiating circuit such voltage that will be obtained across
as the one in Fig. 31. the resistor as the pulse varies to
The value of R and of C in the dif- a maximum and drops back to zero
ferentiating circuit are chosen with again.
a short time constant so that the ca-
pacitor charges and discharges
quickly. As the leading edge of the o
pulse (which we have marked as 1)
hits the capacitor there is an imme-
diate current flow through the re-
sistor to charge the capacitor. Since
the capacitor has no charge on it
at this instant, the current flow as
well as the voltage developed across Fig. 33. Input and output signals applied
the resistor will be high. As the to a differentiating circuit.
pulse maintains its constant value,
the capacitor charges rapidly, the Differentiating circuits work in
current flowing in the capacitor de- this way because they have a short
creases and the voltage developed time constant. The capacitor is able
across the resistor falls off. Finally, to charge and discharge rapidly, and
the capacitor is fully charged, no therefore a double-pointed pulse as
additional current is flowing and the shown in Fig. 33 is obtained when a
voltage across the resistor drops pulse is applied to the input of this
to zero. type of circuit.

35
 RC INTEGRATING SUMMARY
CIRCUITS
In this section of the lesson you
A typical RC integrating circuit is found that RC circuits can be used
shown in Fig. 34. Notice that the in several ways. They can be used
parts are connected in a way oppo- as coupling circuits to feed a signal
site from that in which they were from the plate of one tube to the grid
connected in the differentiating cir- of the next tube. When they are used
cuit, and that a long time constant in this way the purpose is to pass
rather than a short time constant the signal from one tube to the other
is used. without distorting or changing it in
any way.
•---"AWA
RC circuits are also used as dif-
INPUT OUTPUT
ferentiating circuits. A differentia-
ting circuit is acircuit that develops
• a sharp positive and negative pulse
Fig. 34. An integrating circuit. from a single pulse. If the pulse sup-
plied to the circuit is a positive-
Fig. 35 illustrates the action of going pulse, which is what we call
an integrating circuit. The capa- the pulse shown in Fig. 32B, then the
citor begins to charge as the first output will be a positive pulse fol-
pulse strikes the circuit; it starts lowed by a negative pulse. If the in-
to discharge after the first pulse put signal is a negative-goingpulse,
passes but does not discharge com- then the output will be asharp nega-
pletely before the second pulse ar- tive pulse followed by a sharp posi-
rives due to the long time constant. tive pulse.
After the second pulse the capacitor An integrating circuit is a circuit
starts to discharge again until the that has a long time constant and
third pulse arrives --then it charges adds together a number of separate
still further. An integrating circuit pulses to produce one large pulse in
is thus able to sum up or add a series the output.
of pulses to give one pulse in the
output. Integrating as well as differ- SELF-TEST
entiating circuits are used in TV re- QUESTIONS
ceivers and in many other pieces of
electronic equipment. (ac) What is the purpose of an RC
coupling circuit?
o (ad) Is the reactance of the coupling
capacitor likely to become a
problem at high, low, or medi-
um frequencies?
(ae) What do we mean by the half-
power point?
(af) What do we mean by frequency
distortion?
(ag) What is a differentiating cir-
Fig. 33. Integrating circuit action on a cuit?
series of pulses. (ah) What is an integrating circuit ?

36
 LOOKING AHEAD will occur if you wait until later
lessons to trace circuits on complex
In this lesson you have seen how diagrams.
resistors, coils, and capacitors are ANSWERS TO
used together to form a number of
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
different types of circuits. By this
time you have probably realized the (a) A resonant circuit is one in
importance of these three compon- which the inductive reactance
ents. Before leaving this lesson it cancels the capacitive react-
is worthwhile to stop and consider ance.
the fact that we have all three of (b) We mean that the rms value
these quantities in every circuit. or the effective value of the
Even a piece of straight wire has ac current flowing in the cir-
a certain amount of resistance, a cuit is 1amp. The ac current
certain amount of capacity between would have the same heating
it and nearby objects, and also a effect as 1 amp of dc. Rem-
small amount of inductance. If the ember that an ac current actu-
frequency of the signal running ally drops to 0 twice each
through the wire is high enough, cycle and reaches peak values
even these small amounts of resis- approximately 1.4 times the
tance, capacity, and inductance may effective or rms value.
be large enough to merit considera- (c) We cannot add the voltages be-
tion. cause they are not in phase.
We have brought up this point now The voltage across the resis-
because you will soon be working on, tor will be in phase with the
repairing, and replacing circuits in current, whereas the voltage
equipment which operates at very across the coil will lead the
high frequencies. Because the re- current by 90 ° .We must add
sistance, capacity, and inductance in these two voltages by means
circuits operating at these high fre- of vectors.
quencies is so important, replace- (d) In the expression "j50", the j
ment parts should be put as closely indicates a reactive compon-
as possible in the position occupied ent; the 50 (for ohms) repre-
by the original part. sents a reactance rather than
In the following lesson you will a resistance. The plus sign
study additional components that will in front of the jmeans that the
be important in your electronics reactance is inductive. A mi-
career: vacuum tubes, transistors, nus sign in front of the jin-
complete stages and signals. You dicates capacitive reactance.
will also learn how the value of (e) The voltage across the parts
parts used in a circuit affects the in an RC circuit will depend
performance of the stage. upon the parts themselves. If
There are a number of schematic the reactance of the capacitor
diagrams in this lesson. If you study is greater than the resistance
carefully the diagrams which appear of the resistor then the volt-
in earlier lessons, complex dia- age across the capacitor will
grams in later lessons will not pre- be greater than the voltage
sent a problem for you. Difficulties across the resistor. On the

37
 other hand, if the resistance (J) The distinction between a
of the resistor is higher than series-resonant circuit and a
the reactance of the capacitor, parallel-resonant circuit lies
the voltage across the resistor in the way in which the volt-
will be greater than the volt- age is applied to the coil and
age across the capacitor. the capacitor. If it is applied
(f) Across the resistor the volt- to the coil and the capacitor
age will be in phase with the in series, the circuit is se-
ries-resonant; if it is applied
current; across the coil it
will lead the current by 90° ; to the coil and the capacitor
across the capacitor it will in parallel, the circuit is par-

lag the current by 90° . allel-resonant.

(g) The Q of a coil is equal to the (k) A high value resistance.
inductive reactance of the coil (1 ) The generator connected a-
divided by the resistance of the cross aparallel-resonant cir-
coil. It is indicative of the cuit will supply a current of
worth of the coil, which is sup- low value because the high re-
posed to have inductive react- sistance of this type of cir-
ance with little or no resist- cuit limits the current which
ance. Since the coil is wound can flow.
with wire, however, it will (m) The voltage across the re-
have some resistance. The sistor will be small because
coil will act more like a re- the resistor is in series with
sistor as this resistance in- the parallel-resonant circuit.
creases. Therefore, a high-Q Most of the voltage will be
coil is better than alow-Q coil. dropped across the higher re-
sistor. A parallel-resonant
(h) The current will reach its
maximum value when the in- circuit has a very high resist-
ance at resonance and most of
ductive reactance of the coil
the voltage will be dropped
cancels the capacitive react-
across it. Consequently,there
ance of the capacitor. When
this happens we have aseries- will be very little voltage
across the 120-ohm resistor.
resonant circuit.
(i) Reducing the resistance in a (n) In a parallel-resonant circuit,
a high value current flows in
series-resonant circuit will
the coil and in the capacitor.
cause the current flowing in
These two currents are 180°
the circuit to increase. A
out of phase. Energy stored
higher resonant voltage will
appear in turn across the coil in the capacitor flows out of
and the capacitor. The voltage the capacitor into the coil,
which appears across the re- where it is stored, and then
sistor will remain the same flows from the coil back into
because the increase in cur- the capacitor. This back-and-
rent will be counteracted by forth flow of current reaches
the reduction in resistance. a very high value.Even though
Thus, the entire generator the current actually supplied
voltage will appear across the by the generator is low, it is
resistor. enough to make up for losses

38
 in the resonant circuit due to (s) The generator current in a
resistance in the coil and in series-resonant circuit will
the wires connecting the coil be very high because this cir-
and the capacitor together. cuit acts as a low resistance.
(o) Increasing the resistance of The generator current in a
the coil in a parallel-reso- parallel-resonant circuit will
nant circuit causes the gen- be very low because this cir-
erator current to increase. cuit acts as a high resistance.
More losses occur as aresult (t) The inductive reactance of the
of increased resistance, and coil in a series-resonant cir-
the generator supplies more cuit cancels the capacitive
current to make up for these reactance of the capacitor.
losses. Therefore the only factor that
(p) A low LC ratio gives asharper limits current flow in the cir-
curve such as curve B in Fig. cuit is the resistance in the
17. This type of curve is re- circuit. This results in avery
quired in order to select one high current flow. The current
station and reject another. A flowing through the coil and
broad curve such as curve A through the capacitor pro-
of Fig. 17 would be unsuitable duces a voltage drop across
because stations operating these components which will
close to the desired station be equal to the product of the
would not be rejected. current times the reactance
(q) In a series-resonant circuit of the particular part. This
the same current flows in the product may be greater than
coil and in the capacitor. As the source voltage. The volt-
a matter of fact, since the age across the coil and across
generator, resistance, coil the capacitor are 18C? out of
and capacitor are all in series phase so that they cancel each
in a series-resonant circuit, other and the entire generator
the same current must flow voltage will appear across the
through all these components. resistance in the circuit.
On the other hand, in a par- (u) Increasing the value of L or
allel-resonant circuit the cur- C in aresonant circuit will re-
rent through the coil and capa- duce the resonant frequency.
citor are essentially equal in (v) Yes, the voltage across the
magnitude, but they are 180° coil and capacitor in a high-
out of phase. Q series-resonant circuit will
(r) In a series-resonant circuit, be greater than the voltage
the voltage across the coil across the coil and capacitor
will be equal to but 180° out in a low-Q series-resonant
of phase with the voltage circuit. This is due to the fact
across the capacitor. In a that a higher current will flow
parallel-resonant circuit the in a high-Q circuit which, all
coil and capacitor are con- other factors being equal,will
nected in parallel and the volt- produce a greater voltage a-
age across the two will there- cross the coil and across the
fore be the same. capacitor.

39
(w) When we reduce L below its designed to pass all signals
at-resonance value in a se- above a certain frequency and
ries-resonant circuit, the in- reject signals below that fre-
ductive reactance will be less quency.
than the capacitive reactance. (aa) A bandpass filter is a filter
Therefore the net reactance in designed to pass acertain band
the circuit will be capacitive - of frequencies with little or no
in other words the inductive attenuation. It will reject or
reactance cannot completely offer considerable opposition
cancel out the capacitive re- to frequencies above and below
actance. It will subtract from the band it is designedto pass.
it but there will still be ca- (ab) Various combinations of se-
pacitive reactance left over, ries-resonant and/or paral-
and the circuit will act as a lel-resonant circuits are used
capacitor. The current flowing in making up filters.
through the circuit will lead (ac) An RC coupling circuit is used
the voltage. On the other hand, to transfer a signal from one
when we reduce L below its stage to another without chang-
at-resonance value in a par- ing the shape of the signal.
allel-resonant circuit, the in- (ad) At low frequencies.
ductive reactance will be less (ae) The half-power point is the
than the capacitive reactance frequency at which 70.7% of
and more current will flow the voltage appears across
through the lower reactive the resistor in an RC coupling
branch. The net result will be circuit. At this frequency the
that the capacitive current current will also have dropped
cannot completely cancel out to 70.7% of its maximum value
the inductive current. There- so that the power will be down
fore, the circuit will act as 50% of its maximum value.
inductance and the voltage will (af) Frequency distortion occurs
lead the current. when the amplifier does not
(x) The resonant circuit is a se- amplify equal signals of dif-
ries-resonant circuit because ferent frequencies.
the voltage is induced in series (ag) A differentiating circuit is an
with the turns of 12. There- RC coupling circuit with a
fore, the voltage is applied in short time constant. A circuit
series with the coil and the ca- of this type will produce sharp
pacitor. spikes in the output which can
(y) A low-pass filter is afilter de- be used for controlling stages
signed to pass signals below in a TV receiver.
a certain frequency and reject (ah) An integrating circuit is acir-
all signals above that frequen- cuit with a long time constant
cy. that will build a series of
(z) A high-pass filter is a filter pulses up into a single pulse.

40
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B108.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers
too long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than
two sets at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can
reach you.

1. What determines whether a resonant circuit is aseries-resonant or a

parallel-resonant circuit?

2. What is the impedance of a series-resonant circuit having the fol-

lowing component values: R =25 ohms, XL =200 ohms, Xc =200 ohms ?

3. What do we mean bythe resonant voltage step-up in a series-resonant

circuit?

4. In which type of series-resonant circuit will the resonant voltage step-

up be the greatest: (a) a high-Q circuit, (b) a low-Q circuit? Why?

5. What part does a parallel-resonant circuit act like at resonance?

6. What is meant by the resonant current step-up in a parallel-resonant

circuit?

7. Which one of the following parts does a parallel-resonant circuit act

like below the resonant frequency: (a) a resistor (b) a coil (c) a ca-
pacitor?

8. Compare the following characteristics of series and parallel circuits

at resonance: (a) resistance at resonance, (b) current at resonance.

9. What is the difference between an RC coupling circuit and an RC

differentiating circuit?

10. What is the purpose of an integrating circuit?

 YOU HAVE AN AIM IN LIFE
When you enrolled as a student member of the
National Radio Institute, you took the first step on
your road to success and happiness. You now have
a goal for yourself -- you have an aim in life -- you
are looking forward to the sort of work you like, the
sort of income you want, and the respect and admira-
tion of your friends.
Keep your goal in mind. Never forget it for a
moment. Of course you will have your moments of
discouragement -- we all have. But if you make a
thorough search for the cause of your discourage-
ment, you will most likely find that you ate some-
thing which did not agree with you, or were kept
awake last night by the neighbor's dog.
Whenever you are tempted to neglect your studies,
say to yourself: "I have a goal to reach and I'm going
to reach it." Think how unhappy you would be if
you did not have this goal. There is nothing as pathetic
as a rudderless ship or a man without an aim in
life.
Here's to success and happiness -- your goal.

q .e----,,---./
P a rj rii
i
II a l
e i
Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
• III il Continuing Education School 139-LT-208
 '

TRANSFORMERS,

IRON-CORE CHOKES,

fiijulr AND RELAYS

*r iii1 I
B109
•

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

TRANSFORMERS, IRON-CORE
CHOKES, AND RELAYS

B109
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

1. Introduction Pages 1-2

A brief picture of the three magnetic devices you will study in
this lesson is given here.

2. Magnetic Circuits Pages 3-9

Here you learn how magnetic quantities are measured, and you
study magnetic saturation and iron-core losses.

3. Iron-Core Power Transformers Pages 10 -17

In this section you study losses in transformers, turns-ratios of
transformers, and power losses.

4. Transformers for Specific Application Pages 18 -26

You study audio, rf, i
-f, and autotransformers.

5. Iron-Core Chokes Pages 27 -31

You study the electrical and physical characteristics of chokes,
and learn how they are used.

E 6. Relays Pages 31 -36

The relay is an electric switch. You study several different
types.

• 7. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 36 -40

• 8. Answer the Lesson Questions.

• 9. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

JDL3M1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 TRANSFORMERS, IRON-CORE
CHOKES, AND RELAYS

In this lesson we will take up three cuits to connect a device of one im-
very important parts which all op- pedance to a device of another im-
erate on magnetic principles; these pedance. An example of this is the
are: transformers, iron-core chokes output transformer in a radio re-
and relays. ceiver, which is used to couple the
Transformers. low-impedance speaker to the higher
You already have an idea of how impedance output tube or transistor
important transformers are. Trans- that drives the speaker. If it were
formers are used on ac power lines not for the transformer it would be
either to step-up or to step-down the difficult to get enough power from
voltage. They are used in electronic the tube or transistor to drive the
equipment to supply the high voltage speaker.
needed to operate the plates of the Transformers are also used in
various tubes in the equipment and television receivers to transfer the
to supply the low voltage to heat the power from the sweep circuits to
tubes. They are used in transistor- the deflection yoke. The deflection
ized equipment to reduce the power yoke is used around the neck of the
line voltage to the voltage required picture tube to move the electron
by the transistors. beam over the face of the picture
Transformers have uses other tube to reproduce the television pic-
than supplying electric power. They ture. If it were not for transformers,
are used in coupling circuits to it would be difficult to get the power
transmit an audio signal from one needed into the deflection yoke to
stage to another. They are also used move the beam over the face of the
in what are called "matching" cir- picture tube.

1
Iron-Core Chokes. to protect circuits. This type is
Iron-core chokes are found most adjusted so that if the current flow-
frequently in power-supply equip- ing through it exceeds acertain val-
ment. Chokes are used to help ue, the relay will automatically open
smooth the pulsating de found at the the circuit, thus protecting the de-
output of a rectifier into pure, vice from an overload.
ripple-free dc. When chokes are Another type of relay is called a
used for this purpose, they are called time-delay relay. This kind of relay
"filter" chokes because they "filter" is often found in electronic equip-
the ripple or hum out of the pulsating ment where it is important for the
de. You will see later that this is heaters of the various tubes to have
possible because the reactance of an time to heat before the high plate
iron-core choke is much higher than voltage is applied to the tube. This
the de resistance. type of relay is energized when the
Relays. equipment is turned on. After apre-
There are several types of relays determined time, the relay operates,
that you are likely to meet in your closes the circuit, and applies plate
electronics career. One type of re- voltage to the tubes in the equipment.
lay is nothing more than a form of Since the parts we'll study are all
automatic switch. The relay can be magnetic devices, before we look
made either to close or to open the into any of them, we will review
switch when power is applied to it. what you have already learned about
There are also other types of re- magnetic circuits and learn some
lays; for example, some are used additional facts about these circuits.

2
 Magnetic Circuits
As we learned previouslywhenwe ampere-turn. If the coil had two
studied magnetic circuits, we can turns, then the magnetomotive force
compare them with electric circuits. would be 2 ampere-turns, and if a
The force that drives the flux through current of 2 amperes flows through
a magnetic circuit is the magneto- a two-turn coil, the magnetomotive
motive force. This force can be com- force will be 4 ampere-turns.
pared to the electromotive force that The ampere-turn is an entirely
drives current through an electric satisfactory term for use in ex-
circuit. The flux that is driven pressing the magnetomotive force of
through the magnetic circuit resem- an electromagnet. However, it is not
bles the current that is driven suitable for use with permanent
through an electric curcuit. magnets, and for this reason, an-
The opposition to the flux through other unit of magnetomotive force
the circuit can be compared to re- is used. This unit is the gilbert. The
sistance in an electrical circuit, and gilbert is slightly smaller than the
is called reluctance. ampere-turn. To convert ampere-
turns to gilberts, you multiply the
MAGNETIC UNITS number of ampere-turns by 1.25.
The magnetomotive force is the
There are units set up to meas- total force acting throughout the
ure many of the quantities encoun- length of the entire magnetic circuit.
tered in magnetic circuits. It is not Sometimes we want to express the
important for you to remember these magnetic force in terms of the mag-
units, so do not try to memorize netomotive force per centimeter.
them. We are presenting them here, (The centimeter is a metric unit of
however, so that you will have seen measurement. There are about 2.5
these terms and will have an idea centimeters in an inch.) It may be
of what they are when you run into given as gilberts per centimeter.
them in the future. After you have Then, if the length of the magnetic
completed your NRI course, you will circuit is six centimeters and the
have to keep abreast with new de- magnetomotive force per centimeter
velopments. In reading the litera- is 10 gilberts, the total magneto-
ture on new developments in the motive force would be 60 gilberts.
electronics field, it is quite possible The magnetomotive force per centi-
that you will run into many of these meter is called the magnetic force
terms. or the magnetizing force.
Units of Magnetomotive Force. Units of Flux.
The magnetomotive force is ex- Previously when we were dis-
pressed in terms of ampere-turns. cussing magnetic flux we simply
If a current of 1 ampere flows referred to the number of lines of
through a coil having one turn, the flux. However, there is a term used
magnetomotive force developed is 1 for this purpose and it is the max-

3
well. One line of flux is equal to one numerical value of 1. If the per-
maxwell. If you have a hundred flux meability of a magnetic material is
lines, then the strength of the flux is 2, a magnetomotive force applied to
100 maxwells. Another unit is the it will produce twice as many flux
ldlomaxwell, which is equal to 1000 lines as the same force applied to
maxwells. air. If we say the permeability of a
Another term that you will encoun- certain magnetic material is 100, we
ter is flux density. The flux density mean that if the magnetomotive force
tells you how many maxwells or lines applied to this material was applied
of flux pass through a given area. to air, and it produced one line or one
Flux density could be expressed in maxwell In air, then it would produce
terms of maxwells-per-square- 100 flux lines or 100 maxwells inthe
inch, or it could be expressed in material.
terms of maxwells-per-square
centimeter. A flux density of 1max- MAGNETIC SATURATION
well or one line per square centi-
meter is known as a gauss. Thus One very important thing you
if we say that the flux density is 100 should know about magnetic circuits
gausses, we mean that there are 100 is that they can be saturated. This
Lines for each square centimeter of means that they reach a point where
a cross-sectional area. If you had a all the possible lines of force exist,
magnet that was 3 x 5 centimeters, and increasing the magnetomotive
the total cross-section of the area force applied to the circuit will not
would be 15 square centimeters. If produce any further increase in flux.
the flux density is 100 gausses,then Now let's see how this can happen.
the total number of lines flowing A magnetic material such as iron
would be 15 times one hundred or is actually made up of millions of
1500 maxwells. small molecules. A molecule is a
Units of Reluctance. tiny particle made up of a combina-
There is no unit of reluctance. tion of two or more atoms. Each of
Engineers and technicians are more these molecules is actually a small
concerned with the permeability of permanent magnet having a north
a material, which you might say is pole and a south pole. When there is
the opposite of reluctance. It is the no magnetomotive force applied to
ability of the material to conduct the material, the molecules are ar-
magnetic flux. It is similar to con- ranged in a helter-skelter fashion
ductivity in an electric circuit, which as shown in A of Fig. 1. You will
is the ability of the material to con- notice that the magnets in this ma-
duct an electric current. terial are pointing in all directions;
There is no unit of permeability. there is no general organization so
The permeability of magnetic mate- that all the north poles point in one
rials is rated according to how much direction and all the south poles point
better the material conducts mag- in another.
netic flux than air does. The per- Let's see what happens if we apply
meability of air and all other non- a magnetomotive force to this mate-
magnetic materials is given the rial. This can be done by winding a

4
 cules are already aligned; therefore,
it would be impossible to line any
more of them up and get more flux.
Thus, there would be no point in in-
creasing the magnetomotive force.
PARTLY As a matter of fact, saturation is a
AGNET-
IZED condition to be avoided in most cases
and if the current is increased be-
yond the amount needed to align all
the molecules, some very undesir-
able results may occur.
Saturation is sometimes referred
to simply as saturation; other times
Fig. 1. How the molecules in a material it is referred to as "core saturation"
line up as magnetomotive force is applied. because the magnetic material is
Each molecule is like a tiny magnet. usually the core of some device. The
magnet may be used as the core of
coil around the material and passing a transformer or achoke. Only mag-
a current through the coil. If the cur- netic materials can be saturated;
rent is strong enough to partly mag- an air core cannot be saturated.
netize the material, some of the
molecules will line up as shown in
Fig. 1B. Notice in this figure that Ill
there is a general tendency for the
,
uel '
8°N
north poles to point towards the left
•e.
and the south poles to point to the 0 st1E.ET STEEL
right. However, there are a number 1G
eje.'
of molecules that do not follow this ‘•
ei>
u.
Ce4.
general pattern. Some of them are
still not lined up. e e
c

If we increase the current flowing ce

through the coil or if we increase
the magnetomotive force by keeping
the current constant and putting
more turns on the coil, we will
A
eventually reach a point where all
of the molecules are aligned as in
C of Fig. 1. Here all the north poles 1 1,,
point to the left and all the south --
poles point to the right. When this
situation exists, we say that the ma-
terial is saturated. This means that I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
any further increase in the mag- H IN GILBERTS PER CM
netomotive force will not produce
any further increase in flux. You can Fig. 2. B-II curves for different magnetic
see why this is so--all the mole- materials.

5
13-H Curves. However, we are greatly concerned
The characteristics of amagnetic with the action of coils when alter-
material are often represented in nating current flows through them
the form of a curve called a B-H and the effect the ac has on the mag-
curve. B-H curves for several dif- netic circuit. One of the important
ferent materials are shown in Fig. things to consider when dealingwith
2. These curves show the flux den- alternating current is the losses
sity that can be obtained with agiven produced in the iron-core itself.
magnetizing force. Notice that as the Hysteresis.
magnetizing force starts to increase Suppose we apply de to acoil which
in turn produces a certain magnet-
from zero at the left of the graph, the
flux density increases quite rapidly izing force. As the magnetizing force
at first, then apoint is reached whereincreases, the flux density in-
the curve starts to flatten out and itcreases, as shown by the curve A
takes a substantial increase in mag- in Fig. 3, following a curve such as
netizing force to get even asmall in- the B-H curves shown in Fig. 2. At
crease in flux density. Eventually a zero, the material is not magnetized,
point is reached at which the flux and as we increase the magnetizing
density increases no further regard- force, the flux density increases.
less of how much the magnetizing Now suppose we increase the force
force is increased. This is the sat- only up to point 1in Fig. 3, then we
uration point. However, notice on decide that we will not increase the
this graph that the curve for air is current any further, but instead
a straight line. This simply means
that as long as we continue to in-
crease the magnetizing force, the
flux density in air will increase. In
other words, an air core coil cannot
A
be saturated.
DENSITY

Curves of this type are often used

by manufacturers of magnetic mate-
rials to describe the characteristics
FLUX

of these materials. 2

IRON-CORE LOSSES

When we were discussing satura-

tion, we spoke of gradually increas-
o
ing the current flowing through the MAGNETIZING
coil to increase the magnetomotive FORCE

force applied to the material. We

were discussing ade current flowing
through the coil. Even though we in- Fig. 3. Curve showing hysteresis loss in a.
creased the current to show the magnetic material. If there were no loss,
effects of saturation, the current was the curve 1-2 would coincide with the
still flowing in the same direction. curve 0-1.

6
gradually decrease the current flow- EDDY CURRENT
PATHS
ing through the coil, thus reducing
the magnetizing force. As the mag-
netizing force is reduced, the flux
density will decrease. However, in-
stead of dropping back down to zero,
it will follow the curve shown be-
tween points 1 and 2. At point 2, the
Fig. 4. If the core of atransformer is solid
magnetizing force has been removed
as at A, there are many eddy current paths
entirely, but there is still a certain
in it: these can be reduced by making a
amount of flux. To get rid of this
laminated core as at it.
flux, we must actually reverse the
current flowing through the coil. The This flux will cut the turns of the
power that must be applied to bring coil and induce a voltage in it. The
the flux density back to zero repre- flux also cuts the turns of any near-
sents a loss due to the inertia of the by coil and induces a voltage in it,
magnetic circuit. This loss is called and if the circuit to this coil is com-
the hysteresis loss, pronounced plete, this induced voltage will cause
hiss-ter-E -sis. a current to flow through it. If a
Any iron-core device operated transformer is made like the one
from ac will waste part of the power shown in Fig. 4A, there are actually
applied to it in this way. There is no many paths in the core. Each path
way that we can eliminate the hys- acts like a single-turn coil.We have
teresis loss altogether, but the shown two of these paths where a
amount of power lost will depend voltage can be induced which will re-
upon the material used. By the sult in a current flowing. These cur-
proper choices of material, the loss rents are nailed eddy currents and
can be kept to a minimum. For ex- represent a loss.
ample, hard steel retains its mag- The eddy current loss in a trans-
netism and therefore the hysteresis former core can be kept at a mini-
loss in a material of this type would mum by making the core out of thin
be quite high. On the other hand, soft sheets of magnetic material called
iron and silicon steel retain very laminations. The sheets are insu-
little of the magnetism so the hys- lated from each other by a coating
teresis loss in the material of this of shellac or some other non-con-
type is much less than in hard steel. ductive material. The sheets are
For this reason, the iron cores used then stacked as shown in Fig. 4B.
in most transformers and chokes are Eddy current losses cannot be
made of silicon steel. completely eliminated because even
Eddy Current Losses. though the core is made of thin
Another loss that occurs in all sheets, there are still some com-
iron-core devices is known as eddy plete paths present that act like sin-
current loss. gle shorted turns. However, making
You will remember that when a the core of thin laminations reduces
varying current flows through acoil, the eddy current losses to a low
a varying flux is produced in the coil. value.

7
 Both eddy current losses and hys- pletely, because a certain amount of
teresis losses vary with the fre- the flux produced by the primary
quency. If the frequency is in- will travel in a path other than
creased, both losses increase. Thus, through the core.
although these losses do present Flux leakage is important not only
some problem at power-line fre- because it represents a loss in the
quencies, they present an even transformer, but also because the
greater problem at audio frequen- escaping flux lines may cut through
cies, which may extend as high as some nearby part and induce avolt-
15,000 cycles or more. These losses age in it. Thus energy in the trans-
also explain why even laminated former can be unintentionally fed
iron-core transformers are of no into some other part. The amount
value at radio frequencies. The of energy fed back may be high
losses become so high that all of enough to upset the performance of
the energy put into the primary of the equipment.
the transformer would be converted Flux leakage can also present a
into heat due to the eddy current and problem in television receivers.
hysteresis losses. At radio frequen- Flux leaking from a transformer
cisat„magnetic cores are made of can deflect the electron beam in a
finowdered iron 4xed - picture tube and cause distortion
with a binder to hold the _particles in the picture. In color TV receivers
together and insulate them from each flux leakage can actually cause the
Othej:. color picture to break up into three
Flux Leakage Losses. separate pictures of different colors
Unfortunately not all the flux pro- or cause color fringing where ob-
duced by the magnetomotive force jects are outlined in one or more
applied to a magnetic circuit will colors.
flow through the iron core of a de- In designing electronic equipment
vice such as a transformer. Part using transformers, engineers must
of the flux will escape and travel consider the possibility of these un-
through the air surrounding the core. desired effects and try to keep trans-
This flux serves no useful purpose former leakage fields away from
since it leaks out of the core and the picture tube in TV receivers
these flux lines do not cut the turns or other parts in the electronic
of the secondary winding. This loss equipment that could pick up inter-
is referred to as flux leakage loss. ference from the field. In equipment
In a device such as atransformer, where several transformers are
if the magnetic material used in the used, they try to place the trans-
core approaches the saturation formers so that there will be amini-
point, the flux leakage losses become mum of interaction between them.
quite high. Therefore, to keep this SUMMARY
type of loss as low as possible,
transformers are usually designed In this section, you reviewed the
to operate well below the saturation facts you previously learned about
point. However, even then it is im- magnetic circuits. You also learned
possible to eliminate this loss com- some new terms. A unit of magneto-

8
motive force that you will encounter for which we get nothing out of the
is the gilbert and a unit of flux is the secondary. In the next section we will
maxwell. You learned that the mag- study transformers and you'll see
netomotive force is the force sup- the importance of these losses.
plied throughout the entire magnetic
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
circuit. Sometimes the force is ex-
pressed in terms of the magnetomo- (a) What is the gilbert?
tive force per unit length and is (D) What is the unit of magnetic
called the magnetizing force. flux?
The amount of flux produced is (c) What is meant by flux density?
sometimes expressed in terms of so (d) If the cross section area of a
many lines of maxwells for a given magnet is ten square centi-
area. If the unit of cross-section meters and the flux density
area used is the centimeter, and you is ten gausses, what will the
have 1 maxwell per square centi- total number of flux lines flow-
meter, we say the flux density is 1 ing be?
gauss. (e) What is meant by magnetic
It is important for you to remem- saturation?
ber that a magnetic material can be (f) Is magnetic saturation a de-
saturated and that when the satura- sirable condition?
tion point is reached, increasing the (g) How strong a magnetomotive
magnetomotive force will result in force is required to produce
no further increase in flux. saturation in air?
The losses encountered in iron (b) What is a hysteresis loss?
cores are important. The three most (i )What are eddy current losses ?
important losses are hysteresis (J )How are hysteresis losses
loss, eddy current loss, and flux kept at a minimum?
leakage loss. All these losses repre- (k) How are eddy current losses
sent some energy that is being put kept to a minimum?
into the primary of the transformer (1) What are flux leakage losses?

9
Iron-Core Power Transformers
The ability of a varying magnetic Transformers are extremely im-
field to induce a voltage in any con- portant to the electronics technician,
ductor with which it links makes it so let's learn more aboutthem.
possible to transfer power from one
circuit to another without direct wir- POWER LOSSES
ing connections. The device used for
this purpose is called atransformer. In the preceding section of this
In its simplest form a transformer lesson you learned about some of the
is nothing other than two separate losses that take place in magnetic
coils of wire wound on a common cores. These losses, which are the
core or wound in such a way that hysteresis, eddy current, and flux
the coils of wire are placed near leakage losses, are called "core"
each other so that the magnetic lines losses because they are character-
produced by one will cut the other. istic of the magnetic core which is
A power transformer is wound on used in the transformer. However,
an iron-core. The iron-core is usu- there are also other losses intrans-
ally shaped like the core shown in formers.
Fig. 5A. The coils are wound on the The coils making up the trans-
center leg of the core as shown in former are wound of copper wire.
Fig. 5B, one inside the other. The Copper has a very low resistance,
schematic symbol used to identify but nevertheless it does have some,
an iron-core transformer is shown so the current flowing through the
in Fig. 5C. copper wire will encounter oppo-
sition. This means power will be
lost or used in forcing the current
through the coil.
You know that the power is equal
to voltage multiplied by the current;
in other words:

o P=E xl

But from Ohm 's Law we know

that:

E=IxR

Therefore, in the power formula

Fig. 5. The core of a power transformer is we can substitute I x R for E, and
shown at A. The coils are wound on the get
center leg as at B. The schematic symbol
for an iron-core transformer is shown at C. P=IxRxI

10
which is usually written in the form proximately how much power it can
handle.
P = I2R Transformers can be overloaded
if too much power is taken from
The power lost as a result of cur- them. When a transformer begins to
rent flowing through copper wire in overheat it is an indication that it is
a transformer will be equal to the being overloaded. Usually when a
current squared times the resist- transformer is overheated in this
ance of the wire. This loss is usu- way you will notice a dark colored
ally referred to as the "I squared sealing compound or wax lealdng out
R" loss. of the transformer, and often you can
Thus, in a transformer we have smell the varnish and insulation
two groups of losses : the core losses burning.
and the copper losses. These losses An overload of this type may be due
appear in the form of heat. When a to a defect in the transformer itself
transformer is put into operation, it or it may be due to a defect some-
starts to heat up. The transformer where in the equipment that is pulling
will continue to get hotter and hotter excessive current from the trans-
until eventually a state of balance is former. If the transformer itself is
reached where further heat gener- defective, the trouble is usually that
ated by the transformer can be car- two or more turns of the transformer
ried away by the air surrounding the have touched each other so that a
transformer and by the metal chas- short circuit exists and current can
sis on which the transformer is simply flow around inside the trans-
mounted. When this balance is former. When this happens there is
reached, the temperature of the nothing you can do except replace
transformer will stop rising, and the the transformer. However, if the de-
transformer will not get any hotter. fect is in the equipment rather than
The amount of heat that a trans- the transformer, and if you find it
former can dissipate in this way de- and eliminate the defect before op-
pends upon its size. Since a large erating the equipment any more, the
transformer will have a much chances are that the transformer
greater air circulation and will be will once again give satisfactory
mounted on a larger area of the service.
chassis, it can get rid of more heat If the transformer is operated with
than asmall transformer. Therefore an overload, it will eventually get so
a large transformer is capable of hot that the insulation on the copper
handling a larger amount of power wire and on the terminal used to in-
than a small transformer.As amat- sulate one winding of the trans-
ter of fact, the size of the trans- former from another will become
former is usually apretty good indi- overheated. Usually paper is used
cation of the amount of power that it to insulate the various windings on
can handle safely. After you have a transformer. If this paper becomes
worked on electronic equipment for too hot, it becomes charred so that
a while, you'll learn to recognize it is no longer a good insulator, and
from the size of a transformer ap- the windings on the transformer will

11
short together. When this happens, equal to the power input; the dif-
the transformer is no longer usable ference will be only a small per-
because it will draw more and more cent of the total power, and in evalu-
current and it will get hotter and ating the performance of the trans-
hotter and eventually it will blow a former, very little error will be in-
fuse or the copper wire on one of the troduced.
windings will melt so that the wind-
ing opens. TURNS RATIO
Transformers are designed to op-
erate on a specific frequency. In The turns ratio of a transformer
other words, atransformer designed is the ratio of the number of turns
to operate on a 60-cycle power line on one winding of the transformer
will operate best only on a power to the number of turns on the other
line of that frequency. If you operate winding. For convenience we usually
a 60-cycle power transformer on a identify the two windings on atrans-
25-cycle power line or accidentally former as the primary winding and
plug it into a de power line, the the secondary winding or, more
transformer will burn out. A 60- simply, as the primary and the sec-
cycle transformer cannot be oper- ondary. The primary is the winding
ated on a 25-cycle power line. No to which we apply the input power.
transformer can be operated from The secondary winding is the winding
de. A 25-cycle transformer will op- from which we take power. If the pri-
erate on a 60-cycle power line, but mary winding of the transformer has
25-cycle transformers are much 500 turns, and the secondary winding
larger and much more costly to has 100 turns, we say that the trans-
manufacture than 60-cycle trans- former has a turns ratio of 5 to 1.
formers, and therefore it would be This is often written 5:1.1f the pri-
uneconomical to design a trans- mary of the transformer has 100
former for 25-cycle power and then turns, and the secondary 500 turns,
use it on a 60-cycle power line. then we say that the transformer
In spite of the losses we have dis- has a turns ratio of 1 to 5 (1:5).
cussed, a transformer is one of the The ratio of the secondary volt-
most efficient devices you will ever age to the primary voltage will de-
find. Large transformers such as pend upon the turns ratio. If the
those used by the power company secondary winding has five times as
achieve a very high efficiency, usu- many turns as the primary, we can
ally from 98% to 99%. Smaller trans- expect to get five times the voltage
formers such as you will find in elec- from the secondary that we put into
tronic equipment usually operate at the primary. Similarly, if the sec-
an efficiency of somewhere between ondary has only half as many turns
95% and 98%. As far as the tech- as the primary, then we can expect
nician is concerned, this high effi- to get half the voltage across the
ciency means that in many cases secondary that we put into the pri-
you can ignore the transformer mary. If we get more voltage out of
losses. You can consider the power the secondary than we put into the
output of the transformer as being primary, the transformer is called

12
a "step-up" transformer, and if we ply the losses within the transformer
get a lower voltage out of the sec- itself.
ondary than we put into the primary, Consider what happens when the
then the transformer is called a primary of the transformer is con-
"step-down" transformer. nected across the power line, but
In expressing the turns ratio of a there is no load connected across
transformer, manufacturers and the secondary. Under these circum-
technicians do not always give it as stances, the secondary power is
the ratio of the primary turns to the zero. Therefore, the primary does
secondary turns. If a transformer not have to supply any power to the
has 100 turns on the primary and secondary, and the power it will con-
200 turns on the secondary, the turns sume for this purpose will also be
ratio is 1:2. However, sometimes zero. The only power that the pri-
this turns ratio is given as 2:1, step- mary will consume from the power
up. This tells you the transformer line will be the power to make up
is a step-up transformer which the core losses and a very small
means there are more turns on the copper loss. Thus ,when the primary
secondary than on the primary and of atransformer is connected across
the secondary has twice as many the voltage source and there is no
turns as the primary. load connected to the secondary, the
Power Consumption. transformer draws very little power
One of the things that makes a from the voltage source. Under these
transformer so useful is that it is circumstances, the transformer is
basically a self-regulating device. very inefficient because all the
By this we mean it takes no more power it is consuming is being
power from the power line to which wasted. However, as we load the
it is connected than is needed to sup- secondary, these losses remain al-
ply the power demanded from the most constant and as the secondary
secondary. In other words, if we begins to use power, the primary
connect a load across the trans- power increases until when the
former secondary and this load con- transformer is being operated at its
sumes 50 watts, then the power rated power, its efficiency reaches
drawn from the power line by the a very high value.
primary will be 50 watts. Similarly, Because the primary power de-
if we connect a 100-watt load across pends upon the secondary power, the
the secondary, then the power drawn actual current that will flow through
from the power line by the primary the primary of a transformer will
will be approximately 100 watts. The depend upon the load connected to
primary will draw approximately the the secondary. Ignoring the core and
power required in order to furnish copper losses, if we have a 10 to 1
the demands of the secondary. We step-down transformer connected
say approximately, because there across a 100-volt power line, the
are losses in the transformer itself, voltage available at the secondary
and the primary will draw the power will be 10 volts. The turns ratio de-
needed to supply the secondary termines the ratio of the primary to
power plus the power neededto sup- secondary voltage. The ratio of the

13
current flowing in the prirnary to the vary. If the impedance of the pri-
current flowing in the secondary also mary winding remained constant,
depends on the turns ratio, but it then the current flowing through the
works in the opposite way. If we con- transformer primary would be con-
nect a load across the secondary that stant for any given primary voltage.
draws a current of 1amp, then the However, since the current does
power taken from the secondary will vary, then the impedance must vary.
be 10 volts times 1amp, which equals This it does, in fact, and the actual
10 watts. To supply 10 watts, the impedance of the primary depends
primary, since the voltage across it upon the impedance connected
is 100 volts, needs only 1/10 of an across the secondary. This is caused
amp and therefore this is the cur- by the fact that when the impedance
rent that it will draw from the power across the secondary varies, the
line. If we increase the load across current as well as the power de-
the secondary and pull 100 watts manded from the secondary will
from the secondary, then the current vary. The primary current and the
flowing in the secondary must be 10 impedance will also vary in turn.
amps, because with a voltage of 10
volts, it will take a current of 10 TYPICAL POWER
amps to supply 100 watts. Under TRANSFORMERS
these circumstances, the primary
again will pull the power needed from Many pieces of electronic equip-
the power line to supply this 100 ment that you will service will use
watts. This means that the primary power transformers. Power trans-
current will be 1amp. formers serve a number of useful
Now notice what our situation is. purposes. First, by using a power
Here we have a step-down trans- transformer it is possible to have
former with a 10-to-1 turns ratio. available a number of different op-
This transformer steps the voltage erating voltages other than the single
from 100 volts down to 10 volts. How- voltage available directly from the
ever, the current acts in the opposite power line. Furthermore, the power
way. The secondary current is transformer isolates the equipment
higher than the primary current. The from the power line. This is a big
secondary current will actually be advantage because one side of most
10 times the primary current if we power lines is grounded. If you ac-
ignore the transformer losses. cidentally come in contact with any
Therefore in a step-down trans- grounded object and some of the cir-
former, the current is stepped up cuits of the electronic equipment
and similarly in a step-up trans- or the metal chassis of the equip-
former where the voltage is stepped ment at the same time, it is pos-
up, the current is stepped down. sible to get a severe shock from
Since the current drawn from the electronic equipment that does not
primary will vary as the loading on use a power transformer.
the secondary of the transformer The power transformer found in
varies, this means that the imped- modern electronic equipment has a
ance of the primary winding must primary winding and one or more

14
 A full-wave rectifier is arectifier
that rectifies both halves of each
cycle. This winding is a stepup
winding and is used to provide
a voltage somewhat higher than that
available from the power line to op-
erate the plates of the various tubes
in electronic equipment. Voltages of
250 to 350 volts are found in most
circuits of modern radio and TV
receivers; much higher voltages are
found in transmitting equipment and
in other pieces of industrial elec-
tronic equipment.
The winding marked L3 is astep-
down winding. This winding is used
to provide the filament voltage to
operate the filament of the rectifier
tube, which is used to change the ac
RED to pulsating de. The windings marked
L4 and L5 are also low-voltage wind-
L2 RED-YELLOW ings. These windings are used to
BLACK
provide the heater voltage required
RED
L by the various tubes in the equip-
YELLOW
BLACK L3 YELLOW ment. Some transformers have two
GREEN low-voltage secondary windings like
F. L4 GREEN L4 and L5 on this transformer, but
SLATE
others have only one low-voltage
F. L5 SLATE
secondary to heat the various tubes.
Notice that the number of turns
used in the schematic symbol gives
Fig. 6. A typical power transformer and its
some indication of whether the wind-
schematic symbol. ings are step-up or step-down wind-
ings. L2 has more turns than Li, and
secondary windings. A photo of a here you can expect the voltage from
typical power transformer and the L2 to be higher than the primary
schematic symbol used to repre- voltage applied to Ll. The windings
sent it are shown in Fig. 6. L3, IA, and L5 have fewer turns
The winding marked Li is the pri- than Li, indicating that their voltage
mary winding. It is usually operated is less than that of the primary wind-
from a 115-volt, ac power line. ing. However, the schematic is not
The secondary winding marked L2 intended to show the exact number
is a high-voltage secondary. Notice of turns or the turns ratio.
that this winding is center tapped. The colors have been labeled on
This type of winding is used with a the various leads from this trans-
full-wave rectifier. former. This is a standard color

15
 RED
technician to understand enough
PRIMARY TAPPED RED-YELLOW }NIGH about transformers to know how they
NOT PRIMARY
TAPPED
VOLTAGE
operate. You will learn still more
RED
about audio transformers in this

1
BLACK BLACK (COMMON)
lesson.
.2)
RECTIFIER
!BLACK-YELLOW a
FILAMENT The important thing to remember
BLACK I BLACK- RED
from this section is that there are

}
GREEN
GREEN-YELLOW AMPLIFIER
a number of different types of losses
FILAMENT
GREEN NO. I in transformers and that these
losses cause the transformer to
BROWN
BROWN-YELLOW AMPLIFIER
FILAMENT
heat. Losses can be divided into core
BROWN NO. 2
losses which consist of eddy cur-
SLATE
rent, hysteresis, and flux leakage
SLATE-YELLOW 1,
"
A eLP
AL:EI
NET
R
losses, and copper losses which are
SLATE NO 3
called the "I squared R" losses.
Normally a transformer heats up
Fig. 7. The standard ER (Electronics In- as it is used, until it reaches apoint
dustries ‘ssociation) color code for power at which it does not get any hotter.
transformers. If the transformer in apiece of elec-
tronic equipment continues to get
code used to identify transformer hotter and hotter and you can smell
leads. The complete color code is the insulation burning, it is an indi-
shown in Fig. 7. However, do not cation either that it is being over-
expect all transformers to follow loaded or that there is ashort either
this standard color code. Some in the transformer or in the rest of
manufacturers use a color code of the equipment.
their own. Therefore, even when you A step-up transformer is atrans-
are using the color code to identify former where ahigher voltage is ob-
the leads on a transformer, you tained from the secondary than is
should pay some attention to how the put into the primary, and a step-
transformer is connected into the down transformer is a transformer
circuit, the size of the various wires, where a lower voltage is obtained
etc., to be sure that the manufac- from the secondary than is put into
turer has followed the standard code. the primary. The power output from
the secondary of a transformer is
SUMMARY approximately equal to the power in-
put of the primary. Thus in a step-
We have not tried to cover all the up transformer where the secondary
facts about iron-core power trans- voltage is higher than the primary
formers in this section of this les- voltage, the primary current must
son. Transformers are a subject be higher than the secondary cur-
all by themselves. Some engineers rent. Conversely, in a step-down
spend their whole careers design- transformer where the secondary
ing different types of transformers. voltage is lower than the primary
However, the information covered voltage, the primary current will
in this section will enable you as a be lower than the secondary current.

16
 Power transformers used in elec- cycle power line be used on a
tronic equipment usually have sev- 25-cycle power line?
eral secondary windings. One sec- (r) What do we mean by a step-
ondary winding is used to provide up transformer?
the high voltage needed to operate (s) If you have a step-down power
the plates of the various tubes. The transformer with aturns ratio
other secondary windings usually of 3:1, and the current being
supply the heater voltage required drawn from the secondary is
by the rectifier and the other tubes 3 amps, what will the primary
in the equipment. Most transformers current be?
use a standard color code which can (t) The load connected across the
be used to identify the various trans- secondary of a power trans-
former leads. former consumes 230 watts.
If the primary of the trans-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS former is operated from a
115-volt power line, what will
(m) What is a transformer? the primary current be if we
(n) What are the two types of consider the transformer ef-
losses encountered in atrans- ficiency as 100%?
former? (u) A power transformer has a
(o) What happens to the power turns ratio of 2:1. The trans-
lost in a transformer? former is operated from a
(p) Is a transformer generally 120-volt power line, and the
considered an efficient de- device connected to the sec-
vice? ondary winding draws a cur-
(q) Can a power transformer de- rent of 4 amps. What will the
signed for operation on a 60- primary current be?

17
 Transformers for Specific
Application
As an electronics technician, must be matched. Transformers are
there are anumber of different types frequently used for this purpose,
of transformers that you will en- particularly in transistorized equip-
counter. We are not going to try to ment. For example, the output cir-
cover all of them here, but we will cuit of a transistor may have amuch
discuss a few of the more common higher impedance than the input cir-
types. The material in this section cuit of the following transistor. To
of the lesson is used simply to intro- transfer the power from the one
duce you to these special types. transistor to the second one, an
Later we will go into the transform- impedance-matching transformer is
ers in more detail when we study the used.
applications in which they are used.

AUDIO TRANSFORMERS GREEN

In the early days of radio, audio BLACK

transformers were used as coupling
devices between the various stages GREEN OR YELLOW

of the receiver. By using a step-up

transformer, the strength of the
audio signal could be increased in Fig. 8. ‘n audio transformer t% iii, a tapped
the transformer itself. This was a secondary. The
colors are die standard
color code.
big help, because the tubes used in
those days did not have a great deal
of gain. However ,modern tubes have Another application in which a
high gain and audio transformers transformer may be used is where
introduce frequency distortion, so a single tube or transistor is used
they are no longer used with tubes to drive two tubes or two transis-
for this purpose. tors. Then an audio transformer
Impedance Matching. with a tapped secondary such as
You will remember that to trans- shown in Fig. 8 is used. With this
fer maximum power from a de gen- type of transformer, the center tap
erator to a load, the load resistance winding is either connected to ground
must be equal to the generator re- or used to supply bias to the stage.
sistance. In ac circuits, to transfer The two tubes or transistors are
maximum power from a generator driven with signals of the opposite
to a load, the load resistance must polarity. In other words, when the
be equal to the generator impedance. signal on the top green lead in Fig.
To transfer maximum power from 8 is swinging positive, the signal on
one stage in an amplifier to the the lower lead that is green or yellow
following stage, the impedances will be swinging negative. Thus when

18
the current in one of the stages is resistors are connected across it.
increasing it will be decreasing in You will notice that when the 50-
the other and vice versa. This type ohm load is connected across the
of stage is called a push-pull stage generator, we obtain 50 watts across
and is frequently used in the output the load. If the load impedance is
stage of high fidelity equipment in reduced below this value, then the
order to obtain a high power output power transferred from the genera-
with low distortion. We will cover tor to the load drops off.
this in detail later when you study Similarly, if the load impedance
tubes and transistors. is increased above 50 ohms, the
Another place where transform- power drops off.
ers are widely used in audio cir- With a 50-ohm load connected
cuits is in the output between the across the generator, the total cir-
last amplifier stage and the loud- cuit resistance is 100 ohms: the 50-
speaker. The output impedance of ohm load, plus the 50-ohm genera-
the power output tube or the power tor impedance. The 100 volts gen-
output transistor is generally much erated will be divided with 50 volts
higher than the speaker voice coil being dropped in the generator and
impedance. A transformer, which 50 volts in the load. The current
is called the output transformer, is flowing in the circuit will be 1amp.
used to match the output stage to
the loudspeaker in order to transfer LOAD RESISTANCE POWER
IN OHMS IN WATTS
maximum power from the output
stage to the speaker. A transformer 200 32

of this type will have a step-down 150 375

turns ratio in order to match the
100 44.4
higher impedance of the output stage
50 50
to the lower impedance of the
speaker. 25 44,4

You saw in an earlier lesson that

to transfer maximum de power from 9. Power supplied by a 100-volt gen-
a generator to a load, that the gen- (rator with an internal impedance of 50
erator and load resistances had to ihms for various values of load resistance.
be equal. Now let's see how atrans-
former can be used in an ac circuit If we remove the 50-ohm load
to match the load impedance to the resistor, and connect some other de-
generator impedance, so that the vice in its place that will draw a
generator will deliver maximum current of 1-amp from the genera-
power to a load that has an imped- tor, then there will be 50 volts across
ance different from the generator this device and the power supplied
impedance. to it will be 50 watts, whichwe know
In Fig. 9, we have shown how the is the maximum power that can be
power supplied to the load by agen- taken from the generator. A trans-
erator that has a no load voltage of former can be used for this purpose
100 volts and an internal impedance providing it has the proper turns
of 50 ohms varies as different load ratio, and providing the correct load

19
Is connected across the secondary The transformer presents an easy
of the transformer. method of doing this. We know that
The usual problem is to have the when we had maximum power trans-
generator and the load and then have fer from the generator to the load,
to select the transformer. Let's as- we had 50 volts across the load. How-
sume that we have a 2-ohm load re- ever, in the problem we have setup,
sistor we want to connect across the we want only 10 volts across the load.
generator and see how atransformer The way to satisfy both of these con- t!
can be used to get 50 watts from the ditions is to connect a transformer
generator to the load. across the generator as shown in
We know that the maximum power Fig. 10. If we use atransformer with
that can be transferred from the gen- a turns ratio of 5 to 1, we will be
erator to the load is 50 watts. Now able to satisfy these conditions.
let's find out what the voltage across You will remember that the trans-
the resistor and the current through former is a self-regulating device.
the resistor must be in order to get The primary will take the power
50 watts into the resistor. Remem- from the source needed to supply
ber the formula: the power demanded by the second-
ary. Under these circumstances
P = 12 x R
when the generator, transformer,
We know that P = 50 watts, and and load are connected as shown in
R = 2 ohms; therefore we can find Fig. 10, the primary current that
the value of 12 in this manner:

12 = 50 + 2 = 25 TURNS-RATIO
5:1
_ -
This means that the current
squared is equal to 25. We lmow that
11F-1 2 OHMS
the square root of 25 is 5, because
50 VOLTS
5 x 5 = 25. Therefore the current
50 OHMS
that must flow through the resistor
is 5 amps. In order to figure how
much voltage we need to get a cur-
Fig. 1.0. A transformer used to match a 2-
rent of 5 amps to flow through a 2-
ohm resistor to agenerator with an internal
ohm resistor, we use the formula: resistance of 30 ohms.
E =Ix R. This gives us 2 x 5, which
equals 10 volts. will flow will be 1amp. This means
So far we have found that to get that there will be 1amp through the
50 watts into a 2-ohm load resistor, primary of the transformer, and
we must have a voltage of 10 volts therefore the power consumed by it
across it. When we have 10 volts will be 50 watts. The 50 volts ap-
across the resistor, a current of 5 plied to the primary will be stepped
amperes will flow through it, and the down by the transformer to give 10
power supplied to the resistor will volts across the secondary.Withthe
be 50 watts. However, we still have 2-ohm load connected across the
the problem of getting the 10 volts secondary, the secondary current
across the resistor. will be 5 amps, and the power con-

20
sumed by the secondary will be 50 AIITOTRANSFORMERS
watts. Since the transformer is a
step-down transformer, the current The schematic of another type of
is stepped up. The primary current transformer is shown in Fig. 11.As
of 1 amp is stepped up to a current you can see from the schematic, this
of 5 amps in the secondary. transformer consists of a single
Under these circumstances, as far winding with a tap. It is called an
as the generator is concerned, it autotransformer because it has only
works exactly as it would if a 50- one winding. (Auto is the Greek word
ohm resistor were connected across for "self ".) In the transformer shown
it. The transformer has matched the in Fig. 11A, the secondary voltage
two-ohm resistor to the generator. is higher than the primary voltage
Technicians say that the generator because there are more turns on the
"looks into" the load and it looks secondary than there are on the pri-
like a 50-ohm load connected across mary. In the transformer shown in
It. Because the transformer matches Fig. 11B, the secondary voltage is
the load impedance to the generator lower than the primary voltage be-
to provide the generator with the cause the primary has more turns
impedance required to transfer than the secondary.
maximum power from the generator
to the load, the transformer is called
an impedance-matching trans- o
former.
Turns Ratio. SECONDARY

Notice the ratio of the two im- PRIMARY

pedances we matched. The generator
impedance was 50 ohms, the load
2 ohms. The ratio of these two im-
pedances is 50 to 2 or 25 to 1. The
turns ratio of the transformer, how- o
ever, was 5to 1. But 5 is the square
root of 25. Thus the relationship be- PRIMARY

tween the impedances to be matched

SECONDARY
and the turns ratio of the trans-
former needed to match the imped-
ance is:
Fig. II. chematic of an autotransformer.
N1 =
N2 Y Z2 The autotransformer is different
from a conventional transformer in
where Z1 is the generator imped- that the primary and secondary
ance, Z2 the load impedance, N1 the windings are not insulated from each
number of turns on the primary of other. The voltage applied to the pri-
the transformer, and N2 the number mary will set up a magnetic field,
of turns on the secondary. Thus, and this magnetic field will cut all
N1/N2 is the turns ratio. the turns of the secondary, including

21
those which may be apart of the pri- stages before it is processed in any
mary, and induce a voltage in them. way. RF transformers are used be-
This voltage will appear across the tween stages of this type.
secondary terminals of the trans- In most cases, the secondary of
former and if we connect a load to the transformer, at least, is used
these terminals, current will flow in conjunction with a variable ca-
through the load. pacitor to form a resonant circuit.
Autotransformers have the dis- The rf transformer acts very much
advantage that the primary and sec- like the step-up transformer, be-
ondary windings are not completely cause if the secondary is tuned to
isolated from each other electri- resonance, the circuit forms a
cally. In other words, there is an
electrical connection between the
primary and secondary windings. As
a matter of fact, one lead connects
directly to both primary and sec-
ondary windings as you can see from
the diagrams in Fig. 11. However,
they have the advantage over the
transformer with two separate wind-
ings in that they are more economi-
cal to manufacture and therefore are
frequently used in modern electronic
equipment where keeping the cost as
low as possible is of major impor-
tance.

BF TRANSFORMERS

Another transformer that you will

encounter frequently is the rf radio
frequency transformer. This type of
transformer, because of the high Fig. 12. ..st typical rf transformer and its
frequencies at which it operates, is schematic symbol.
either an air-core or a powdered
iron-core transformer. A typical series—resonant circuit and there
rf transformer designed for use at will be a resonant voltage step-up
standard broadcast band frequencies across the secondary of the trans-
is shown in Fig. 12. former. This situation exists even
RF transformers are used in the though the primary of the trans-
stages of a radio or TV receiver former may have the same number
that are designed to amplify the re- of turns as the secondary. Here the
ceived signal frequency. In other step-up in voltage is being obtained
words, in the case of a broadcast because of the action of the reso-
band receiver, the signal is picked nant circuit, rather than the action
up and amplified by one or more rf of the transformer.

22
 In TV receivers where the rf quency and usually the two windings
stages must operate on a much have exactly the same number of
higher frequency, an rf transformer turns on them. However, again be-
may consist of only one or twoturns cause the secondary is a series-
of wire on the primary winding and resonant circuit, there is aresonant
the same number of turns on the voltage step-up and the voltage
secondary. If one winding of the across the secondary winding will
transformer is tuned to resonance, be higher than the voltage across
it is usually tuned by stray circuit the primary winding.
capacitances and capacitances in the Even though the primary and sec-
tubes or transistors used in the stage ondary windings of an 1-f trans-
rather than by a separate variable former are tuned to resonance at a
capacitor. specific frequency, they are de-
RF transformers are sometimes
called rf coils, but are actually
transformers. Their operation is
similar to that of the iron-core
transformers you studied earlier in
this lesson.

I-F TRANSFORMERS

Modern radio and television re-

ceivers use what is called a super-
heterodyne circuit. In this type of
circuit the incoming signal is fed
to a stage called a mixer stage
where it is mixed with a locally
generated signal. The output of the
mixer stage produces a new signal
frequency which is called the inter- Fig. 13. A typical i-f transformer and the
mediate frequency. We abbreviate schematic symbol for it.
this 1-f and call the stages used
to amplify this signal i -f stages. signed so that they have a certain
Between the various i -f stages we bandwidth. By this we mean that in-
use transformers called i -f trans- stead of passing only one specific
formers. frequency, the transformer will pass
A typical i
-f transformer and its a band of frequencies. The actual
schematic diagram are illustrated in bandwidth depends upon the design
Fig. 13. The primary winding of the of the transformer and the frequency
transformer and its capacitor form at which it operates. The bandwidth
a parallel-resonant circuit, and the of a transformer can be shown by
secondary winding and its capacitor means of a response curve such as
form aseries-resonant circuit. Both shown in Fig. 14. Here you will see
the primary and the secondary wind- that the resonant frequency is 455
ings are tuned to the same fre- kc, but there is very little differ-

23
 A and B in Fig. 14, are within 3-
455 db of the resonant frequency.
445 465 We do not expect you to under-
440 470
stand the decibel at this time; we
will go into it in more detail eventu-
ally. However, keep in mind the ex-
pression "3-db down", because this
expression is frequently used by
technicians and engineers. It is an
idea that is somewhat difficult to
grasp, but one of the first steps in
seeing what is meant is becoming
familiar with the term. Now that
you have been introduced to it, the
Fig. 14. An i-f transformer response curve. next time you will see it, it will not
seem quite so strange to you.
ence in the response of the trans- When you look at Fig. 13 you might
former either 10 kc below or 10 think that the primary and secondary
kc above this frequency. Under these windings are placed so far apart that
circumstances, the transformer there would be very little coupling
would have a bandwidth of at least between the two of them. However,
20 kc. In other words, it will pass there actually is considerable cou-
signals having a frequency from 445 pling between the two windings. The
kc to 465 kc satisfactorily. spacing of the transformer windings
As a matter of fact, we can go a is adjusted to give exactly the de-
little further down the curve and see sired amount of coupling. If the coils
that there is not too much difference are placed too close together, then
between 440 kc and 455 kc. You can the curve shown in Fig. 14 tends to
see that deciding the bandwidth is a flatten out and have a dip in the
rather arbitrary thing. Engineers center around a 455 kc point.
have set up as a standard the point In TV i -f transformers, the coils
where the response falls to .707 of are placed much closer together; in
the response at the resonant fre- fact, often one is wound directly on
quency. This is the half-power point top of the other. This is done in
you have already studied. The band- order to provide what is called very
width of the i -f coil is the frequency tight coupling and to spread out the
between the .707 point on the low response curve to pass a wide band
side of the curve and the .707 point of frequencies. You will see later
on the high frequency side of the that in television we must be able
curve. These points have been to pass a wide band of frequencies;
marked A and B on the response otherwise, part of the picture in-
curve shown in Fig. 14. formation in black and white trans-
They are called the "3-db down" missions or part of the color infor-
points. The abbreviation "db" means mation in color broadcasts will be
decibel. It is a means of expressing lost.
power ratio. The 3-db down points, TV i -f transformers do not have

24
a separate capacitor across the pri- You have learned that the auto-
mary and secondary windings like transformer is a single-winding
the one shown in Fig. 13. There is transformer. Part of the trans-
enough capacity in the circuit and former winding serves as both the
in the output and input in the vari- primary and secondary. The auto-
ous stages to provide the capacity transformer is frequently used to
required in order to bring the wind- step up the line voltage if it is some-
ings on the transformer to reso- what lower than normal.
nance. We have also mentioned rf trans-
SUMMARY formers. Although we did not go into
a great deal of detail about them,
In this section of the lesson, you you should recognize an rf trans-
have been introduced to a number of former the next time you see one.
new types of transformers. An rf transformer has two windings,
You have learned that transform- a primary and a secondary winding,
ers are used between the audio and it operates in very much the
stages in some pieces of equipment. same way as an iron-core trans-
Many of these transformers are former.
step-up transformers so that the I-F transformers have both a
voltage across the secondary may tuned primary and a tuned second-
be two or three times the voltage ary. The primary is aparallel-reso-
across the primary. However, in nant circuit. The secondary is a
some high-power audio equipment, series— resonant circuit. An i -f
step-down transformers are used transformer has a certain band-
between audio stages. Transformers width; this means that the trans-
with tapped secondaries may be used former will pass frequencies above
when one tube must drive two tubes. and below the frequency to which it
Transformers are used as imped- is resonant. The bandwidth of a
ance-matching devices. In order to transformer is defined as the fre-
get maximum power from agenera- quency difference between apoint on
tor to a load, the load impedance the low side of the response curve
must be equal to the generator im- and a point on the high side of the
pedance. This situation can be met response curve at which the output
by using a transformer with a suit- from the transformer is .707 of the
able turns ratio to match the load output at resonance. These points
impedance to the generator imped- are called "3-db down" points.
ance so that the generator operates
as if it were working into a load SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
equal to its own internal impedance.
Impedance-matching transformers (v) Are step-up type audio trans-
are used between the output stage of formers used in modern elec-
a radio or TV receiver and the loud- tronic equipment?
speaker. Because these transform- (w) What is the major use of audio
ers are used at the output of the re- transformers in electronic
ceiver they are usually called "out- equipment?
put" transformers. (x) Why is it important that the

25
 output stage in a radio re- down transformer?
ceiver or a TV receiver be (ac) What is the disadvantage of
matched to the speaker voice an autotransformer?
coil? (ad) What is an rf transformer?
(y) What type of audio trans- (ae) What type of core would you
former is used to drive apush- expect to find in an rf trans-
pull stage from asingle driver former?
stage? (af) In a typical i-f transformer
(z) What must the turns ratio of used in a broadcast receiver,
an output transformer be to the primary and secondary
match a speaker with a 10- windings will have the same
ohm voice coil to an output number of turns. However, in
stage that has an output imped- spite of this, the voltage across
ance of 1000 ohms? the secondary winding will be
(an) What is an autotransformer? higher than the voltage across
(ab) Is an autotransformer a step- the primary winding of the
up transformer or is it astep- transformer. Why is this so?

26
 Iron-Core Chokes
A choke is acoil used to purposely a convenient method of mounting the
introduce a high reactance in a cir- choke. You can see the frame in
cuit. An iron-core choke is a coil Fig. 15.
wound on an iron core. A typical The core of an iron-core choke
iron-core choke and the schematic is made of silicon steel, which keeps
symbol used to represent it are the hysteresis losses in the choke as
shown in Fig. 15. low as possible. The core is lami-
Iron-core chokes are sometimes nated to keep the eddy current losses
found in audio equipment, bit their low. The pulsating dc that is fed to
most important use is in power sup- a filter choke is actually a mixture
plies. Here they are used in con- of ac and dc. The ac has exactly the
junction with capacitors to smooth
the pulsating dc from the output of
the rectifier. Chokes that are used
for this purpose are called filter
chokes or smoothing chokes.

PHYSICAL AND ELECTRICAL

CHARACTERISTICS

It is sometimes difficult to dis-

tinguish an iron-core choke from a
small power transformer. However,
an iron-core choke usually has only
two leads, whereas a power trans-
former has more than two leads.
However, some iron-core chokes
0 --maw—
have a tapped winding. This type of
choke has three leads and is very Fig. 15. A typical iron-core choke and its
rare; most chokes have only two schematic symbol.
leads and can be distinguished easily
from a transformer by this char- same effect in the choke as it has
acteristic. in a transformer, so both hysteresis
The core on which an iron-core and eddy current losses are present.
choke is wound is similar to atrans- A choke used in a power supply
former core. Thin sheets of lami- usually has a fairly high inductance.
nated silicon steel are used in con- Inductances from about 1 henry up
structing the core. A frame is gen- to 30 or 40 henrys are quite com-
erally provided around the core and mon.
this frame serves the dual purpose The size of wire chosen for wind-
of holding the laminations of the core ing a choke is determined by the cur-
together tightly and also in providing rent that will flow through the choke.

27
When an iron-core choke is used as flowing through the choke is higher
the filter choke in the power supply, than 250 milliamperes, the core will
there is usually a high de current approach the saturation point, and
flowing through it; superimposed on the inductance will drop. If the cur-
this de is ac. The wire with which rent flowing through the choke is
the choke coil is wound must be large less than 250 milliamperes, the in-
enough to accommodate this current ductance of the choke will be some-
without overheating. what higher than 8henrys. This will
The current that flows through the not cause any trouble; the equipment
choke coil will govern the size of will work as well as ever. If the cur-
core required. Saturation, which you rent flowing through the choke ex-
have already studied, must be ceeds the 250-ma current rating
avoided in chokes. It can be avoided substantially, the chances are that
only by using an iron-core large the choke will overheat and may
enough to handle the magnetic field eventually get so hot that it will
developed by the coil without reach- burn out.
ing the saturation point.
If a choke becomes saturated, its
inductance drops. This in turn re-
HOW CHOICES ARE USED
sults in a decrease in the inductive
reactance and hence a decrease in We mentioned that chokes are used
its effectiveness in filtering the pul- along with capacitors in power sup-
sating dc to pure de. plies to help smooth the pulsating de
In your career as an electronics at the output of the rectifier to pure
technician, you will have occasion de at the output of the filter network.
to replace defective filter chokes. A typical circuit showing how achoke
When selecting a replacement, keep and a capacitor may be used is shown
in mind that if you use too small a in Fig. 16. To see how the combina-
choke, it can be saturated and thus tion acts to filter the pulsating de,
be very ineffective as a filter. first consider that the pulsating de
Therefore, the replacement choke at the input actually consists of two
should be of approximately the same components, ac superimposed on dc.
physical size as the original choke To understand the action of the choke
and the wire used to wind the choke and capacitor, we can study their
should be at least as large as the action on the two components sepa-
wire used to wind the original choke. rately.
Technicians usually do not concern
themselves with the wire size be- 000000 o
cause manufacturers rate their
1
chokes giving the inductance and the
INPUT OUTPUT
current that the choke is designed
to handle. Thus, a choke rated at 8
henrys, 250-ma, is a choke that will o o

have an inductance of 8henrys when

a de current of 250 milliamperes Fig. 16. A filter netv.ork made up of a
is flowing through it. If the current choke and a capacitor.

28
 LOW RESISTANCE actance. Thus, insofar as the ac is
MAW, concerned, we have acircuit lilce the
t ° one shown in Fig. 17B.Here we have
INPUT OUTPUT
a high resistance taking the place of
o the choke and alow resistance taking
o
o
the place of the capacitor. Now these
two "resistors" act like a voltage
HIGH RESISTANCE
divider and most of the voltage will
be dropped across the high resist-
INPUT
LOW
OUTPUT
ance and very little will appear
RESISTANCE
across the low resistance in the out-
o o
put. If the reactance of the choke is
ten times the reactance of the ca-
Fig. 17. The effect of the filter circuit for pacitor, the ac component at the out-
a de component is shown at A, and for an put would be approximately 1/10 the
ac component at R. ac at the input.
If further filtering is needed to
You know that a choke offers little smooth the pulsating de more than
or no opposition to the flow of de it can be smoothed by asingle choke
through it. The only opposition the and capacitor, two chokes and two
choke will offer to the flow of de will capacitors can be used as shown in
be due to the resistance of the wire Fig. 18. Here, if there is a 10-to-1
used to wind the coil. Since this is reduction of hum (which is what the
normally quite low, the de can flow ac is called since it produces hum
from the input through the choke coil in the output of the device) in each
to the output without any difficulty. section, the total hum reduction In
The capacitor is charged by the de, a two-stage filter network of the
but once it is charged, it will not type shown in Fig. 18 would be 100.
draw additional dc through the choke. This means that if a100-volt ac sig-
Between the input and output cir- nal is applied to the input of the cir-
cuits, we actually have avery simple cuit, there will be a 1-volt ac signal
circuit like the one shown in Fig. at the output. On the other hand, dc
17A insofar as the de is concerned. applied to the input would flow
Notice that we have only a low re- through the filter network relatively
sistance in the circuit. The capacitor unhampered.
is not shown, and it can be completely In a two-stage filter network such
ignored insofar as the de flowing in as shown in Fig. 18, the first choke,
the circuit is concerned. marked Li, is called the input filter
The action of the choke and capaci- choke and the second one, marked
tor to the ac component is completely
different. The choke, since it has in-
ductance, has inductive reactance
and is usually selected so that the
inductive reactance will be quite
high. The capacitor on the other hand
is selected with a low capacitive re- Fig. 18. two-stage filter network.

29
L2, is the output filter choke. The SUMMARY
choke, Li, is sometimes a special
type of choke called a swinging Chokes are important to the elec-
choke. This type of choke is made tronics technician, because he will
with a rather small air gap in the encounter them in most pieces of
core. The core is somewhat smaller electronic equipment that he is
than it should be for the amount of called upon to service.
current that will flow through the Most chokes look like iron-core
choke so that it saturates rather transformers except that they have
easily and its inductance varies. only two leads, whereas a trans-
The advantage of using this type former has at least three and usually
of choke is that we are able to ob- more leads. The cores of chokes are
tain better voltage regulation at the made of laminated sheets of silicon
output of the power supply. By volt- steel. This type of construction is
age regulation we mean keeping the used to keep the eddy current and
output voltage more nearly constant hysteresis losses low.
as the load or current taken from Chokes can be saturated if the cur-
the power supply vary. The second rent passing through them is too
choke, marked L2, is usually called high. Therefore, in replacing a de-
a "smoothing" choke. fective choke in apiece of electronic
equipment, the technician should use
0e I 0% o a replacement at least as large as
LI
the original. Filter chokes are used
INPUT CI C2 ar▪ OUTPUT in conjunction with capacitors to
smooth the pulsating de at the out-
/
o put of a rectifier to pure dc at the
Fig. 19. capacitor input filter. output of the filter circuit. Chokes
are used for this purpose because
Another type of filter network is they offer a low-resistance path to
shown in Fig. 19. This type of filter the flow of de through them but offer
is often called a brute force filter. a high reactance to the flow of ac
Notice that this network uses two through them. The pulsating dc at
capacitors and one choke. This type the output of the rectifier actually
of network is called a capacitor in- consists of a de component with an
put filter, whereas the one shown in ac component super-imposed on it.
Fig. 18 is called achoke input filter. The choke lets the de component go
In Fig. 19, Cl is called the input through with little or no effect on it,
capacitor and C2 the output capaci- and in conjunction with the capacitor
tor. The de output voltage obtained greatly reduces the ac component.
from a capacitor input type of filter
is somewhat higher than can be ob-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
tained from a choke input filter, but
the voltage regulation is better with
a choke input filter. Both types are (ag) How can you tell afilter choke
found in modern electronic equip- from a power transformer?
ment. (ah) What is the purpose of the fil-

30
 ter choke in a power supply? a low resistance to the flow of
(ai) What is the danger of passing de through it?
too high a current through a (ak) In a two-stage filter network,
filter choke? what are the names given to the
(4) Does a filter choke offer a two filter chokes?
high resistance or does it offer (al) What is a swinging choke?

Relays
Another magnetic device is the ent, the electrical principles are the
relay. Although relays are used same--in one position of the switch
chiefly in transmitters and indus- the circuit is open, and in the other
trial equipment, they are found in position the circuit is closed. An
some radio and TV receivers with ordinary light switch such as you
automatic tuning systems. Relays have in your home is another ex-
are used to open and close circuits ample of an SPST switch.
electrically. They are electric Another type of switch, called a
switches. In many ways a relay is single-pole, double-throw switch
similar to a mechanical switch. In (SPDT) is arranged so that in one
order to understand relays, you
should understand mechanical
switches. So let's look at them first.

SWITCHES

Switches are made with several

different contact arrangements. The
simplest switch is one that has two
positions. In one position, the cir-
cuit is open; in the other position
the circuit is closed. This is called
a single-pole, single-throw switch,
abbreviated SPST. Fig. 20 shows an
example of this kind of switch. In
the position shown at A, the circuit
is closed. When the blade is raised
as at B, the circuit is open.
The switch illustrated in Fig. 20
is only one kind of SPST switch. They
are made with different types of con-
tact arrangements. However, al- Fig. 20. A single-pole, single-throw switch
though the mechanisms are differ- is shown closed at %, and open at R.

31
 two blades joined mechanically and
two closed positions. There are also
triple-pole, single-throw (TPST)
switches, and triple-pole, double-
throw (TPDT) switches.
Relays are also made with all
these different types of contacts.
Let's see how a relay works.

SIMPLE RELAY
CONSTRUCTION

In its simplest form, a relay con-

sists of nothing other than an iron-
Fig. 21. Asingle-pole, double-throw switch core coil such as shown in Fig. 24
makes contact in either of the two posi-
tions shown at A and B.

position it closes one circuit, and

in the other position it closes an-
other circuit. Fig. 21 shows an ex-
ample of this type of switch.
A double-pole, single-throw
(DPST) switch shown in Fig. 22 is
really two switches in one. It has two
blades, mechanically joined, sothey
are thrown open or closed at the Fig. 23. Adouble-pole, double-throw switch.
same time. As in the SPST switch,
when the blades are down, the cir-
cuits are closed, and when they are with a bar of magnetic material
up, the circuits are open. placed on a pivot near one end of the
The double-pole, double-throw core. One end of the bar is attached
(DPDT) switch shown in Fig. 23 has to a spring. The tension of the spring
lifts the bar up and away from the
core of the magnet. The motion of
the top of the bar is usually re-
stricted by some non-magnetic ma-
terial so that when the relay is not
energized, the bar will assume the
position shown in Fig. 24A.
When a voltage is applied to the
relay coil, current flows through the
coil and the magnetic field produced
attracts the bar on top of the coil
Fig. 22. Adouble-pole, single-throw switch. and pulls it down as shown in Fig.

32
 others are made that operate from
ac. There is usually not too much
difference between small ac and
small de relays, except that the
spacing between the bar and the mag-
net is usually somewhat greater in
an ac relay. If the bar comes too
close to the magnet in an ac relay,
there may be some tendency for the
relay to chatter. By chatter, we mean
that the bar moves up and down as
the ac goes through its cycle and the
strength of the magnet varies. If the
bar is made of heavy enough mate-
o rial and kept a reasonable distance
from the magnet, this problem is
usually not encountered in small ac
relays.

o RELAY CONTACTS

The contacts on relays are iden-

Fig. 24. Basic operation of arelay. tified using the same system that is
used to identify the contacts on an
ordinary switch. The movable arm
24B so that the contacts A and B are of a relay or switch may be made to
closed. Leads can be connected to make contact in one position and no
terminals A and B so that energizing contact in the other position, or it
the relay closes the circuit and cur- may be made to make contact in
rent will flow through the circuit. either of two positions.
Some relays operate from dc, but If there is only one set of contacts
on a relay, we call it a single-pole,
single-throw relay. The relay shown
in Fig. 24 has this type of contact.
V
Single-pole, double-throw relays
are arranged so that when the coil
is energized, it pulls the bar down
and the bar makes contact with one
terminal and when the coil is not
energized, then the bar moves up
under the tension of the spring and
makes contact with another termi-
nal, as shown in Fig. 25.
Relays are also made with all the
Fig. 25. double-11nm% relay. other contact arrangements that we

33
 seldom used. Time-delay relays are
TYPE SWITCHES RELAYS
often used in transmitting equipment
—o— where it is desirable to allow the
t— cathode of the tubes to warm up be-
SPST —o-"--- o-
fore the other operating voltages are
13-
applied.
0— —o—
4
-- Overload Relay.
SPOT —0— t_ Another type of relay is used for
protective purposes in electronic
c'--- 13— •
equipment. This type of relay is
often called an overload relay. It is
DPST
—o•-1---o
1
o— —o—t_ designed so that the relay is ener-
gized and the circuit opens when
13— the current exceeds apredetermined
value. Sometimes a break-down in
r _
one circuit will affect another. The
i 4._
—o o'ro— current in the second circuit might
DPDT o 1 t
—o o'!---o— t_ rise so high that some valuable part
such as a tube would be destroyed.
— 11—
With an overload relay in the circuit,
when the current rises above a safe
value, the relay automatically opens,
Fig. 26. Schematic symbols for different
removing the voltage from the tube,
types of switches and relays.
thus saving it from destruction.
As you might expect there are
showed for mechanical switches. some circuits in which if the current
Fig. 26 shows the schematic sym- drops below a predetermined value,
bols for different types of switches some damage might result or the
and relays. equipment might fail to operate

SPECIAL PURPOSE
RELAYS

There are many special types of

relays designed for specific jobs.
Tlme-Delay Relay.
One type of relay is a time-delay
relay. In this type of relay, the con-
tacts do not close until a predeter-
mined time has elapsed after the
power is applied to the relay. After
this time has elapsed, the contacts
are closed and the circuit is com-
plete. Time-delay relays are usu- 1, relay of the type found in electronic
ally either SPST or DPST relays. equipment. This is a triple-pole, double-
Double-throw time-delay relays are throw type.

34
 determined time before closing the
circuit or by opening the circuit
when an overload occurs. The relay
consists of an electromagnet, a bar
which can be held in one position by
the magnet and returned to the other
position by the spring, and one or
more sets of contacts.
Relays are found in many different
types of electronic equipment. About
the only types of defects you are
likely to encounter in relays are open
coils, and burned or dirty contacts.
Sometimes replacement coils are
available, sometimes the contacts
Fig. 27. A thermal type overload device. can be cleaned, but with some types
of relays the only suitable remedy
properly. There are relays that are for a defect is to replace the entire
set to open when the current drops relay.
below a predetermined value.
Another type of overload device SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
that is widely used in TV receivers
is shown in Fig. 27. This type of (am) What do we mean when we
overload is not a relay, but instead refer to a switch as an SPST
is made of a metal strip which is switch?
made from two dissimilar metals. (an) What is meant by SPDT?
The current flowing through the strip (ao) What do the letters DPDT
causes the metals to heat and they mean?
expand at different rates. If the metal (ap) What causes the contacts in
gets hot enough, the expansion will a relay to close?
be great enough to distort the metal (aq) What is a time-delay relay?
so that it springs loose from the (ar) What is an overload relay?
contact holding it in place and this (as) Overload protective devices
opens the circuit. You will run into are frequently found in TV re-
this type of overload device fre- ceivers - are these overload
quently in TV receivers. Be sure devices overload relays?
not to confuse it with an overload
relay. It serves the same basic LOOKING AHEAD
purpose, but it is a thermal over-
load device rather than a magnetic The iron-core devices that you
relay overload device. studied in this lesson are all de-
vices that will be found frequently
SUMMARY in electronic equipment. Of the
Relays are devices used to close three, transformers and chokes will
circuits automatically, to protect be found in more different types of
circuits either by waiting for apre- equipment than relays, but there are

35
many pieces of equipment that use a (d) 100 maxwells or lines.To find
large number of relays. Defective the total number of lines you
transformers, chokes, and relay multiply the area in centi-
coils can frequently be recognized meters by the flux density; in
by a characteristic odor that they this case 10 x 10 = 100 lines.
give off when they have been over- (e) When magnetic saturation oc-
heated. Also, you will generally no- curs, all of the molecules in
tice signs of sealing wax and other the core material are aligned
compounds leaking from an over- with their north poles pointing
heated iron-core device. The in- in one direction and their south
sulation becomes brittle and can poles pointing in the other so
often be crumbled with your fingers. that any further increase in
You will not go far in your elec- magnetomotive force cannot
tronics career before you run into produce any further alignment
one of these devices that has broken of the molecules or any in-
down. Usually it is a simple matter crease in flux.
to locate and replace one of these (f) No - in fact it produces anum-
parts that is defective. ber of undesirable effects and
In the lessons you have so far should be avoided.
studied, you have covered a number (g) Magnetic saturation cannot be
of the basic components found in produced in air regardless
electronic equipment. Now, you are of how strong the magneto-
ready to study vacuum tubes, and motive force is.
then see how the components are (h) A hysteresis loss is aloss due
used with vacuum tubes in ampli- to the inertia of a magnetic
fiers and other interesting circuits. circuit. When the core in a
choke or transformer is mag-
ANSWERS TO netized by passing a current
through the coil, the core does
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
not return to a state of zero
(a) The gilbert is a unit of mag- magnetism when the current
netomotive force. The gilbert is removed. Some magnetism
is slightly smaller than the will remain and power must
ampere-turn. The gilbert is be used to bring the flux den-
particularly useful in ex- sity back to zero. This power
pressing the magnetomotive required to bring the flux den-
force of a permanent magnet. sity back to zero represents
(h) The maxwell is the unit of the hysteresis loss.
magnetic flux. One line of flux (i) Eddy current losses are
is equal to one maxwell. losses due to the fact that a
(c) The flux density is a measure core of the transformer choke
of the number of flux lines acts like a complete turn of a
passing through a given area. coil and the flux cutting this
A flux density of one line or turn induces a voltage in it
one maxwell per square centi- which causes acurrent to flow.
meter is known as a gauss. This represents a loss which

36
 is known as an eddy current will encounter in electronics.
loss. Large power transformers
(j) By selecting a material that may have efficiencies as high
has very little magnetic iner- as 98% or better. This means
tia. Materials such as silicon that 98% of the power taken by
steel have much lower hyster- the primary winding of the
esis loss than hard steel. transformer is available for
(k) Eddy current losses are kept useful work at the secondary
at a minimum by making the winding of the transformer.
core of atransformer or choke (q) No. A transformer designed
coil in the form of sheets of for 60-cycle operation will
metal rather than a solid overheat and burn out if it is
piece. The sheets are elec- operated on a 25-cycle power
trically insulated from each line.
other so that the flow of eddy (r) A step-up transformer is a
currents across the entire transformer that has more
core material is prevented. turns on the secondary winding
(1) Flux leakage losses are due than on the primary winding.
to the fact that part of the flux As a result, the voltage avail-
escapes from the core and able across the output of the
travels through the air sur- secondary winding will be
rounding the core. This flux higher than the voltage sup-
serves no useful purpose since plied to the primary winding.
the flux lines in the case of a The ratio by which the voltage
transformer would not cut the is stepped up is determined by
secondary winding of the the ratio of the number of turns
transformer. on each winding of the trans-
(m) In its simplest form a trans- former. In other words, if the
former is two separate coils secondary winding has twice
of wire wound on a common as many turns as the primary
core and placed near each winding, the voltage available
other so that the magnetic across the secondary will be
lines produced by one coil will twice the voltage applied to the
cut the other coil. primary.
(n) The two types of losses en- (s) 1 amp. A step-down trans-
countered in a transformer former steps the voltage down
are core losses and copper by the turns ratio; however,
losses. it steps the current up by the
(o) The power lost in a trans- same turns ratio. Therefore,
former is turned into heat. The if the secondary current is 3
heat is radiated by the trans- amps, the primary current
former and the chassis on will be only 1amp.
which the transformer is (t) 2 amps. To find the current
mounted. we divide the power by the
(p) Yes. A transformer is one of voltage; in this case we have
the most efficient devices you 230 watts divided by 115 volts

37
 equals 2 amps. The efficiency of one stage to the impedance
of a transformer is usually of the following stage, and they
so high that we can ignore any are also used to match the im-
losses and if the power con- pedance of the output stage to
sumed by the secondary is 230 the loudspeaker voice coil hn-
watts, we can consider that the pedance.
primary power will also be 230 et) The output stage of a radio or
watts. TV receiver must be matched
(u) If the turns ratio of a trans- to the speaker voice coil in
former is 2:1, and the trans- order to get maximum power
former is operated on a 12 0- transfer from the output stage
volt power line, then the sec- to the speaker voice coil.
ondary voltage must be 60 (Y) A transformer with a tapped
volts. Since the current drawn secondary. The center tap on
by the secondary winding is 4 the secondary is either
amps, then the power the sec- grounded or used to feed bias
ondary winding is supplying is to the push-pull stages and the
60 x 4 = 240 watts. The pri- signals supplied to the stages
mary winding must take this are 180° out of phase, so when
much power from the power the current is increasing in
line and since the voltage at one stage of a push-pull am-
the power line is 120 volts plifier it is decreasing in the
then the current must be 240 other.
watts divided by 120 volts = (z) The turns ratio must be 10:1.
2 amps. The turns ratio is equal to the
(v) No. Step-up type audio trans- square root of
formers were used in the early
Z1
days of radio when the gain
Z2
that could be obtained with a
single vacuum tube was com- Substituting 1000 ohms for Z1
paratively low. By using a and 10 ohms for Z2 we find
step-up type transformer that the turns ratio is
some increase in voltage could
be obtained in the transformer 1000 .I100
and this helped obtain a rea- 10
sonable voltage amplification
in the stage. However, with irg = 10
modern tubes and transistors ,
adequate gain can be obtained (aa) An autotransformer is a
in a stage without resorting to transformer that consists of a
step-up transformers. single winding with atap.
(w) Audio transformers are most (ab) An autotransformer can be
widely used in electronic either a step-up transformer
equipment as impedance- or a step-down transformer.
matching devices. They are If the primary voltage is ap-
used to match the impedance plied across the entire winding

38
 and the secondary voltage only two leads. Transformers
taken off between the tap and usually have two or three
one of the primary connec- windings and therefore will
tions, the transformer will be have more than two leads.
a step-down transformer. On (ah) The filter choke is used in
the other hand, if the primary conjunction with filter capaci-
voltage is applied between the tors to help smooth the pul-
tap and one of the outside con- sating de from the rectifier
nections and the secondary output to pure dc.
voltage taken off across the (al) The excessive current may
entire winding, the output over-heat and burn out the
transformer will be a step-up wire used to wind the filter
transformer. choke. In addition, the filter
(ac) The disadvantage of an auto- choke may become saturated,
transformer is that the pri- even if it doesn't burn out, due
mary and secondary windings to the excessive current flow-
are not completely isolated ing through it and its effective-
from each other electrically. ness as a filter will be re-
(ad) An rf transformer is a radio duced.
frequency transformer used (aj) A filter choke offers a low re-
between radio frequency am- sistance to the flow of de
plifier stages. through it. The only opposition
(ae) RF transformers have either the choke offers to de is the
an air-core or apowdered iron resistance of the choke which
core. is equal to the resistance of
(af) The secondary winding of an the wire used to wind the
i-f transformer, along with choke. On the other hand, a
the capacitor connected a- filter choke offers a high op-
cross it, form a series-reso- position to the flow of ac
nant circuit. This results in through it.
a high circulating current and (ak) The two filter chokes are
a resonant voltage step-up known as the input choke and
across the coil and across the the output filter choke. The
capacitor. As a result, the choke connected to the recti-
voltage across the coil will be fier is the input filter choke,
considerably higher than the and the other choke is the out-
source voltage. We refer to put filter choke.
this increase in voltage as (al) A swinging choke is a choke
resonant voltage step-up and made with a small air gap in
it explains why the voltage the core. The choke is usu-
across the secondary winding ally somewhat smaller than it
of an i-f transformer is higher would normally be for the
than the voltage across the amount of current flowing
primary winding. through it and as a result the
(ag) A filter choke has only one choke saturates easily. Its in-
winding and therefore it has ductance varies as the current

39
 flowing through it changes. determined time has elapsed.
(am) SPST means single-pole sin- This type of relay is frequently
gle-throw. With this type of found in transmitting equip-
switch there is only one cir- ment - its purpose is to permit
cuit and in one position the the tubes to come up to op-
switch is closed and in the erating temperature before
other position it is open. the high voltages are applied
(an) SPDT means single-pole dou- to the tubes.
ble-throw. With this type of (ar) An overload relay is a relay
switch one circuit can be com- used for protective purposes.
pleted with the switch in one The relay contacts are nor-
position and a second circuit mally closed, but if the cur-
can be completed with the rent flowing through the relay
switch in the other position. coil exceeds a certain pre-
(ao) DPDT means double-pole dou- determined value the relay
ble- throw. contacts will open protecting
(ap) A current flowing through the the circuit in which the relay
relay coil produces a mag- is used.
netic field which attracts a (as) No; overloads of this type are
bar which is pivoted above the thermal overloads and operate
magnet. The magnet pulls the when the current flowing
bar towards the magnet and the through them causes the metal
the bar closes the relay con- conductor to reach a certain
tacts. temperature. This causes the
(aq) A time-delay relay is a relay metal to spring the contacts
in which the contacts do not open. An overload device of
close when the relay is at first this type is called a thermal
energized until after a pre- overload and is not a relay.

40
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B109.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However,don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What do we mean when we say a magnetic circuit is saturated?

2. Name the three types of core losses encountered in iron-core trans-

formers.

3. If the primary of a 1:3 step-up transformer is connected to a 120-volt

power line, what voltage will be produced across the secondary?

4. If we connect a 200-ohm resistor across the secondary of a 1:2 step-

up transformer, and then connect the primary to a 100-volt source,
what will the primary current be?

5. What is the big disadvantage of interstage audio transformers?

6. What must the turns ratio be of the matching transformer used to

match a tube with an output impedance of 1600 ohms to a 16-ohm
speaker?

7. Why are transformers with separate primary and secondary windings

more suitable than auto transformers in many applications?

8. Could a 10-henry, 250-ma choke be used as a replacement for a 10-

henry, 200-ma choke?

9. Why is a swinging choke often used as the input choke in a two-stage

filter network?

10. What does the abbreviation DPDT mean?

 DETERMINATION
Did you ever watch a modern, diesel earthmover--
one with 10 times the horsepower of a car and rubber
tires as tall as a man? Wasn't it a thrill to see that
great machine level obstacles in its path, leaving a
perfectly smooth roadway? The word "determination"
always brings to mind that picture of an earthmover --
a machine which goes places once the throttle lever is
thrown.
So, too, are you determined to go places, to achieve
success and happiness. One by one you are complet-
ing your lessons, studying hard and making sure you
understand everything; step by step you are approach-
ing that greatest of all goals -- SUCCESS.
Of course, the way is long and not always easy.
But whenever the going gets a little tougher than
usual or you feel a bit discouraged, just bring out
that old determination, and back it up with every
single ounce of ambition you have.
.
11,
1
1.
E12:4 r/!

MI a
Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
a Continuing Education School 139- LT-209
 HOW VACUUM TUBES

WORK

elegglee'
191 1¡Wu' 'marl wri
B110

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

é

o
HOW VACUUM TUBES WORK

B110
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

111 1. Introduction Pages 1-3

Electron emission is a basic part of tube operation. Here we
take alook at the different types of emission.

D 2. The Diode Tube Pages 4-12

You learn how adiode is made and how it works.

D 3. The Triode Tube Pages 12 -20

You learn how adding a third element to a tube makes it
possible for the tube to be used as an amplifier.

D 4. Tube Characteristics Pages 20 -29

You study the characteristics of atube, how they are pictured,
and how they can be analyzed by using equivalent circuits.

D 5. Multi-Element Tubes Pages 29 -37

You study screen-grid, pentode, and other tube types.

D 6. Special Tube Types Pages 37 -45

Here we discuss gas-filled diodes, thyratrons, cathode-ray
tubes, and other special types.

D 7. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 45 -48

D 8. Answer the Lesson Questions.

D 9. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1966 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

JDL3M1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 BEAM-FORMING
PLATE

CATHODE

GRID

SCREEN---.

HOW VACUUM
TUBES WORK

Vacuum tubes are used not only found in large radio and TV trans-
in radio and TV entertainment mitters are several feet tall. Re-
broadcasting, but also in commer- gardless of whether the tube is a
cial radio equipment, telephone re- miniature tube such as those found
peater systems, diathermy equip- in hearing aids or a large tube such
ment, and in many types of indus- as those found in transmitters, it
trial electronic equipment. Although works on the same basic principles.
transistors have taken over many of In this lesson you will study tubes
the jobs originally done by tubes, in detail. Later you will see how
there are still many applications these tubes are used along with the
where the vacuum tube is superior parts you studied in previous les-
to the transistor. Even in those ap- sons.
plications where the transistor is
superior to the vacuum tube, there ELECTRON EMISSION
are many older pieces of electronic
equipment still in use using vacuum In the circuits you studied in pre-
tubes which you will have to service. vious lessons, the electrons stayed
There are other applications where within the circuit wiring and flowed
a transistor could be used in place only over a solid path. For example,
of a vacuum tube, but vacuum tubes when you connect a resistor across
are used because they cost less than a terminal of abattery, the electrons
transistors or they can be manu- are set in motion around the circuit.
factured in large quantities to closer Electrons flow through the resistor,
specifications than transistors can the wires and the battery, but they
be manufactured. stay within the closed circuit.Elec-
There are many different sizes trons do not leave the wire connect-
and shapes of vacuum tubes. Some ing the resistor to the battery and
tubes are so small they are scarcely travel off into space around the wire,
larger than a thumbnail; other tubes nor do they leave the resistor and

1
move into the space around it. In a other electrons; (3) they can be
tube, however, electrons are forced driven out of some materials by the
to fly off into the space surrounding energy in light rays; and (4) they
one of the elements in the tube. This can be jerked or pulled out by avery
element is called the cathode. When high positive potential placed on a
an electron leaves the cathode we nearby metallic object. All four of
say it is "emitted" by the cathode; these methods are used in various
the giving up of electrons by the types of electron tubes to provide
cathode is called "emission". the free electrons that all tubes
You will remember that all mate- depend upon for their operation.
rial is made up of atoms and that one However, the first method, evapo-
of the parts of the atom is the elec- ration by heat, is by far the most
tron. The electrons in an atom are important, and we will spend more
in a continuous state of motion. The time in this lesson on tubes using
speed and the amount of motion de- this type of emission. We will also
pend, for one thing, upon the tem- briefly discuss the second and third
perature of the material. Normally types of emission.
the atomic force within the atom Therm ionic Emission.
prevents electrons from escaping As we mentioned, when electrons
and flying off into space.This is true are driven from a metal or metallic
even in the case of the free elec- compound by means of heat, this
trons in a conductor that move type of emission is called thermi-
through the conductor when current onic emission. Thermionic is pro-
flows. However, if enough heat is nounced THERM-I-ON-IK. As we
supplied to a conductor, it is some- mentioned, thermo means heat, ionic
times possible to overcome the force refers to electrons and hence the
holding the electrons within the sur- word thermionic is used to describe
face of the conductor and to drive the type of emission where the elec-
some of the electrons off into the trons are driven from the cathode
space surrounding it. This is what by heat.
we mean by emission. This type of In the operation of a vacuum tube
emission is often called "thermi- it makes no difference where the
onic" emission; thermionic means heat comes from; if the cathode can
emission by heat. Some materials be made hot enough it will emit elec-
give off electrons more readily and trons. However, the most convenient
at lower temperatures than other method of producing the heat needed
materials. Often the cathodes of is by means of a heater or filament
tubes are coated with these mate- placed inside the vacuum tube. A
rials that will readily give off elec- voltage is applied to the heater or
trons at low temperatures. filament and this voltage causes a
Altogether there are four ways in current to flow through the heater
which electrons can gain enough or filament and causes it to heat to
energy to escape from a material at least a red heat, and sometimes
into the space around it. These are: to a white heat. The hot filament
(1) they can be evaporated or driven or cathode then gives off the elec-
out by applying heat; (2) they can be trons required to operate the tube.
driven off by bombardment by very It is important to realize the heater
small, high-speed particles such as or filament voltage applied to the

2
tube for the purpose of heating the Photoelectric Emission.
tube does not actually enter into the When electrons are driven out of
operation of the tube in any way the material by the energy in light
except to provide trie energy nec- rays, this type of emission is called
essary to heat the cathode. If in- photoelectric emission. Photoelec-
stead of using electrical energy to tric tubes are used in the motion-
heat the cathode we were able to picture industry in connection with
heat the cathode with a gas flame, the sound track. A soundtrack is put
the heater or filament voltage could on the side of the film. Light passing
be removed entirely and the tube through this sound track strikes a
would perform just as well. photoelectric tube. The density of the
The terms heater, filament and sound track varies as the speech or
cathode might be somewhat con- sound originally recorded on the film
fusing at this time. A cathode is an varies. This causes the amount of
electrode which gives off electrons. light striking the photoelectric tube
It is heated by means of an element to vary, which in turn varies the
called a heater. A filament is acom- number of electrons emitted.
bination heater and cathode. We will Photo-emission is not often en-
go into this in detail in the next sec- countered in radio and TV servicing,
tion of this lesson. but it is of importance to the indus-
Secondary Emission. trial electronics technician. Even
When electrons are driven off a the radio-TV serviceman should
metal by bombarding the metal with know something about it, because
high-speed particles such as other photoelectric tubes have been used
electrons, we refer to this type of in the past in radio-phono combina-
emission as secondary emission. tions. In addition, you may have
What happens in this type of emission occasion to service the sound sys-
is that a particle travelling at avery tem of a home movie projector.
high speed strikes the metal object Now let's see how tubes work. You
with such force that it is able to already know something about how a
dislodge a number of electrons from vacuum tube operates. However, in
the material. These dislodged elec- the explanations we have given you
trons fly off the material into the previously, we have left out many
space surrounding it. You will see details in order to approach the sub-
later that this type of emission is ject gradually. Now we will learn
not always desirable; as a matter of more about tubes by studying all
fact, it creates a problem in some these details. Let us start by study-
vacuum tubes. ing the simplest tube.

3
 The Diode Tube
The simplest tube has only two rectly between the two leads from
elements, one to give off the elec- the filament.
trons and another to receive them. In large transmitting tubes the
The element that gives off the elec- filament is made either of pure tung-
trons is called the cathode, and the sten or of a mixture of tungsten and
element that receives the electrons thorium. The very large transmit-
is called the plate or anode. A simple ting tubes generally have a pure
tube having only two elements is tungsten filament. Tungsten is a
called a diode. metal that can be operated at very
Other tubes have other elements high temperatures. Most electric
in addition to these two. Therefore light bulbs manufactured today have
as we study the diode, remember a large percentage of tungsten in the
that tubes with more than two ele- filament that is heated to avery high
ments are really diodes with addi- temperature to give off light.
The filaments used in many of the
tional elements added.
smaller transmitting tubes are made
TUBE CATHODES of a mixture of thorium and tungsten
and are called thoriated filaments.
Tube cathodes can be divided into The addition of thorium to the tung-
two types, those that are directly sten provides a material that will
heated and those that are indirectly give off electrons at a somewhat
heated. Directly heated cathodes are lower temperature than pure tung-
called filament-type cathodes or, sten. Thus the amount of power re-
more frequently, simply filaments. quired to heat the filament is lower
This type of cathode was used than for a pure tungsten filament.
in early vacuum tubes and is Thoriated tungsten is not as suitable
still used in tubes designed for bat- as pure tungsten in large transmit-
tery operation, and in large trans- ting tubes. The very high voltages
mitting tubes. Indirectly heated used on these tubes can pull the
cathodes are simply called cathodes. thorium right out of the filament and
Filament-Type Cathodes. thus destroy the tube. In smaller
The schematic symbol used to transmitting tubes the voltages used
represent a filament type of cathode are not high enough to do this.
is shown in Fig. 1. The voltage used Filament-type receiving tubes de-
to heat the filament is applied di- signed for operation in portable re-
ceivers were widely manufactured
at one time. The filaments of these
tubes were coated with oxides of
certain metals. This type of filament
is called an oxide-coated filament
and it has the characteristics of
giving off electrons at a still lower
temperature than a thoriated fila-
Fig. 1. Schematic symbol used to repre- ment. Thus the filament power re-
sent a filament type of cathode. quired by this type of tube is even

4
 FILAMENT
less than that required by the thori-
ated filament.
Even though filament-type re-
ceiving tubes operated on compara-
tively low voltages and required only
avery small current, the fact that the
heater power served no useful pur-
pose led to the disappearance of this
SUPPORTS SUPPORT
type of tube. Modern portable re-
ceivers all use transistors since no Fig. 2. Typical filaments.
filament power is required. How-
ever, you may occasionally run The filament of a vacuum tube
across an older portable receiver must be supported so it will stay
that some set owner is particularly in position. Typical filaments show-
fond of and have to fix this receiver. ing the type of support used are
Generally, filament-type tubes are shown in Fig. 2. It is important that
available for replacement purposes. the filament be held tight so that it
Oxide filaments are found in some cannot sag and short to nearby ele-
small transmitting tubes used in ments in the tube. As a matter of
mobile applications. However, if the fact, if the position of the filament
voltage applied to the tube exceeds changes, even though the filament
500 volts by very much, the oxide on may not touch any other elements in
the filament may be pulled off by the tube, the characteristics of the
this voltage and therefore oxide- tube will change because there are
coated filaments will be used only several tube characteristics that de-
in small transmitting tubes. pend upon the spacing between the
The filaments of transmitting filament and the other elements in
tubes that are made of either tung- the tube.
sten or thoriated tungsten can be Indirectly-Heated Cathodes.
operated on either ac or dc. How- The schematic symbol used to
ever, the oxide-coated filament used represent an indirectly heated cath-
in small tubes designed for use in ode is shown in Fig. 3. The indirectly
battery-operated equipment are heated cathode is simply called a
usually made very small and thin cathode. Notice that in addition to
in order to keep the filament power the cathode we have another element
required as low as possible.11 these drawn beneath the cathode in the
filaments are operated from ac, as schematic symbol. This is the
the ac drops to zero and then rises
to a maximum value twice during
each cycle, the current flowing
through the filament will vary,
causing the temperature of the fila-
ment to vary. This will cause avari-
HEATER J IICATHODE
ation in emission from the filament
resulting in hum. Therefore the fila-
ment of small transmitting tubes and
the older obsolete portable receiver Fig. 3. Schematic symbol used for a heater
types must be operated from dc. and indirectly heated cathode.

5
heater, which is used to heat the ted to simplify the schematic dia-
cathode. Sometimes this is loosely gram. The connections to the other
called a filament because of its elements in the tube are the ones
similarity to the filament we have that actually determine what the tube
just discussed and because the first will do and how it will operate. We
tubes had directly heated cathodes. will follow this practice in many
In fact the transformer winding used cases so we can emphasize the op-
to supply heater voltage is still often erating circuits.
called the filament winding. Operating Voltages.
The cathode is built in the form The filament or the heater of a
of a hollow cylinder like those shown vacuum tube is designed to operate
in Fig. 4. The heater is placed in- on a certain definite voltage. The
side of this hollow cylinder. Voltage first number used to identify re-
is applied to the heater, and the heat ceiving tubes gives an indication of
produced by the heater is radiated the heater or filament voltage. For
and in turn heats the cathode. example, a 12 L6 tube operates on a
The cathode is usually coated with heater voltage of approximately 12
oxide. This is done in order to pro- volts. The exact voltage is 12.6
vide an abundant supply of electrons volts. The number preceding the
at low operating temperatures. This first letter indicates the heater volt-
type of cathode is used only in re- age. A 35Z5 tube requires a heater
ceiving tubes or small transmitting voltage of 35 volts. A 6F6 tube re-
tubes where the applied voltage is quires a heater voltage of 6.3 volts,
not high enough to pull the oxide and a 2BN4 tube requires a heater
material off the cathode. voltage of 2.3 volts. Keep this in
In many schematic diagrams of mind; it will be helpful to you when
circuits in which an indirectly heated you start doing service work. The
cathode type of tube is used, the first number or group of numbers
heater is omitted. The heater actu- preceding the letters in the tube
ally serves no useful purpose as far designation is an indication of the
as the operation of the tube is con- filament or heater voltage for which
cerned, other than to heat the cath- the tube was designed. This system
ode. It does not enter into the char- is followed only for modern re-
acteristics of the tube and therefore ceiving tubes. Older receiving tubes
the heater connections can be omit- did not use this system, and trans-
mitting and industrial tubes do not
use it.
TUNGSTEN
HEATER CERAMIC
CERAMIC TUBE THE PLATE
INSULATOR
NICKEL ALL
OXIDE-
SLEEVE, OXIDE
COVERED
COATING
METAL
In the first vacuum tubes made,
CATHODE
LEAD
THIMBLE the anode that received electrons
HEATER METAL emitted by the cathode was simply
R
LEADS •
a flat piece of metal, and hence was
GLASS
STEM
called a plate.
In modern vacuum tubes the plate
completely surrounds the filament
Fig. 4. Indirectly heated cathodes. or cathode. The shape of the plate

6
 Fig. 5. Typical plate structures.

depends to some extent on the type will give off electrons, and if this
of cathode used. If the cathode is happens the tube may not work
simply a round cylinder, then the properly because electrons may be
chances are that the plate will also able to travel both ways through it.
be a round cylinder. However, if a The tube would simply act like are-
filament type of cathode is used, sistor. Therefore steps must be
such as those shown in Fig. 2, the taken to keep the plate below the tem-
plate will usually be rectangular in perature where it will emit elec-
shape. Typical plate structures are trons. This is not too big a problem
shown in Fig. 5. in small receiving tubes, but in the
Vacuum tube plates may be made larger tubes it can be quite serious.
of any of several different materials, The plate is often given a dull black
such as nickel, molybdenum, carbon, finish because a black surface radi-
iron, tungsten, tantalum, and graph- ates heat readily and therefore will
ite. Zirconium is also sometimes be cooler than a polished surface.
applied as a coating on the plate. The The plates of many transmitting
plates of most receiving tubes and tubes are fitted with fins to provide
small transmitting tubes are made a larger surface to dissipate or get
of nickel, which can easily be formed rid of the heat produced at the plate
into the desired shape. of the tube. Large transmittingtubes
The plate of a vacuum tube is sub- are often water-cooled. As a matter
jected to acertain amount of heating. of fact, in some large broadcast sta-
Part of this heat comes from the fila- tions the water used to cool the tubes
ment or cathode, and part of it is in the transmitter is used to heat the
produced by the electrons striking building in the winter.
the plate. These electrons striking Even if the plate is kept cool
the plate can cause considerable enough to prevent thermionic emis-
heating; as a matter of fact in some sion, the electrons travelling from
transmitting tubes they produce so the cathode of the tube over to the
much heat that the plate becomes a plate can pick up enough speed to
bright red color. strike the plate so hard that they will
The fact that the plate is heated knock other electrons loose from the
results in afew additional problems. surface of the plate. Remember, this
First, if the plate gets hot enough it is one of the types of emission we

7
discussed before and it is called cathode of the tube to the plate moves
secondary emission. The electrons at a fairly high speed. The chances
that are knocked off the plate of the are that the majority of electrons
tube in this way leave the plate at traveling from the cathode to the
a rather low speed. The plate nor- plate would strike one or more gas
mally has a positive voltage applied molecules if there were a large
to it and the electron is negative, amount of gas in the tube. If a high
so in a diode tube, if the plate is speed electron strikes a gas mole-
positive, the electrons are simply cule the electron will be deflected
attracted back to the plate. Second- from its path and it will knock elec-
ary emission does not cause any trons out of the gas molecule.
difficulty in a diode. However, you Normally a gas molecule has no
will see later that in tubes having charge. However, if it is struck by
additional elements, secondary an electron, which knocks other
emission can be a problem. electrons out of the molecule, the
Another problem that is created molecule will be short of electrons,
when the plate of atube becomes very and hence will have a positive
hot is that almost all metals have a charge. We call positively charged
certain amount of gas trapped right molecules "ions". These ions are
in the metal. When a metal plate be- large and heavy in comparison to
comes very hot, the gas trapped in electrons and have a fairly high
it may be forced out of the metal and positive charge on them. Since the
into the space surrounding the plate cathode of the tube is normally con-
of the tube. Gas in atube can destroy nected to a negative voltage source,
its usefulness. Now let's see why it it is negative, and will attract these
is important that the amount of gas positive ions. As a matter of fact,
in a tube be kept as low as possible. the positive ions will pick up a fair
amount of speed traveling to the
CAS EVACUATION cathode and may bombard it with
such force that small particles of
Tubes are called vacuum tubes be- the cathode material will be knocked
cause all the gases inside the tube loose.
including air are normally evacu- Gas inside a vacuum tube is ex-
ated. There are two important rea- tremely undesirable. Therefore, in
sons why these gases must be re- the manufacturing process, every
moved from inside the tube. First, effort is made to remove all the
if air is permitted in the tube, the gases from inside the tube. However,
filament or heater will oxidize; in some of the gas will remain in the
other words, it will simply burn up tube and additional gas will boil out
when heated. Secondly, even if this of the materials from which the tube
problem could be overcome, there is made the first time the tube is
is another important reason why all heated. To get rid of these gases
gases must be removed from the left in the tubes a "getter" is placed
tube. Gases are made up of mole- inside the tube.
cules. Although these particles are A getter is a small cup containing
extremely small, they are neverthe- chemicals. During the manufac-
less many times the size of an elec- turing process, the tube is first
tron. An electron traveling from the evacuated by means of pumps. This

8
 will remove most of the gases from into the tube. We say almost im-
the tube. The tube is sealed and then possible because there is no such
it is heated. In the heating process thing as a perfect seal and air will
gases are driven off the metals in- gradually leak back into the tube. It
side the tube such as the cathode and may take several years for enough
the plate. At the same time, the air to get into the tube to affect its
getter is heated and the chemicals performance, but if the tube is left
in the getter combine with any gas around unused long enough, eventu-
molecules released, forming metal ally enough gas will get into the tube
compounds, which are deposited on so that its operation will be im-
the glass envelope of the tube. The paired.
compounds in the getter hold onto Tubes that have had all the gas re-
the gas molecules and will not easily moved from inside them are called
release them into the space inside hard tubes. Most tubes found in radio
the tube again. The silvery appear- and TV receivers are hard tubes.
ance that many tubes have near the However, there is another group of
base of the bulb is produced by the tubes into which certain types of gas
compounds forming on the glass have been deliberately introduced.
envelope of the tube. Mercury is put inside some diode
By using this procedure it is pos- tubes. When these tubes are opera-
sible to obtain an excellent vacuum ted, the mercury will heat and vapor-
in tubes with a pure tungsten fila- ize, filling the inside of the tube with
ment. The vacuum inside atube with mercury vapor. This type of tube is
a thoriated tungsten filament is not called a soft tube or a gaseous tube.
quite as good, and the vacuum inside Other gases are sometimes used, but
tubes with oxide-coated filaments is mercury vapor is the gas you will be
still poorer. The reason for this is most likely to encounter. It is easy
that you can heat a tube with a pure to identify a mercury vapor tube be-
tungsten filament to a higher tem- cause mercury gives off a char-
perature than you can the other types acteristic blue glow. Therefore, if
and hence the action of the getter is you see atube operating with abright
even more complete in these tubes blue glow, the chances are it is a
than it is in the other types. mercury vapor tube.
For this reason, tubes with thori- If there is excessive gas inside a
ated tungsten filaments or oxide- hard tube it also will have a blue
coated cathodes are limited to uses glow. However, the blue glow is not
where the operating voltages are as bright as it is in amercury vapor
somewhat lower than those that can tube. Mercury vapor tubes are al-
be applied to pure tungsten filament most always diode tubes, although
tubes. a special type called athyratron has
The leads connected to the vari- three elements and hence is atriode.
ous elements inside the tube are These tubes are usually quite easy
brought through glass seals. The to pick out. If you discover a blue
glass is heated to a high tempera- glow between the elements of ahard
ture and it flows around the leads, tube, the tube is gassy and should be
providing a nearly perfect seal. Thus replaced.
once the tube is evacuated, it is al- Before leaving this subject there
most impossible for air to leak back is one other point that should be

9
brought out. Electrons emitted from
the cathode of a hard tube frequently
travel at a high speed and miss the
plate of the tube and strike the glass
envelope. When they do this there
will often be a blue glow on the en-
velope of the tube. This does not Ip
indicate a defect in the tube. If a
hard tube shows this blue glow on
the envelope of the tube you can for-
get about it; it does not mean any-
thing. However, if the blue glow ap-
pears between the elements of ahard
tube, the tube is gassy. Ep

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
Fig. 6. Characteristic curve of a diode
Among the information published showing the relationship between plate
by vacuum tube manufacturers are current and plate voltage. Notice that
the characteristic curves of their there is a small plate current even when
tubes. These curves make it possible the plate voltage is zero. This is caused
for the engineer or technician to by a few electrons being emitted by the
predict how the tube will perform cathode at such a high speed that they
under a given set of operating con- travel over and strike the plate even when
ditions. The characteristic curve of no voltage is applied to it.
a diode tube shows how much current
will flow when a given voltage is ap- linear. By this we mean the curve
plied to the plate of the tube.A typi- is a straight line which indicates
cal diode characteristic curve is that we will get an almost constant
shown in Fig. 6. change in plate current for a given
Notice that this characteristic change in plate voltage. For ex-
curve is not a straight line. It is bent ample, on a linear curve, if increas-
on the two ends. Also notice that ing the plate voltage from 25 to 50
there is a very small current flow volts causes an increase in current
even when the plate voltage is zero. of 5 milliamperes, we can expect an
This is because a few of the elec- increase in plate current of 5 more
trons emitted by the cathode travel milliamperes when we increase the
with sufficient velocity to reach the plate voltage from 50 volts to 75
plate even without a positive voltage volts. Again, if we increase the volt-
on the plate. As the plate voltage is age from 75 volts to 100 volts and
slowly increased from zero to ahigh the curve is linear, we can expect
positive value the number of elec- another 5 milliampere plate current
trons flowing to the plate gradually increase.
increases. At first the increase is Notice that the top of the curve be-
non-linear, but as the plate voltage gins to round out and become flat--
is increased still further, eventually this is called plate current satura-
a point is reached where the char- tion. Eventually a point is reached
acteristic curve becomes quite where all of the electrons emitted

10
by the cathode are drawn immedi- are used in vacuum tubes; the exact
ately to the plate of the tube. In other shape of the plate is usually deter-
words, the electrons do not form a mined by the shape and type of cath-
space charge or electron cloud ode used in the tube. The plate of a
around the cathode, but instead vacuum tube will give off electrons
travel immediately from the cathode by thermionic emission if it becomes
of the tube right over to the plate. too hot. However, some transmitting
When this point is reached, increas- tube plates can operate at a red
ing the plate voltage still further will temperature without giving off elec-
result in no further increase in the trons, the materials used in the
plate current flowing in the tube be- manufacture of the plates of these
cause the plate is pulling all the free tubes are selected because they give
electrons over to it and is gathering off electrons only at a very high
them up as fast as the cathode can temperature. The plate may also
emit them. As a matter of fact, if give off electrons due to secondary
the plate voltage is increased be- emission. In some tube types this
yond this point, there is the danger can become a problem.
that some electrons will be emitted The inside of a vacuum tube is
from the cathode by the process of normally highly evacuated. A tube
jerking them out of the cathode by with a high vacuum is called a hard
the high plate voltage. This may tube. Gas is deliberately introduced
cause small particles of the cathode into some tubes, and these are called
material to jerk loose, and if this soft tubes.
happens the cathode of the tube will
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
soon disintegrate and the tube will
no longer be usable. (a) Name the two elements found
in a diode tube.
SUMMARY (b) Into what two types can tube
cathodes be divided?
There are a number of important (e) What is the name given to a
things you should remember in this directly heated cathode?
section. First, the cathode found in (d) How is the cathode of an in-
tubes can be divided into two types-- directly heated tube heated?
the directly heated cathode which is (e) Why is the cathode of a re-
called a filament, and the indirectly ceiving-type tube usually
heated cathode, which is simply coated with an oxide?
called a cathode. Remember that the )What useful purpose does the
heater used to heat an indirectly heater of an indirectly heated
heated cathode performs no useful tube serve other than to heat
purpose other than to heat the cath- the cathode of the tube?
ode of the tube. It does not enter into (g) Approximately what would you
the electrical circuit and operation expect the heater voltage to be
of the tube itself. of a type 8AC9 tube?
Three types of cathode material (h) What are the two names given
are found in vacuum tubes: pure to the element in the diode tube
tungsten, thoriated tungsten, and that receives the electrons?
oxide coatings. What two things cause the plate
Several different types of plates of a vacuum tube to be hot?

11
 (j) What two undesirable things (n) What does a small blue glow
may happen if the plate on a appearing on the glass en-
vacuum tube becomes exces- velope of a hard-type tube in-
sively hot? dicate?
(k) What is the purpose of agetter (0) What do we mean when we say
inside a vacuum tube? that the plate current - plate
(1) What is meant by a hard tube? voltage curve of the diode is
(m) What is a soft tube? linear over most of its range?

The Triode Tube

The development of the diode or to the triode and know that the triode
two-element tube merely opened the tube has three elements: a cathode,
door to the field of electronics. The a grid, and a plate. The introduction
diode tube has only limited appli- of the grid between the cathode and
cations. It can be used as arectifier the plate of the tube made it possible
to change ac to dc, and in some other for a vacuum tube to amplify weak
special circuits, but it cannot be signals. You already have a general
used to amplify. idea of how the grid works, but in
Early in the start of the twentieth this section we will review this idea,
century, the triode tube was devel- expand it, and then learn more about
oped. This tube touched off the rapid tube characteristics. It is extremely
development in electronics that has important for you to understand all
occurred since then. The develop- the details of how a triode tube
ment of the triode tube led to the works, because the multi-element
development of other multi-element tubes that you will study later are
tubes which have made possible cir- simply triodes with additional ele-
cuits undreamed of not too many ments added.
years ago.
You have already been introduced HOW THE GRID WORKS

The third element inside the vacu-

um tube is placed between the cath-
ode and plate and is called the grid.
As the name implies, the grid is of
open construction. The schematic
symbol used to represent a grid is
shown in Fig. 7A. On some old dia-
grams you might find the symbol
Fig. 7. Different ways of representing the shown in 7B used - this symbol is
grid on schematic diagrams. obsolete.

12
 take up is where the grid is con-
nected directly to the cathode so
that the voltage applied to it is zero.
Zero Grid Voltage.
When the grid is connected di-
rectly to the cathode we have the
arrangement shown in Fig. 9. Here
the plate is connected to the positive
side of the B battery and the cathode
is connected to the negative side of
the battery. The grid is connected
directly to the cathode, and a small
battery is used to provide the heater
voltage required to heat the heater,
which in turn heats the cathode of the
tube.
Fig. 8. Different types of grid structures. When the cathode is heated, it will
emit electrons and they will fly off
Several different types of grid into the space surrounding the cath-
construction are shown in Fig. 8. ode. These electrons will form a
Notice that in A the grid is made in cloud of electrons around the cath-
the form of a spiral mesh, like a ode. This cloud of electrons is called
screen, whereas the grid shown in a space charge. Some of the elec-
B is made up of a spiral-wound coil trons in the space charge will fall
with the turns placed relatively close back to the cathode, others will
together. In C the same type of con- be attracted by the positive po-
struction is used as in B, but the tential applied to the plate of the tube
space between the turns is much and they will be drawn through the
greater. In D the grid is more or less grid wires to the plate. A few elec-
rectangular in shape and is sup- trons in travelling from the cathode
ported by the U-shaped elements at
the end so that the grid is held in a
very rigid position. The grid is sup-
ported by the frame and this type of PLATE
construction is often referred to as
a frame grid. It has this advantage e
GRID
over the other types: the grid wires
e
can be placed very close together
and very close to the cathode, which
CATHODE
as you will see later makes it pos-
sible to make a tube with a much
higher gain than that of the other
types of grid.
Before we review how the tube
amplifies, let's consider the effect Fig. 9. When there is no grid bias, an aver-
of the grid on the flow of plate cur- age number of electrons flow to the plate,
rent when different voltages are ap- and the rest form a space charge between
plied to it. The first case we will the cathode and the grid.

13
to the plate of the tube may acciden-
tally strike the grid wires. These
electrons will flow through the ex-
ternal circuit from the grid back to
the cathode of the tube. As long as
the grid is connected directly to the
cathode, the tube acts very much like
a diode and the grid has very little
effect on the flow of plate current.
The amount of plate current flowing
will depend primarily upon the volt-
age applied between the plate and
cathode of the tube and the spacing
between the plate and cathode. Fig. 10. Making the grid positive greatly
Positive Grid Voltage. increases the number of electrons moving
Now if we modify the circuit shown to the plate.
in Fig. 9, by adding a small C bat-
tery in the grid circuit as shown in
Fig. 10, we will have apositive volt- there was no voltage applied to the
age on the grid of the tube. This grid. The grid is able to increase
means that the grid will be slightly the number of electrons flowing to
positive with respect to the cathode. the plate because the grid is placed
The B battery used between the plate very close to the cathode, and even
and cathode has a much higher volt- though there is only a low positive
age than the C battery, and there- voltage applied to the grid it is able
fore the plate will have amuch higher to pull many electrons from the elec-
positive potential than the grid. tron cloud and start them on their
With the C battery connected in way to the plate.
the grid circuit, the positive voltage Because the grid has a positive
on the grid of the tube will attract voltage applied to it, there will be
electrons from the space charge more electrons striking the grid
around the cathode and start these than there were in the preceding
electrons speeding toward the grid. case when there was no voltage ap-
By the time the electrons travel the plied to the grid. However, even
short distance from the space charge though a few electrons will be at-
to the grid most of them will be tracted to the grid, a small positive
travelling at such a high speed that voltage applied to the grid will in-
they will pass right through the grid crease the flow of plate current. If
wires and then come under the in- the positive voltage is made higher,
fluence of the high positive voltage in other words if the grid is made
on the plate of the tube. Most of the more positive, it will start to attract
electrons will therefore continue more and more electrons. Eventu-
travelling towards the plate of the ally a point will be reached where
tube until they eventually will reach the grid will be taking many of the
and strike the plate. electrons that would normally flow
The number of electrons reaching over to the plate of the tube. Then,
the plate will be much higher than it instead of causing the plate current
was in the preceding case where to increase, the large number of

14
electrons flowing to the grid of the negative voltage applied to the grid
tube will starve the plate so that the of the tube is made high enough, all
plate current will be less than it electron movement between the
would be if the grid were operated cathode and the plate will be stopped
at zero potential. --there will be no flow of electrons
When the number of electrons from the cathode to the plate of the
striking the grid becomes high, the tube.
energy that these electrons give to Amplification Factor.
the grid upon striking it may cause Current is actually amovement of
the grid to become very hot. As a electrons, and since the grid con-
matter of fact, if enough electrons trols the electrons flowing from the
strike the grid, the grid will become cathode to the plate of the tube, the
red hot. Keep this in mind. If you grid can control the current flowing
see a vacuum tube where one of the from the cathode to the plate. The
grids is showing a red heat, the current flowing in the plate circuit
number of electrons reaching the is called the plate current. Changing
grid is too high--there is something the plate voltage on atriode tube will
wrong in the circuit. cause the plate current to change, but
Negative Grid Voltage. because the grid is closer to the
If instead of putting a positive cathode than the plate, it exerts a
voltage on the tube grid, you put a greater effect on plate current than
negative voltage on it, you will the plate does. As a matter of fact,
have the circuit shown in Fig. 11. we may have to change the plate volt-
Now the negative potential on the grid age on a tube as much as 100 volts
of the tube repels the electrons to get the same change in plate cur-
coming from the space charge and rent that can be obtained by changing
drives them back to the space charge the grid voltage only 1volt. The exact
so that the number of electrons ratio between the change in plate
getting through the grid and reach- voltage and the change in grid volt-
ing the plate of the tube is greatly age needed to get the same change
reduced. As a matter of fact, if the in plate current is called the amplifi-
cation factor. If we have to change the
plate voltage 50 volts to get the same
change in plate current we can get by
changing the grid voltage 1volt, the
50
amplification factor is -- 1 = 50. A

triode tube may have an amplifica-

tion factor somewhere between 5and
about 100. The amplification factor
of a tube depends primarily upon the
ratio of the plate-cathode spacing to
the grid-cathode spacing.
The amplification factor of a tri-
ode tube is a very important char-
acteristic of the tube. It is a good
Fig. 11. Making the grid negative reduces indication of how much voltage gain
the number of electrons moving to the plate. you can expect to obtain from an

15
amplifier stage using the tube. The
total amplified voltage produced by
the tube is equal to the amplifica-
tion factor times the signal voltage SIGNAL
SOURCE
applied between the grid and the
cathode of the tube. It is not possible
to get all of this amplified voltage
out of the tube, because the tube has
internal resistance, and part of the
voltage will be dropped across this Fig. 12. The signal applied between the
resistance, but in general the higher grid and the cathode will result in a vary-
the amplification factor of atube, the ing plate current.
greater the gain we can expect to
obtain from the tube. this purpose is called a voltage am-
To provide a short form for ex- plifier. If we apply the signal between
pressing the amplification factor of the grid and the cathode of avacuum
a tube, the Greek letter, mu, which tube connected as shown In Fig. 12,
is pronounced "mew", and written we know the ac signal in the grid
u, is used as a symbol to represent circuit will produce variations in the
the amplification factor. The am- plate current. We know this is true
plification factor is often referred because the voltage applied to the
to as the mu of the tube. Thus a grid has a pronounced effect on the
high-mu tube is a tube with a high flow of current to the plate. Thus the
amplification factor. varying signal applied between the
grid and the cathode of the tube will
BOW A TRIODE AMPLIFIES cause the plate current to vary.
However, we are interested in a
You have already had a brief ex- varying output voltage. If we feed a
planation of how a triode amplifies weak signal voltage into the grid of
a signal, so this will be primarily a tube to amplify it, what we want is
a review. Be sure that you complete- an amplified voltage in the output.
ly understand how the tube amplifies The desired result can be obtained
because vacuum tubes are the heart with a circuit like the one shown in
of electronic equipment and if you do Fig. 13. Now let's stop and consider
not know how tubes work, you will what happens in this circuit first
not understand the equipment in when the signal voltage is zero.
which they are used.
First, let's consider what type of
signal we may want to amplify. For
example, let's assume that we have
a sine-wave signal that represents
a certain sound. The amplitude of
the signal is extremely weak. In
order to use the signal to produce
sound, we must increase the strength
of the signal. The usual procedure Fig. 13. The signal applied between the
is to first build up the voltage of the grid and the cathode will result in an am-
signal. An amplifier stage used for plified voltage in the output circuit.

16
 When there is no ac signal applied drops in a series circuit must be
to the input, a steady plate current equal to the source voltage. In this
will flow from the cathode of the series circuit we have the plate-
tube to the plate of the tube. The cathode circuit of the tube in series
exact amount of current is relatively with the load resistor. Therefore,
=important, but it will depend upon the voltage across the tube equals
the grid bias voltage supplied by the the B supply voltage minus the volt-
C battery, the plate voltage supplied age drop across the load resistor.
by the B battery, the characteristics Before a signal is applied between
of the tube itself, and the size of the the grid and the cathode of the tube
plate load resistor marked RL the plate current will reach what is
The plate current flowing through called a steady state. The voltage
the tube will flow from the negative between the plate of the tube and the
side of the battery to the cathode of cathode will be some constant value.
the tube. The heated cathode will Now let us consider what happens
give off electrons, which will flow when a signal voltage like the sine-
through the space between the cath- wave shown in Fig. 14A is applied
ode and the grid of the tube over to between the grid and the cathode of
the plate of the tube. The electrons
will then flow from the plate of the
tube through the plate load resistor
11, to the positive side of the battery,
through the battery, back to the nega-
tive battery terminal. It sounds as
though the electrons start from the
negative terminal and then gradually
flow around the circuit. Actually, the Fig. 14. A sine-wave signal voltage. The
movement of electrons in the circuit input signal is shown at A, and the output
is instantaneous. The electrons start signal at B.
moving in all parts of the circuit at
the instant the tube is heated and the tube. Notice the first half cycle,
power applied. which is numbered 1-2-3 on the in-
When current flows through the put signal at A. This signal swings
load resistor R„ there will be avolt- in a positive direction. When the ac
age drop produced across the resis- input voltage swings positive, its
tor. The exact value will depend upon polarity will be such that itwill sub-
the current flow and the size of the tract from the grid bias voltage. This
resistor. We know this is true from will make the grid voltage less nega-
Ohm's Law which states that E =IR. tive. If we make the grid voltage less
If there is a voltage drop across the negative, we are moving it in aposi-
dropping resistor, this means that tive direction. When the grid be-
the plate voltage, which is the voltage comes less negative it will allow
between the plate and the cathode of more electrons to flow from the
the tube, will be less than the B sup- cathode of the tube to the plate. If
ply voltage by an amount equal to the the number of electrons moving in
voltage drop across the plate load this part of the series circuit in-
resistor. Again, we know this is creases, then the total number of
true because the sum of the voltage electrons in motion in all parts of

17
the series circuit must increase. number of electrons moving from
The number of electrons flowing the cathode to the plate of the tube.
through the plate load resistor RL This reduction in electrons flowing
increases. When this happens, the in the series circuit means that there
voltage drop across the plate load will be an even smaller voltage drop
resistor increases, and there will be across the plate load resistor It,
less of the B supply voltage between and hence even more voltage between
the plate and cathode of the tube. the plate and the cathode of the tube.
This means that the plate voltage As the input signal moves from point
will decrease. 3 to point 4 and then on to point 5,
The plate voltage will continue to the output signal between the plate
decrease as the input signal moves and cathode of the tube will follow
from point 1 to point 2. The plate the shape shown from point 3 to
voltage will look like the wave shape point 4 and then to point 5.
shown in Fig. 14B and as the input This variation in the voltage be-
moves from point 1 to point 2 on tween the plate and cathode of the
curve A, the output will move from tube will be several times the am-
point 1 to point 2 on curve B. plitude of the input signal.
If the input signal begins to de- Before going ahead let's take a
crease from its peak point 2 back look at what we have in the plate
to zero voltage at point 3, the plate circuit of the tube. Examine the
voltage between the plate and cathode waveform shown in Fig. 14B. Notice
of the tube will start to increase, be- that a single ac cycle has been pro-
cause as the input signal moves from duced and the amplitude, frequency,
point 2 to point 3, the negative grid and wave shape of the signal depend
voltage on the tube will be increased. upon the signal applied between the
This means that there will be fewer grid and the cathode. This signal is
electrons flowing from the cathode an amplified version of the signal
to the plate of the tube, and hence applied between the grid and the
fewer electrons flowing through the cathode of the tube.
load resistor. When the number of The total signal applied between
electrons flowing through this re- the grid and the cathode of the tube
sistor decreases, the voltage drop actually consists of a dc voltage ap-
across it decreases. Since the sum plied by the C battery plus an ac
of the voltage drop across the load voltage which is superimposed or
resistor and the voltage between the added to it. The voltage between
plate and cathode is always equal the cathode and grid will be the
to the B supply voltage, the voltage algebraic sum of the two voltages.
between the plate and cathode of the When the signal voltage tends to
tube must increase. swing the grid positive it will actu-
During the second half of the input ally be subtracting from the C bat-
cycle, when the input signal swings tery voltage so that the net negative
from point 3 to point 4, the signal is voltage applied to the grid will be
swinging in a negative direction, so reduced. When the signal source
it adds to the grid bias voltage ap- tends to swing the grid in anegative
plied to the tube by the C battery. direction, it will add to the C battery
This makes the grid even more nega- voltage so that the grid will be made
tive, and reduces still further the more negative with respect to the

18
cathode and will reduce the current based on a change in plate voltage
flow through the tube. and a change in grid voltage. An-
The voltage in the plate circuit other way of expressing the same
actually consists of a de voltage ap- idea is in terms of ac voltages. We
plied to the tube with an ac voltage can say that it is the ratio of ac plate
superimposed on it. Notice, how- voltage to the amount of ac grid volt-
ever, that the ac voltage at the plate age required to produce the same ac
is inverted when compared to the in- plate current. As we mentioned pre-
put signal. In other words, when the viously, we are speaking of an ac
input signal swings in a positive current superimposed on a de
direction, the output signal swings current.
in a negative direction, and when the
input signal swings in a negative di- SUMMARY
rection, the output signal swings in
a positive direction. We say that the This section of your lesson is ex-
two signals are 180° out of phase. tremely important. Therefore we
Notice that the cathode of the tube will not try to summarize it, but in-
in the circuit shown in Fig. 13 is stead we suggest you go back and
grounded. This type of circuit is read over the entire section of the
called a "grounded-cathode" ampli- lesson again to be sure you under-
fier. One of the characteristics of stand it thoroughly. Read the section
the grounded-cathode amplifier is carefully and slowly and try to pic-
that there is a 180° phase-shift ture exactly what is going on inside
between the input and output signals. the tube. Grasping clearly the idea
The signal voltage applied in of how a tube amplifies is extremely
series with the C bias voltage be- important. If you master this idea
tween the grid and cathode causes now, the remaining material in this
the plate current flowing from the book should be comparatively simple
cathode to the plate of the tube to and you will also find that it will be
vary. Actually, the current looks like much easier for you to understand
a de current with an ac current how transistors amplify. When you
superimposed on it. Therefore, when are sure you understand this section
we refer to the ac current in atube, of the lesson, test yourself by doing
we mean the signal current or the following self-test questions.
the variation in dc current caused
by a signal applied between the grid SELF TEST QUESTIONS
and cathode. Remember that the cur- (p) Why does the grid voltage have
rent through a tube always flows a greater effect on plate cur-
from cathode to plate; it never re- rent than the plate voltage
verses in direction. However, the does?
variation in current through the tube (q) If the voltage applied between
due to the signal variations produces the grid and cathode of atriode
the same effect as we would have tube places the grid positive
with a de current with an ac current with respect to the cathode,
superimposed on it. what effect will this have on
Remember that when you studied the current flowing through the
the amplification factor we pointed tube?
out that the amplification factor is (r) If the grid is made negative

19
 with respect to the cathode, (u) When a signal voltage is am-
and the voltage is slowly in- plified by a tube in agrounded
creased, what will happen to cathode circuit, will the am-
the plate current? plified signal be the same as
(s) What do we mean by amplifi- the input signal?
cation factor? (v) What do we mean by ac plate
(t) Between what values would you current?
expect the amplification factor (w) What is a grounded-cathode
of a triode to fall? amplifier ?

Tube Characteristics
Tube characteristics are impor- A great deal of Information about
tant both to the engineer and to the tubes is given in the form of char-
technician. They are important to acteristic curves. The most impor-
the engineer because he uses them tant of these curves is the Eg-Ip
in designing circuits. He must know (grid voltage-plate current) curve.
the characteristics of the tube in
order to select the correct value of THE Eg -Ip CURVE
parts to use along with the tube to
get the best possible performance A tube is able to reproduce asig-
out of the circuit. They are impor- nal only as long as a given change in
tant to the technician because often grid voltage will produce a constant
he will have to service equipment change in the plate current. Let's as-
in which detailed service informa- sume we have a tube with a voltage
tion is not available. By identifying of 2 volts between the grid and cath-
the tube types used in the equipment ode, and that the grid is 2volts nega-
and referring to atube manual which tive with respect to the cathode. If
describes the characteristics of the we increase this voltage from 2volts
tubes used, he can obtain a great to 2-1/2 volts, we know that the plate
deal of useful information on how current will decrease. We could
the equipment should work. actually measure this change in plate

20
current. Now, if we increase the 10
voltage still further from 2-1/2 volts 9

to 3 volts, we should get the same 8-

7
change in the plate current that we
6
got when we changed the voltage from < 5-
2 volts to 2-1/2 volts. It is quite 4
a
likely that we would get the same 1-1 3

change, but eventually a point will 2

be reached where changing the grid

O
voltage 1/2 a volt will not produce -9 8 76432 ; 0 2 3 4 +
this same change in plate current. Eg VOLTS

When we reach this situation, we say

that this tube becomes non-linear. 15. A typical Eg-l p characteristic
This characteristic of a tube limits curve.
the amount of signal that can be ap-
plied between the grid and cathode thing means to fix or adjust it. The
of the tube. grid bias voltage fixes or adjusts the
The change in plate current that tube to operate under the most favor-
can be expected for a given change able conditions. The idea in back of
in grid voltage is shown on a curve a grid bias voltage is to apply avolt-
called the Eg-Ip curve. A typical age to the grid that will place the
Eg-I p curve is shown in Fig.15.No- tube operation on the desired por-
tice how the plate current will be tion of its characteristic curve. In
different for different values of grid the case of the amplifier we have
voltage. Also notice that part of this been considering, we bias the tube
curve is relatively straight but the to operate at the center of the linear
two ends of the curve are quite bent. or straight part of the characteristic
In the middle of the curve, we have curve. If you look at Fig. 15 you can
a straight section that is called see that the characteristic curve is
linear. This simply means that as comparatively straight between zero
long as the tube is operated within grid voltage and the grid voltage at
these limits a given change in grid -6 volts. Slightly to the right of zero
voltage will produce the same change grid voltage the curve becomes dis-
in plate current. As long as this torted, and to the left of -6 volts it
change in plate current for a given also becomes distorted. Therefore,
change in the grid voltage remains to get the tube operating on the linear
constant, the output will be afaithful part of the curve, we would apply a
reproduction of the input signal. grid bias of -3 volts. With a grid
However, once the change becomes bias of -3 volts, if the input signal
non-linear, the output will be dis- drives the grid voltage 3 volts in a
torted. This means the output signal positive direction, we can expect the
will not be a faithful reproduction same change in plate current as we
of the input signal. will get when the input voltage swings
Grid Blas. 3 volts in a negative direction. When
The voltage applied by the C bat- the input voltage swings 3 volts in
tery that is connected between the the positive direction, it will sub-
grid and cathode of a tube is called tract from the grid bias, so the net
the grid bias voltage. To bias some- voltage applied to the grid of the tube

21
will be zero, and when it swings 3
volts in the negative direction, it
will add to the grid bias so that the
net voltage applied between the grid
and the cathode of the tube will be
-6 volts. Changing the grid voltage I-3-5
o
between these limits produces linear
4
or constant changes in plate current.
On the other hand, if instead of a 1111111
8 765 4 32 I I
grid bias of -3 volts we had a grid Eg V01.73

bias of -5 volts and a 3-volt in-

put signal, when the grid swings in
the positive direction we will get a
total voltage of -2 volts on the grid. Fig. 17. A typical characteristic curve (A)
This will produce a change in plate showing how the grid voltage (B) and the
current. However, when the grid plate current (C) vary on it.
swings 3 volts in the opposite direc-
tion, due to the signal, we will get asignal like the one shown in Fig.
total grid voltage of -8 volts. This 16B. Notice that in the first half
will produce a change in plate cur- cycle when the input signal swings
rent, but it will not be the same as in a positive direction the output
the change produced when the signal signal swings in the opposite direc-
went in the opposite direction. As a tion. However, the output signal is
matter of fact, you can see from the a faithful reproduction of the input
curve that once the signal is past signal. During the second half cycle,
-7 volts little or no change in plate when the input signal swings in a
current will occur. negative direction, the output signal
Under these circumstances, a swings in a positive direction but is
plate current change that is different flattened off at the top. The ampli-
when the signal swings in one direc- fied signal is not a faithful repro-
tion is different from the plate cur- duction of the input signal. As we
rent change when the signal swings mentioned, this is called distortion,
in the opposite direction and we get and this particular case of distor-
distortion. This means that the sig- tion is called amplitude distortion
nal is not reproduced faithfully. For because the amplitude of one half
an input signal like the one shown of the cycle is compressed.
in Fig. 16A we would get an output Now let us see how different val-
ues of grid bias affect the way in
which a tube amplifies a signal. As
you know, the grid voltage is made
up of a fixed bias voltage, and the
ac signal is superimposed on it.
Assume we have a tube with the
Eg-I p curve shown in Fig. 17A. The
Fig. 16. The input voltage (A) and the out- center of the linear part of the curve
put voltage (11) for a tube with excessive is at -3 volts. Now suppose we have
grid bias. Notice that the positive half of a bias voltage of -3 volts, and the
the cycle in the output is flattened. signal voltage shown in Fig. 17B,

22
which varies from 0 to 3 volts, is lo
PL ATE
9
superimposed on it. When the ac 8
2 CURRENT

signal is at the start of its cycle, 7

<I 6
point 1, it will be zero, so the total 2
1-3-5
grid voltage will be -3, point 1on
the curve in 17A. When it increases 3-
2-
to point 2, the total voltage will then
be zero, point 2 on the curve. At O
point 3 the total voltage will be -3 -9 8 7 6 5 4 2 I ;2 34 5 +
E9 VOLTS
volts again. At point 4 the total volt-
age will be -6, and at point 5 the ru
total voltage will again be -3.
Now let's draw ourselves a pic- GRID VOLTAGE
ture showing what is happening to
the plate current at each of these
points. At point 1the current is 4.5
ma; at point 2 it is 8 ma; at point
Fig. 18. We often show the information of
3 it is again 4.5 ma; at point 4 it
Fig. 17. all on one diagram like this.
is 1 ma; and at point 5 it is 4.5 ma
again. This is shown in Fig. 17C.
As you can see, this is a faithful curve, and then show the curve for
reproduction of the applied signal. the corresponding plate current.
We often show these things all on In Fig. 19 we have shown what
one chart as shown in Fig. 18. No- happens when the operating bias is
tice how we have drawn the signal too high or too low. In Fig. 19A the
voltage. By drawing it in this posi- operating bias is too high (too nega-
tion, we can follow up to the point tive) and the result is that the grid
it represents on the characteristic is driven beyond the cut-off voltage

10-
9-
8-
7-
6-
M 5-
cl• 4-
3-
2- 1-3-5

O 5 I I I
-9 6 4 3 2 I 0 1 23 2 34 &é+
IEg VOLTS Eg VOLTS

f%)

o
o

Fig. 19. The effect of too much bias is shown at A, and the effect of
too little bias at B.

23
on the negative half of each cycle.
This means that the plate current 11,41 64,Ter

Ce.4.1»03

drops to zero and flattens off on the

negative half of each cycle.
e

4
"

In Fig. 19B the operating voltage t*; ----

is not high enough, so during part

4'

of each cycle the grid becomes posi- 1

4
,e
tive. When this happens the grid
will start to take some of the elec-
e
trons that would normally flow to •
4
the plate of the tube with the result
that the top of the plate current o
300 400 3»
curve is somewhat distorted. The 4TC SOLOS

variations in plate current for a Fig. 20. Er l

p curves of the 6/1a6 tube.
given input signal are not linear
when the bias is too low.

THE Ep-Ip CURVE ma. The -1 volt grid curve cuts the
200 volt line at 3.5 ma. If we in-
The characteristic curves shown crease the plate voltage to 250 volte
in a tube manual are usually Ep-I p and keep the grid bias at -1 volt,
(plate voltage-plate current) curves the plate current will be 5ma, which
such as those shown in Fig.20.Each is a change of only 1.5 ma from the
curve is for a particular value of 200-volt point. Thus the change in
grid voltage. As you can see, when plate voltage of 50 volts has less
the plate voltage is higher it takes effect on the plate current than a
a higher grid bias voltage to cut off change of grid voltage of only 1volt.
the flow of plate current. You can
also get a good idea of how achange PLATE RESISTANCE
in grid voltage affects the plate cur-
rent. Find the vertical line repre- As we mentioned previously, a
senting a plate voltage of 200 volts. tube has internal resistance. The
Follow this line up until you see tube, in amplifying asignal, acts very
where it cuts the curve representing much like a generator with an in-
zero grid volts. It cuts this line just ternal resistance. This internal re-
above the horizontal line represent- sistance of the tube is called the ac
ing a plate current of 6 ma. The -1 plate resistance. Because the tube
volt grid curve cuts the 200 volt has this internal plate resistance,
line at about 3.5 ma. Thus, changing the gain that can be obtained from
the grid voltage from zero to -1 a tube is never quite equal to the
volt will change the plate current amplification factor of the tube.
from above 6 ma to 3.5 ma, or about The ac plate resistance is defined
2.5 ma. as the ratio of the change in plate
Notice how much more effective volts to the change in plate current
the grid is in controlling plate cur- that it produces. The symbol rp is
rent than the plate is. We saw that usually used to represent the ac plate
a change in grid voltage of 1 volt resistance of the tube. The symbol
caused a plate current change of 2.5 ep is used to represent the change in

24
plate voltage and the symbol ip is and when we refer to the plate re-
used to represent the change in plate sistance of the tube we will always
current. Thus the plate resistance of mean the ac plate resistance unless
a tube in ohms is: we specifically say that we are re-
ferring to the de plate resistance.
eP

rP i
P MUTUAL CONDUCTANCE

The ac plate resistance is one of Another important tube charac-

the characteristics listed in manu- teristic is mutual conductance. The
facturers' tube manuals. When the mutual conductance of the tube is
tube manual gives a plate resist- usually represented by the symbol
ance, it is for a certain value of gm .It is equal to the change in plate
plate and grid voltage. The ac plate current divided by the change in grid
resistance of a tube is affected by voltage required to produce the
the de voltage applied to the plate change in plate current. The unit of
and by the dc voltage applied to the mutual conductance is the mho. No-
grid. Therefore, if the tube is op- tice that mho is simply ohm written
erated at voltages other than those backwards.
listed, the plate resistance will not The formula for the mutual con-
be the same as the values shown. In ductance of a tube is:
some engineering type tube manuals
the plate resistance is given in the
form of a curve so that the plate
resistance can be determined with eg
different values of plate and/or grid
voltages.
So far we have been talking about where gm is the mutual conductance,
the ac plate resistance of a tube. ip is the change in plate current and
However, a tube also has a dc re- eg is the change in grid voltage.
sistance. In a circuit such as the Since the change in plate current
one shown in Fig. 13, with no input is usually in milliamperes, and the
signal applied to the grid, a certain change in grid volts is in volts, the
value of plate current will flow. This mutual conductance of the tube turns
plate current produces a voltage out to be a fraction of a mho. For
drop across the tube and a voltage example, if a change in grid voltage
across the load resistor. You know of 1volt produces a change in plate
from Ohm's Law that the resistance current of 1milliampere, the mutual
is equal to the voltage divided by the conductance is:
current, thus the dc resistance of the
tube is equal to the de plate voltage, .001
gm - 1 - .001 mho
which is the voltage between the plate
and cathode of the tube divided by the
dc plate current. Notice that both of To eliminate the fraction we usu-
these values are de values and there- ally express the mutual conductance
fore we get a de plate resistance for of a tube in micromhos. A micro-
the tube. This particular character- mho is a millionth of a mho. Thus
istic is not usually of importance .001 mho equals 1000 micromhos.

25
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN side a tube and in the circuit associ-
TUBE CHARACTERISTICS ated with the tube. However, by
means of what is called an equivalent
So far we have discussed three circuit we can analyze the perform-
important tube characteristics. ance of a tube more easily. A typi-
They are the amplification factor, cal triode amplifier is shown in Fig.
the plate resistance, and the mutual 21A and the equivalent circuit for
conductance. They can be repre- this stage is shown in Fig. 21B.No-
sented by symbols as follows: tice that the tube is represented by
a generator with a resistance con-
ep
nected in series with it. The voltage
Amplification factor = 0. =
eg developed by the tube is equal to the
amplification factor of the tube times
ep the grid voltage which is written
Plate resistance = rp 4eg. We know, however, that the out-
= ip
put voltage will be 180 degrees out
of phase with the input, and we there-
1
P
fore put the minus sign in front of
Mutual Conductance =gm eg ue g and indicate that the generator
vorta.ge is -ueg. This indicates that
Now let us look at how these char- the generator voltage, which is the
acteristics are inter-related. If we amplified voltage produced by the
multiply the plate resistance by the tube, is 180 degrees out of phase with
mutual conductance we get: the grid voltage. In other words, at
the instant the grid voltage swings
ep ip
positive, the generator will swing
rp X gm = -
ip X —
eg negative and then when the grid volt-
age swings negative, the generator
If you look at the second expression voltage swings positive.
you will see that you have ip both The ac plate resistance of the tube
above and below the line so these is represented by the resistor rp.
two can be cancelled and we get: The voltage dropped across this re-
sistance is lost as far as obtaining
ep useful output is concerned.
eg Now let us see just exactly how

We already know that ep over eg

equals 0., which is the amplification ,P I
o
factor. Thus the amplification fac-
tor is equal to the plate resistance
times the mutual conductance or:

= rp x gm

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

It is sometimes difficult to visu- Fig. 21. Asimple amplifier circuit is shown

alize exactly what is happening in- at A, and the equivalent circuit at B.

26
much gain we can obtain from the appear across the plate resistance,
circuit shown in Fig. 21A. We could and four-fifths, or 80 volts, will ap-
f1.3 the plate resistance of the tube pear across the load resistor.
and the amplification factor by look- Therefore, the output voltage in this
ing them up in a tube manual. Let's case would be 80 volts and the gain
assume that the amplification factor of the stage would be 80.
of the tube used in the circuit is 100, From this you might think that all
and the plate resistance of the tube we have to do is make the plate load
is 50,000 ohms. The load resistance resistor very large and we would get
Rt. Is 100K ohms as shown on each even more gain. This is true up to
diagram. a point, but remember that the cur-
If the input signal eg had an ampli- rent flowing in the plate-cathode cir-
tude of 1 volt, then the generator cuit of the tube must also flow
output voltage ae g = 100 x 1 = 100 through the plate load resistor. The
volts. The 100 volts produced by current through the plate load resis-
the generator divides between the tor produces a voltage drop across
50,000-ohm plate resistance rp and the load resistor. The higher the re-
the 100,000 ohm load resistance, R„ sistance of the resistor the greater
Thus, since the load resistance is the voltage drop across it. Since the
twice the size of the plate resist- voltage available between the plate
ance, the voltage across the load re- and the cathode of the tube is equal
sistance will be twice the voltage to the B supply voltage minus the
across the plate resistance. This voltage drop across the plate load
means that one-third of the 100 volts resistor there will be very little
at the generator will appear across voltage available between the plate
the plate resistance, and two-thirds, and cathode of the tube if we make
or approximately 66 volts, will ap- the plate load resistor too large.
pear across the load resistance. Eventually a point is reached where
From this we can see that for an the plate-cathode voltage is so low
input voltage of 1 volt, the useful that the amplification factor of the
output voltage across the load resis- tube begins to fall off. When this
tor is 66 volts. The gain of the stage point is reached, increasing the size
is equal to the output voltage divided of the plate load resistor results in
by the input voltage, which in this no further increase in the gain of the
case is 66 ÷ 1 = 66. Therefore in stage.
this circuit using a tube with an A way to calculate the gain of a
amplification factor of 100, we ob- triode stage is by the equation:
tained a gain of 66.
Consider what would happen if in-
Stage gain = x RL
stead of using a 100,000-ohm plate R +r
load resistor we used a200,000-ohm
plate load resistor. Now the plate This equation shows that the
load resistor is four times the plate larger the value of with respect
resistance and therefore there will to rP' the greater the gain of the
be four times as much voltage across stage. However, as we pointed out
the load resistor as across the plate there are practical limits to this
resistance. This means that one- because the plate voltage does drop
fifth of the voltage, or 20 volts, will too low if R, is made too large.

27
 SUMMARY Remember what the equivalent
circuit of the simple triode ampli-
In this section of this lesson you fier looks like. We consider the tube
have greatly expanded your knowl- as a generator with a resistance in
edge of tubes. There is a great deal series with it. The output voltage of
of information in the section, and you the generator is equal to -Jeg. The
should not expect to master and re- resistance in series with the gen-
tain all the ideas presented with one erator is equal to rp, the plate re-
reading. Be sure to go back and re- sistance of the tube.
view this section of this lesson sev- Remember that the equivalent tube
eral times. This is particularly im- circuit applies only to the ac signal-
portant because practically all of amplifying operation of the tube.We
your later lessons are going to be did not discuss the de operating volt-
based on the assumption that you ages when we discussed the equiva-
understand how tubes work. lent circuit. Later you will see that
Characteristic curves are impor- the equivalent circuit is very valu-
tant because they give you an indi- able in analyzing and understanding
cation of how the plate current of a the operation of amplifier stages. It
tube is going to change with changes will be particularly useful when we
in grid voltage. You can also see how study how amplifiers amplify signals
large a signal atube can handle with- of different frequencies.
out distortion. We do not expect you
to remember what the characteristic SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
curves we show look like, but you
should remember that they are (]() What is an Eg-Ip curve?
curved on both ends and this curva- (Y) What do we mean by the linear
ture in the characteristic curve portion of the Eg-Ip charac-
limits the amount of signal that can teristic curve?
be handled without distortion. (z) What is a grid bias voltage?
The three characteristics of tubes (an) What will be the effect of op-
that you should remember are the erating the tube with too low a
plate resistance, the amplification grid bias?
factor, and the mutual conductance. (ab) What happens when a tube is
Remember what they are: operated with too high a grid
eP bias?
Plate resistance = r - (ac) What is an Ep-Ip curve?
P
(ad) What is the ac plate resist-
ance of a tube?
eP
(ae) What is the dc plate resistance
Amplification factor = d =
eg of a tube?
(af) What is the mutual conduc-
tance of a tube?
Mutual conductance = gm = (ag) In what units is the mutual con-
eg
ductance of a tube measured?
You should also remember that the (ah) What is the relationship be-
amplification factor of atube is equal tween amplification factor,
to the plate resistance times the plate resistance and mutual
mutual conductance. conductance?

28
(ai) What do we mean by an equiv- resistance in series with the
alent circuit of an amplifier generator ?
stage? (al) If a triode amplifier has an
(aj) In an equivalent circuit used amplification factor of 50 and
to analyze the performance of a plate resistance of 10,000
a triode amplifier, what is the ohms, what will the stage gain
generator voltage? be when the amplifier is used
(ak) In the equivalent circuit of a in a circuit with a90,000-ohm
triode amplifier, what is the load resistor?

Multi-Element Tubes
From your study of the preceding is a spiral wire or mesh. The grid
section you can see that the triode and plate, since they are placed near
tube is a very useful device. How- and are insulated from each other,
ever, the triode has some definite actually form the two plates of aca-
limitations, and these limitations pacitor. Because the grid wire is
can be overcome by adding additional small and there is a reasonable
elements to the tubes. First, before amount of space between the plate
studying the multi-element tubes, and grid, the capacity is small, but
let's consider one of the big disad- in some circuits, particularly where
vantages of the triode in order to be fairly high frequencies are involved,
able to understand the advantages of there is a high enough capacity to
multi-element tubes better. introduce a number of undesired
effects.
PLATE -TO -GRID CAPACITY As you know, at a high frequency
even a small capacitor has a fairly
You will remember from your les- low reactance. Therefore if atriode
son on capacitors that a capacitor tube is used to amplify a high-fre-
consists of two metal plates placed quency signal, the amplified signal
close to each othe r. In capacitors the present in the plate circuit of the
metal plates are deliberately placed tube can be fed back into the grid
near each other in order to have circuit through the plate-to-grid ca-
capacity. However, when two pieces pacity. Under certain circumstances
of metal that are insulated from each this signal fed from the plate back
other are brought near each other, to the grid can be in phase with the
we will have a capacitor whether we signal applied to the grid of the tube
want it or not; for example, the plate so it will add to the input signal.
and grid of avacuum tube. The plate, This increase in the amplitude of
as you know, consists of a cylindri- the input signal in turn produces a
cally shaped piece of metal. The grid still greater signal in the output.

29
 The increased signal in the output
TUBE
PLATE
in turn increases the signal fed back ENVELOPE
SCREEN GRID
into the grid circuit which makes
the grid signal still stronger. This
increases the output signal still
more. This action goes on and on
until eventually a point is reached
CONTROL GRID
where the signal in the plate cir- CATHODE

cuit takes control in the grid and

the tube begins to generate its own
signal voltage. This is called oscil- Fig. 22. A screen-grid tube: A, a cross
lation. The signal fed from the plate section showing the arrangement of the
of the tube back to the grid is called elements: B, the schematic symbol.
a feedback signal. When the feed-
back signal, or more simply the just like a spiral-wound coil. The
feedback, is of the correct phase screen-grid wires are placed di-
so that it adds to the grid signal, rectly behind the grid wires so they
the tube will oscillate, which means are completely hidden from the elec-
generate its own signal, and hence trons by the grid wire. A cut-away
will not work as an amplifier. view of the tube would look some-
Not all triode amplifier stages thing like Fig. 23. Notice that the
will oscillate. It is possible to over- screen-grid wires are immediately
come this problem by means of suit- behind the control-grid wires.
able circuitry. However, in most ap- The effect of the screen grid is to
plications it is easier and more break the capacity between the plate
practical to overcome the problem and the control grid into two sepa-
in the tube itself. This is accom- rate capacitors. In other words,
plished by the addition of another there is a small capacity between
grid inside the tube. The second the plate of the tube and the screen,
grid is placed between the plate and and another capacity between the
the first grid to shield or screen the screen of the tube and the grid. These
grid from the plate and is called the two capacitors are connected in
screen grid or simply the screen. series so that the net plate-to-grid
The screen is also called the num-
ber-two grid.

THE SCREEN -GRID TUBE

The screen-grid tube is a four- - PLATE

element tube usually called a tet- SCREEN
GRID
rode. The four elements are the
cathode, the grid, the screen grid,
and the plate. Atop view of ascreen- CONTROL
GRID
grid tube showing the four elements _CATHODE
is shown in Fig. 22A, and the sche-
matic symbol for the screen-grid
tube is shown in Fig. 22B. Fig. 23. A cut-away view of a screen-grid
The screen grid is usually made tube.

30
capacity is much smaller than it is trons flowing will depend upon the
in the triode. In addition, the screen plate voltage, the grid voltage and
grid of a tube is normally operated the screen-grid voltage. In fact, the
at signal ground potential. There- number of electrons flowing from
fore any energy fed from the plate the cathode towards the plate will
of the tube back towards the grid is depend much more on the screen
fed to ground at the screen. This and grid voltages than on the plate
practically eliminates the feedback voltage.
from the plate to the grid of the tube. As in the triode tube, small
The de potential applied to the changes in grid voltage produced by
screen is always positive with re- the ac signal applied to the input
spect to the cathode. Usually the will produce comparatively large
voltage placed on the screen grid is changes in plate current. These
about half the voltage applied to the
plate of the tube, but in some tubes
the screen-grid voltage may be as
high as the plate voltage. This may
appear to be acontradiction because
we said that the screen grid is op-
erated at the signal ground potential.
Actually, it is possible to have atube
element at signal ground potential
and still have a positive or negative
de voltage applied to it. You will re-
member that acapacitor offers alow
Fig. 24. Schematic of a screen-grid am-
reactance to the flow of ac through
plifier. RI is used to reduce the B supply
it. Therefore we can ground the
voltage for the screen, and is called the
screen of a tube so far as signal is
screen voltage dropping resistor, or sim-
concerned by putting acapacitor be-
ply the screen dropping resistor. Cl is
tween the screen of the tube and the screen by-pass capacitor. R2 is the
ground. If the capacitor is large plate load resistor. The heater of the tube
enough, its reactance to the signal has been omitted to simplify the diagram.
is so low that the screen is practi-
cally at signal ground potential. At
the same time, since a capacitor changes in plate current will cause
does not permit the flow of de through the voltage between the plate and
it, you can connect it to a de voltage cathode of the tube to vary, and this
source and apply a positive voltage voltage will be the amplified output
to the screen. signal.
The schematic diagram of a typi- A few of the electrons flowing from
cal screen-grid amplifier circuit is the cathode of the tube towards the
shown in Fig. 24. Here the input sig- plate of the tube will strike the
nal is fed between the grid and the screen. Thus there will be a small
cathode of the tube as in the case of current flowing from the cathode of
the triode. Electrons flow from the the tube, to the screen grid, through
cathode of the tube to the plate of the the power supply and back to the
tube as in the triode. However, in cathode.
the tetrode tube the number of elec- Because the plate voltage has

31
much less effect on the plate cur- PENTODE TUBES
rent in a screen-grid tube than in a
triode tube, screen-grid tubes have The pentode tube is a tube with
a much higher amplification factor five elements. It is simply arefine-
than triodes. In addition they have ment of the screen-grid tube, which
a much higher plate resistance. is made by adding an additional grid
Dleadvantages. between the screen grid and the plate
Although the tetrode is a great of the tube. Thus, the pentode has
improvement over the triode, it does three grids. The third grid, or sup-
have certain disadvantages. One of pressor grid, gets its name because
these disadvantages, which led to it is put in the tube to suppress
the development of the pentode or or eliminate the undesirable effects
five-element tube, occurs because of secondary emission occurring at
of secondary emission. the plate of the tetrode tube. Be-
As you already know, electrons cause it is also the third grid it is
travelling from the cathode of the sometimes called the number-three
tube to the plate reach a fairly high grid.
speed, and when they strike the plate The suppressor is usually con-
they may knock other electrons off nected directly to the cathode of the
the plate. In a diode and a triode the tube, but sometimes it is connected
plate is the only positive element in directly to ground. It has very little
the vicinity of these loose electrons, effect upon the electrons travelling
and therefore they are attracted back from the cathode of the tube towards
to the plate. However, in a tetrode the plate. These electrons are at-
we have, in addition to the plate, the tracted from the cathode by the posi-
screen grid with a positive voltage tive potential on the screen of the
applied to it. If the plate voltage is tube. They are accelerated by this
substantially higher than the screen voltage, but as they approach the
voltage, the electrons will be at- screen, instead of stopping at the
tracted back to the plate, but if the screen they pass right through the
screen voltage is almost equal to or screen wires. Once they get through
even higher than the plate voltage, these wires they are attracted to
then the electrons knocked off the the plate by its positive voltage,
plate of the tube will be attracted to which is usually higher than the
the screen instead of to the plate. voltage on the screen. In the pen-
Thus, for every electron reaching tode tube, after the electrons
the plate from the cathode there may have passed the screen they are
be two or three electrons emitted by moving at a fairly high velocity, and
the plate. This means that if the grid they travel right on through the sup-
swings in a positive direction more pressor grid to the plate. The sup-
electrons will strike the plate, pressor does not have any appreci-
knocking still more electrons off the able effect on the progress of the
plate. The net result can be that the electron as it moves from the cath-
plate current decreases when the ode toward the plate.
grid swings positive. To prevent this When the electrons strike the plate
undesirable action athird grid called they knock other electrons off the
a suppressor grid was added to de- plate, as in the case of the screen-
velop the pentode tube. grid tube. However, these electrons

32
 are travelling at acomparatively low
speed when they are knocked off the ep
plate. The suppressor, which is con- Li -
eg
nected to the cathode or to ground or
may be operated with a low negative Since the plate voltage has very
voltage applied to it, repels the elec- little effect on the plate current in
trons emitted from the plate by sec- a tetrode or pentode tube, it takes
ondary emission, and these elec- a very large change in plate voltage
trons move back to the plate of the to produce the same change in plate
tube. Thus, the addition of the sup- current that can be produced by a
pressor grid eliminates the unde- small change in grid voltage. Thus,
sirable current flow from the plate the amplification factor of a tetrode
of the tube to the screen grid,which or a pentode tube is very high. We
we found could occur in the tetrode mentioned that the amplification fac-
tube. tor of a triode may be somewhere
Because the pentode tube has a between about 5 and 100. A triode
screen grid, it has the low plate- with an amplification factor of 100
to-grid capacity that we found in the is called a high-mu triode because
tetrode tube. In addition, the pentode it has a high amplification factor
has the advantage that it does not for a triode. However, pentodes with
suffer from the adverse effects of amplification factors of over 1000
secondary emission. are common.
It might be well to point out now
that the plate voltage on a tetrode BEAM POWER TUBES
or a pentode tube has very little
effect on the plate current. The volt- Another tube that solves the prob-
age on these tubes can be varied lem of secondary emission in
over wide limits without appreciably screen-grid tubes is the beam power
changing the plate current that will tube. The beam power tube, like the
flow in the tube. For a given grid screen-grid tube, is a tetrode or
voltage, the plate current will de- four-element tube in which this
pend primarily upon the screen volt- problem has been overcome. A
age. The screen is the electrode that sketch of abeam power tube is shown
starts the electrons moving from in Fig. 25.
the cathode to the plate and has more Notice the shape of the cathode of
effect on the number of electrons that the tube. It has two flat surfaces.
will flow from the cathode to the plate The construction of the cathode is
than the plate voltage does. such that most of the electrons will
You will remember that one of the be emitted by the flat surfaces and
characteristics of vacuum tubes that hence there is a tendency for the
we studied was the amplification fac- electrons to form into two beams,
tor. The amplification factor is the one on each side of the cathode. Only
ratio of the plate voltage required to one of these beams is shown in the
produce a given change in plate cur- drawing.
rent to the grid voltage required to Notice the two small additional
produce the same change in plate plates between the screen grid and
current. Remember that the formula the plate of the tube. These plates
is: are called the beam-confining or

33
 to the plate knocks additional elec-
BEAM-FORMING trons off the plate, these loose elec-
PLATE
trons, which will be travelling at a
CATHODE low speed, will be repelled back to
GRID the plate by the negative charge on
the electron beam.
SCREEN Beam power tubes are used in
radio, TV, and industrial electronic
equipment. Also, large beam power
tubes are used in transmitters. The
beam power tube has proven supe-
rior to the pentode in applications
where large amounts of power must
be handled.

Fig. 25. A beam-power tube.

OTHER TORE TYPES

beam-forming plates. The beam- The diode, triode, tetrode, and

forming plates are connected inter- pentode are the basic tube types.
nally to the cathode of the tube and However, there are many special
repel electrons. These plates act to tubes that have been manufactured
keep the electrons concentrated into for special applications. In addition,
the two beams that are formed at the there are tubes that are simply
cathode. The electrons flowing from combinations of several tubes in the
the cathode of the tube towards the same envelope.
plate are bunched together in these An example of a tube where sev-
beams. eral types have been combined in
You will remember that an elec- one envelope is the tube with atriode
tron has a negative charge and will and two diodes in it. A schematic of
repel other electrons. Therefore, if this type of tube is shown in Fig.
an electron travelling at a high 26. This tube is called a duo-diode-
speed from the cathode of the tube triode. As this name indicates, it
has two diodes and a triode in one
envelope.
DUAL
Other tubes consist of two triodes
DIODE
SECTION
in one envelope such as shown in
Fig. 27. In the schematic shown at
A, acommon cathode is used for the
two triode sections; in the one shown
at B, each triode section has its own
TRIODE
separate cathode.
SECTION Another combination type is the
triode-pentode shown in Fig. 28.
This type of tube is used in radio,
Fig. 26. A combination tube containing TV, and many industrial applica-
two diodes and a triode. This is called tions. In this way, one tube can be
a duo-diode triode. made to do the work of several.

34
 Compactrons offer an advantage
over tubes in separate envelopes in-
asmuch as they are somewhat less
expensive to manufacture than sepa-
rate tubes, and also it is possible
to make more compact equipment
because the space occupied by the
multi-function tube is considerably
Fig. 27. Dual triode tubes. The tube at A smaller than the space that would
has a common cathode. The tube at B has be required for separate tubes.
two separate cathodes. Notice this tube The Nuvistor tube is another im-
has a single heater with a center tap. Not portant tube. Most Nuvistors are
all tubes of this type have tapped heaters. simply triode tubes but they are very
small tubes. They look almost like a
flat thimble. The advantage of the
The pentagrid tube, shown in Fig. Nuvistor tube, in addition to its small
29, is an interesting tube.It is called size, is the very low capacity be-
a pentagrid tube because it has five tween the elements and the compara -
grids. Tubes of this type are used
as combination mixer-oscillators in
radio and TV receivers. We will GRIDS 3 AND 5 -
SCREEN GRID
study this type in more detail later.
You will also run into a tube GRID 2 -
GRID 4 - .7 OSCILLATOR
called the Compactron. The Corn- CONTROL ANODE GRID
GRID
pactron is simply a tube where sev- GRID I-
OSCILLATOR
eral types are combined in one en- CONTROL GRID

velope. Compactron tubes have a

base with twelve pins so it is pos-
sible to put a number of tubes in Fig. 29. A pentagrid tube.
the same envelope. Some Compac-
trons may have three triodes in the tively high gain that can be obtained
one envelope; some may have two with this type of tube. Because of
pentodes in the same envelope. the very small size of the elements
Others are combinations of diodes, used in the Nuvistor tube, this tube
pentodes and triodes. Tubes such as is quite widely used as an rf ampli-
fier in TV receivers. Later, when
we start studying specific amplifier
circuits, you will see why such a
tube as the Nuvistor would be ad-
vantageous as an amplifier at very
high frequencies.
While not all Nuvistor-type tubes
are triodes, almost all the ones you
are likely to encounter will be tri-
odes. There have been a few tetrode
Nuvistors manufactured, but these
were primarily for industrial appli-
Fig. 28. A pentode-triode. cations rather than entertainment-

35
type equipment. In addition, due to on the current-the plate current is
manufacturing difficulties and com- primarily determined by the grid
petition from transistors, Nuvistors voltage and the screen voltage.
other than the triode types have not The characteristic curves for
been too widely used. beam power tubes are quite similar
to those for pentode tubes. We have
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES not shown curves for screen-grid
tubes, because the screen-grid tube
The characteristic curves for has been replaced by the pentode and
pentode tubes are quite different beam power tubes in modern design.
from those for triodes. The Ep-Ip
curves for a typical pentode tube are SUMMARY
shown in Fig. 30. Notice that the
curves bend rather sharply at the In this section of the lesson you
left, but then are quite flat. For ex- have studied multi-element tubes.
ample, notice the curve represent- Remember that the screen-grid tube
was developed to eliminate the un-
'tot 6AU6
desirable effects produced by the
Cf . 4 3vOLTS
.— GO 1D - 11. 2 VOLTS • 100 high plate-to-grid capacity found in
4010-103 VOLTS •0

triode tubes. A screen-grid tube is

a tube with a high amplification fac-
I
tor and low plate-to-grid capacity.
However, because the screen is op-
05

erated with a positive voltage, the

G#1.0 , 41,1 vOLS TC, .10 electrons emitted from the plate by
\
'---" —.— -1
tC2' secondary emission were attracted
both to the plate and to the screen

r «).
____ —4--
--

of the tube. Some of the electrons

dgg 00
PLATC
400
VOLTS
$OO would flow to the screen and intro-
duce a number of undesirable
effects.
Fig. 30. Ep-l p curves for the 6A1 16 tube. To overcome the problem created
by secondary emission in the screen
grid tube, the pentode or five-ele-
ing the plate current with a grid ment tube was developed. The pen-
bias of -2 volts. As we start at the tode contains three grids: a control
lower left of the graph this curve grid, ascreen grid, and asuppressor
rises rapidly until we reach the line grid. These grids are often referred
representing the plate voltage of 50 to as grids 1, 2, and 3.
volts. At this point the plate current The undesirable effects of second-
is almost 2 milliamperes. Then, if ary emission can also be overcome
the voltage on the plate of the tube by constructing a flat type of cathode
is increased from 50 volts on up to and using beam-forming plates. This
450 volts, there is very little change led to the development of the beam
in the plate current. This simply power tube. The beam power tube is
demonstrates what we mentioned a tetrode tube, but it differs substan-
previously; in a pentode tube the tially in performance and construc-
plate voltage has very little effect tion from the old screen-grid tube.

36
 In addition to the screen grid, (an) What dc operating potential is
pentode, and beam power tubes, applied to the screen of atube?
there are a number of special tubes. (ao) How is the screen of atetrode
These tubes may actually be tubes tube operated in order to pro-
designed for one specific application vide maximum shielding be-
such as the pentagrid converter type tween plate and grid?
tube, or may simply be two or three (ap) Name the five elements in a
different tubes combined in the one pentode tube.
envelope. Tubes of this type consist (aq) What elements control the flow
of twin triodes, triode-pentode of plate current in the pentode
combinations, and duo-diode-tri- tube?
odes. (ar) How are the undesirable ef-
fects of secondary emission
SELF -TEST QUESTIONS overcome in the beam power
tube?
(am) What is the purpose of the (as) What is a Compactron?
screen grid in a tetrode tube? (at) What is a Nuvistor?

Special Tube Types

There are a number of special- izes, filling the inside of the tube
purpose tubes that have been de- with mercury vapor. This particular
signed for particular applications. type of tube makes an excellent
Many of these tubes were designed rectifier. One of its characteristics
for use in transmitting and industrial is that the voltage drop across the
electronic equipment, but some of tube is almost constant regardless
these tubes will also be found in of the current flowing through the
equipment that the radio-TV serv- tube. Let us look into the mercury-
iceman may be called on to service. vapor diode tube and see how it dif-
In most cases it is not particularly fers from a high-vacuum diode.
difficult to understand how these The circuit shown in Fig. 31 can
tubes operate. be used to compare the character-
istics of the vacuum diode and the
GAS -FILLED DIODES mercury-vapor diode. If we use a
vacuum diode in this circuit, we will
We mentioned earlier that gas is find that when the voltage applied
sometimes deliberately introduced to the circuit is zero, the voltage
into a tube. A common application between the plate and the filament
of this principle is found in some of the tube is zero, and the current
diodes where mercury is placed in- flowing in the circuit is zero. If we
side the tube. The mercury vapor- increase the voltage to 5 volts, we

37
 zero and again that the current flow-
ing in the circuit was zero. When
MILLIAMMETER we increase the source voltage until
VARIABLE we get a reading on the voltmeter of
DC
about 5volts, there will be acurrent
VOLTAGE
SOURCE flowing in the circuit. A further in-
VOLTMETER crease to 10 volts would result in a
further increase in the current flow-
ing in the circuit. If we increase the
Fig. 31. A circuit for comparing vacuum voltage to 15 volts, we would get an-
and gas-filled diodes. other increase in the current flow-
ing in the circuit. However, when
will notice a reading on the volt- we increase the voltage above 15
meter indicating that there is volt- volts something unusual will hap-
age between the plate and the fila- pen. At some voltage above 15 volts,
ment of the tube and that current is the tube will fire; this means that it
starting to flow in the circuit. If we will suddenly start to glow with a
then increase the variable voltage blue glow. When this happens, the
source to 10 volts, we will find that reading on the voltmeter connected
the voltage between the plate and the between the plate and the filament
filament of the tube has increased of the tube will drop back to 15 volts.
and that the current flowing in the We would find that increasing the
circuit has increased. If we keep in- voltage from the variable voltagE
creasing the voltage in 5-volt steps, source further would not result in
we will find that the reading on the any increase in the voltage between
voltmeter will gradually increase, the plate and the filament of the tube.
and at the same time the current However, the current flowing in the
flowing in the circuit will increase. circuit would continue to increase
This will continue in this way until as long as we increased the voltage
a plate voltage is reached where all of the source. If we plotted a curve
the electrons being emitted by the to show the relationship between the
tube are being attracted to the plate. voltmeter reading and the milli-
Then, increasing the voltage would ammeter readings for this tube, we
result in little or no increase in
current flowing through the tube. If
we plotted the curve to show the
50
relationship between the voltage
40
across the tube and the current flow-
ing through the tube, we would get a 30
4
curve like the one shown in Fig. 32A. 3
e,20

If we perform the same experi- 10 10

ment with a mercury vapor diode,
o o
we would obtain somewhat different 0 10 20 30 40 50 o 10 20 30 40
EpVOLTS Ep VOLTS
results. If we started with the volt-
age from the variable voltage source
at zero, we would find the reading Fig. 32. The Ep-l p curve for a vacuum
on the voltmeter connected between diode is shown at A. and the curve for a
the plate and filament of the tube was mercury-vapor diode is shown at B.

38
would get a curve similar to Fig. ment of the tube to the plate, which
32B. Notice that up to some voltage will knock electrons off the gas
slightly over 15 volts this curve is molecule again, give it a positive
very similar to the curve obtained charge, and once more it will start
for the vacuum diode, but when the back to the space charge to pick up
firing point is reached, the voltage additional electrons in order to get
between the plate and the filament rid of the positive charge.
of the tube drops down to 15 volts If the right amount of mercary
and then remains constant at this vapor is present in the tube, the gas
value, while at the same time the molecules will neutralize or elimi-
current through the tube can in- nate the effects of the space charge
crease almost indefinitely. around the filament of the tube. Thus,
Now let us see what is happening the electrons will be able to leave
inside the mercury vapor tube. When the filament and travel directly to
the low positive voltage is applied to the plate of the tube with little or no
the plate of the tube, electrons emit- opposition. This results in a tube
ted by the filament are attracted to with a very low internal resistance.
the plate. These electrons do not The voltage drop across a tube of
reach any great velocity, so they this type is almost constant and is
simply travel over to the plate of about 15 volts regardless of the cur-
the tube. Some of them will strike rent flowing through the tube.
the gas molecules inside the tube, When the gas inside the tube ion-
but they are not traveling at a high izes, it gives off a bright blue glow.
enough speed to knock any electrons When this happens we say that the
off the molecules. As the plate volt- tube fires. The firing point for a
age is increased, eventually a volt- mercury vapor tube is slightly above
age is reached where the electrons 15 volts, but once the tube has fired
travelling from the filament to the the voltage drop across the tube will
plate of the tube reach ahigh enough drop back to approximately 15 volts
speed to knock electrons off the gas and remain essentially constant at
molecules that they strike. When this this value.
happens, the electrons knocked off Mercury vapor diodes are used as
the gas molecules travel over to the rectifiers. It is a great advantage to
plate of the tube, thus increasing the have rectifier tubes that have acon-
number of electrons reaching the stant voltage drop, particularly in
plate. At the same time, the mole- equipment where the current drawn
cules that have had some electrons from the power supply varies ap-
removed will have a positive charge preciably. If the current varies and
on them, and they will travel over to- a vacuum type rectifier is used,
wards the filament of the tube. As there will be considerable variation
these molecules enter into the area in the voltage drop across the tube,
of the space charge around the tube and as a result a variation in the
filament, they will pick up electrons output voltage from the power sup-
from the space charge, lose their ply. However, in a mercury vapor
positive charge, and then begin to tube, since the voltage drop across
drift away from the tube cathode. the tube is practically constant re-
They, in turn, will be hit by other gardless of the current flowing
electrons travelling from the fila- through it, the output voltage from

39
 on the same principle as the mer-
cury-vapor diode, but instead of
mercury, argon gas is introduced
into the tube. This tube has many
of the characteristics of the mer-
cury-vapor diode; it has an almost
constant voltage drop of about 10
volts across it. It is particularly
Fig. 33. Dot inside the envelope is used suitable for applications requiring
to indicate a gas-filled tube. This is the a low voltage and a high current.
schematic symbol for agas-filled diode.
THE THYRATRON
the power supply will be almost con-
stant even though the current drawn In addition to mercury-vapor di-
from the supply and through the tube odes, mercury-vapor triodes are
may vary appreciably. also used. A mercury-vapor tube
To distinguish tubes containing with a grid is called a thyratron.
gas from vacuum tubes in a sche- The construction of a thyratron is
matic diagram, a dot is usually somewhat different from the con-
placed inside the tube envelope on struction of a vacuum-type triode
the schematic symbol. The sche- tube. A sketch of a thyratron is
matic symbol for a gas-filled diode shown in Fig. 34.
rectifier is shown in Fig. 33. The control that the grid has over
Mercury is not the only gas used the flow of plate current in the thyra-
in gas-filled tubes, but it is the most tron is quite different from the con-
commonly used in rectifier tubes. trol the grid has in the high-vacuum
Mercury-vapor tubes are not found rectifier. In a thyratron, as long as
in modern radio and TV receivers the grid is maintained sufficiently
but are used in many other applica- negative to cut off the flow of plate
tions. current, there will be no electron
An example of another gas-filled flow from the cathode of the tube
diode is the Ttmgar tube. This tube to the plate. Even with a high posi-
is somewhat similar to and operates tive voltage on the plate of the tube,
the grid, if it is negative enough, can
block the flow of electrons to the
/ PLATE TERMINAL
plate. Electrons emitted by the cath-
PLATE ode are simply driven back into the
space charge and to the cathode.
GRID Up to this point the action of the
grid in a thyratron is similar to the
action of the grid in avacuum triode.
CATHODE
However, if the grid voltage on the
HEATER
thyratron is reduced below the val-
ue required for cut-off, something
entirely different happens.
A circuit using a thyratron is
shown in Fig. 35A. If the grid is
Fig. 34. Construction of athyratron. made negative and apositive voltage

40
 plied in the grid circuit so the grid
itself does not become very negative.
Therefore, the grid is unable to gain
control of the plate current, so
the plate current continues to flow
from the cathode to the plate of the
tube even though the negative volt-
age applied to the grid circuit may
be considerably greater than the ap-
plied voltage that would originally
cut off the flow of plate current. If
we increase the negative grid volt-
rig. 35. Circuit using athyratron. age to a very high value to try to cut
off the flow of plate current, we
Is applied to the plate, the grid is simply attract more ions to the grid.
able to cut off the flow of plate cur- These positive ions will attract more
rent. Once the grid voltage is re- electrons from the grid,with the re-
duced below cut-off, electrons be- sult that the number of electrons
gin flowing from the cathode of the flowing from the grid to the ions may
tube to the plate. These electrons become quite high. This current
flowing through the tube will strike could become so high the tube would
the gas molecules and knock elec- be destroyed if it were not for the
trons off them. These electrons will resistor R1 placed in the grid cir-
flow over to the plate of the tube. cuit which helps to keep the grid
Meanwhile, the gas molecules that current down to a safe value.
now have a positive charge on them In a thyratron, if the plate current
will drift to the space charge to pick is to be cut off by the grid voltage,
up electrons to neutralize the posi- the negative voltage needed to cut
tive charge. In doing this, they re- off the flow of plate current must be
move the electrons in the space applied to the grid of the tube before
charge which in effect reduces the the plate voltage is applied. Then
internal resistance of the tube, and the positive voltage can be applied
permits a high current to flow. to the plate of the tube, and the grid
If we try to cut off the flow of plate will prevent the electrons from
current by increasing the negative reaching the plate of the tube. But
grid voltage to the cut off value again, once the grid voltage is reduced to
the negative grid will attract positive a point called the "starting" point,
ions which are gas molecules that where electrons can begin flowing
have had electrons knocked off them. from the cathode to the plate, the
These positive ions will, in turn,at- tube will fire, just as the mercury-
tract electrons from the grid. These vapor diode does, and the positively
electrons are coming to the grid charged molecules will neutralize
through R1, and as aresult there will the space charge. This will permit a
be a voltage drop across this resis- high current to flow through the tube
tor as shown in Fig. 35B. This volt- and at the same time be attracted to
age drop has a polarity opposite to the grid and neutralize any negative
that of the grid battery and will tend voltage placed on it to try to cut off
to neutralize the negative voltage ap- the flow of plate current.

41
 In a circuit using a thyratron, face of the cathode ray tube is cov-
once the grid has lost control of the ered with a phosphorescent type of
flow of plate current, the only way it material. When this surface is
can regain control is by removing struck by electrons, it glows and
the plate voltage from the tube. Once gives off light.
the plate voltage is removed, the grid If the electrons accelerated down
can regain control; plate voltage the electron gun were permitted to
can then be reapplied to the tube and travel directly towards the face of
no current will flow through it as the tube, they would all strike the
long as the grid voltage is kept suf- face at approximately the same
ficiently negative to prevent any spot--somewhere near the center of
electrons from flowing from the the tube. However, the electron beam
cathode to the plate of the tube.
Thyratrons are extremely useful
in industrial electronic applications.
In some circuits, ac is applied to
the plate of the tube instead of dc.

THE CATHODE -BAY TUBE

Another important tube found in

many pieces of test equipment and
also in TV receivers is the cathode
ray tube. A photo of a cathode ray
tube is shown in Fig. 36.
In the neck of a cathode ray tube
is a device known as an electron
gun. A typical electron gun is also
shown in Fig. 36. The electron gun Loran« ONTRTNNE OCT TEN NETTER SUPPORT

contains a heater, which heats a

YOUNT MCI* NIPPON?
MOO NOT
MCCOWN ANOLICI
cathode; the cathode emits elec-
trons; and these electrons are at- MANIOC NORILATOR

tracted by the high positive voltage MO NO.

LINCRLCRATOR 411101
on the anodes in the tube. Between NNW A1110011

the first anode and the cathode is Merzo.reNtter IRO MO LINO

the grid, as shown in the figure. The CAM«

«RAM ONILLATOR
grid is used to control the number MOOR CORMS
IRS NO. I

of electrons passing from the cath- Ofrerlin '

CONTROL IMO

LINO ORAL MVO

ode towards the anodes. CONOCO »WACO

The anodes in a cathode ray tube MD RD I 11/0

are arranged with ahole in the center

COLMI OCCUR

of them so that instead of attracting

electrons to themselves, they ac- KNOT MUTTON !TIM
METAL RCM« OM
celerate the electrons down the neck LIAS NIAI.

of the tube. The electrons pass right

through the holes in the anodes and
travel at a very high speed towards Fig. 36. A cathode ray tube is shown
the face of the cathode ray tube. The above; an electron gun of a cri below.

42
can be deflected so that it can be
made to strike any point on the face
of the tube.
The electron beam can be deflec-
ted by means of plates inside the
neck of the cathode ray tube. If a
positive voltage is put on one plate
and a negative voltage on another,
the positive plate will attract and
bend the electron beam towards it
and at the same time the negative Fig. 37. Sehematie symbol of a VR tube.
plate will push the beam away from
it. If two sets of parallel plates are sible to produce color pictures. Of
installed in a tube, one in the hori- course, the color tube is more com-
zontal plane and the other in the plex than this, and there are other
vertical plane, the horizontal plates parts that we have omitted. We will
can be used to move the electron study them later, but this will give
beam up and down, and the plates you a general idea of what a color
installed in the vertical direction tube is like.
can be used to move the electron
beam from side to side. Such a tube OTHER SPECIAL TUBE TYPES
is called an electrostatic cathode
ray tube. There are many other special tube
The electron beam may also be types found in electronic equipment.
deflected by magnetic fields pro- Voltage Regulator Tubes.
duced by two pairs of coils. This is One type that is quite common is
called electromagnetic deflection. the voltage regulator tube, often ab-
The picture tubes used in TV re- breviated the Vit tube. The sche-
ceivers use this type of deflection. matic symbol used to represent a
Color picture tubes are similar Vit tube is shown in Fig. 37.
to the tubes shown in Fig. 36 except Notice that the Vit tube is a gas-
that three electron guns are used filled tube. It is often used in a cir-
inside of the tube. One gun is used cuit like the one shown in Fig. 38.
for each of the three primary colors, An important characteristic of this
red, blue and green. These guns are type of tube is that it maintains an
arranged to produce three electron almost constant voltage drop across
beams that travel to the face of the it. If the voltage tends to increase,
picture tube and strike phosphors the tube will draw current, which will
that will give off colored light. In result in a greater voltage drop
other words, the blue gun strikes a across the resistor so that the volt-
phosphor dot that produces blue;
the red gun strikes a phosphor dot
that produces red, and the green gun
UNREGULATED REGULATED
strikes a phosphor dot that produces VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
green. Hundreds of thousands of dots
are placed on the face of the tube,
and by sweeping the electron beams
over the face of the tube it is pos - Fig. 38. A circuit using aVR tube.

43
age across the tube will remain con- A three-element mercury-vapor
stant. This type of tube is used to tube is called a thyratron tube. The
regulate the voltage in circuits most important characteristic of a
where it is important for the voltage thyratron is that the grid can prevent
to be held as constant as possible. the flow of current from the cathode
Photo Tubes. to the plate if it is made negative
Another type of tube found in elec- enough before the plate voltage is
tronic equipment is the photo tube. applied to the tube. However, once
This tube has acathode and an anode, the current begins to flow from the
or plate. Instead of emitting elec- cathode to the plate of the tube,
trons by thermionic emission, this putting a negative voltage on the grid
tube is designed to emit electrons of the tube will not cut off the flow
when light strikes its cathode.Elec- of plate current because the nega-
trons travel over to the plate of the tive voltage attracts the positive gas
tube and thus current flows through ions in the tube and these ions draw
the tube. In Fig. 39 we have shown electrons from the grid. If the grid
a picture of a photoelectric tube and voltage is high enough, this will cause
the schematic symbol for it. such a high grid current that the
tube may be destroyed.
The cathode ray tube is found in
TV and in many pieces of test equip-
ment. It contains an electron gun
which is used to shape the electrons
into a beam and to accelerate them
down the gun towards the face of the
tube. Electrons striking the face of
the tube cause the tube to glow and
give off light. Cathode ray tubes are
made in two types, those using elec-
trostatic deflection and those using
electromagnetic deflection.
Fig. 39. A photoelectric tube and its Other special tubes are the photo
schematic symbol. tubes and the voltage regulator
tubes. You will see more of these
SUMMARY tube types later.

There are many special tube types SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

in electronic equipment. Among
these are the gas-filled tubes. Gas- (au) What do we mean when we say
filled diodes are frequently used in a mercury-vapor fires?
power supplies, particularly where (ay) What is the advantage of a
the current drawn from the power mercury-vapor diode over a
supply goes through wide variations. vacuum-tube diode as arecti-
Mercury-vapor rectifier tubes are fier?
found in many pieces of industrial (aw) What is a thyratron?
electronic equipment and in the (ax) What is the main difference
power supplies of most radio and between a thyratron and acon-
TV transmitters. ventional triode tube?

44
 (ay) What is the purpose of the The plate or anode.
anodes in the electron gun of The plate receives a certain
a cathode-ray tube? amount of heating from the
(az) What two types of deflection cathode of the tube and the re-
may be used with a cathode- mainder is produced by elec-
ray tube? trons striking it.
)The plate may begin to emit
LOOKING AHEAD electrons and the excessive
heat may force gases out of
Now that you have studied the vari- the plate material into the
ous tube types and have learned how space surrounding the plate of
they operate, the next thing is to see the tube.
them actually used in typical cir- (k) The getter is used to elimi-
cuits. In your next lesson you will nate gases that are released
study the most common circuits inside the tube the first time
found in electronic equipment. These it is heated after it has been
circuits are the basic circuits from sealed.
which more complex circuits have (1)
A tube from which all of the
been developed. gases have been removed.
(m) A tube into which a certain
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST amount of gas has been de-
QUESTIONS liberately introduced. An ex-
ample of the type of gas fre-
(a) A cathode and a plate. quently introduced into diode
tubes is mercury vapor.
(b) Tube cathodes can be divided
into directly heated and in- (n) It simply indicates that a few
directly heated types. electrons are missing the
(c) A filament. plate and striking the glass.
(d) By means of a heater which This often happens and does
is a coil of wire placed inside not mean that there is any-
the cathode. The cathode is thing wrong with the tube.
usually made in the form of (o) When we say the plate current
a hollow tube. -plate voltage is linear we
(e) To provide an abundant supply mean that a given change in
of electrons at low operating plate voltage will produce a
temperatures. constant change in plate cur-
rent. In other words, if we in-
)None. Other than to heat the
cathode the heater serves no crease the plate voltage from
useful purpose and therefore 70 volts to 80 volts it will
it is often left off the sche- cause a certain increase in
matic diagram in order to plate current. If we increase
simplify the diagram. the plate voltage another 10
volts it will cause a similar
(g) Approximately 8 volts. The
first number or numbers pre- increase in plate current.
ceding the first letter in atube (P) The grid is much closer to the
type indicates the approximate cathode than the plate and
heater voltage required by the therefore the voltage applied
tube. to the grid of the tube has a

45
 greater effect on plate cur- nal reaches its maximum
rent than the same voltage ap- negative value, the amplified
plied to the plate will have. signal will reach its maximum
(q) The positive voltage applied positive value. We say that the
to the grid of the tube will output signal is inverted or
cause the number of electrons 180° out of phase with the in-
flowing from the cathode to put signal.
increase. Most of these elec- (v) The ac plate current is the
trons will flow through the changing plate current pro-
grid structure to the plate be- duced by the input signal volt-
cause the plate will normally age. It acts like an ac current
have a much higher positive superimposed on the de plate
voltage than the grid. By current that flows through the
the time the electrons have tube when the input signal is
reached the grid they will be zero.
travelling at such ahigh speed (w) A grounded-cathode amplifier
that they will pass right is an amplifier using a tube in
through the grid and flow over which the cathode is at signal
to the plate. However, some of ground potential.
the electrons will be attracted (x) An Eg -I p curve is a grid volt-
by the grid and will cause age-plate current curve. It
some current to flow in the shows how the plate current
grid circuit. varies with different values
(r) As the negative grid voltage is of grid voltage.
increased, the plate current (y) The linear portion of the Eg-I p
will decrease until eventually characteristic curve is the
the grid voltage will become straight portion of the char-
negative enough to prevent any acteristic curve. In Fig. 15,
electrons from reaching the the linear portion is between
plate. When this happens we approximately -6 volts and 0
say that the plate current is volts.
cut off. (z) A grid-bias voltage is a volt-
(8) The amplification factor of a age applied between the grid
tube is the ratio of the change and the cathode of the tube to
in plate voltage to the change fix the operating grid voltage
in grid voltage required to so that the tube will operate
produce the same change in over the linear portion of the
plate current. Eg-I p characteristic curve.
(t) Between 5 and about 100. (an) When a tube is operated with
(u) The amplified signal will nor- too low a grid bias, the signal
mally be the same as the in- may drive the grid in a posi-
put signal except it will be tive direction. When this hap-
180° out of phase. In other pens, the grid will draw cur-
words, when the input signal rent with the result that the
reaches its maximum positive increase in plate current will
value, the amplified signal will not be linear. This results in a
reach its maximum negative flattening of one half of the
value and when the input sig- amplified output signal.

46
(ab) When the operating grid bias unit and thus we usually con-
on a tube is too high, the input vert this to micro-mhos by
signal may drive the grid so multiplying it by 1,000,000.
far in a negative direction that (ah) u = rp x gm .
the flow of plate current may (ai) An equivalent circuit is acir-
be completely cut off. This cuit used to analyze the per-
will result in a flattening of formance of an amplifier
the negative half of the plate stage.
current cycle which will pro- (aj) The generator voltage is
duce amplitude distortion. The voltage is negative to in-
(ac) An Ep-Ip curve is a charac- dicate the fact that it is in-
teristic curve which shows the verted by the stage. In other
plate current for different val- words, the output voltage is
ues of plate voltage. A series 180° out of phase with the in-
of these curves are usually put voltage.
given, one curve for each val- (ak) The generator internal resist-
ue of grid voltage. ance is the plate resistance of
(ad) The ac plate resistance of a the tube.
tube is the ratio of a change (al) The stage gain will be 45. To
in plate voltage to a change in find the gain of the stage we
plate current that it produces. use the formila
It is represented by the for-
mula: stage gain =4. X R RL
ep
L + rp
rp - ip
and substituting 50 for the am-
plification factor, 90,000 for
(ae) The de plate resistance of a the load resistance and 10,000
tube is the dc plate voltage for the plate resistance we get
measured between the plate
90,000
and cathode of the tube di- stage gain = 50 x
90,000 + 10,000
vided by the dc plate current
flowing through the circuit. 90,000
= 50 x
(af) The mutual conductance of a 100,000
tube is equal to a change in
9
plate current divided by the = 50 x
10
change in grid voltage re-
quired to produce the change
= 45
in plate current. Mutual con-
ductance is usually repre- (am) The screen grid reduces the
sented by gm and the formula plate-to-grid capacitance and
for mutual conductance is prevents oscillation due to
feedback from the plate to the
ip

grid of the tube.

gM = eg (an) The screen of a tetrode tube
is operated with apositive po-
(ag) The mutual conductance is tential applied to it. Usually
measured in mhos. However, the positive potential is about
the mho is a rather large half the plate potential.

47
(ao) The screen is operated at sig- the tube suitable for use in rf
nal ground potential. We ac- amplifiers.
complish this by connecting a (au) When we say a mercury vapor
suitable capacitor between the tube fires we mean that the
screen of the tube and ground. gas inside the tube ionizes.
The capacitor offers alow re- (ay) The mercury vapor tube has
actance to ac signals on the a constant voltage drop re-
screen so, insofar as the sig- gardless of the current flow-
nals are concerned, the screen ing through the tube. The vacu-
is essentially at ground po- um type rectifier does not have
tential. this desirable characteristic;
(ap) The five elements in the pen- the voltage drop across the
tode tube are the cathode, the tube will depend upon the cur-
grid, the screen grid, the sup- rent flowing through the tube.
pressor grid and the plate. (aw) A thyratron is essentially a
(aq) The grid and the screen grid. triode tube that has been filled
The voltage applied to the grid with a gas such as mercury
and the voltage applied to the vapor.
screen grid will control the (ax) In a thyratron, the grid can
flow of plate current in apen- keep the plate current cut off
tode tube. The plate voltage on if a high negative voltage is
a pentode tube has very little applied to the grid before volt-
effect on the plate current age is applied to the plate of
flowing in the tube. the tube. Once the plate cur-
(ar) In abeam-power tube the elec- rent begins to flow, the grid
trons are focused in two loses all control of the flow
beams. Electrons knocked off of plate current and normally
the plate are moving at aslow cannot be used to reduce or
speed and they are repelled by cut off the plate current. In a
the high-speed electrons in the vacuum-type triode tube, how-
beam back to the plate of the ever, the grid always main-
tube. tains control over the flow of
(as) A Compactron is simply atube plate current.
where several types have been (ay) The anodes are used to ac-
combined in just one envelope. celerate and focus the elec-
The base of the Compactron tron beam. They are not de-
tube has twelve pins so that it signed primarily to attract
is possible to combine anum- electrons as is the plate in the
ber of complete tubes in the conventional tube, but rather
same envelope. they are used to accelerate
(at) A Nuvistor is aminiature tube electrons in the form of abeam
shaped something like athim- down the electron gun towards
ble with a flat top. The tube is the phosphor on the face of the
extremely small and therefore cathode-ray tube.
the capacity between the plate (az) Electrostatic deflection and
and grid is quite low, making electro-magnetic deflection.

48
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your answer sheet B110.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them.Don'thold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time or you may run out of lessons before the new ones can reach you.

1. What type of emission is used in avacuum tube with either a directly

or an indirectly heated cathode?

2. Approximately what heater voltage would you expect a 12BE6 tube to

require?

3. Why does secondary emission occur at the plates of most tubes?

4. If we find that in a certain triode tube a change in grid voltage of 2

volts produces the same change in plate current as a change in plate
voltage of 100 volts, what is the amplification factor of the tube?

5. When the signal voltage swings the grid of the amplifier shown in Fig.
13 in a positive direction, in what direction does the plate voltage
swing? Why?

6. Why do we apply grid bias to a tube?

7. Name the three important tube characteristics and give the formula
for each.

8. Why can the stage gain of atriode amplifier never quite equal the am-
plification factor of the tube?

9. How does the suppressor in a pentode tube prevent the undesirable

effects of secondary emission that occur in a tetrode?

10. How can you stop the flow of plate current in a thyratron once the
tube has fired?
 ENTHUSIASM
Starting work in a new field of endeavor just
naturally arouses an intense and eager interest in
what you are doing -- an enthusiasm which not only
makes study and work a pleasure, but also betters
your chances for success.

My students have enthusiasm for their Course of

training because it is preparing them for a definite
goal -- an independent business or a good job. They
are continually finding, in the lessons studied, ex-
planations for mysteries which they have encountered.
Discovering immediate uses for fundamental facts
keeps their enthusiasm high.

When enthusiasm is aroused in an ambitious man,

he reacts like a thoroughbred race horse, giving all
the speed and effort in him. If you try to arouse en-
thusiasm in a mule, however, all he will do is kick:

A real and lasting enthusiasm for electronics will

make your study and work as pleasant as play, and
will make your life much happier.

.,e-...,..--.
Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-210
 HOW TUBES ARE USED

ejrea"
*Wen- l_rerj_dr
Fr I-rid B111
HOW TUBES ARE USED

Bill
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NR! Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

1. Introduction Pages 1-2

2. Types of Amplifiers Pages 2-8

You learn that amplifiers can be divided into classes according
to operation, and into voltage amplifiers and power amplifiers
according to the applications for which they are used.

3. Typical Amplifiers Pages 9-18

In this section you study examples of both audio and rf
amplifiers.

4. Detectors and Rectifiers Pages 19 -23

We study detectors and rectifiers .together in this section,
because they both work on the principle of allowing current to
flow in only one direction.

5. Oscillators Pages 24 -28

You study the Hartley oscillator, the Colpitts oscillator, and
the multivibrator.

6. A Complete Superheterodyne Receiver Pages 29 -37

We take the various circuits you have studied and put them
together to form acomplete receiver.

7. Amplifier Variations Pages 38 -43

We take up grounded-cathode, grounded-grid, and grounded-
plate (cathode-follower) amplifiers.

8. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 44 -48

9. Answer the Lesson Questions.

10. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1967 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

. JDL3M 1174 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW TUBES ARE USED

In the preceding lesson you studied tubes operate and to study anumber
tube fundamentals and learned how of important basic tube circuits. You
a vacuum tube works. You learned will study amplifiers similar to
that a tube is a unilateral device. those used to amplify an audio or a
By this we mean that it works in video signal. You will study rf am-
only one direction. Current will flow plifiers, detectors and oscillators.
from the cathode to the plate of the All of these circuits will be found
tube, but it will not normally flow in modern electronic equipment. You
from the plate to the cathode. will also study rectifiers. Although
You learned that in a three-ele- tube-type rectifiers are no longer
ment tube, a grid placed near the used in new receiving-type equip-
cathode can control the flow of elec- ment, they are still used in trans-
trons from the cathode to the plate. mitters, in industrial applications
Because the grid is closer to the and in many older radio and TV re-
cathode than the plate is, it has a ceivers.
greater effect on the flow of plate These are the basic circuits that
current than the plate. Hence, a you are most likely to encounter.
small signal voltage applied to the Later on, you will study many other
grid of a vacuum tube will cause the circuits.
plate current to vary. This varying After we have looked at the basic
plate current can develop a voltage circuits separately, we will see how
several times the original grid volt- these different circuits are used to-
age across the plate load. This gether to form a complete radio re-
ability of the grid to control the flow ceiver. The basic principles used in
of current from the cathode to the radio receivers are similar to those
plate of the tube is what makes it used in both black and white and
possible for the tube to amplify a color television reception.
signal. In the last section of the lesson
The purpose of this lesson is to we will take up some variations in
increase your understanding of how amplifier circuits. In the simple am-

1
plifier you studied in the preceding tween the cathode and ground. The
lesson, the load was placed in the load is placed in the plate circuit.
plate circuit of the tube and the cath- This type of amplifier is called a
ode was operated at signal-ground grounded-grid amplifier. In this les-
potential. This type of amplifier is son you will study all three types.
called a grounded-cathode ampli- While most of the amplifiers you
fier. However, there are different will find are grounded-cathode am-
circuits in which one of the other plifiers, grounded-grid amplifiers
elements is operated at ground po- are used both in transmitting and
tential. In one type of amplifier the receiving equipment. Also, cathode-
plate is grounded, and the load is followers are quite widely used in
placed in the cathode circuit. This industrial applications, and they have
type of amplifier is called a been quite widely used in color TV
grounded-plate amplifier or more receivers. The material you will
frequently a cathode-follower. In study in this lesson is primarily an
still another type of amplifier the introduction to the different types of
grid is operated at ground potential, amplifiers. You will study them all
and the input signal is applied be- in greater detail later.

Types of Amplifiers
Amplifiers can be divided into fiers and in radio and TV transmit-
classes according to the amount of ters.
bias applied to the tube.You will re- In still another type of amplifier
member that the bias is a negative the grid voltage applied to the tube
voltage applied between the grid and is several times the negative volt-
cathode of a tube. If the bias applied age required to cut off the flow of
to a tube is midway between zero plate current. This type of ampli-
bias and cut-off bias, the amplifier fier is called a Class C amplifier.
is called a Class A amplifier. A Class C amplifiers are used as
Class A amplifier operates on the radio-frequency power amplifiers
linear or straight portion of the and as oscillators. You will see ex-
characteristic curve. Most of the amples of all three classes of am-
amplifier stages found in radio and plifiers in this lesson.
TV receivers are Class A ampli- Amplifiers can also be divided
fiers. into two general types, voltage am-
In some, the dc operating bias ap- plifiers and power amplifiers. In a
plied to a tube is equal to cut-off voltage amplifier we are interested
bias. This simply means that the in amplifying the signal voltage. A
negative voltage applied to the grid weak signal voltage is applied to the
of the tube reduces the plate current input circuit of the stage, and we
to zero or almost to zero. This type are interested in getting as much
of amplifier is called a Class B am- amplification as possible. In other
plifier. It is found in medium and words we want as high an amplified
high power audio and video ampli- voltage in the output as possible.

2
Usually, in order to get ahigh output 1
,
r

voltage, the load used is afairly high

OPERATING BIAS
impedance or resistance.
In a power amplifier we are not
particularly concerned about the
amplitude of the voltage in the out-
E
put. Instead, we are interested in ZERO
SIGNAL
getting as large a current variation PLATE
CURRENT
from the tube as possible. Usually
the load impedance is much lower
in a power amplifier than it is in a
voltage amplifier. However, in many — -0+ Eg
cases it is difficult to tell a voltage
amplifier from a power amplifier
simply by looking at the circuit un-
less you know something about the
value of the components used in the
circuit and the conditions under Fig. 2. Operating conditions of a typical
which the tube is operated. vol tage ampl ifier.
Voltage amplifiers are Class A
amplifiers; power amplifiers may impedance load, small current
be Class A, B, or C. variations flowing between the cath-
ode and plate of the tube and through
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS the load will result in comparatively
large voltage variations across the
A simplified schematic of a typi- load.
cal voltage amplifier is shown in The graph in Fig. 2 shows how a
Fig. 1. Here the signal source is voltage amplifier operates. Suffi-
ipplied in the grid circuit between cient bias is applied to the tube to
the grid and the cathode of the tube place the operating bias on the grid
in series with the bias voltage. In approximately midway between 0and
the plate circuit of the tube we have cut-off voltage. The idea is to bias
the load connected in series with a the tube so that the tube will be op-
B supply battery. The load and bat- erating on the linear portion of its
tery are connected between the plate characteristic curve. If we have too
and cathode of the tube. With ahigh- little bias on the tube, the grid may
be driven positive, which will cause
the grid to draw current; also the
variations in plate current will not
be linear. Similarly if too much bias
is put on the tube, the grid will be
SIGNAL
LOAD driven beyond the cut-off point and
SOURCE
there will be no plate current flow

1
_11,-11.111114
at all during part of the cycle of the
input signal.
With the tube operated as shown in
Fig. 2, the plate current variations
Fig. I. A grounded-cathode amplifier. follow the grid voltage. If the input

3
signal swings in a positive direction Also notice that the input signal is
it subtracts from the grid bias, small enough so that it neither drives
making the bias less negative. This the grid into the positive region nor
is what happens as the input moves does it drive it beyond cut-off.If the
from point 1to point 2. As the input grid is driven positive or beyond
signal swings between these two cut-off, distortion will result, and
points, the plate current moves from the output signal will not be a faith-
point A to point B. ful reproduction of the input signal.
During the next quarter of the in- Let us consider what happens to
put cycle, the grid voltage is swing- the plate current flowing in the tube.
ing in a negative direction because The line marked plate current
the inptit signal is decreasing and represents the plate current that will
dropping to zero as it moves from flow when there is no input signal.
point 2 to point 3. At this point the Notice what happens when an input
signal has dropped to 0, and the volt- signal is applied. During one half
age applied to the grid at this in- cycle the plate current flow in-
stant is the operating bias. During creases; during the other half cycle
this quarter of the cycle the plate it decreases. The increase during
current moves from point B to point one half cycle is equal and opposite
C. to the decrease during the next half
During the next quarter cycle the cycle. Therefore, if we consider the
input signal is swinging negative as average plate current, it does not
it moves from point 3 to point 4. The change. In other words, although the
signal now adds to the grid bias, mak- plate current does increase during
ing the voltage more negative. This one half cycle, it decreases by an
results in the plate current dropping equal amount during the next half
still further from point C to point cycle; the average plate current
D. When the input signal voltage flowing remains the same as it was
reaches point 4 and starts to swing when no signal was applied to the
back to 0 again towards point 5, the input. Thus, if a de milliammeter
grid becomes less negative, with the is placed in the plate circuit of a
result that the plate current begins Class A amplifier, there will be no
to increase and move from point D change in the reading when a signal
to point E. is applied to the input because the
There are several important meter will indicate the average de
things to be noted from the curve flowing, and this does not change.
shown in Fig. 2. First, notice that If there is a change in the plate cur-
the operating bias is approximately rent, either the bias on the tube is
midway between 0 grid voltage and incorrect or else the signal applied
the grid voltage required for plate to the input is too strong and is driv-
current cut-off. This places the op- ing the tube onto the non-linear por-
eration of the tube on the linear or tion of the characteristic curve.
straight portion of the characteris- The voltage amplifiers found in
tic curve. As. we have mentioned, modern electronic equipment are
an amplifier operated in this way. Class A amplifiers. Thus, in avolt-
that is biased midway between zero age amplifier you can expect to find
voltage and cut-off voltage, is called that the output signal is a faithful
a Class A amplifier. reproduction of the input signal.

4
 Furthermore you can expect to find 1p

the bias midway between zero bias OPERATING BIAS

and cut-off bias and also you can
expect the average plate current
flowing in the stage not to change
when a signal voltage is applied 100 MA
to the input.

POWER AMPLIFIERS

Class A Amplifiers.
Class A amplifiers are used as Eg

power amplifiers but usually only

when the amount of power required o
is comparatively low. The reason
for this is that the Class A ampli-
fier has relatively poor efficiency.
The efficiency is the ratio of the
power output to the power input.
It is easy to seewhythe efficiency
of a Class A amplifier is poor. First,
200 VOLTS
let's consider the operating curves
shown in Fig. 3. Let's assume the
tube is operating with a voltage of
200 volts applied to it and a plate
current of 100 milliamperes. Thus
the power input to the tube is 200 x
.1 = 20 watts. This is the de power Fig. 3. Operating conditions for Class A
input; it represents the power being operation.
taken from the power supply and fed
to the tube. in Fig. 3B The maximum change that
Now let us consider how much could be made in plate voltage is 200
signal power we can get out of this volts. To do this, the plate voltage
tube. If the current flowing in the would have to drop all the way to
tube is 100 milliamperes as shown zero as the current through the load
in Fig. 3A, the maximum current changed. Again this is the peak
change we can get in a half cycle is change, and the rms or effective
100 milliamperes. In other words, change, in volts, is 200 x .707.
if the grid voltage is swung all the The maximum ac power output is
way to the cut-off point by the input equal to the effective ac voltage
signal, then the plate current would times the effective ac current.
drop to zero. This means that the Therefore, the power output is equal
peak current change is 100 mils, to:
or .1 amp. The rms or effective cur-
rent change, in amperes,will be only 200 x .707 x .1 x .707
.707 of this value, or .1 x .707.
Similarly, the plate voltage ap- If we multiply .707 x .707 we have
plied to the tube is 200 volts as shown .5, so we can express the formula

5
as: 200 x .1 x .5. Now you will rec- OPERATING BIAS

ognize the 200 x .1 as the input

power, and we know that .5 is equal
to 50%. Thus, the maximum power
output that can be obtained from a
Class A power amplifier is equal to
50% of the input power. Therefore,
the best efficiency that can be ob-
tained from a Class A amplifier is
50%. In fact, it is usually impossible
to obtain this high an efficiency under
actual operating conditions, because
the grid would have to be driven all
the way to cut-off on one half cycle,
and all the way to zero on the other
half cycle. Under these conditions, Fig. 4. Operating conditions for Class 13
considerable distortion would re- operation.
sult. Actually, the plate current
would not be a sine wave as shown is when the grid is driven in aposi-
in Fig. 3, but would be flattened tive direction. For approximately
somewhat on both top and bottom. half of each cycle there is no current
Efficiency of somewhere around 30% flow through the tube at all.
to 35% is usually about all that can It is immediately apparent that
be obtained from a Class A ampli- with this type of operation only one-
fier if reasonable linearity is to be half of the input signal is being re-
maintained. produced. In an audio amplifier this
Class II Amplifiers. would result in a great deal of dis-
Better efficiency can be obtained tortion. However, this problem can
from a power amplifier if the bias be overcome by the use of two tubes,
on the tube is increased to approxi- one to reproduce each half of the
mately cut-off bias and asignal large audio signal. By recombining the
enough to drive the grid positive is output from these two tubes, both
used. Under these conditions the op- halves of the audio signal can be
erating curves for the tube will look reproduced. We will see examples
like those shown in Fig. 4. When of these circuits later in this lesson.
there is no signal applied to the in- It is easy to see that this type of
put of the stage, the plate current amplifier is more efficient than a
flowing through the tube will be low. Class A amplifier, because the cur-
When the input signal swings in a rent flowing through the tube when
positive direction, plate current there is no signal present is com-
flows in the form of a large pulse. paratively small. Almost all of the
When the signal swings in a nega- current capabilities of the tube are
tive direction, it soon drives the reserved for the reproduction of the
grid beyond the cut-off point and output signal. This type of operation,
there will be no plate current flow with the tube biased to cut-off, is
in the tube. Thus you can see that called Class B operation. It is used
the only time the tube is called on quite extensively where large
to furnish a large amount of power amounts of audio or video power

6
must be developed, and it is also from the Class C amplifier will
used to develop rf power in certain shock-excite the parallel resonant
types of rf equipment. tank circuit into oscillation. If the
Class C Amplifiers. tank circuit receives a pulse once
A still more efficient power am- each cycle, this pulse fed into the
plifier than a Class B amplifier is tank circuit is able to make up any
the Class C amplifier. The curve losses in the tank circuit. Mean-
shown in Fig. 5 shows how a tube while, the current flows back and
is operated as a Class C amplifier. forth in the tank circuit so that the
Notice that the operating bias is voltage appearing across it is actu-
greater than the bias required to ally a sine wave, even though it is
cut-off the flow of current through being supplied energy only in the
the tube. The Class C amplifier tube form of pulses. The tank circuit in
is generally operated with a bias a Class C amplifier has sort of a
somewhere between 2 and 4 times flywheel effect, and once oscillations
cut-off bias. are set up in it they can be main-
The input signal required for a tained by pulsing it once each cycle.
Class C amplifier is considerably As a matter of fact, the tank cir-
higher than that required for aClass cuit can often be designed so that it
A or Class B amplifier. The input does not need a pulse once each
signal drives the grid well into the cycle but can maintain oscillations
positive region so that the grid draws by receiving a pulse every other, or
substantial current. Plate current perhaps every third cycle. By de-
flows only in a series of pulses and signing the tank circuit in this way,
these pulses actually flow for con- it is possible to double or triple the
siderably less than half a cycle. frequency of the signal.
Class C amplifiers are not used In addition to Class A, Class B,
for audio work, but they can be used and Class C amplifiers there are
as radio-frequency power ampli- also amplifiers known as Class AB
fiers. They are used in conjunction amplifiers. As the name suggests,
with resonant circuits. If a parallel these are simply amplifiers oper-
resonant circuit is placed in the out- ated midway between Class A condi-
put of a Class C amplifier, the pulse tions and Class B conditions. The
operating bias applied to the tube is
p
a little higher than that needed for
Class A operation, but not as high as
OPERATING
BIAS that needed for Class B operation.
Beam power tubes are often operated
under Class AB conditions.

SUMMARY

The important points to remem-

ber from this section are that there
are three classes of operation for
vacuum tubes. A tube that is op-
Fig. 5. Operating conditions for Class C erated with a bias midway between
operation. zero bias and cut-off bias is aClass

7
A amplifier. The output of this type SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
of amplifier should be an exact dupli-
cate of the input. (a) What is a Class A amplifier?
The Class B amplifier is oper- (b) What is a Class B amplifier?
ated at approximately cut-off bias. (c) What -is a Class C amplifier?
The zero-signal plate current flow- (d) Into what two general types
ing in this type of stage is low, and can amplifiers be divided?
only the positive half of each cycle (e) What is the purpose of a volt-
is reproduced. A Class C amplifier age amplifier?
is an amplifier operated with bias (f) Into which class does the volt-
several times cut-off bias. Plate age amplifier fall?
current flows in this type of stage (g) What is the disadvantage of a
for less than half of each cycle. Class A power amplifier?
Voltage amplifiers are Class A (h) What is the maximum pos-
amplifiers. Power amplifiers may sible efficiency that can be ob-
be Class A, Class B, or Class C. tained from a Class A power
A Class A power amplifier has rela- amplifier? What is the practi-
tively poor efficiency. The efficiency cal efficiency of a Class A
of a Class B amplifier is better than amplifier?
that of a Class A amplifier, and the (i) Can a Class B power ampli-
efficiency of a Class C amplifier is fier be used in audio power
still better than the efficiency of a amplification?
Class B amplifier. Class AB am- (j) What type of signal is the Class
plifiers are amplifiers operated C power amplifier used to am-
under conditions between Class A plify?
and Class B. (k) What is a Class AB amplifier?

8
 Typical Amplifiers
Look at Fig. 1 again, where we to build up the strength of the weak
have shown a simplified diagram of audio signal until it is strong enough
an amplifier. As you can see from to drive a power amplifier. A power
this diagram, the basic parts of an amplifier is then used to supply the
amplifier are the tube, the load, and power to drive the speaker.
batteries or some other power Voltage Amplifiers.
source to supply the power needed A typical voltage amplifier is
to operate the tube. Now, let us shown in Fig. 6. This amplifier is
study some practical amplifiers to called a resistance-capacitance
see how the various electronic com- coupled amplifier because resistors
ponents you have already studied and capacitors are used to couple
are used in conjunction with tubes the signal to the amplifier and to
in order to amplify signals. the output or to the following stage.
In the circuit shown in Fig. 6,
AUDIO AMPLIFIERS capacitor Cl is used to couple the
signal source to the grid of the tube.
An audio amplifier is an ampli- C1will block any dc in the input cir-
fier designed to amplify signal fre- cuit and keep it away from the grid
quencies within the range normally of the tube. At the same time, if Cl
heard by our ears. Some amplifiers is large enough, it will offer a low
are capable of doing this job better reactance to the flow of an ac signal
than others. The audio amplifier through it and act, as far as the ac
found in the average radio or TV signal is concerned, as though it
receiver is not capable of repro- were not there at all. The input sig-
ducing all of the frequencies that nal is therefore applied between the
our ears can hear. However, an am- grid of the tube and ground.
plifier designed for use in a piece Resistor R1 is called a grid leak.
of high-fidelity equipment has a Some of the electrons travelling
much better frequency response and from the cathode to the plate of the
can amplify a wider range of fre-
quencies. Amplifiers found in most C3
radio and TV receivers can amplify 1-0
CI
frequencies from about 50 or 60 o-1
cycles per second up to 8000 or
R3 OUTPUT
9000 cycles per seoond. Amplifiers
INPUT
designed for use in high-fidelity
equipment can amplify frequencies
from about 10 cycles per second up
to at least 15,000 cycles per second
,E.
and sometimes as high as 100,000 B- B.
cycles per second.
Audio amplifiers may be either
voltage amplifiers or power ampli- Fig.6. A typical resistance-capacitance
fiers. Voltage amplifiers are used coupled ampl ifier.

9
tube will accidentally strike the grid. it. On the other hand, if R1 is small
If there is no way for these elec- compared to the reactance of Cl,
trons to get off the grid of the tube, then Cl and R1 will divide the sig-
they will be trapped on the grid and nal voltage so that only a small part
eventually build up a high negative of it will appear across R1; the re-
charge on the grid. This negative mainder will be lost across Cl. This
charge will reduce the flow of cur- situation is to be avoided if maxi-
rent from the cathode to the plate of mum output is to be obtained from
the tube. As amatter of fact, in some the amplifier. For this reason, de-
tubes this charge may become so signers make R1 as large as prac-
high it can actually cut off the flow tical.
of electrons from the cathode to the While we are discussing the com-
plate of the tube. bination of Cl and R1, remember
As long as R1 is in the circuit, that the reactance of acapacitor de-
electrons striking the grid can flow pends upon the frequency of the sig-
through R1 back to ground and then nal voltage. As the frequency de-
through R2 back to the cathode of creases, the reactance increases.
the tube. Of course, when electrons Therefore, at low frequencies the
flow through a resistor they build reactance of Cl may become large
up a voltage across the resistor. enough to appreciably reduce the
Electrons flowing from the grid of voltage across Rl. When this hap-
the tube back to ground will develop pens, the signal amplification will
a de voltage across R1 having a po- fall off; the umplifier will not am-
larity such that the grid end of the plify low-frequency signals as well
resistor is negative. Normally than as it does higher-frequency signals.
amplifier of this type, however, the Making R1 large tends to extend the
number of electrons flowing through low-frequency gain of an amplifier.
the grid resistor is not large enough On the other hand if R1 is made
to develop any appreciable voltage too large, then the electrons acci-
across the grid resistor, R1, even dentally striking the grid of the tube
though the value of the resistor may will develop an appreciable de volt-
be quite large. Resistors of 100,000 age across R1 when they flow through
ohms to 500,000 ohms are frequently it. In an amplifier like the one shown
used as grid resistors. Usually it in Fig. 6, this voltage is undesirable.
will be impossible to detect any volt- Therefore the value of R1 must be
age across these resistors, even a compromise. It is made as high
with quite sensitive measuring as possible, so that the signal volt-
equipment. age will be high, without making it
Capacitor Cl and resistor R1 so high that a troublesome de volt-
actually form a voltage-divider net- age will be developed across it.
work that divides the ac signal volt- The de voltage supply used to sup-
age. If R1 is made large in compari- ply the plate voltage to the tube is
son to the reactance of Cl, most of represented by the terminals B- and
the signal voltage will appear across B+. This could be a B battery or it
Rl. This means that most of the could be the terminals of a power
signal voltage will be applied be- supply. A power supply is aunit that
tween the grid of the tube and ground, converts ac from the power line to
which is essentially where we want de for use in applications such as

10
this. You will study power supplies periodically, whereas the resistor
shortly. will last almost indefinitely provid-
Resistor R2 is put in the cathode ing it is not overloaded.
circuit of the tube to eliminate the Capacitor C2 is connected across
need for a C battery to supply agrid R2 in order to stabilize the voltage
bias voltage. Let's consider what across R2. Without C2, as the input
happens with this resistor in the cir- signal caused the tube current to
cuit. Electrons flowing through the vary, the current through R2 would
tube are emitted by the cathode, at- vary. This would result in varying
tracted by the plate, then flow voltage or varying bias across the
through R3, then through the B sup- resistor. To eliminate this effect,
ply to ground, and finally through we connect capacitor C2 across the
R2 back to the cathode. The minute resistor. C2 must be large enough
power is applied, this action is in- to maintain the voltage across R2
stantaneous, and electrons start constant. It does this by charging
flowing in all parts of the circuit. when the current through R2 in-
The electrons flowing through R2 creases and the voltage tends to rise,
will develop a voltage across this and discharging through R2 when the
resistor with the polarity indi- voltage tends to fall. The capacitor
cated on the diagram. This makes actually acts as alow reactance path
the cathode slightly positive with for the ac signal through it.The grid
respect to ground. If the tube is de- of the tube, in causing the plate cur-
signed to operate with a grid volt- rent to vary, is actually producing
age of -3 volts, R2 is selected so an ac signal superimposed on the dc
that the electrons flowing through in the plate-cathode circuit. This ac
it will develop a voltage of 3 volts signal component flows through C2;
across the resistor. This will make the de component flows through R2.
the cathode 3 volts positive with re- Resistor R3 is the plate load re-
spect to ground. sistor. The value of this resistor is
To see how this voltage biases the usually quite large. The larger the
tube and eliminates the need for aC resistor, the closer the gain of the
battery, let us consider the potential stage will approach the amplification
of the grid with respect to ground. factor of the tube. You will remem-
The number of electrons flowing ber that the tube acts like agenera-
through R1 is so small that little or tor, and this generator has an in-
no voltage is developed across it. ternal resistance, the ac plate re-
Therefore, the grid is normally at sistance of the tube. Resistance R3
ground potential. This means that Is, in effect, connected in series
the cathode is positive with respect with the plate resistance of the tube,
to the grid. If the cathode is positive and the voltage developed by the tube
with respect to the grid, then the is divided between the plate resist-
grid is negative with respect to the ance and the plate load. By making
cathode. the plate load resistor as large as
R2 is often called a cathode bias possible, we will get as much of the
resistor. By using this resistor in amplified signal voltage across this
the cathode circuit, we can eliminate resistor as possible.
the need for a C battery. Batteries However, there is a limit to how
deteriorate and have to be replaced large we can make this resistor.

11
Since the plate current flows through resistance-coupled stage. Similarly,
the resistor, there will be a voltage transformer T2 is taking the place
drop across the resistor. This volt- of load resistor R3 and blocking ca-
age drop subtracts from the sup- pacitor C3 in the output.Bothtrans-
ply voltage so that the net voltage formers can be step-up transform-
available to operate the tube is equal ers, so that there will be voltage
to the supply voltage minus the volt- amplification in the transformers
age drop across the plate load resis- themselves as well as in the tube.
tor. If we make the plate load resis- Bias for the stage is still obtained
tor too large, there will be a very by placing a resistor in the cathode
high voltage drop across it with the circuit of the tube. R1 in Fig. 7 is
result that there is very little volt- the cathode-bias resistor, and it is
age left to operate the tube. Again, bypassed by the capacitor Cl.
the selection of the size of resistor Transformer-coupled amplifiers
to be used is a compromise.A value of this type are not used in modern
is chosen that will give areasonably electronic equipment. The trans-
high gain without an excessive volt- formers are more expensive than
age drop. If the voltage drop across the resistor-capacitor combination,
R3 is excessive, then the power and modern tubes have such high
supply voltage must be very high in gain that it is not necessary to rely
order to get the voltage we need on on the step-up transformer to get
the plate of the tube. This could re- a reasonable gain in the stage.How-
quire a costly power supply, so it is ever, you may be called on to serv-
often more economical to use two ice an older piece of equipment that
stages to get the gain we need than might employ a transformer-cou-
to try to get it from one stage by pled stage, so you should be aware
using an excessively large plate- that this type of coupling exists.
load resistor. Power Amplifiers.
A schematic diagram of another Fig. 8A shows a power amplifier
voltage amplifier is shown in Fig. 7. using resistance-capacitance cou-
This amplifier is called a trans- pling in the input circuit. The input
former-coupled amplifier. Notice circuit is essentially the same as the
that in some respects the circuit circuit used in Fig. 6.
is similar to the circuit shown in The output transformer is astep-
Fig. 6. In the transformer-coupled down transformer. This trans-
amplifier, transformer Ti is former is primarily an impedance-
taking the place of Cl and R1 in the matching device. It is used to match
the low-impedance speaker, which
would be connected across the output
terminals, to the plate circuit of the
tube. Remember that the tube works
like a generator, and maximum
power transfer will be obtained when
the load matches the generator. The
transformer matches the load im-
pedance to the generator or tube
Impedance.
Fig. T. A transformer-coupled amplifier. Fig. 8B shows a transformer-

12
 be a step-up transformer. On the
other hand, if the stage is operated
as a Class B amplifier the stage pre-
ceding it must be a power amplifier
because power must be supplied to
the grid circuit, and Ti must be a
step-down transformer.
If the stage is a Class AB 1 power
amplifier, the preceding stage can
be a voltage amplifier since the grid
does not draw current and no power
is consumed in the grid circuit. On
the other hand, if the stage is aClass
AB 2 power amplifier, the grid does
111 OUTPUT
draw grid current and power must
be supplied to the grid circuit. The
o preceding stage, therefore, must be
a power amplifier.
This stage is called a push-pull
amplifier because it acts as though
Fig. 8. Two single-ended power amplifier one tube is pushing electrons through
stages. the primary of T2 while the other
is pulling electrons in the opposite
coupled power amplifier. The input direction. Briefly, the operation of
transformer is astep-up transform-
er, and the output transformer will
be a step-down transformer to serve
as an impedance-matching device.
The circuit shown in Fig. 8B is [ OUTPUT
obsolete; you will not run into acir-
cuit of this type except in old equip-
ment.
Both of the amplifiers shown in
Fig. 8are Class A power amplifiers.
They are also called single-ended
stages because each circuit uses a
single tube. In some audio ampli-
fiers, in large radio receivers, and
in some TV sets you will run into
a double-ended power output stage

d2,
such as the one shown in Fig. 9.
This circuit is called a push-pull
amplifier. It can be operated as
either a Class A, Class AB, or a
Class B power amplifier. If the Fig. 9. push-pull amplifier stage is
stage is operated as aClass A power shown at the input signal is shown
amplifier, the stage preceding it can al IL the output pulses from the two tubes
be a voltage amplifier and Tl may at C, and the combined output at D.

13
the stage is as follows: the sec- some radio and TV receivers. They
ondary of transformer Ti is tapped, are found in high-fidelity equipment
and the center tap is at signal ground and in many radio and television
potential. When the end of the sec- transmitters. Push-pull amplifiers
ondary of Ti that is connected to are used wherever it is necessary
V1 is swinging positive with respect to develop a large amount of audio
to ground, the other end will be or video power. Operating these
swinging negative with respect to tubes as Class B amplifiers gives
ground. The positive voltage applied much better efficiency than operat-
to tube V1 will cause its plate cur- ing them as Class A amplifier.s. As
rent to increase, while the negative a matter of fact, the same amount
voltage applied to the grid of V2 will of audio power can usually be de-
cause its plate current to decrease. veloped more economically by using
Thus the current in one half of T2 two small tubes operated as Class
increases while the current in the B amplifiers than by using one large
other half of T2 decreases. During tube operated as aClass A amplifier.
the next half cycle, when the end of
the secondary of T1 that is connected RADIO-FREQUENCY
to V2 is positive with respect to AMPLIFIERS
ground, the other end will be nega-
tive. At this time the plate current Radio-frequency amplifiers like
of V2 will increase while the plate audio amplifiers can be divided into
current of V1 decreases. two types, voltage amplifiers and
When this type of stage is used as power amplifiers. The radio-fre-
a Class B amplifier, the tube that is quency amplifiers found in receiving
driven positive conducts current equipment are voltage amplifiers,
heavily while the other tube does not whereas those found in transmitting
conduct current at all. During the equipment are power amplifiers. In
next half cycle the second tube receiving equipment, we are in-
carries the whole load while the terested in taking the weak radio-
other tube rests. If the input signal frequency signal picked up by the an-
is a sine wave like that shown in tenna and amplifying it in order to
Fig. 9B, the plate currents for the extract whatever intelligence it may
two tubes look like Fig. 9C and com- carry. In transmitting equipment,
bine to produce a signal like Fig. we are interested in developing
9D in the secondary of transformer power to feed to the antenna in order
T2. This explains how two tubes can to radiate a strong signal.
be used in a Class B amplifier to Voltage Amplifiers.
amplify an audio signal when each A radio-frequency voltage ampli-
tube conducts during only half of fier is shown in Fig. 10. Notice that
each cycle. One tube reproduces one in many respects it is similar to the
half of the cycle; the other tube re- single-ended transformer-coupled
produces the other half of the cycle. audio amplifier. In the rf amplifier,
The two signals are combined in we have used a pentode.Triodes are
transformer T2 to give an output not as suitable as pentodes in rf
signal that is an amplified repro- amplifiers in most cases. Notice
duction of the input signal. that both the input and output cir-
Push-pull amplifiers are used in cuits are tuned. These circuits are

14
 mid-point of the characteristic
curve. In other words, they are
INPUT TPUT Class A amplifiers. However, rf
power amplifiers are usually op-
erated either in Class B or in Class
C, although some rf power ampli-
fiers operate in Class AB. A sche-
B- B+
matic diagram of a Class C rf power
10. A radio-frequeney voltage ampli- amplifier is shown in Fig. 11. No-
fier.
tice that this circuit differs some-
adjusted to resonance at the fre- what from the voltage amplifier.
quency of the rf signal. In this circuit, bias is obtained
As in the audio amplifiers we by means of a resistor in the grid
studied, operating bias for the stage instead of the cathode circuit. In a
is obtained by inserting a resistor Class C amplifier a high value of
in the cathode circuit. This is the bias is used. The signal applied to
resistor marked R1 on the diagram; a Class C stage must be sufficient
it is bypassed by capacitor Cl. The to drive the grid positive. When the
purpose of capacitor C2 is to ground grid is driven positive, electrons
the screen of the tube insofar as will leave the cathode and strike the
signal voltages are concerned. Ca- grid to charge C2 with the polarity
pacitor C2 is selected so that its shown. During the time when the
reactance is low at the operating input signal is not positive, C2 will
frequency. Thus, insofar as the sig- discharge through RFC and R1,
nal is concerned, the screen is in making the grid negative with re-
effect operating at ground potential. spect to ground. By selecting the
This isolates the plate from the grid proper value of R1, the correct bias
of the tube so that there is not enough can be developed across this re-
energy fed from the plate of the tube sistor.
back to the grid to cause the tube to Since the tube in a Class C ampli-
go into oscillation. Resistor R2 is fier is normally operated at bias
called the screen dropping resistor. voltages several times cut-off, plate
Its purpose is to drop the B supply current does not flow through the
voltage to a suitable value for the tube except when the input signal
screen. In many voltage amplifiers
of this type, the screen voltage is A111\11_
somewhat less than the plate volt-
age. Plate voltage is applied to the
tube through the parallel resonant
circuit installed in the plate circuit.
With modern pentode tubes, a
comparatively high voltage gain can
be obtained in a stage of this type.
It is easy to get a gain on the order
of 100.
Power Amplifiers.
Radio-frequency voltage ampli- Fig. II. Schematic of a Class C rf power
fiers are biased to operate at the amplifier.

15
swings positive and drives the grid without overheating the tube. Con-
into the region where plate current sider a power tube with a plate dis-
can flow. Current then flows from sipation rating of 10 watts. If we use
the cathode to the plate of the tube this tube in a power amplifier, we
in the form of a series of pulses as cannot let the plate dissipate more
indicated. These pulses shock- than 10 watts. This means that if the
excite the parallel resonant tank amplifier is aClass A amplifier with
circuit, consisting of the primary of an efficiency of 30 per cent, 70 per
the output transformer and the ca- cent of the input must not exceed 10
pacitor across it, so that current watts. The total power input to the
flows back and forth between the stage must not exceed:
coil and capacitor, producing the
sine wave output shown. 10 x 100= 14.28 watts
70
Class C rf power amplifiers have
very high efficiency--in the range This means the total power input to
of 75%. This means that for each the stage should be about 14 watts,
watt that is fed into the amplifier and the power output will be about
plate circuit, about 3/4-watt of rf 4 watts. The remaining 10 watts will
power can be developed. The effi- be dissipated by the tube.
ciency of this type of amplifier is In a Class B amplifier we will get
somewhat better than that of aClass much better efficiency than in aClass
B amplifier and is much better than A amplifier. The efficiency will be
that of a Class A amplifier. between 50 and 60 per cent. Let's
The stage shown in Fig. 11 is a see what power we can get out of the
single-ended stage. Push-pull Class same tube as in the preceding ex-
C rf amplifiers can also be used. ample in a Class B stage with 50
The power output of this type of stage per cent efficiency.
is approximately double what could In the Class B stage, the total
be obtained from a single-ended power input to the stage must not
stage using the same tube type. exceed:
100
EFFICIENCY OF 10 x—50 - 20 watts

AMPLIFIERS This means that with an efficiency

of 50 per cent, the power input will
The amount of power you can get be 20 watts and the useful power
from a tube depends on which class output 10 watts. The remaining 10
of amplifier stage it is used in. As watts will be dissipated by the tube.
you have learned, a Class A stage Notice that we have over twice the
has a practical efficiency of about power output that we got from a
30 per cent. This means that 70 per Class A amplifier, and that the plate
cent of the power fed to the stage dissipation rating of 10 watts has not
is lost. Most of this power is wasted been exceeded.
at the plate of the tube. We say it Let's go one step farther and see
is "dissipated" by the tube. what would happen if we used the
All power tubes have a rating same tube in a Class C amplifier
known as the plate dissipation. This with an efficiency of 75 per cent.
rating tells how much power can be Here the maximum power input to
dissipated at the plate of the tube the stage can be:

16
 100
10 x —25 - 40 watts ally drawing them. Notice the simi-
larity between the different types of
This means that with an efficiency circuits. In the input of each stage,
of 75 percent, the power input to there is a means of applying the sig-
the stage can be 40 watts and the nal between the control grid and
useful power output 30 watts. The cathode of the tube. In each stage,
remaining 10 watts will be dissi- there is some method of developing
pated by the tube. the required bias. In addition, in
Notice how the efficiency of the each stage you will find some type
amplifier improved as we went from of load in the plate circuit. By care-
a Class A amplifier to a Class B fully studying these different cir-
amplifier. We got a higher per cent cuits you will see that there is a
of the input power out as useful out- great deal of similarity between
put power. You can see astill further them and that each circuit is in fact
improvement in going to a Class C like the basic circuit shown in Fig. 1,
stage. Another point that you should but modified for the particular ap-
notice is the increase in total power plication for which it is designed,
that can be handled by atube in going You will study all these circuits in
from a Class A stage to a Class C more detail later on, but if you can
stage. In a Class A stage, the power learn what the circuit looks like now
input could be a maximum of about and in general how the amplifier
14 watts, but in a Class C stage we works, you will find it much easier
can feed 40 watts to the stage. Thus, to pick up the various circuit de-
the efficiency of the stage and the tails later.
plate dissipation rating of the tube
determine the permissible power in- SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
put to the stage. The input must be
limited so that the power wasted in (1) Into what two types of ampli-
the stage does not exceed the plate fiers can we divide audio am-
dissipation rating of the tube. The plifiers?
power wasted will be determined (m) Try to draw from memory a
by the input power and the efficiency schematic diagram of a re-
of the stage. sistance-coupled voltage am-
plifier.
SUMMARY (n) How is the grid-bias battery
eliminated in a typical voltage
In this section of this lesson we amplifier?
have covered a number of different (o) What limits the size of the
types of circuits. We do not expect resistor that can be used as
you to remember all the details of the grid leak in a voltage-
each type of circuit at this time. The coupled amplifier?
important thing for you to remem- What is the purpose of the
ber is that there are two types of bypass capacitor connected
amplifiers, voltage amplifiers and across the cathode-bias re-
power amplifiers. Remember also sistor?
the general appearance of the dif- (4) In the power amplifier circuit
ferent circuits. The best way to re- shown in Fig. 8A, is the output
member these circuits is by actu- transformer a step-up trans-

17
 former or a step-down trans- age amplifier or a power am-
former? plifier,is used as the rf am-
(r) Fill in the missing words: a plifier in a radio or TV re-
power amplifier using one tube ceiver?
such as shown in Fig. 8 is (t) What is the purpose of the ca-
called a ended pacitor C3 in the rf power am-
stage whereas one using two plifier shown in Fig. 11?
tubes such as shown in Fig. 9 (u) Which class of power ampli-
is called a ended fier has the best efficiency?
stage. Which class has the poorest
(s) What type of amplifier, avolt- efficiency?

18
 Detectors and Rectifiers
Tubes were used for many years that was originally negative becomes
as detectors and rectifiers. How- positive. In a half-wave rectifier
ever, they are not used for this pur- circuit the rectifier is arranged so
pose in modern equipment nearly as that it conducts when one of these
often as solid-state devices are. You generator terminals is positive but
will study solid-state detectors and does not conduct when this terminal
rectifiers shortly, but now you will becomes negative.
study tube detectors and rectifiers. A schematic diagram of a half-
You will find some tubes used as wave rectifier along with a filter
rectifiers even in modern equipment network is shown in Fig. 12. This
and, of course, you will probably type of rectifier and power supply
service many pieces of equipment is called a universal ac-dc power
where tubes have been used as both supply. It is the type of power sup-
detectors and rectifiers. ply that was used for many years
We will study detectors and recti- in almost all of the table-model
fiers together, because the detector radio receivers manufactured. Even
is basically a rectifier. They both though it is seldom used in modern
work on the principle of allowing receivers, the chances are that re-
current to flow in only one direction. ceivers using this type of supply
There are, however, some differ- will be around for many years, and
ences in their application. A recti- you'll be called on to service a set
fier is used to change alternating using this type of power supply. It's
current to direct current. A detector called an ac-dc power supply be-
is used to extract information from cause when it is used in a receiver
a radio-frequency carrier. the receiver can be used on either
ac or de power.
RECTIFIERS During ac operation, when termi-
nal 1 is positive with respect to
There are a number of different terminal 2, the plate of the tube is
types of rectifier circuits found in positive. Thus electrons will be at-
electronic equipment. We will look
into two of these circuits in some IA
detail and see in general how these
circuits work. There are many de-
tails that you will study later.
Half-Wave Rectifiers.
POWER LINE
A half-wave rectifier is one that
INPUT AC
rectifies only half of the ac power-
line cycle. During one half •cycle,
one terminal of a generator is posi- LOAD

tive and the other terminal is nega-

tive. During the next half cycle the
terminal that was originally positive Fig. 12. A half-wave rectifier circuit and
becomes negative, and the terminal a filter network.

19
tracted from the cathode of the tube
to the plate. The complete path for
electrons is from terminal 2through
the load, through the filter choke
Li, to the cathode of the tube and
then through the tube to the plate
and back to the other side of the
power line. When the polarity of the
Fig. 13. A full-wave rectifier circuit and
power line reverses, the plate of a filter network.
the tube becomes negative, and there
will be no current flow through the in both radio and television re-
tube and hence no current drawn ceivers for many years. Therefore,
from the power line. even though it has been replaced by
In a half-wave rectifier, current power supplies using solid-state
flows from the power line in a se- rectifiers, you should know how it
ries of pulses as shown in the figure. works because you can be sure you
When the power-line voltage be- will run into power supplies of this
comes greater than the voltage type.
stored in capacitor Cl, there is a In this type of circuit, the high-
large pulse of current that flows voltage winding on the power trans-
through the rectifier tube. This former is center tapped, and the
charges capacitor Cl. During the center tap is connected to ground.
remainder of the cycle no current One end of the high-voltage winding
flows through the rectifier tube, and is connected to one plate of the recti-
capacitor Cl can be considered as fier tube, and the other end is con-
supplying power to the circuit during nected to the other plate of the recti-
this part of the cycle. The action of fier tube. Insofar as the tube opera-
filter choke Li and filter capacitor tion is concerned, it acts like two
C2 is to help smooth the pulsating separate diodes. When the terminal
current to pure dc. The action of marked 1 on the high-voltage sec-
these components will be treated in ondary is positive with respect to
a later text. the center tap, terminal 2 will be
Although tube type half-wave negative with respect to the center
rectifiers of the tube just studied tap. Thus the rectifier plate that is
are not used in modern receivers, connected to terminal lwill be posi-
very similar types of rectifier cir- tive and the rectifier plate connected
cuits using tubes are still widely to terminal 2 will be negative. Dur-
used as high-voltage rectifiers in ing this half cycle, current flows
both black and white and color TV from the center tap of the high-
receivers and in a circuit called the voltage winding on the transformer,
damper stage in TV. When you study through the load, through the filter
these circuits later in your course, choke to the filament of the rectifier
you will see that they are both forms tube. Current then flows from the
of the half-wave rectifier circuit. filament to plate 1to terminal 1of
run-Wave Rectifiers. the power transformer.
The schematic diagram of a full- During the next half cycle, termi-
wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 13. nal 1of the transformer will be nega-
This type of circuit was widely used tive with respect to the center tap,

20
and terminal 2 will be positive. Dur-
ing this half cycle, current flows
from the center tap through the load,
through the filter choke, to the fila-
ment of the rectifier tube, to plate
2 of the rectifier tube and then to
terminal 2 of the transformer.
As you can see, in the full-wave
rectifier circuit of this type cur- Fig. 14. .‘ diode detector circuit.
rent flows first through one half of
the high-voltage secondary winding electronic equipment, but most
and one half of the tube and then pieces of modern electronic equip-
through the other half of the high- ment use a diode detector. A sche-
voltage secondary winding and the matic diagram of a diode detector
other half of the tube. Thus, if the using a vacuum tube is shown in
power supply is operated from a60- Fig. 14.
cycle power line there will be two The diode detector shown in Fig.
current pulses each cycle. This 14 works in much the same way as
means that there will be 120 pulses the half-wave rectifier. When the
available to charge the filter ca- plate of the tube is positive, current
pacitor marked Cl. This is twice as flows through the tube; when it is
many pulses as can be obtained from negative, current cannot flow.
the half-wave rectifier. The greater To see how the diode detector can
the number of pulses, the easier it extract intelligence from a radio-
is to obtain pure dc. Therefore, it frequency signal, let's look at the
is much easier to filter the pulsating modulated rf carrier shown in Fig.
dc at the output of afull-wave recti- 15A. We see here an example of am-
fier than at the output of ahalf-wave plitude-modulated radio frequency
rectifier. signals. The amplitude or strength
Pulsating dc at the output of the of the radio-frequency signal is
rectifier is often referred to as dc varying at an audio rate. The audio
with a ripple voltage or hum voltage signal is the intelligence being
superimposed on it. You will see transmitted.
later that there will always be some In the diode detector circuit the
ripple present at the output of the current that flows will depend upon
power supply regardless of how the strength of the rf signal applied
effective a filter network is. The to it. Thus, as the strength of the rf
filter network is designed to cut the signal varies, the strength of the
ripple to such alow value that it does pulses of current flowing through the
not appreciably affect the perform- tube will vary. The current flowing
ance of the equipment. The filter through the tube will flow from the
systems in most power supplies re- cathode to the plate of the tube,
duce the ripple voltage so that it is through the secondary of the i -f
1% or less of the dc output voltage. transformer and then through the
load resistor R1, setting up a volt-
DETECTORS age drop across this resistor having
There have been a number of dif- the polarity shown on the diagram.
ferent kinds of detectors used in The voltage across this resistor will

21
charge capacitor Cl. As the strength
of the signal varies ,causing the cur-

11
rent to vary, the voltage across R1
and hence the charge across Cl will
vary. Since the strength of the rf
signal is varying at an audio rate,
the voltage across R1 will vary at
an audio rate. This will cause a
voltage to appear across R1 and Cl
like the voltage shown in Fig. 15B.
Notice that this is the audio signal Fig. 16. Agrid-leak detector.
that was actually being carried by
the rf signal. amplitude of the pulses, which in
It might be well to point out at this turn is determined by the strength
time that the current flows through of the signal being received and the
the diode in a series of pulses like amplitude modulation on the signal.
those shown in Fig. 15C. Notice that In the interval between each cycle
these pulses are somewhat similar there is some tendency for the ca-
to the pulses obtained from a half- pacitor to discharge through the re-
wave rectifier with the exception sistor, but if the values of the ca-
that the amplitude of these pulses is pacitor and the resistor are selected
varying. These pulses tend to charge correctly, the discharging is so
capacitor Cl. The charge across the small that it does not cause any ap-
capacitor will be determined by the preciable difficulty. On the other
hand, Cl and R1 must be selected
so that they are not too large, be-
cause Cl must be able to discharge
rapidly enough to follow the audio
signal variations.
Triode Detectors.
A diode is not the only tube that
can be used as a detector. One of
the earliest forms of detector was
the triode grid-leak detector. The
schematic of a grid-leak detector
is shown in Fig. 16. The operation
of this type of detector is not agreat
deal different from the operation of
a diode detector followed by atriode
audio amplifier. If for the present

11
we ignore the plate of the tube and
consider only the grid and the cath-

Ifh ode, you will see that the circuit is

very similar to that of a diode de-
Fig. 15. A modulated rf carr er s shown tector. All we would need to do is
at A, the extracted audio signal 's shown move the resistor and capacitor to
at B, and the series of current pulses the other side of the transformer to
flowing through the diode are shown at C. give us the identical circuit.

22
 In a grid-leak detector the rec- full-wave rectifier operates on both
tification actually occurs in the grid half cycles, producing two pulses
circuit with the grid acting like a for each ac power-line cycle.
diode plate. When the rf signal drives The diode detector is the most
the grid positive, electrons are at- widely used detector in modern elec-
tracted to the grid and current flows tronic equipment. As the amplitude
to charge the grid capacitor Cl. of the signal applied to the diode de-
When the rf signal swings negative tector varies, the current flowing
and there is no grid current flow, through it varies. This causes the
capacitor Cl discharges through voltage across the diode load resis-
grid resistor R1, setting up avoltage tor and capacitor to vary at a rate
drop across this resistor as shown. that follows the intelligence super-
The net result is that we have an imposed on the rf signal.
audio signal voltage appearing The grid-leak detector is an ex-
across the grid capacitor and grid ample of a triode type detector. Its
resistor. This will cause the grid operation is similar to that of adiode
potential to vary at an audio rate so detector followed by a triode audio
the tube now acts like a triode audio amplifier.
amplifier and amplifies this audio
signal. SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
The grid-leak detector was quite
widely used in the early days of (v) On what principle do detectors
radio, but it has disappeared al- and rectifiers operate?
most entirely in favor of the diode (w) If a half-wave rectifier cir-
detector. However, as you can see, cuit is operated from a 60-
the operation is similar to that of a cycle power line, how many
diode detector followed by a triode current pulses per second will
audio amplifier. be fed to the filter network?
(x) How many pulses per second
SUMMARY will the filter network receive
from afull-wave rectifier cir-
In this section of the lesson you cuit operating on a 60-cycle
have seen examples of both detec- power line?
tors and rectifiers. You have learned (Y) What is the advantage of afull-
that a detector is a rectifier inas- wave rectifier over a half-
much as it operates on the principle wave rectifier?
of allowing current to flow through (z) Draw a schematic diagram of
it in only one direction. There is a a diode detector circuit.
great deal of similarity between the (an) What causes the amplitude of
operation of a detector and that of a the pulses flowing through a
rectifier. However, a rectifier is diode detector to vary?
used to convert ac power todc power (ab) In the grid-leak detector,
where a detector is designed pri- where does rectification oc-
marily to extract information from cur?
an rf carrier signal. (ac) To what type of circuit can we
The half-wave rectifier operates compare the grid-leak detec-
on only one half cycle, whereas the tor?

23
 Oscillators
One of the most important uses of voltage is applied between the grid
vacuum tubes is in oscillator cir- of the tube and ground and produces
cuits. An oscillator is a stage that additional current flow in the plate
generates its own signal. Without circuit which will set up a field that
oscillators, the entire field of elec- will reinforce the signal in the grid
tronics would be extremely limited. circuit still further.
In communications, vacuum tubes The coil that is marked RFC and
are used in oscillator circuits to is located in the plate circuit of the
generate radio-frequency signals. tube is a radio-frequency choke. It
Although it is possible to generate is put in the plate circuit to act as
ac by mechanical means, there is a a high impedance to the flow of sig-
limit to how high a frequency can nal current and thus keep signal cur-
be generated. To generate signals rents out of the power supply and
of a very high frequency, electronic force them through capacitor C2 to
means rather than mechanical coil Ll.
means must be used. One of the interesting character-
Practically all oscillators work istics of an oscillator circuit is that
on the same basic principle: part it develops its own bias. The energy
of the signal from the output of the fed from the plate into Li is of suffi-
stage is fed back to the input. The cient magnitude to produce a strong
signal fed back to the input is called enough field to induce a high enough
a feedback signal, or simply feed- voltage in the upper half of the coil
back. The feedback must be in phase to drive the grid of the tube positive.
with the signal in the input in order When this happens, the grid will at-
to reinforce it, so the stage can gen- tract electrons; these electrons will
erate an ac signal. Actually, this charge the grid capacitor Cl with
stage simply converts the dc sup- the polarity shown on the diagram.
plied by the power supply to ac. The During the rest of the cycle, when
exact frequency of the ac signal de- the grid is negative, capacitor Cl
pends upon the circuit and the value discharges through grid resistor R1
of the components used in the circuit. and sets up a voltage drop across
this resistor, as shown in Fig. 17.
HARTLEY OSCILLATORS

Fig. 17 shows an oscillator circuit

called a Hartley oscillator. In this
circuit, energy is fed from the plate
of the tube through C2 to coil Ll.
This energy is fed through the lower
hall of the coil to ground. The energy,
in flowing through the lower half of
Li, sets up a magnetic field which
cuts the turns of the upper half of
Li and induces a voltage in it. This Fig. 17. AHartley oscillator circuit.

24
Thus, the grid of the tube is main-
tained at a negative potential with
respect to the cathode. If the amount
of feedback from the plate circuit to
the grid circuit is increased, the grid
will be driven even more positive,
LI
charging capacitor Cl still higher,
which will increase the bias on the
grid of the tube. This in turn will
automatically tend to reduce the
plate current flowing through the
tube. This automatic action tends to Fig. 18. 1Colpitts oscillator circuit.
adjust the plate current of the tube
and maintain it at a nearly constant oscillator is a sine wave. However,
value. not all oscillators have sine-wave
The frequency at which the circuit outputs. In some cases an output
will oscillate will be determined pri- signal other than a sine wave is de-
marily by the inductance of Li and sired. An example of an oscillator
the capacity of C3. This coil and ca- that produces a signal other than a
pacitor form aparallel resonant cir- sine wave is the multivibrator.
cuit. Changing the value of these
components will change the fre- MULTI VIBRATORS
quency of oscillation.
The multivibrator is widely used
COLPITTS OSCILLATORS in television and in many industrial
applications. The output from this
Another type of oscillator, the type of oscillator is not asine wave,
Colpitts oscillator, is shown in Fig. in fact it is almost a square wave.
18. Here the feedback is controlled The schematic diagram of a typi-
by a capacitive voltage-divider net- cal multivibrator is shown in Fig.
work consisting of C3 and C4. Bias 19. This type of multivibrator is
for this stage is produced by grid called a plate-coupled multivibrator
capacitor Cl and grid resistor R1
as in the Hartley oscillator.
The frequency at which this cir-
cuit will oscillate depends primarily
on the inductance of coil Li and the
capacity of capacitors C3, C4, and
C5. Capacitor C5 is variable; the
frequency of the oscillator can be
adjusted by changing the capacity
of C5. Increasing the capacity will
cause the oscillator to operate at a
lower frequency; decreasing the ca-
pacity will cause the oscillator to
operate at a higher frequency.
The output of the Colpitts oscilla-
tor as well as that of the Hartley Fig. 19. plate-coupled multivibrator.

25
because the energy necessary for much current flows through the
oscillation is fed between the tubes tubes. It is very unlikely that the
from the plate of each tube to the two tubes will pass exactly the same
grid of the other tube. current, so one of the capacitors
The multivibrator is a rather in- will be discharging at a faster rate
teresting circuit. Let us see how it than the other, and this will result
works. When the multivibrator in a higher negative voltage appear-
shown in Fig. 19 is first turned on, ing across one grid resistor than
the cathodes of the tubes will not the other.
immediately be hot enough to emit
electrons, so no current will flow
through either tube. Meanwhile the
power supply will heat and begin to R4
operate so there will be B+ voltage -/VNAt- ---

available. Since there is no current

flow through the tubes, there will be
no voltage drop across R1 or R4 2
o 8+•
B-•
o ci:

due to plate current flowing through

them. Therefore Cl and C2 will
1._
Vv
R2
start to charge to a voltage equal
to the full power-supply voltage.
To understand this action better,
look at Fig. 20. We have shown just
RI
the parts involved. The parts shown 1 B+
at A could be drawn as in B; and
those shown at C could be drawn as
at D. As you can see, when the B
o 8+•
B-•
O c2r.
supply is operating, Cl will charge
through R2 and R4; and C2 will - We--
charge through R3 and Rl. As these R3

capacitors are charging, the tubes

V1 and V2 will be heating and will _
start passing current.
When V1 and V2 start to pass cur- Fig. 20. When the multivibrator shown in
rent, there will be plate current flow Fig. 19 is first turned on, Cl and C2 will
through R1 and R4 that will result charge. This part of the circuit is shown
in voltage drops across these resis- here.
tors. If Cl and C2 have charged to
a voltage higher than the voltage be- Let's assume that the current
tween the plates of the tubes and through V1 is higher than the current
ground, they must now discharge through V2. This will mean that there
through R2 and R3 respectively. This will be a higher voltage drop across
will result in a voltage across these R1 than across R4. C2 will be dis-
resistors that will make the grid end charging at afairly high rate through
of the resistors negative. The exact R3, which will produce a high nega-
voltage will depend on how big a tive voltage on the grid of V2. This
charge the capacitors must get rid negative voltage on the grid of V2
of. This in turn will depend on how will reduce the plate current through

26
this tube still further, sothe voltage
drop across R4 will decrease. Cl
will now start to charge to the higher
o
voltage between the plate of V2 and
ground. To charge, the capacitor will
draw electrons through R2. These
electrons will flow through R2 in a
direction that will make the grid end o
of this resistor positive. This posi-
tive voltage on the grid of Vi will
cause V1 to draw still more current.
The higher current through V1 will
result in more current flowing o
through R1, which will cause a
greater voltage drop across the re- Fig. 21. (tepid of symmetrical and non-
sistor. The voltage between the plate symmetrical multivibrators.
of VI and ground will therefore drop,
and capacitor C2 will have to dis- there will be no voltage drop across
charge still further. In discharging this resistor and the voltage be-
it will make the grid of V2 even tween the plate of Vi and ground
more negative, so the flow of plate will jump up to a value equal to the
current through this tube will be supply voltage. C2 will now have to
completely cut off. charge to an even higher voltage, so
With plate current through V2 cut the grid of V2 will be driven highly
off, Cl will eventually charge up to positive by the current flowing
a voltage equal to the B supply volt- through R3 to charge this capacitor.
age. When the capacitor is charged This action of first one tube con-
to this voltage, the chargingcurrent ducting and cutting off the flow of
through R2 will stop flowing, and plate current through the other, and
the positive voltage on the grid of then reversing so that the other tube
Vi will disappear. When this hap- conducts and cuts off the first tube,
pens, the current flowing through will continue as long as power is
Vi will drop, causing the voltage applied to the oscillator.
drop across R1 to decrease. This Notice that in the multivibrator
will mean that the voltage between two tubes are used, whereas in the
the plate of V1 and ground will in- oscillators we studied before only
crease. As soon as this happens, C2 one tube was needed. In actual prac-
will begin to charge through R3, put- tice a dual triode tube that has two
ting a positive voltage on the grid of separate triodes in the one glass
V2. Almost instantly V2 will start envelope is often used in a multi-
conducting heavily; the plate voltage vibrator circuit. Even though this
on V2 will drop, and capacitor Cl may look like only one tube, we have
will start to discharge through H2, two-tube action.
placing a high negative voltage on The frequency of oscillation will
the grid of VI and cutting off the depend primarily on the values of
flow of plate current through this Cl -R2 and C2-R3.
tube. When this happens, current If the combination of R2 and Cl
will stop flowing through R1, so has a time constant equal to that of

27
R3 and C2, the multivibrator is called sine wave. It is useful in TVreceiv-
a symmetrical multivibrator. Each ers and in many industrial applica-
tube will conduct and be cut off for tions. Two tubes are needed in a
the same length of time, and the out- multivibrator circuit. The two con-
put will look like Fig.21A.However, duct alternately; when the first tube
if the time constant of C2 and R3 is conducting, the second is cut off,
is longer than that of Cl and R2, V2 and when the second tube is conduct-
will be cut off for a longer time than ing, the first is cut off.
V1, and the output will be like Fig.
21B. On the other hand, if the time SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
constant of Cl and R2 is longer than
that of C2 and R3, V1 will be cut off (ad) On what principle do oscilla-
longer than V2, and the output will tors operate?
be like Fig. 21C. (ae) Draw a schematic diagram of
The plate-coupled multivibrator a Hartley oscillator.
is only one type of multivibrator; (af) Across what part is grid bias
there are several other types that for the Hartley oscillator de-
you will study later. veloped?
(ag) In the Hartley oscillator cir-
SUMMARY cuit shown in Fig. 17, which
two parts primarily control
Oscillators are important to the the oscillator frequency?
electronics technician. You will find (ah) What controls the feedback in
them in radio and TV receivers. the Colpitts oscillator circuit
Every superheterodyne has a local shown in Fig. 18?
oscillator. Television receivers (ai) What parts primarily deter-
have oscillators similar to the mine the oscillator frequency
multivibrator to generate the sig- in the Colpitts oscillator
nals that move the electron beam shown in Fig. 18?
over the face of the picture tube. (aj) What type of output signal is
The Hartley oscillator and the obtained from the Hartley and
Colpitts oscillator both generate a Colpitts oscillators?
sine-wave output. In the Hartley os- (ak) What type of output signal is
cillator, feedback is obtained by in- obtained from a multivibra-
ductive means, whereas in a Col- tor ?
pitts oscillator feedback is obtained (al) What parts primarily control
by means of a capacitive voltage the frequency of the multivi-
divider. The two oscillators are brator shown in Fig. 19?
otherwise basically similar. (am) What is the name given to
The multivibrator is an RC cou- the particular multivibrator
pled oscillator. Its output is not a shown in Fig. 19?

28
A Complete Superheterodyne
Receiver
Now let us see how the different gram, shown in Fig. 22B, shows in
circuits are put together in a radio block diagram form the functions
receiver. We have already men- performed by the various tubes.
tioned that modern radio receivers In the superheterodyne receiver,
use what is called the superhetero- the signal is picked up by the antenna
dyne circuit. A block diagram of a and is fed to the first stage which
typical superheterodyne receiver is is the mixer stage as shown in Fig.
shown in Fig. 22. In Fig. 22A we 22A. At the same time, a signal
have shown the various functions from a local oscillator is also fed
performed in the receiver. The block to the mixer stage. The local oscil-
diagram is often drawn like the dia- lator always operates at afixed fre-
gram in B because the mixer and quency above the frequency to which
oscillator are usually combined in the mixer is tuned. In modern radio
one tube and the second detector receivers the oscillator is usually
and first audio stage are also com- operated 455 kHz above the incoming
bined in the tube. Therefore the dia - signal. In the mixer circuit the in-

MIXER I-F 2ND 1ST POWER

AMPLIFIER DETECTOR AUDIO OUTPUT

OSCI LLATOR POWER

SUPPLY

SPKR
(
2ND
MIXER I- F DETECTOR POWER
OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER 1ST AUDIO OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER

POWER
SUPPLY

Fig. 22. A block diagram of a5-tube superheterodyne receiver.

29
 coming signal is mixed with the sig- power amplifier that produces the
nal produced by the local oscillator. power necessary to drive the loud-
This mixing of the two signals re- speaker.
sults in two new signal frequencies A schematic diagram of a super-
appearing in the output of the mixer, heterodyne receiver is shown in Fig.
one equal to the sum of the local os- 23. We will not go through this re-
cillator and the incoming signal fre- ceiver stage by stage to see how
quency, and the other equal to the each stage works. We have already
difference between the two frequen- studied most of these stages in this
cies. lesson, so we will now concentrate
We mentioned that the oscillator on taking up a few additional details
is operated 455 kHz above the in- and also seeing how the stages are
coming signal frequency. Therefore used together.
the difference between the incoming
signal frequency and the oscillator THE MIXER-OSCILLATOR
signal frequency will be 455 kHz.
The second stage in the super- The tube used in the mixer-oscil-
heterodyne is aradio-frequency am- lator stage is a 12BE6 tube marked
plifier stage called the i
-f ampli- Vi. This tube is a pentagrid con-
fier. It is tuned to the i
-f frequency. verter. Pentagrid means five grids;
which is equal to the difference be- the tube is called a converter be-
tween the frequency of the incoming cause it is designed for service as
signal and the frequency of the local a frequency converter, which is what
oscillator in the receiver. the mixer-oscillator stage is often
The i -f amplifier is what is called called.
a fixed-frequency amplifier. In other In this tube the first and second
words, it is always tuned to the same grids in conjunction with the cathode
frequency, which in most cases is act like a triode tube. The first grid
455 kHz. Because the amplifier is is the control grid and the second
tuned to a fixed frequency, it is pos- grid acts as the plate of the triode
sible to design a stage with a very section of the tube. Thus the cath-
high gain without running into any ode, the first grid, and the second
problems such as instability or os- grid are used as an oscillator. This
cillation. Therefore the i -f ampli- oscillator modulates the stream of
fier amplifies the i -f signal sub- electrons flowing from the cathode
stantially. to the plate of the tube. The incoming
The i-f signal is then fed to the signal picked up by the loop antenna
stage called the second detector, is fed into the No.3 grid. This signal
which is usually a diode detector. also modulates the electrons flowing
Here the intelligence is separated from the cathode to the plate of the
from the radio-frequency carrier. tube so that the resultant flow of
The intelligence signal is the audio electrons from the cathode to the
signal used to modulate the carrier plate of the tube will be modulated
signal at the transmitter. The audio both by the signal produced by the
signal produced by the second detec- local oscillator and by the incoming
tor is fed to the first audio stage signal. This modulation will produce
where it is amplified and finally a signal with a frequency equal to
fed to the output stage, which is a the difference in the frequency of the

30
 V2 V3 V4
T1 12BA6 T2 I2AV6 5005
I-F r— — — DET- 1ST AUDIO Cl POWER OUTPUT
VI .005

19 (
rJ(Jfl 24
iteMe BLUE T3
I
2BE6

k
CONVERTER
o
LI
LOOP
C91
o2 U I
Il

RED

R3

C5
3.3 MEG
R5 F.005
47K

R61
1MEG
VOLUME
CONTROL V5
35W4
AVC C3 RECTIFIER
1.047

...1_ ICIOA
V3 VI V2 V4 C12 C108
.047
I2AV6 128E6 12846 5005 50 MFD 50 M FD

II
5V

'
AC-DC
3 4 3 4 34 3 4 POWER
r; r ---° "
S I
ae° SUPPLY
w.-

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of acomplete superheterodyne receiver.

two signals which will be the i-f sig- other parallel resonant circuit. This
nal, in addition to a signal equal to is made up of the primary winding
the sum of the frequencies of the of T2 plus the capacitor connected
two signals. across it. Again, this transformer
The primary winding of the trans- acts as a high resistance at the dif-
former Ti and the capacitor con- ference frequency and a low imped-
nected across it form a parallel ance at other frequencies.
resonant circuit. This circuit is Before leaving the i-f stage, no-
tuned to resonance at the difference tice the lead marked AVC. AVC is
frequency produced in the converter an abbreviation for automatic vol-
stage. Therefore it acts as a high ume control. A variable voltage is
resistance at this frequency, while applied to this lead, which in turn
at the same time it acts as a low is connected to the grid of the i -f
impedance at the frequency of the tube V2 through the 3.3-megohm re-
incoming signal, the frequency of sistor R2. The voltage is also ap-
the local oscillator, and the fre- plied to the grid of the mixer tube
quency equal to the sum of the two through the loop antenna.
frequencies. Thus in the parallel The voltage that is fed to the grids
resonant circuit we will have a high of these tubes will depend upon the
circulating current having a fre- strength of the signal picked up from
quency equal to the difference fre- the station. If the signal is very
quency. The other three frequencies strong, a fairly high negative voltage
appearing in the plate circuit of the is fed to the grids of these tubes and
mixer tube will produce little or no this voltage reduces the gain of the
current flow in the resonant circuit. stages. If the signal is weak, the
negative voltage drops almost to
THE I-11 AMPLIFIERS zero so that the two stages operate
at maximum gain. We will see how
The secondary of Ti is inductively this voltage is developed when we
coupled to the primary. Thus avolt- study the second detector used in
age will be induced in series with the this receiver.
secondary winding. The secondary The tube used in the i
-f stage of
winding of the transformer is tuned a modern superheterodyne receiver
to resonance by the capacitor con- is usually what is called a remote
nected across it, and this coil and cut-off type. A remote cut-off tube
capacitor form a series resonant is a tube with a specially made con-
circuit. In a series resonant circuit trol grid. The grid is designed so
there will be a high circulating cur- that it takes a very high negative
rent, and a resonant voltage step- voltage to completely cut-off the flow
up. This voltage is applied between of plate current.
the grid and cathode of the i-f am- In the tubes we have discussed so
plifier. far, the grid wires have been evenly
The difference-frequency signal and rather closely spaced. The plate
applied between the grid and cathode current flow in a pentode tube that
of the i-f amplifier is amplified by is made in this way can be cut off
this stage. In the plate circuit of with a fairly low negative voltage
this tube, which is a conventional applied to the grid of the tube. This
pentode rf amplifier, there is an- type of tube is called a sharp cut-

32
off tube. If however, instead of this type of tube, the spacing be-
spacing the grid wires evenly, we tween the grid wires in the center
space them so that they are close of the tube is not quite as wide as
together at the ends but spaced quite the spacing between the grid wires
widely apart in the middle as shown in the remote cut-off tube.
in Fig. 24, a much higher negative
voltage must be applied to the grid THE DETECTOR -FIRST
of the tube before the plate current
AUDIO STAGE
can be reduced to zero. As we begin
to apply negative voltage to the grid In our superheterodyne receiver
of the tube to cut off the flow of plate the i-f signal is fed from the i-f
current, the grid wires at the ends stage to the second detector. The
are able to cut off the flow of plate secondary of the i -f transformer
forms a series resonant circuit with
GRID SUPPORTING a capacitor connected across it. One
POST
end of the secondary is connected
directly to the plate of the diode de-
tector and the other end is connected

}
CLOSE SPACING OF
GRID WIRE FOR WIDE SPACING to the diode load, which is made up
HIGH MU ACTION FOR LOW
MU ACTION of the 47K-ohm resistor R5 and 1-
megohm volume control R6. These
two resistors are in parallel with
the diode load capacitor C8. Youal-
ready know how a detector works
CATHODE
and how an audio voltage will appear
across the diode load resistors R5
Fig. 24. The grid of a remote cut-off type and R6 and the diode load capacitor
pentode. Here the spacing between the C8.
grid wires is greater at the center of the The i
-f signal flowing through the
grid than at the ends. detector can flow in only one direc-
tion with the result that there will
current through them, but because be a series of pulses at the detec-
of the wide spacing in the center tor output which will charge the diode
part of the grid, electrons will still capacitor C8. The charge across this
travel from the cathode to the plate capacitor will depend upon two
of the tube. In order to cut off the things, the audio signal and also the
flow of plate current with this type strength of the signal being received.
of grid structure, a much higher By connecting a filter network con-
negative grid voltage is required sisting of a resistor and acapacitor
than with the sharp cut-off tube. such as R3 and C3 across this ca-
The remote cut-off tube is ideally pacitor a de voltage can be obtained
suited for i
-f amplifiers where aye across C3 that will depend upon the
is used. However, this type of tube strength of the incoming signal.Now
usually does not have quite as high let's see where this voltage comes
a gain as a sharp cut-off tube. A from.
compromise between the sharp cut- We have a series of pulses flow-
off and the remote cut-off tubes is ing through the diode, charging ca-
the semi-remote cut-off tube. In pacitor C8. The amplitude of these

33
pulses, and hence the voltage across have more appeal to the public than
C8, depends on the audio signal and the name automatic gain control. The
the strength of the signal being re- name automatic volume has stuck,
ceived. C8 discharges through R5 but the same system used in tele-
and R6, producing a voltage having vision receivers is called automatic
a polarity such that the junction of gain control.
R5 and the i-f transformer is nega- The tube used in the second de-
tive. This voltage also will depend tector-first audio stage is a combi-
on the audio signal and the strength nation tube. The tube contains two
of the signal being received. diodes and one triode. Only one of
This voltage also is across the the diodes is used in the detector
combination of R3 and C3 in series. circuit; the other diode plate is un-
However, R3 and capacitor C3 form used and simply connected to ground
a voltage divider network. The re- and to the cathode. The triode sec-
sistance of R3 is much higher than tion is used as the first audio stage.
the reactance of C3. Therefore most You will notice that the diode load
of the audio signal appearing across is actually made up of two resistors.
the two will be dropped across E3 The 47K resistor R5 is only one
so that the voltage across C3 will twentieth of the size of R6 so most
be almost pure dc and its strength of the voltage will appear across
will depend upon the strength of the R6. R6 is apotentiometer. The posi-
incoming signal. This voltage is then tion at which the center tap con-
fed to the avc line and used to con- nects to the resistor can be con-
trol the gain of the mixer and i -f trolled by rotating the control shaft
tubes. If the strength of the signal on the potentiometer. By moving
being picked up is strong, then a this tap up and down the resistor,
fairly high negative voltage is de- the amount of audio signal fed tothe
veloped across C3, whereas, if the first audio stage can be varied. This
signal is weak, the voltage across control is called a volume control
C3 will be low. This voltage is used since it will vary the volume or out-
to control the gain of the mixer and put from the sound system inthe re-
i
-f stages so they operate at maxi- ceiver. The audio signal is then fed
mum gain when a weak signal is through coupling capacitor C5 to the
being received, and at reduced gain grid of the first audio tube.
when a strong signal is being re- The first audio tube uses a bias
ceived. system that we have not discussed
AVC is used in most modern radio previously. Notice that the cathode
receivers to regulate the gain of the of the tube is connected directly to
set, so that as you tune across the ground, and the grid resistor R8 is
broadcast band from one station to a 6.8-megohm resistor. You already
another, they all come in at approxi- know that some of the electrons leav-
mately the same volume. Actually, ing the cathode of the tube and travel-
this system is an automatic gain con- ling toward the plate will acciden-
trol rather than an automatic vol- tally strike the grid of the tube. The
ume control, but when the scheme number striking the grid is quite
was first introduced manufacturers small, and these electrons flow
called it an automatic volume con- through the grid resistor back to
trol because they felt that this would ground and from there back to the

34
cathode of the tube. In most stages THE POWER SUPPLY
the grid resistor is kept low enough
so the number of electrons flowing The only section of the receiver
through it do not produce an ap- left to discuss is the power supply.
preciable voltage. However, by using This is a universal ac-dc type of
a large value of grid resistor, a power supply using a half-wave
voltage can be developed across it rectifier similar to the one shown
to bias the tube. This type of bias in Fig. 12.
is usually called "convection" bias The Plate Supply.
and is frequently used in the first Notice that the plate voltage for
audio stage of modern radio re- the output tube is taken directly from
ceivers. the cathode of the rectifier tube
through the primary of the output
THE OUTPUT STAGE transformer instead of from the out-
put of the filter network. We can
The output stage in most modern do this because the plate current
receivers is either a pentode or a flowing in a pentode or beam power
beam power tube. The tube is op- tube depends primarily on the screen
erated as a Class A amplifier. voltage, and the plate voltage has
In this receiver, the signal from little or no effect on it. Thus the ac
the plate of the first audio stage is ripple applied to the plate of the tube
coupled to the grid of the output stage will not cause any appreciable hum
through capacitor C7. R9 is a grid current to flow through the tube and
leak resistor and 1110 is the cathode the primary of the output trans-
bias resistor. The cathode bypass former. The output tube alone will
capacitor is omitted from this stage draw as much current as all the rest
to improve the frequency response of the tubes in the receiver. If we
of the stage. You will see in a later take the plate supply of the output
lesson exactly why this happens. tube directly from the cathode of the
The loudspeaker is a permanent- rectifier, we can use a resistor in-
magnet dynamic speaker. This stead of a choke in the filter net-
speaker is coupled to the output tube work, as we have done here-R11 in
by means of transformer T3, which Fig. 23.
is called the output transformer. We If we connected the plate of the
have already studied output trans- output tube to the other side of the
formers and know that they are im- filter network, we would have to use
pedance-matching devices designed a choke, because the high current
to match the low impedance speaker drawn by the output tube through a
to the high impedance of the plate of resistor would cause such a high de
the output tube in order to get as voltage drop that the output voltage
high a power transfer as possible. for the rest of the plates would be
There are a number of different too low. A choke has a high ac re-
types of tubes used as output tubes, actance, so it would filter any ripple
but in general the circuit is similar voltage, but it has a low dc resist-
to the one shown in Fig.23,although ance, so the de voltage drop across
the values of the components used it would be lower.
in the circuit may vary slightly with The advantage of using a resistor
different tubes. in place of a choke is simply one of

35
economy. A resistor is much diagram. The heater of the 35W4 is
cheaper than a filter choke. As long tapped, and the pilot light is con-
as the current through the resistor nected in parallel with part of the
can be kept to areasonably low value, heater to get the voltage needed to
the de voltage drop across the resis- operate the light.
tor will not be too great. The resis- Notice that 12-volt heaters are
tor will form a voltage divider net- closer to the side of the power line
work with the output filter capacitor that connects to B-, so that the volt-
so that the hum voltage from the age between these heaters and B-
cathode of the rectifier will be re- is maintained as low as possible.
duced enough to provide suitably The first audio tube is almost al-
pure de for the operation of the re- ways connected at the end of the
ceiver. The plate and screen volt- string so that one side of its heater
ages for the rest of the tubes and is connected to B-. This keeps the
the screen voltage for the output potential between the cathode and
tube are obtained from the output heater of this tube as low as pos-
of the filter network. These voltages sible. This particular tube is more
will be much better filtered than the susceptible to hum pickup than are
voltage supplied to the plate of the the other tubes in the receiver. The
output tube. If these tubes, particu- arrangement used in this receiver
larly the first audio tube or the is pretty standard for this type of
screen of the output tube, were op- set. If you trace the heater circuit
erated directly from the cathode in an ac-dc receiver starting at the
of the rectifier tube there would be side of the power line that connects
an extremely loud hum produced by to B-, you will find the tubes con-
the speaker. nected in the following order: the
The Heater Circuit. first audio-second detector; the
The heaters of the various tubes mixer oscillator; the i -f amplifier;
in this receiver are connected in the power output tube, and finally
series, and the series circuit is con- the rectifier.
nected directly across the power Since the tube heaters in this re-
line. The tubes are designed so that ceiver are connected in series, if
they all require the same operating any one of the heaters burns out,
current. The voltage requirements none of the tubes will light. This is
for the various tubes are different. probably the most common defect
The 35W4 rectifier tube requires a you will find in ac-dc receivers.
heater voltage of 35 volts. The 5005 Keep this point in mind. If you are
output tube requires a heater volt- asked to service a small ac-dc re-
age of 50 volts. Each of the other ceiver and you find that none of the
tubes requires a heater voltage of tubes light, look for a tube with an
12.6 volts. If you add these voltages open heater. The chances are that
together, you will find that the total replacing this tube will clear up the
is 122.8 volts. In actual practice, trouble.
these tubes can be operated from a SUMMARY
line voltage of anywhere between
about 110 volts and 125 volts, and In this section of this lesson we
give satisfactory performance. No- have shown how the various stages
tice the pilot light marked Il on the that you have studied previously are

36
put together to form a complete re- frequency must the local os-
ceiver. From this discussion you can cillator in the receiver be op-
see that a complete radio receiver erating?
is simply made up of a number of (aq) In the 12BE6 tube used in the
different stages, each performing circuit shown in Fig. 23, which
the task for which it was designed. grid acts as the plate of the
Complex electronic equipment is oscillator tube?
made up in the same way; it is made (ar) In the i-f transformer Ti in
of a number of simple separate Fig. 23, both the primary and
stages designed to work together. secondary circuits are tuned
There are a number of things that to resonance. Are these cir-
we have not discussed about these cuits series-resonant circuits
various stages, but we will discuss or are they parallel-resonant
them in more detail in later lessons. circuits?
At present you should have a gen- (as) What is meant by a remote
eral understanding of how each stage cut-off tube?
works and how they are put together (at) In the second detector in the
to form a complete receiver. circuit shown in Fig. 23,
across what part is the audio
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS signal voltage developed?
(au) How is bias for the first audio
(an) To what stage is the signal stage in the circuit shown in
from the antenna fed in atypi- Fig. 23 developed?
cal five-tube superheterodyne (ay) What class of power amplifier
receiver? is used in the circuit shown in
(ao) In a modern superheterodyne Fig. 23?
receiver is the oscillator fre- (aw) In the circuit shown in Fig.
quency higher or lower than 23, the heaters of all the tubes
the frequency of the incoming are connected in series across
signal? the power line. If you were
(ap) If you tune a superheterodyne called on to service areceiver
receiver to abroadcast station of this type and saw that none
operating on 1500kc, and the of the tubes were lighting, what
i-f amplifier operates on a type of trouble would you look
frequency of 456kc, at what for ?

37
 Amplifier Variations

We have already mentioned that cathode circuit shown in Fig. 1as

there are three basic types of am- Fig. 25. Notice that the signal is
plifiers, the grounded-cathode, the applied between the grid and cathode
grounded-grid, and the grounded- of the tube; the cathode is operated
plate. All the amplifiers you have at signal ground potential, and the
studied so far have been grounded- load is placed in the plate circuit.
cathode amplifiers. Most of the am- The output signal is developed
plifiers you will encounter will be across the load, so in this circuit
the grounded-cathode amplifiers, it is developed between the plate of
but the other two types are also im- the tube and ground. Remember that
portant. They have some special the end of the load that is connected
characteristics that are very use- to the B supply is at ground potential
ful in certain applications. The as far as the signal is concerned.
grounded-grid amplifier is widely
used as the rf amplifier in VHF
tuners of TV receivers. It is also
quite widely used in transmitting
equipment. The cathode-follower,
which is the more frequently used SIGNAL
LOAD
name for the grounded-plate ampli- SOURCE

fier, is widely used in industrial

applications, and also it has recently
been used in a large number of color ---41---11.1111111-1
1
TV receivers. The cathode-follower
is particularly useful as an imped-
ance-matching device to match a Fig. 25. The grounded-cathode amplifier
high-impedance circuit to a low- shown in Fig. Iis repeated here for your
impedance circuit. convenience.
In this section of this lesson you
will study some of the important Circuit Characteristics.
characteristics of all three types. You already know how the ground-
You will see how these amplifiers ed-cathode circuit amplifies a sig-
differ from each other and see some nal, so we will not go through an ex-
examples of grounded-grid and planation of how this circuit works.
grounded-plate amplifier circuits. Instead we will discuss some of the
important characteristics of this
THE GROUNDED-CATHODE type of circuit.
AMPLIFIER One important characteristic of
this type of amplifier is that the out-
As we mentioned, the amplifiers put signal is greater than the input
we have been studying have all been signal; in other words, the stage is
grounded-cathode amplifiers. We capable of amplifying. The actual
have repeated the basic grounded- gain of the stage is equal to the ratio

38
of the output voltage divided by the these stages have a comparatively
input voltage. The gain obtained from low input impedance and will require
this type of stage may be quite low, power from the driving stage.
sometimes as low as only two or We can summarize the input char-
three, or it may be quite high, some- acteristics of the grounded-cathode
times as high as two hundred or amplifier as follows: Voltage ampli-
more. The exact gain will depend on fiers and Class A power amplifiers
the tube used in the amplifier and draw no grid current, and hence have
the value of the components used a high input impedance. Class Band
with the tube. Class C power amplifiers draw grid
Another important characteristic current, require power from the
of this type of stage is that there is driver stage, and have a fairly low
a phase shift of a half-cycle or 180° input impedance.
between the input and output signals. The grounded-cathode amplifier
This means that when the input sig- also has a fairly high output imped-
nal drives the grid in a positive di- ance. The load is placed in the plate
rection, the output signal between circuit of the tube, and the output is
the plate and ground will be going in developed across this load. If the
a negative direction. Similarly if the load impedance is low, the output
grid is being driven negative, the will be low.
output signal will be going positive.
Two other important character- THE GROUNDED-PLATE
istics are the input and output im- AMPLIFIER
pedances of the stage. The input im-
pedance is important because it tells The grounded-plate amplifier is
you how the stage will load the signal more commonly called acathode fol-
source. The output impedance is im- lower. The load in this type of cir-
portant because it gives an indication cuit is connected in the cathode cir-
of the type of load that must be con- cuit between the cathode of the tube
nected in the output circuit in order and ground. A block diagram of this
to obtain proper results from the type of amplifier is shown in Fig.26.
stage.
You will remember that in aClass
A voltage amplifier the tube is biased
so that it operates on the mid-point
of its characteristic curve. The in-
put signal is not strong enough to
drive the grid positive, so there will SIGNAL
SOURCE
be no grid current flow. Thus the in-
put circuit of a Class A voltage am-
plifier is a high-impedance circuit. LOAD
This is important because it tells
us that this type of stage will take
little or no power from the source -*
--, 1
,1
11
,1
-
driving the stage.
In a Class B or Class C power
amplifier the grid is driven posi- Fig. 26. A grounded-plate or cathode-fol-
tive, so grid current will flow. Thus lower circuit.

39
 plifier is quite different from that
of the grounded-cathode amplifier.
When the input signal drives the grid
in a positive direction, the current
flowing from the cathode of the tube
to the plate will increase. This will
cause the voltage across the cathode
resistor R2 to increase because the
plate current flows through this re-
sistor. However, notice that the in-
put signal is applied between the grid
of the tube and ground. The actual
Fig. 27. Schematic diagram of a cathode voltage that will control the flow of
follower stage. plate current through the tube is the
voltage between the grid and cath-
Notice that the signal is applied be- ode. If the grid voltage goes posi-
tween the grid of the tube and ground, tive, the increase in plate current
as in the grounded-cathode ampli- will cause the voltage between the
fier, but the difference between the cathode and ground to increase and
two is in the placement of the load. become more positive. In other
Putting the load in the cathode cir- words, the positive voltage at the
cuit completely alters the charac- grid produces a more positive volt-
teristics of the amplifier. Let us age at the cathode. This subtracts
study the operation of atypical cath- from the signal voltage so that it
ode follower such as the one shown reduces the net grid-to-cathode
in schematic form in Fig. 27 to see voltage. This means that we have a
why this type of amplifier is so dif- situation where the output signal be-
ferent from the grounded-cathode ing produced by the stage subtracts
type. from the input signal and reduces
Capacitor Cl is used in the input the input to the tube. Thus the out-
circuit to isolate the grid circuit of put signal must always be less than
the stage from the signal source and the input signal in this type of am-
to keep any de that may be present plifier. Technicians say that the gain
at the signal source away from the of the stage is less than one. If the
grid of the tube. Resistor R1 is the output signal were greater than the
grid resistor and is placed in the input signal, it would completely
grid circuit to act as a grid leak cancel the input signal producing
and provide a path back to the cath- it.
ode for any electrons that acciden- You might wonder why the cath-
tally strike the grid of the tube. The ode follower would be of any use at
load is R2. It is placed in the cath- all if the output signal is less than
ode circuit of the tube between the the input. The stage is useful for
cathode and B-. The plate of the tube two reasons. First, the output sig-
is connected directly to B+, and since nal is in phase with the input. This
B+ is at ground potential insofar as means that when the input signal
the signal is concerned, the ampli- swings positive, the output signal
fier is a grounded-plate amplifier. swings positive; and when the input
The operation of this type of am- signal swings negative, the output

40
signal swings negative. There are back to the grid of the tube as low
some applications where it is im- as possible.
portant not to change the phase. In some circuits a triode tube will
Another and more important use operate where a beam power tube
of the cathode follower is as an im- or a pentode tube will not give sat-
pedance-matching device. The cath- isfactory service. This situation is
ode follower has a high input im- encountered at very high frequen-
pedance, but because the load is in cies. It comes about because of the
the cathode circuit, it has alow out- time it takes an electron to travel
put impedance. Thus, if we have a from the cathode of the tube to the
high-impedance generator and want plate. At very high frequencies a
to connect it to a low-impedance single cycle may take only a frac-
load, we can use a cathode follower tion of a millionth of a second. A
to match the two impedances. half cycle will take only half this
Cathode followers are very useful time. It could take the electrons
in any application where it is im- longer than the time of one half cycle
portant to isolate the load from the to travel from the cathode to the
signal source. They are often found plate of the tube if the spacing be-
in the input of a cathode ray oscil- tween the cathode and plate were too
loscope, which is a test instrument great. The spacing between the cath-
used in servicing many kinds of elec- ode and plate in a beam power tube
tronic equipment. The cathode fol- or a pentode is greater than in atri-
lower is used in the input circuit to ode because there must be room for
provide isolation between the cir- the extra elements.
cuit under test and the test instru- In higher-power amplifiers using
ment so that connecting the test in- beam power tubes with ahigh sensi-
strument to the equipment does not tivity, there will sometimes be os-
affect the performance of the equip- cillation because of energy getting
ment. through the screen from the plate of
the tube to the grid. If the tube is a
THE GROUNDED-GRID very sensitive tube, a small amount
of energy getting through the screen
AMPLIFIER may be enough to cause oscillation
in the stage.
The grounded-grid amplifier is Oscillation in a triode stage or in
used in some special cases as a a high-gain beam power stage can
power amplifier. You will remem- often be eliminated by using a
ber that we pointed out that when a grounded-grid circuit, because the
triode tube is used as an rf ampli- grid is operated at ground potential.
fier, unless special precautions are The signal is fed into the cathode
taken, the tube will oscillate. This circuit, and the grid, which is
oscillation that occurred in a triode grounded, acts to shield the output
tube was one of the factors that led circuit from the input circuit.
to the development of the tetrode A simplified diagram of aground-
tube. Remember that the screen ed-grid amplifier is shown in Fig.
grid was added to the tube in order 28. Notice that in this circuit the
to shield the grid from the plate and input is fed into the stage between
keep the energy fed from the plate the cathode and ground, and the grid

41
 to the grid, it is the same as driving
the grid negative with respect to the
cathode, so the current flowing from
the cathode to the plate of the tube
will decrease. On the other hand,
LOAD
if the cathode is driven negative with
INPUT respect to the grid, it is the same
SIGNAL as driving the grid positive with re-
spect to the cathode, so the plate
current will increase.
o
B- B+ Since both the grid and the screen
grid of this tube are connected to
Fig. 28. IIlock diagram of a grounded- ground as far as the signal is con-
grid amplifier. cerned, it will be almost impossible
for any energy to get from the plate
is operated at signal ground poten- of the tube back into the input cir-
tial. The load is connected in the cuit. As long as energy cannot get
plate circuit of the tube as in the from the plate circuit back into the
grounded-cathode amplifier. input circuit, the stage will not os-
The schematic diagram of a cillate.
grounded-grid amplifier using a It is not important to go into all
beam power tube is shown in Fig. 29. the details of the grounded-grid am-
In this circuit the input signal is fed plifier at this time. The important
between the filament-type cathode thing for you to remember is the
and ground. The filament of the tube general configuration of the circuit.
is isolated from ground by the two Remember that the signal is fed into
radio-frequency chokes, marked the cathode circuit, and the load is
RFC1 and RFC2 on the diagram. connected into the plate circuit. Re-
These chokes are simply coils that member also that the big advantage
have high inductive reactances at the of this type of circuit is that the
operating frequency. Because they energy fed from the plate circuit
have high reactances, the filament
cathode is isolated from ground in-
sofar as the signal is concerned,
while at the same time the chokes
offer little or no opposition to the
flow of de or low-frequency ac used
to heat the filament of the tube.
In this type of amplifier, if the in-
coming signal drives the cathode
positive with respect to ground, it
drives the cathode positive with re-
spect to the grid, because the grid
is connected to ground as far as the
signal is concerned through capaci-
tor Cl, which has a low reactance
at the signal frequency. If the cath- Fig. 29. Schematic diagram of agrounded-
ode is driven positive with respect grid amplifier.

42
back into the input is low, so that teristics of the grounded-
the possibility of oscillation is cathode amplifier?
remote. (az) What is the more common
name by which the grounded-
SUMMARY plate amplifier is known?
(ba) Where are the signal source
The important thing for you to re- and load placed in the cathode
member from this section of the les- follower?
son is the general pattern of the (bb) How does the amplitude of the
circuit. Remember that there are output signal compare with the
three types of amplifier circuits: amplitude of the input signal
the grounded-cathode ,the grounded- in a cathode follower?
plate or cathode follower, and the (bc) How does the phase of the out-
grounded-grid amplifier. Most of put signal compare with the
the amplifiers that you will en- phase of the input signal in a
counter will be grounded-cathode cathode follower?
amplifiers, but the other types are (bd) Name two important applica-
found in some special applications. tions where a cathode-follow-
The grounded-cathode amplifier er stage may be used?
is important because a high gain can (be) Where are the input signal and
be obtained from this type of circuit. load placed in the grounded-
This type of amplifier has ahigh in- grid amplifier ?
put impedance and a high output im- (bf) How is oscillation prevented
pedance. when a triode tube is used as
The cathode follower circuit al- an rf amplifier in agrounded-
ways has a gain of less than one. grid circuit?
This means that the output will be (bg) How do the input impedances
less than the input. This circuit is of the grounded-cathode and
often used as an impedance-match- cathode-follower stages com-
ing device; it has a high input im- pare?
pedance and a low output impedance. (bh) How do the output impedances
The grounded-grid amplifier is of the grounded-cathode and
often used as an rf power amplifier. cathode-follower stages com-
It is particularly useful with triode pare?
tubes operating at very high fre-
quencies and with beam power tubes LOOKING AHEAD
having a high sensitivity. In con-
ventional circuits, the screen may In later lessons many of the cir-
not offer enough isolation to prevent cuits you have studied in this les-
a beam power tube with ahigh sensi- son will be discussed in much more
tivity from oscillating. detail. The purpose of this lesson
is to give you a look at some of the
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS circuits in which tubes are used in
order to help you better understand
(ax) Where are the signal source how tubes work. Later you will see
and the load placed in a that there are many other important
grounded-cathode amplifier? things to be considered in the vari-
(ay) Name two important charac- ous stages that we have studied.

43
 It is important for you to under- nected to work together. If you
stand how all the various types of understand how the individual cir-
circuits commonly found in elec- cuits work, you will be able to under-
tronic equipment operate. You will stand how they work together. If you
remember that we have pointed out understand how a piece of electronic
several times that complex elec- equipment is supposed to work, you
tronic equipment is made up of a should have no difficulty locating a
large number of simple circuits con- defect in the equipment.

Answers To Self-Test Questions

(a) A Class A amplifier is an am- (I) A single Class B audio am-
plifier that is biased to op- plifier cannot be used because
erate midway between zero it produces only one half of an
bias and cut-off bias. input cycle. However, two
A Class B amplifier is an am- tubes can be used as a Class
plifier operated with the bias B power amplifier providing
approximately at cut-off. they are arranged so that one
A Class C amplifier is an am- tube reproduces one half of the
plifier operated with abias two input cycle, and the other tube
to four times cut-off bias. reproduces the other half of
Voltage amplifiers and power the input cycle.
amplifiers. Class C power amplifiers are
A voltage amplifier is an am- used to amplify radio-fre-
plifier that is designed to take quency signals.
a small signal voltage and (k) A Class AB amplifier is an
amplify it to a larger signal amplifier operated with abias
voltage. between the value that would
Voltage amplifiers are Class normally be used for a Class
A amplifiers. A amplifier and the value that
The chief disadvantage of a would normally be used for a
Class A power amplifier is its Class B amplifier. Sometimes
relatively poor efficiency. Class AB amplifiers are des-
The maximum theoretical ef- ignated as Class ABi or Class
ficiency that can be obtained AB 2 .A Class AB1 amplifier
from a Class A power ampli- does not draw any grid cur-
fier is 50%. However, usually rent and hence is very much
efficiencies in the order of like a Class A amplifier. A
30% to 35% are all that is Class AB 2 amplifier does
practical to obtain. draw grid current and hence

44
 is operated closer to a Class through the tube, to flow in
B amplifier. the cathode circuit. This ac
(1) Voltage amplifiers and power current in effect flows through
amplifiers. the bypass capacitor so that
(m) See Fig. 6. the voltage across the bias
(n) The grid-bias battery can be resistor does not vary.
eliminated in a voltage am- The output transformer is a
plifier by inserting a suitable step-down transformer. The
resistor in the cathode circuit transformer is primarily an
of the tube. Current flowing impedance-matching device;
from B- through the resistor, it matches the low-impedance
to the cathode of the tube, then speaker to the higher imped-
from the cathode to the plate ance of the tube.
and back to the B+will develop (r) The complete statement is as
a voltage drop across the cath- follows: a power amplifier
ode resistor. Lf the cathode re- using one tube such as shown
sistor is of the correct size, in Fig. 8 is called a single-
the cathode will be sufficiently ended stage, whereas one
positive with respect to ground using two tubes such as shown
to provide the required bias. in Fig. 9 is called a double-
The grid will be essentially ended stage.
at ground potential and there- (s) A voltage amplifier. The radio
fore negative with respect to frequency amplifier used in a
the cathode. If the voltage be- radio or television receiver is
tween the cathode and ground used to build up or amplify the
is equal to the required grid voltage of aweak signal picked
bias, the tube grid will have the up by the antenna.
correct negative bias applied (t) C3 is a screen bypass capaci-
to it. tor. It is used to place the
(o) Electrons accidentally strik- screen at signal ground po-
ing the grid of the tube flow tential so that the screen will
through the grid resistor back provide maximum shielding
to ground and to the cathode between the plate and grid of
of the tube. If the grid resis- the tube.
tor is made too large, these (u) A Class C power amplifier
electrons will develop an un- has the best efficiency; aClass
desired voltage across this A amplifier has the poorest
resistor. The size of the re- efficiency.
sistor is limited by the num- (v) Both detectors and rectifiers
ber of electrons striking the work on the principle of allow-
grid of the tube. ing current to flow through
(p) The capacitor is used to hold them in only one direction.
the voltage across the cath- (w) Sixty pulses per second. The
ode-bias resistor constant. rectifier will conduct once
The signal applied to the grid each cycle and therefore on a
of the tube causes an ac cur- 60-cycle power line you will
rent, which is superimposed get 60 pulses per second.
on the dc current flowing (x) 120 pulses per second. A full-

45
 wave rectifier conducts on in other words, if the output
each half cycle. Since there of the stage tends to increase,
are two half cycles in each the bias will increase to hold
cycle, on a 60-cycle power the output down. If the output
line you will get 120 pulses. tends to decrease, the bias
(Y) The increased number of will decrease to permit the
pulses per second from afull- output signal to increase.
wave rectifier makes it easier (ag) C3 and Ll.
to filter the pulsating de to (ah) Feedback is controlled by the
pure dc. Thus smaller filter feedback capacitors C3 and
chokes and filter capacitors C4. These capacitors form a
may be used with a full-wave voltage divider network to
rectifier rather than with a control the amount of signal
half-wave rectifier. fed from the output back to the
(z) See Fig. 14. grid-cathode, which forms the
(na) The variation in the strength input circuit.
of the signal being received (ai) Li, C5, C3 and C4 control the
causes the amplitude of the oscillator frequency.
pulses flowing through adiode (aj) A sine-wave signal.
detector to vary. This varia- (ak) The output signal from a
tion in signal received is the multivibrator is essentially a
modulation or intelligence square wave.
signal that is placed on the rf (al) Cl - R2 and C2 - R3 control
carrier. the multivibrator frequency.
(ab) In the grid circuit. In a grid- (am) The multivibrator shown in
leak detector the grid and Fig. 19 is called a plate-cou-
cathode act like a diode tube. pled multivibrator. It is given
The grid acts like a plate, and this name because the energy
when the input signal swings necessary for oscillation is
the grid positive, current fed between the tubes from the
flows from the cathode to the plate of each tube to the grid
grid of the tube. When the in- of the other tube.
put signal swings the grid (an) The mixer stage. This stage
negative, no current flows is sometimes referred to as
from the cathode to the grid. the mixer-oscillator stage be-
(ac) We can compare the grid-leak cause the two functions of mix-
detector to a diode detector ing and oscillation are per-
followed by a triode amplifier formed in a single tube in a
stage. five-tube superheterodyne re-
(ad) Part of the signal from the ceiver.
output of the oscillator is fed (ao) The oscillator frequency is
back to the input circuit. This higher than the frequency of
signal is called the feedback the incoming signal.
signal or simply feedback. (ap) 1956kc. The i -f frequency in
(ae) See Fig. 17. a receiver is equal to the dif-
(af) The grid bias is developed ference between the local os-
across the grid resistor, Rl. cillator frequency and the fre-
This bias is self-regulating; quency of the incoming sig-

46
 nal. If the oscillator operates through R8, which has a high
higher than the incoming sig- resistance, will develop a
nal, then the oscillator fre- small voltage across this re-
quency must be equal to the sistor having such a polarity
frequency of the incoming sig- that the grid end is negative.
nal plus the frequency at which This voltage biases the stage.
the 1-f amplifier operates. (ay) The power amplifier stage is
Therefore, in this case the os- a Class A power amplifier.
cillator frequency must be (aw) The chances are good that one
1500 + 456 = 1956 kc. of the tubes may have a
(aq) The second grid acts as the burned-out heater. Since the
plate of the triode section of tubes are connected in series,
the tube which in turn is the if any tube has a burned-out
oscillator section. heater this will open the cir-
(ar) The primary winding along cuit and none of the tubes will
with the capacitor connected light. However if all the tubes
across it form a parallel- are good, there is a possi-
resonant circuit because the bility that the on-off switch,
signal is fed to the coil and the line cord, or the line-cord
capacitor in parallel. The sec- plug may be defective. In ad-
ondary circuit consisting of dition, the socket into which
the coil and capacitor form a the receiver is plugged may
series-resonant circuit be- be at fault. However, in most
cause the signal is induced in receivers of this type, when
series with the turns of the all the tubes fail to light, the
coil. heater of one of the tubes is
(as) A remote cut-off tube is atube burned out.
with a grid specially con- (ax) The signal source is placed
structed so that it takes a between grid and cathode, and
rather large negative bias to the load is placed in the plate
cut off the flow of plate current circuit of the tube.
through the tube. This type of (ay) The output signal will be
tube is normally used in i -f greater than the input signal,
amplifier stages through and the output signal will be
which an automatic volume 180° out of phase with the in-
control voltage is fed. put signal.
(at) The audio signal voltage is de- (az) A cathode follower.
veloped by the second detector (ba) The signal source is placed
across a 220 pf capacitor C8. between grid and ground ,and
(au) Bias for the first audio stage the load is placed between the
is developed across the 6.8 cathode and ground.
megohm resistor, R8. As you (bb) The output signal is always
will remember, a few of the lower in amplitude than the in-
electrons leaving the cathode put signal. We say that the gain
of the tube and travelling to- of a cathode follower is less
ward the plate will actually than one - in other words,
strike the grid of the tube. there is aloss in signal ampli-
These few electrons flowing tude in this stage.

47
(be) In a cathode follower the out- the grid is grounded and acts
put signal will be in phase with to shield the output circuit
input signal. from the input circuit and by
(bd) Where it is important not to so doing prevents feedback
change the phase of the signal, which could cause oscillation.
and in impedance-matching (bg) Input impedances of both types
applications. of stages are high.
(be) The input signal is placed be- (bh) The output impedance of a
tween the cathode and ground, grounded-cathode stage is
and the load is placed in the comparatively high, but the
plate circuit. output impedance of acathode-
(bf) In a grounded-grid amplifier follower stage is low.

48
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B111.
1
tél Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they mail
their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the next
lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time. Either
practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers too long;
you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets at
a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. Which element of a tube is operated at signal ground potential when

the tube is used as a cathode follower?

2. Which class of amplifier is operated with a bias several times cut-

off bias?

3. What will normally happen to the average plate current of a properly

biased Class A amplifier when a symmetrical ac signal is applied to
the amplifier?

4. What is the purpose of R2 in Fig. 6?

5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 11, what current develops bias for the
stage?

6. Which type of rectifier, a half-wave or a full-wave, requires more

filtering to get pure dc?

7. In which circuit does detection occur in the grid-leak detector?

8. On what basic principle do oscillators work?

9. What does aye found in modern receivers do?

10. What type of amplifier can be used to match a high impedance to a low
Impedance?
 I
là

TOMORROW NEVER COMES

The fellow who coined the phrase, "Don't put off
till tomorrow what you can do today," was one of the
world's wisest men. As a sure-fire formula for suc-
cess, this certainly hits the nail on the head.

Perhaps NRI men wonder why Irepeat this warning

so often. It is because Iam convinced that of all the
reasons for failure, this habit of "putting off" is the
greatest. We can always find agood excuse for "putting
off." We can easily convince ourselves that we are too
tired (or lazy?), or that we don't feel well, or that it's
too hot, or that we have too muchto do. The reason we
are "putting off" is not important; the fact that we are
"putting off" is.

The best -- in fact, the only-- way to overcome this

temptation is never to succumb to it. The first time
you find yourself saying, "I'll skip studying tonight and
do twice as much tomorrow," is the time to study twice
as hard as usual. Soon you will no longer have to fight
temptation; it will no longer exist. It won't occur to
you to say, "I'll do it tomorrow." Instead, you will
automatically say, "I'll do it now."
 •
4t-

Purj Innovation in learning

by a McGraw-Hill
• • Continuing Education School 139-LT-211
 ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

1
- 1e1

WI W1 WI 401
B112

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

B11 2
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NR! Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

E I. Introduction Pages 1-2

You learn some of the advantages and disadvantages of
transistors compared to vacuum tubes.

E 2. Semiconductor Fundamentals Pages 3-13

You learn about conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
You study important characteristics of germanium and silicon
and how they are "doped" for use in transistors.

E 3. Current Flow in Semiconductors Pages 14 -18

You study current flow in N-type and P-type semiconductor
material.

E 4. Semiconductor Diodes Pages 18 -29

You learn about current flow in diodes with forward bias and
reverse bias. You study several important types of diodes.

E 5. Semiconductor Triodes Pages 30 -39

In this section you study PNP and NPN transistors and how
they are biased.

E 6. Semiconductor Types Pages 39 -52

In this section you learn about anumber of different types of
transistors. You also study field-effect and unijunction tran-
sistors.

11 7. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 52 -56

Ill 8. Answer the Lesson Questions.

E 9. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1967 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016

PII3M375 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

In the preceding lessons you stud- today, but for the most part these
ied tubes, and you saw how they are transistors can be classified into
used in different circuits. In this two types, the NPN transistor and
lesson you will study semiconduc- the PNP transistor. If you under-
tor devices - these devices have stand how these two transistor types
already replaced tubes in many im- work, you should have little difficulty
portant applications and are rapidly understanding how all others work
moving into new areas that were and any new transistors that might
once dominated entirely by tubes. be introduced in the future. Youwill
An example of the importance run into many different types of
of semiconductor devices can be transistors identified by different
seen in entertainment-type equip- names, but these names usually re-
ment. Just a few years ago all the fer to the method used in manu-
rectifiers used in this equipment facturing the transistor rather than
were vacuum tubes. Today, however, the manner in which it operates.
the vacuum tube is no longer used There are some similarities be-
for this purpose; rectifiers in the tween tubes and semiconductors. A
modern entertainment-type equip- two-element vacuum tube can be
ment are all semiconductor devices. used to change an alternating cur-
Semiconductor devices used as rent to a direct current; a two-
rectifiers have two elements and are element semiconductor can be used
called diodes just as two-element for the same purpose. A triode vacu-
vacuum tubes are called diodes. um tube can be used to amplify a
Semiconductors used to amplify sig- signal; a transistor can be used for
nals usually have three or more ele- the same purpose. However, this is
ments and are called transistors. where the similarity ends. Most
There are a large number of dif- tubes are vacuum devices; in other
ferent types of transistors available words, all the air and gas have been

1
evacuated from inside the tube. On results in some reduction of the
the other hand, a semiconductor is power required in the equipment.
a solid device and there is no space Although semiconductors have
between the elements in it. We have many advantages over vacuum tubes ,
a current flow through a vacuum in they do have some disadvantages.
a tube, but we have a current flow One disadvantage is that it is usually
through a solid in a semiconductor. not possible to get as high a gain in
The importance of semiconduc- an amplifier stage using atransistor
tors cannot be overemphasized. as it is in a similar stage using a
They have completely supplanted the tube. Therefore to get the equivalent
vacuum tube in portable radio re- gain, more transistor stages are re-
ceivers and in automobile receivers. quired than vacuum-tube stages. An-
Almost all high fidelity and stereo other disadvantage of the transistor
equipment manufactured today uses is that its characteristics are not
semiconductors exclusively - the as constant as those of a vacuum
only tube-operated equipment of this tube. In other words, you are more
type you are likely to encounter is likely to run into difficulty replacing
equipment that is several years old. atransistor than you are in replacing
Semiconductors are finding their a tube because the replacement tran-
way into television receivers and it sistor's characteristics might be
is probably just a matter of time considerably different from the
before they completely replace the characteristics of the original tran-
vacuum tube. sistor. Another disadvantage of both
Semiconductors have several ad- diode semiconductors and transis-
vantages over the vacuum tube. Per- tors is that their characteristics can
haps one of the most important ad- vary appreciably with changes in
vantages is that they do not require temperature. As a matter of fact,
any heater or filament power. Not some semiconductor devices are
only is this a power saving in the easily destroyed by too much heat.
operation of the equipment 1 but it In spite of the fact that semicon-
also removes considerable heat ductor devices have some disadvan-
from the equipment. Heat is probably tages when compared to vacuum
the thing that causes the most dam- tubes, their advantages more than
age to parts in electronic equipment. outweigh the disadvantages and their
Thus with the removal of the heater importance in the field of electronics
or filament power from the equip- is continually growing. Therefore it
ment, other components such as ca- is important that the technician have
pacitors, etc. will last longer. a good understanding of semiconduc-
Semiconductors are very rugged. tor fundamentals, how they are used,
They are solid devices and hence and how they operate. Before going
not subject to breakage from me- ahead to see how semiconductors are
chanical shock as tubes are. An im- used as rectifiers and amplifiers,
portant advantage of transistors is we need to know more about certain
that they will operate on acompara- types of atoms, in order to under-
tively low voltage, and this usually stand how these devices work.

2
 Semiconductor Fundamentals
You have already learned that cer- guishes one material from another.
tain materials will conduct elec- In other words, the nucleus of acop-
tricity readily and that some mate- per atom does not have the same
rials will hardly pass any electric number of positive charges as the
current at all. The materials that nucleus of an iron atom.
will conduct current readily are Each atom normally has enough
called conductors and those that will electrons, which have a negative
not conduct current are called in- charge, to exactly neutralize the
sulators. Midway between the two positive charge on the nucleus. Thus,
types of materials is a group of the hydrogen atom which has a
materials called semiconductors. nucleus with one positive charge will
These materials are not good con- have one electron, and the helium
ductors, nor are they particularly atom which has a positive charge of
good insulators. Two examples of two in the nucleus will have two
semiconductor materials are ger- electrons. Another atom that has a
manium and silicon. These are the nucleus with 30 positive charges will
materials that we will be mostly have 30 electrons to exactly neutral-
concerned with in this section. Both ize the positive charge on the
diode semiconductors and transis- nucleus.
tors are made from germanium and The electrons in an atom arrange
silicon. A new material that shows themselves in shells around the nu-
promise for use in semiconductors cleus. The total number of electrons
is gallium arsenide. It's likely that will normally be just enough to neu-
this material will be used in semi- tralize the charge on the nucleus.
conductors in the future. Before However, there is a maximum num-
going ahead with our detailed study ber of electrons that can be forced
of semiconductor materials, let us into each shell. In the first shell
review a few important facts about around the nucleus, the maximum
conductors and insulators. number of electrons is 2.In the sec-
ond shell, the maximum number of
CONDUCTORS AND electrons is 8, and in the next shell
the maximum number of electrons
INSULATORS is 18. A shell can have less than the
maximum number of electrons, but
You will remember that all mate- not more than the maximum number.
rials are made up of atoms. An atom Conductors.
is the smallest particle of a mate- An example of an atom in a con-
rial that retains the characteristics ductor is shown in Fig. 1. We have
of the material. drawn the shells in the form of
In the center of the atom is the rings, but remember that this atom
nucleus. This nucleus contains a actually has three dimensions, not
positive charge. The number of posi- two. Notice that in this atom there
tive charges on the nucleus distin- are two electrons in the first shell,

3
 there are two electrons in the first
shell, and 8 electrons in the second
shell. Both the shells are completely
filled and will be closely bound to
the nucleus. This means that it is
very difficult to get one of these
electrons out of an atom and there-
fore this material is an insulator
or nonconductor.
Remember the important differ-
ence between conductors and insula-
tors. A conductor is a material that
Fig. 1. An atom of a conductor. has one or two electrons in the outer
shell that are not closely bound to
8 electrons in the next shell and the nucleus, whereas an insulator is
only one electron in the third shell. a material in which the outer shell
The outer shell is called a valence of each atom is filled or almost filled
shell. The single electron in the so that the electrons are closely
third shell, which is called the bound to the atom and cannot be
valence electron, is not very closely
easily removed. Because these elec-
bound to the nucleus; it can easily trons cannot be removed from the
be removed from the atom. Thus a atom, this type of material normally
material of this type has a large will not conduct current, and hence
number of electrons that can easily is called an insulator.
be removed from their atoms. When
these electrons are forced to move
SEMICONDUCTOR
in one direction we have a current
MATERIAL
flow. Thus a material that has only
one or two electrons in an outer
shell that could have many more, A material that is classified as a
is a conductor, because the one or semiconductor has electrical char-
two electrons in the outer shell are acteristics midway between those of
not closely bound to the nucleus. a conductor and those of an insulator.
Insulators. The electrons in a semiconductor
An atom of an insulator is shown can be removed from their atoms
in Fig. 2. Notice that in this atom when some type of external energy,
such as voltage, heat, or light is ap-
plied to the material. Then the mate-
rial acts like a conductor.
The most important semiconduc-
tor materials used for transistors
are germanium and silicon. The first
low-cost transistors were germani-
um transistors, but recent develop-
ments have lowered the cost of sili-
con transistors so that most of the
new transistor types being intro-
Fig. 2. 1n atom of an insulator. duced are silicon. Both germanium

4
and silicon are very abundant ele-
ments, but neither is found in the
pure state, and it is quite difficult
to process them to the high state
of purity required for use in tran-
sistors. The first transistors were
made of germanium because tech-
niques for getting pure germanium
were developed first. However, now Fig. 3. (.%) is the germanium atom with
it is possible to refine silicon to the a charge of 32. (B) shows the simpli-
high degree of purity required, at a fied symbol.
reasonable cost, and since silicon
has several advantages over ger- the four electrons in the outer shell
manium for use in semiconductor because the shell is not filled. The
devices it has in many ways re- other electrons are bound so closely
placed germanium. to the nucleus that they cannot easily
In general, there is not too much be removed. Therefore, germanium
difference between the operation of is often represented as shown in Fig.
semiconductor devices made from 3B.
germanium and those made from The Silicon Atom.
silicon. We will cover the impor- The arrangement of electrons
tant points of these devices made about the nucleus in a silicon atom
from both materials since you will is shown in Fig. 4A. The nucleus of
run into semiconductor devices of the silicon atom has a positive
both types. charge of 14. Therefore, there will
The Germanium Atom. be fourteen electrons revolving
The arrangement of electrons about the nucleus. There are two
about the nucleus in a germanium electrons in the first ring, eight in
atom is shown in Fig. 3A. The the second and four in the third.
nucleus of the germanium atom has Thus the first and second rings are
a positive charge of 32. Thus as filled, but there are only four elec-
you might expect, there will be 32 trons in the outer shell. These four
electrons revolving in the shells
about the nucleus. There are two
electrons in the first shell, eight
in the second, eighteen in the third
and four in the fourth shell. Thus,
the first, second and third shells are
filled, but there are only four elec-
trons in the outer shell. However,
these four electrons, which are
called the valence electrons, are
bound to the nucleus much more so
than the one or two electrons found
in the outer shell of a conductor.
The important electrons in the Fig. 4. (A) shows the silicon atom
germanium atom, insofar as its use Inith a charge of 14. (B) shows the
in semiconductors is concerned, are outer shell with four electrons.

5
electrons are the valence electrons In order to try to fill its outer
like the four in the germanium atom ring with electrons, a single ger-
and are bound fairly closely to the nu- manium atom or a single silicon
cleus. As in the case of the germani- atom will establish covalent bonds
um atom, the four electrons in the with four other atoms. This arrange-
outer ring are the ones that are of ment of atoms in a piece of ger-
importance in the use of silicon in manium is shown in Fig. 6A. A simi-
semiconductors. lar arrangement of atoms in apiece
Notice the similarity between the of silicon is shown in Fig. 6B. These
silicon and germanium atoms. In pieces of silicon and germanium are
both atoms, the outer shell or ring called crystals and the way in which
has four electrons, and all the other they are arranged is called alattice
shells are filled. structure. Each atom shares each of
The tendency of some materials its four valence electrons with one
like silicon and germanium, that do valence electron of another atom to
not have the outer shell completely form these bonds.
filled with electrons, is to get addi-
tional electrons to fill up the outer
INTRINSIC CONDUCTION
shell. In pure germanium and sili- Even at comparatively low tem-
con, the electrons in the outer shell peratures, there is heat energy in
of one atom are bound as closely to all materials. This energy is suffi-
that atom as the four electrons in the cient to cause a few of the electrons
outer shell of another atom. There- to move out of their proper place in
fore one atom cannot pull electrons the lattice structure of either the
away from another atom. Instead, germanium crystal or the silicon
two nearby atoms will share one crystal and become free electrons.
outer electron from each atom. In These free electrons are available
other words, two atoms of germani- for conduction of electric current.
um may share electrons as shown The number of free electrons avail-
in Fig. 5A; and two atoms of silicon able is much higher in germanium
may share electrons as shown in than it is in silicon.
Fig. 5B. By sharing electrons in When one of these electrons moves
this way, each atom will partly fill out of its position in the lattice struc-
its outer shell. This pair of shared ture, it leaves an empty space in the
electrons, one from each of two crystal lattice. This empty space is
atoms, is called "a covalent bond". called a hole. An electron from a

g. 5. The sharing of two electrons by two germanium atoms is shown at A; by

two silicon atoms at B.

6
 COVALENT BONDS COVALENT BONDS

Fig. 6. The lattice structure of germanium is shown at ..1; of silicon at B.

nearby atom can move into this hole reduced. This happens because more
thus creating a new hole at the place electrons are freed by the energy
it left. Another electron may move applied to the crystal. In addition,
out of still another atom to fill this the speed of the random movement
new hole, leaving behind it a hole. is increased.
This movement of an electron to fill The movement of an electron out
a hole thus creating a new hole in of an atom forms a hole in the atom.
the place it left makes it look as if Thus, whenever an electron is freed
holes themselves move. Further- from an atom a hole is formed. This
more, since the hole represents a free electron and the hole it forms
missing electron, it has a positive are called a "hole-electron pair".
charge. The formation of hole-electron pairs
In a piece of germanium or sili- is a continuous process. Also the
con, the electrons are in a constant filling of holes by electrons is acon-
state of motion about their atoms. tinuous process. In other words,the
If in its movement an electron process of an electron leaving its
comes closer to a hole than to its atom and forming a hole, and an-
own atomic nucleus, it will be other electron moving in to fill the
strongly attracted to the hole and hole and in so doing creating a new
will leave its atom. When there is no hole, is a continuous process. The
voltage applied across the crystal, conduction of electricity in pure
the movement of a hole or an elec- germanium or pure silicon crystals
tron is a random movement. Holes due to the formation of hole-elec-
and electrons may move in any di- tron pairs is called the intrinsic
rection. conduction.
If heat or some other form of ex- The conductivity of a germanium
ternal energy is applied to the crys- crystal or a silicon crystal,which is
tal, the resistance of the material is the ability of the material to conduct

7
an electric current, depends on the elements called impurities are
average length of time an electron added to the crystals to alter their
is free and on the number of free characteristics. By adding these
electrons. We mentioned previously materials we can produce two types
that there are more electrons free of silicon and two types of germani-
if external energy, such as heat, is um. They are called N-type and P-
applied to the material. Therefore type. Now, let us study the charac-
the conductivity rises as the tem- teristics of these two types of mate-
perature of the material is in- rials.
creased.
This type of conduction is much N-TYPE MATERIAL
higher in germanium than it is in
silicon. As an example, if we had a N-type silicon or germanium can
germanium crystal exactly one be produced by adding as an impurity
centimeter on each side and meas- an element that has five electrons
ured the resistance across two in its outer ring. An example of this
parallel surfaces, we would find the type of material is arsenic. Arsenic
resistance to be approximately 60 has a positive charge of 33 on the
ohms. The resistance of an equiv- nucleus and has 33 electrons in the
alent piece of silicon would be ap- shells surrounding the nucleus.
proximately 60,000 ohms. Thus in- There are two electrons in the first
trinsic conduction is much higher in shell, eight in the second, eighteen
germanium than it is in silicon. in the third and five in the fourth
Intrinsic conduction in transistors or outer shell. In other words,
is undesirable. It is kept as low as arsenic is just like germanium ex-
possible by holding the operating cept that the nucleus has one more
temperature of the material down. positive charge and there is one addi-
Transistors are also shielded from tional electron in the outer shell.
light because light is a form of en- If a small amount of arsenic is
ergy and light striking the crystal added to the germanium,the arsenic
will increase the intrinsic conduc- atoms will form covalent bonds with
tion. Since silicon has a much lower the germanium atoms as shown in
intrinsic conduction than germani- Fig. 7. However ,to form the covalent
um, semiconductors made from sili- bonds with its neighboring germani-
con are less affected by heat than are um atoms, the arsenic atom needs
semiconductors made from ger- only four of the electrons in its outer
manium. This is one of the .chief shell. Therefore there will be one
advantages of silicon over germani- electron left over when the arsenic
um as a semiconductor material. atom forms covalent bonds with the
In their pure forms, neither ger- four neighboring germanium atoms.
manium nor silicon are useful in This electron is free to move about
semiconductor devices. In fact, in within the crystal in exactly the same
spite of intrinsic conduction, neither manner as a single valence electron
material is agood conductor at room in a good metal conductor. The addi-
temperature; they are both fairly tion of arsenic , which produces these
good insulators. To use these ma- free electrons, greatly reduces the
terials in semiconductors, con- resistance of the material.
trolled amounts of other selected When a small amount of arsenic

8
 ring will form covalent bonds with
germanium or silicon atoms leaving
a fifth electron free. Antimony,
which has 51 electrons ,also has been
used as a donor. Antimony has two
electrons in the first shell, eight in
the second, eighteen in the third,
eighteen in the fourth and five in the
fifth or valence shell.

P-TYPE MATERIAL
If instead of adding amaterial with
five electrons in its valence shell,
we add a material with only three
electrons in the valence shell, we
COVALENT BONDS EXCESS ELECTRON have a situation where the impurity
added to the silicon or germanium
Fig. 7. Germanium %.ith arsenic added. has one less electron than it needs
to establish covalent bonds with four
is added to a silicon crystal exactly neighboring atoms. Thus, in one
the same thing happens. The arsenic covalent bond there will be only one
atom forms covalent bonds with the electron instead of two. This will
silicon atoms. As in the case of the leave a hole in that covalent bond.
germanium atom, only four of the A material that is frequently used
electrons in the outer shell of the for this purpose is indium. Indium
arsenic atom are used in forming has 49 electrons, two in the first
these covalent bonds so there will shell, eight in the second, eighteen
be one electron left over. in the third, eighteen in the fourth
When germanium or silicon have and three in the fifth or valence shell.
had an impurity added to them we
say they have been doped. When
semiconductor material has been
doped with a material such as arse-
nic that results in there being ex-
cess electrons, we call it an N-type
material. The N refers to the nega-
tive carriers, which are the free
electrons. Arsenic is called adonor
impurity because it donates an easily
freed electron.
In addition to arsenic, other ma-
terials have been used as donors.
Phosphorus, which has a total of
fifteen electrons, can be used. The
phosphorus atom has two electrons
in the first shell, eight in the second COVALENT BONDS HOLE

and five in the third. Four of the

electrons in the valence shell or Fig. 8. Silicon %.ith indium added.

9
The manner in which indium forms P stands for positive; since holes
covalent bonds with neighboring sili- represent a shortage of an electron
con atoms is shown in Fig. 8. It forms we say they act as positive carriers.
covalent bonds with germanium The indium is called an accepter
atoms in the same way. impurity because its atoms leave
We mentioned previously that even holes in the crystal structure that
at comparatively cold temperatures are free to accept electrons. In addi-
there is some heat energy within tion to indium, boron and aluminum
the crystal and thus there will be a are also used as accepter impuri-
few free electrons moving about the ties. Boron has 5 electrons, two in
crystal. These free electrons are the first shell and three in the sec-
strongly attracted to the holes in ond which is the valence shell. Alu-
the covalent bond produced where minum has 13 electrons, two in the
an indium atom has replaced a sili- first shell, eight in the second and
con or a germanium atom. Thus an three in the third or valence shell.
electron will move into a hole in the
covalent bond producing a new hole CHARGES IN N-TYPE
in another atom and giving the effect
AND
that the hole is moving as shown in
Fig. 9. P-TYPE MATERIAL
Since a hole in the crystal actu-
ally represents a shortage of an When a donor material such as
electron, it is an area with a posi- arsenic is added to germanium or
tive charge. Therefore when asemi- silicon, the fifth electron in the va-
conductor material has been doped lence ring of the arsenic atom does
with a material such as indium that not become part of &covalent bond.
produces holes in the lattice struc- This extra electron may move away
ture, we call it a P-type material. from the arsenic atom to one of the
nearby germanium or silicon atoms.
The arsenic atom has a charge of
+33 on the nucleus and normally has
33 electrons to neutralize this
charge. When the electron moves
away from the atom there will be
only 32 electrons to neutralize the
charge on the nucleus, and as a re-
sult there will be a small region of
positive charge around the arsenic
MOVEMENT atom. Similarly, the excess elec-
OF HOLE
tron that has moved into a nearby
PATH OF ELECTRON
FILLING HOLE germanium or silicon atom will pro-
vide an excess electron in the atom.
In the case of the germanium atom
there will be a total of 33 electrons
around a nucleus requiring only 32
Fig. 9. ghen an electron fills a hole, electrons to completely neutralize
another hole t%ill apparently movc to it, and in the case of the silicon
%%here the electron as. atom there will be 15 electrons

10
around the nucleus requiring only electron to fill the hole in the co-
14 electrons to neutralize it. This valent bond, then the atom which has
means that the atom will have an given up the electron will be short
extra electron so that there will be an electron so that there will be a
a region of negative charge around region of positive charge around
this atom. this atom. Again, while this giving
It is important to notice that al- up of an electron by a germanium
though there is a region of positive atom and the acceptance of an elec-
charge around the arsenic atom after tron by the indium atom ionizes or
the electron has moved away, and a charges both atoms involved, the
region of negative charge around the net charge on the crystal is still
germanium or silicon atom taking up zero. We simply have one atom that
the extra electron, the total charge is short an electron and another
on the crystal remains the same. In atom that has one too many. The
other words, a given crystal will crystal itself does not take on any
have a net charge of zero. This charge.
means that there will be exactly These ionized atoms produced in
enough electrons to neutralize the both the N-type and the P-type ger-
positive charges on the nuclei on manium and the N-type and the P-
the various atoms. But because some type silicon are not concentrated in
of the electrons may move about in any one part of the crystal, but in-
the crystal, there will be regions in stead are spread uniformly about
the crystal where there are nega- the crystal. If any region within the
tive charges and other regions where crystal were to have a very large
there are positive charges, even number of positively charged atoms,
though the net charge on the crystal these atoms would attract free elec-
is zero. trons from other parts of the crystal
In a P-type material to which ma- to neutralize part of the charged
terial such as indium has been add- atom, so that the charge would be
ed we will have a similar situation. spread uniformly about the crystal.
You will remember that the indium Similarly, if alarge number of atoms
atom has only three electrons in its within a small region have had an
valence ring. These are all that were excess of electrons, these electrons
needed to neutralize the positive would repel each other and spread
charge on the nucleus. However, with throughout the crystal.
only three electrons in the valence Both holes and electrons are in-
ring, there is a hole in one of the volved in conduction at all times.
covalent bonds formed between the Holes are called positive carriers
indium atom and the four adjacent and electrons negative carriers. The
germanium or silicon atoms. If an one present in greatest quantity is
electron moves in to fill this hole, called the majority carrier; the
then there is one more electron in other is the minority carrier. In an
the indium atom than is needed to N-type material, electrons are the
neutralize the charge on the nucleus. majority carriers and holes are the
Thus there will be a region of nega- minority carriers, whereas in a P-
tive charge around the indium atom. type material ,holes are the majority
Similarly, if one of the germanium carriers and electrons the minority
or silicon atoms has given up an carriers.

11
 transistors and steps are taken to
SUMMARY
keep it as low as possible. The for-
mation of hole-electron pairs in-
This is a very important section creases as the temperature in-
of this lesson. You have covered creases and is a much more serious
many of the fundamentals of semi- problem in germanium-type semi-
conductors on which we will build conductor material than in silicon-
the remainder of the lesson. It is type semiconductor material.
important that you understand the Semiconductor materials can be
basic theory of semiconductors in doped by adding small amounts of
order to be able to understand how Impurities. If a material with five
semiconductor diodes and transis- electrons in the valence ring is add-
tors work. We will summarize the ed, the material is called a donor-
important points that were covered type impurity. This type of mate-
in the preceding section. rial has one electron left over after
If any of these points are not clear, it forms covalent bonds with four
you should go back and study the les- neighboring germanium or silicon
son again until they are clear. If you atoms. Thus there will be an excess
understand the first section of the of electrons. We then refer to this
lesson, you should be able to under- kind of material as an N-type
stand the material following without material.
too much difficulty. However, if you If the germanium or silicon is
do not understand what has been doped with an impurity, called an
covered previously, you will have accepter impurity, having three
difficulty understanding what is to electrons in the valence shell, the
follow. impurity forms covalent bonds with
Pure semiconductor material the four neighboring germanium or
such as germanium or silicon is a silicon atoms. However, there will
very poor conductor. In fact, it is be a hole in one of the covalent bonds
an insulator if it is protected from because the impurity has only three
all outside sources of energy. How- electrons available to form covalent
ever, even at room temperature bonds with four neighboring ger-
there is enough heat present in ger- manium and silicon atoms. This type
manium and silicon to produce some of germanium or silicon is called
electron and hole movement. The P-type because there will be holes
movement is much greater in ger- in the material, and these holes act
manium than it is in silicon. as positive carriers.
An electron movement out of a Another point to remember is that
covalent bond in a germanium or when an electron is freed or when a
silicon atom leaves a hole in that hole captures an electron, the atoms
bond. The hole will attract an elec- involved become charged, or ion-
tron from a nearby atom, producing ized. Thus throughout both N-type
a hole in that atom. Thus, both the and P-type germanium or N-type
hole and the electron appear to move. and P-type silicon we have small
The holes are positive carriers and regions of charge. However, the net
the electrons negative carriers of charge on the crystal is zero and the
electricity. This formation of hole- charged regions are evenly distri-
electron pairs is undesirable in buted throughout the material.

12
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS has greater resistance?
(I) What is an N-type material?
(a) How many electrons are there (k) What is a donor material?
in a valence shell or ring in a (1 ) Name two materials used as
silicon atom? donors.
(3) What are the two types of ma- (m) What is P-type material?
terial most widely used in (n) What is an accepter impurity?
semiconductor devices? (0 ) Name three types of accepter

(c) What is meant by a covalent material.

bond? (P) In N-type material what is the
(d) How many covalent bonds will majority carrier?
a single germanium or silicon (q) What are the majority car-
atom establish? riers in the P-type material?
(e) What is intrinsic conduction? (r) When a donor impurity such as
arsenic loses an electron in a
(f) Is intrinsic conduction de-
sirable? semiconductor material, what
happens to the arsenic and to
(g) In which type of conductor ma-
terial, germanium or silicon, a nearby atom that gains the
is intrinsic conduction the electron insofar as their rela-
greatest? tive charge is concerned?
(s) Although there are small
(h) What is the greatest cause of
an increase in intrinsic con- areas that have positive and
duction in germanium? negative charges in a doped
(i) Which semiconductor mate- semiconductor, what is the
rial, silicon or germanium, overall charge on the crystal?

13
 Current Flow in Semiconductors

In order to understand how tran- You might at first think that when
sistors operate, there are several there is no voltage applied there
new ideas that you must master. would be no motion of the free holes
First, you must understand how cur- and electrons. However, this is not
rent flows through both N-type and true--as you learned when we dis-
P-type semiconductor materials. cussed intrinsic conduction, there
Current flow through an N-type ma- is a certain amount of energy pres-
terial is not too different from cur- ent in the crystal. This energy might
rent flow through metals, which you be due to the temperature of the
have already studied. However, crystal, because as we pointed out
there is quite a difference in the way before, even at room temperature
current flows through a P-type ma- the crystal does have heat energy.
terial. Motion of the free holes or electrons
When a P-type material is placed due to energy of this type is at ran-
next to an N-type material, we have dom; in other words there is no net
what is called a junction. The action movement in any one direction.
that occurs at the point of contact Holes move one atom at a time, and
between these two different types of any hole may move from its starting
materials is extremely important. location to any of the surrounding
It is this action that makes the tran- atoms. This means that a hole may
sistor possible. start off in one direction as it moves
In this section of the lesson we from one atom to another, and then
will study how current flows through may move in almost the opposite
N-type and P-type materials. We direction as it moves to still athird
need to understand current flow atom. Similarly, elçctron movement
through both types of germanium or is in a random direction; a given
silicon to be able to understand how electron may move in first one di-
a junction works. In a later section rection and then in another.
we will see how a junction works. When electrons and holes are in
Later, we will see what happens in motion, the different carriers are
a transistor, which has two junc- moving in different directions. Re-
tions. member that when there is a hole in
This section is extremely impor- one atom, and an electron moves
tant, and you should be sure that you from another atom to fill that hole,
understand it completely. Once you a new hole appears in the second
understand this material, it will be atom. In other words, the electron
a simple step to see how transistors has moved from the second atom to
can be used to amplify signals. the first, whereas the hole has moved
in the opposite direction from the
DIFFUSION first atom over to the second atom
that gave up the electron. The re-
As we have mentioned, adding im- sult is that the effective current flow
purities to pure germanium or sili- of any one carrier is cancelled by
con adds free electrons or holes. the movement of the other carrier

14
and the resulting current flow in any holes, they will carry the current.
direction is zero. When the electron.s are attracted
This random motion of carriers is by the voltage applied to the positive
called diffusion. It goes on at all terminal, they will move towa rds the
times in a crystal whether there is positive terminal. When an electron
a voltage applied to the crystal or moves away from the covalent bond
not. Every effort is made in the de- that produced this free electron, it
sign of transistors to keep this dif- will leave behind an atom with aposi-
fusion as low as possible. tive charge, which we call apositive
ion. The electrons moving towards
one end of the crystal set up aregion
that has a local negative charge, as
Another type of carrier movement shown in Fig. 10. This negative
in semiconductors is known as charge sets up apotential difference
"drift". This is the type of move- between that part of the crystal and
ment that is obtained when avoltage the positive terminal of the battery.
is applied across the crystal. Since In other words the attraction of the
the manner in which current flows positive battery terminal causes
through N-type and P-type material electrons to bunch up near the end of
is different, let's consider them the crystal connected to the positive
separately. terminal. The electrons are drawn
N-Tvoe Moterinl. from the crystal into the wire con-
In Fig. 10 we have shown an N- necting the crystal to the positive
type crystal with a voltage applied terminal of the battery by this po-
to it. The voltage difference sup- tential difference.
plied by the battery provides aforce Meanwhile, the electrons that have
which makes it easier for the elec- left the atoms at the other end of the
trons to move in one direction than crystal have left behind positive
in the other, In an N-type material. ions. This sets up a region of posi-
the electrons will be attracted by the tive charge around the end of the
positive terminal of the battery. Be- crystal connected to the negative
cause in the N-type material the terminal of the battery so there will
electrons greatly outnumber the be a potential difference between the
negative terminal of the battery and
ELECTRONS POSITIVE this region of positive charge. This
IONS
potential difference will pull elec-
trons from the wire into the crystal.
These electrons replace the free
electrons that were attracted to the
positive terminal of the battery.
The number of electrons leaving
the crystal at the end connected to
the positive terminal of the battery
will be exactly equal to the number
of electrons entering the crystal at
the end connected to the negative
Fig. 10. \-t' pe crystal %%ith voltage terminal of the battery. Since the
applied to it. crystal was electrically neutral be-

15
NEGATIVE HOLES
IONS to the positive terminal of the bat-
tery build up a region of negative
charge at this end of the material.
The extra electrons are drawn from
these ions by the positive terminal
of the battery, and a new hole is
formed. These holes then drift to-
P-TYPE MATERIAL
wards the end of the semiconductor
that is connected to the negative ter-
minal of the battery, and build up a
positive charge at this end of the
semiconductor. This positive charge
Fig. 11. P-type crystal with voltage attracts free electrons from the ex-
applied to it. ternal circuit. As a hole is filled
with an electron, it disappears.
fore the battery was connected and Thus in the P-type material, we
the number of electrons in it are have an electron flow in the external
constant, the crystal remains elec- circuit from the negative terminal
trically neutral. of the battery to the semiconductor,
P-Type Material. and from the semiconductor to the
Conduction through P-type mate- positive terminal of the battery.
rial is quite different from conduc- However, in the semiconductor it-
tion through N-type material. In the self, current flow is by means of
P-type semiconductor, nearly all of holes, which drift from the end of
the current is carried by holes. When the semiconductor that is connected
a battery is applied to a P-type to the positive terminal to the end
semiconductor, as shown in Fig. 11, that is connected to the negative
the voltage causes the holes to drift terminal of the battery. Keep this
towards the negative terminal. They point in mind, that even in the P-
are repelled by the positive potential type material where conduction
applied to the one end of the mate- within the material is by holes (which
rial and attracted by the negative are positive carriers) the current
potential applied to the other end. flow in the external circuit is by
When a hole starts moving away means of electrons and is in the
from the end of the material con- conventional direction from the
nected to the positive terminal of negative terminal towards the posi-
the battery, it moves because it is tive terminal of the battery in the
filled by an electron attracted from external circuit.
a nearby germanium atom. There are several important dif-
When the hole in an accepter type ferences between conduction in N-
atom is filled with an electron, the type semiconductors and conduction
atom actually has one electron more in P-type semiconductors. In both
than it needs to neutralize the charge cases electrons flow from the ex-
on the nucleus. Thus, the atom has a ternal circuit into the crystal and
negative charge, or in other words it then out of the crystal into the ex-
becomes a negative ion. Negative ternal circuit. However, in the N-
ions that are formed near the end of type crystals, the excess electron
the semiconductor that is connected produced when a donor atom forms

16
 covalent bonds with four germanium an N-type semiconductor, current
atoms is a free electron that can flows through the semiconductor be-
move about in the crystal. However, cause of the movement of the free
in the P-type material, the electrons electrons produced by the donor
are not free, but can move only to atoms that have been added to the
holes. Since a hole can capture an semiconductor material. In the P-
electron from any of its surround- type semiconductor, current flow
ing atoms, it is the hole that is free through the crystal is by means of
to move in any direction. holes which are produced when an
Another important difference be- accepter-type impurity is added to
tween the N-type and the P-type ma- the crystal.
terials is that a free electron moves In both cases current flow in the
approximately twice as fast as a external circuit is from the negative
hole. This affects the conductivity of terminal of the battery to the crystal
the two types of semiconductor ma- and from the crystal to the positive
terial. If we have two crystals, one terminal of the battery. In the N-
an N-type and the other a P-type, type material, electron flow through
if the N-type material has the same the crystal is from the end connected
number of free electrons as the P- to the negative terminal of the bat-
type has holes, the N-type will have tery to the end connected to the posi-
a lower resistance because the free tive terminal of the battery. In the
electrons can move approximately P-type semiconductor, the holes
twice as fast as the holes in the P- flow from the end of the semicon-
type material. ductor connected to the positive ter-
minal of the battery to the end of the
SUMMARY semiconductor connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.
The important thing to remember The speed with which electrons
from this section is that there are move through N-type material is
two types of carrier movement in about twice the speed with which
semiconductors. The first is called holes move through P-type material.
diffusion and is simply a random Thus N-type material has better
movement of the carriers in the conductivity than P-type material,
semiconductor material. The cur- which means that N-type germanium
rent flow produced by one carrier is will have a lower resistance than
cancelled by the movement of the P-type germanium.
other, and the resultant current flow
in any direction is zero. Diffusion SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
is the random motion of electrons or
holes in a doped semiconductor due (t) When an accepter-type im-
to the energy of the material. purity is added to a silicon or
The other type of movement we a germanium crystal, what
discussed is called drift. This type type of carrier is produced in
4 of conduction is produced when a the crystal?
potential is connected across a (u) What is diffusion?
semiconductor. This potential can (v) What is the name given to the
cause either electrons or holes to movement of carriers in a
move within the semiconductor. In semiconductor material when

17
 a voltage is applied across the through a crystal, will the
material? crystal he charged?
(w) What are the majority car- (z) Is the rate of travel of elec-
riers in an N-type material trons through N-type mate-
and in what direction do they rial the same as the rate of
move when a voltage is ap- travel of holes through P-type
plied across the material? material?
(x) What are the majority car- (aa) If you had two identical pieces
riers in a P-type material and of silicon and one was doped
in what direction do they move so that it was N-type material
through the material when a and the other doped so that it
potential is applied across the was P-type material, which
material? would have the lower resist-
(Y) When current is flowing ance?

Semiconductor Diodes
Just as there are diode tubes. in the diagram we have represented
there are also diode semiconduc- the crystal as a box-like structure
tors. Some diode semiconductors with one half being P-type material
are used as detectors: others are and the other half N-type material
used as rectifiers in power supplies with a junction between the two sec-
to change ac to pulsating dc. Diodes tions.
used as detectors are often referred This type of diode is called a
to as signal diodes.Both germanium junction diode. The action that takes
and silicon signal diodes are widely place at the junction of the P-type
used. Diodes used for power recti- crystal and the N-type crystal is
fication are almost exclusively sili- what we will be most concerned with
con diodes. Relatively small silicon now. In order to understand how a
diodes can often handle consider- junction diode works ,
you must learn
ably more current than a large rec- something about the movement of
tifier tube. electrons and holes near the junc-
A semiconductor diode is made tion. The movement of holes and
by taking a single crystal and adding
LARGE AREA
a donor impurity to one region and CONTACT
JUNCTION

an accepter impurity to the other.

This will give us a single crystal LEAD LEAD
with a P section and an N section.
Where the two sections meet, we
have what is called a junction. Con- LARGE AREA
CONTACT
tacts are fastened to the two ends
P-TYPE N-TYPE
of the crystal so that a simple PN CRYSTAL CRYSTAL
Junction diode like the one shown in
Fig. 12 is formed. For simplicity rig. 12. Simple junction.

18
electrons will form wnat is called tive cnarge. When the hole leaves
a depletion layer at tne junction. Now the P side of the junction because it
let us see what the depletion layer nus been filled by an electron, the
is and how it is formed. atom that gains the extra electron
will nave a negative charge.
DEPLEVIOW LAYER As a result of this diffusion across
tne junction, a region will build up
Remember tnat in an N-type crys- around tne junction called the de-
tal there are free electrons, and in pletion area. On the P side of the
a P-type crystal there are free junction there will be an area where
holes. Also remember that the elec- the holes are missing. On the N side
trons and holes are moving about of the junction there will be an area
the crystal with a random motion, where electrons are missing; thus
called diffusion. In the PN junction we get the name depletion layer.
diode, holes will be moving about The missing holes on the P side
in the P section and electrons in the of the junction will result in anega-
N section. Some of the holes will tive charge on the P side and the
cross over the junction from the P missing electrons on the N side will
section into the N section and be produce a positive charge on the N
filled by a free electron. Similarly, side of the junction. The negative
some of the electrons in the N-type charge on the P side of the junction
material will diffuse across the will build up until it has sufficient
junction and fill a hole in the P sec- amplitude to prevent any further
tion. electrons from the N side from
When an atom in tne N section crossing the junction to the P side.
loses an electron tne atom oecomes Remember tna.t tne negative charge
chargea or ionized. it wui nave a built up on tne P side of the junction
positive charge because it will nave will repel electrons from the nega-
one less electron tnan is neened to tive siae. Sunilariy, tne positive
completely neutralize tne cnaige on cnaige omit up on tne N side of the
the nucleus. 1hus electrons diifus mg jtuiccion will prevent noies from the
across tne junction to fill a hole on P sine from crossingtne junction in-
the P side of the junction will leave to the N-type material. Thus this
behind atoms with apositive charge. area, which is called the depletion
At the same time, when an electron layer because it is short holes on one
fills a hole on the P side, the atom side and electrons on the other side,
will have one more electron than it is also sometimes called the barrier
needs to completely neutralize the layer, because the charges built up
charge on its nucleus, and there- form barriers to prevent any further
fore that atom will have a negative diffusion of holes or electrons
charge. Similarly, holes diffusing across the junction. It is also some-
from the P side of the junction over times called a potential barrier be-
into the N side will leave behind cause a negative potential is built up
atoms with a negative charge. When on the P side of the junction and a
the hole moves over to the N side, positive potential is built up on the
it will mean the atom into which it N side of the junction.
moves will have an electron missing The action taking place at the junc-
and therefore it will assume aposi- tion is quite important and is illus-

19
 o
JUNCTION
P-TYPE I N-TYPE the N side of the junction prevents
00000 0 ()POSITIVE IONS
any further movement of holes from
0000 0 eNEGATIVE IONS the P-type material across the junc-
0000n 0 • FREE ELECTRONS
tion into the N-type material.
0000 - 0 o HOLES
The charge on the ions is shown
in Fig. 13B. Notice that on the P
IONIZED DONORS
side of the junction the atoms that
have lost holes by gaining electrons
O o have a negative charge. At the junc-
tion the potential drops to zero and
IONIZED ACCEPTORS then reverses on the N side where
+ HOLES the ionized atoms have a positive
charge because they have lost elec-
o O o trons.
In Fig. 13C we see the carrier
ELECTRONS charges which are available to neu-
tralize the ionized atoms. At some

O o distance from the junction there are

holes with a positive charge. How-
ever, as we approach the junction,
the concentration of these holes de-
Fig. 13. (A) locations of ions and car- creases because they are repelled
riers at a PN junction; (B) charges at away from the junction by the posi-
junction due to ionized impurity atoms; tive ions on the N side of the junc-
(C) carrier charges available; (D) re- tion. On the N side of the junction
sultant charges. at some distance from the junction
we have many electrons available,
trated in Fig. 13A. On the P side of but as we approach the junction, the
the junction we have shown ionized charge drops to zero because these
atoms that have a negative charge electrons are repelled away from the
because the holes in these atoms junction by the negative ions on the
have been filled by electrons. The P side of the junction.
holes have escaped and travelled or The resultant charges on the crys-
diffused across the junction into the tal are shown in Fig. 13D. As be-
N-type material. On the N side of the fore, the crystal will have atendency
junction we have shown atoms that to remain neutral, or in other words
are ionized and have a positive not to have any charge. Some dis-
charge. These atoms have apositive tance from the junction the atoms
charge because they have lost elec- will have exactly the correct num-
trons. These electrons have diffused ber of holes and electrons so that
across the junction into the P-type the net charge on the atoms is zero.
material. Thus we have a charged As we approach the junction, the
area at the junction. The negative negative ions on the P side will re-
charge on the P side of the junction sult in an area in the crystal that
prevents any further movement of has a negative charge. As we move
electrons from the N-type material closer to the junction, the charge
across the junction into the P-type will drop to zero so that at the junc-
material, and the positive charge on tion itself the net charge on the

20
 atoms is zero. Then the charge junction will be attracted by the
builds up in a positive direction on negative ions on the P side of the
the N side of the junction due to the depletion layer at the junction and
ionized atoms that have lost elec- pass across the junction. These
trons. As we move away from the holes will tend to neutralize the ions
junction we again reach a region on the P side of the junction. Simi-
where the atoms have exactly the larly, free electrons produced on
correct number of electrons to neu- the P side of the junction will pass
tralize the charges on the nucleus across the junction, and neutralize
so the net charge in that area will positive ions on the N side of the
be zero. junction. This is an example of in-
So far we have been discussing trinsic conduction, conduction due to
only the action of the majority car- the formation of hole-electron pairs,
riers at the PN junction. However, and as we mentioned, this type of
there is one other important point conduction is undesirable.
we must consider in order to com- Now let us consider what happens
pletely understand what happens at due to the minority carriers cross-
the junction. You will remember ing the junction. Holes crossing the
some time ago that we mentioned junction from the N-type material to
that holes and electrons are in acon- the P-type material tend to neutral-
tinuous state of motion in the crys- ize the negative ions on the P side of
tal due to the energy of the crystal. the junction. Similarly, electrons
For example, even at room tempera- traveling from the P side of the
ture, the crystal contains a certain junction to the N side of the junction
amount of heat energy and this en- tend to neutralize the positive ions
ergy is sufficient to cause motion on the N side of the junction. This
of both electrons and holes. In the flow of minority carriers across the
N-type material an electron will junction weakens the potential bar-
leave an atom creating a hole. This rier in the region around the atoms
hole will be filled by an electron they neutralize. When this happens,
from another atom. Thus we have the majority carriers are able to
the continual formation of hole- cross the junction at the location of
electron pairs. Away from the junc- the neutral atom. This means that
tion, this formation of hole-electron the holes from the P side will cross
pairs does not have any effect on the over to the N side, and electrons
carrier concentratiowihtlitwprystal. from the N side will cross over to
In other words ,the holes will remain the P side.
the majority carriers in the P-type The result is that we have both
region, and the electrons will remain holes and electrons crossing the
the majority carriers in the N-type junction in both directions. The hole
side of the crystal. that crosses from the N side to the
However, as we mentioned pre- P side due to intrinsic conduction
viously, both holes and electrons are permits a hole to cross from the P
4 involved in conduction at all times. side to the N side by diffusion. Simi-
There are minority carriers in both larly, an electron that crosses the
regions - holes in the N region and junction from the P side to the N
electrons in the P region. The holes side due to intrinsic conduction per-
produced in the N region near the mits another electron to go from the

21
 JUNCI"ION NULI MuVcm ENT
N side to the P side by diffusion.
The result of the noies ana electrons
crossing the junction m both direc-
tions is that these mov ements cancel
each other, and the cnarge on the
atoms at the junction remains the
P- TYPE N- IYPE
same. This movement of noies and
ELECTRON MOVEMENT
electrons in both directions con-
tributes nothing towards the net
charge or current flow through the
junction. However, the flow across
III
the junction will produce a certain
amount of heating; it will in effect Fig. 14. Foroard-biased junction.
use up a percentage of the total ca-
pacity of the junction to pass current junction diode with the polarity such
so that the net result is to reduce that it aids the movement of majority
the amount of useful current the carriers across the junction,we say
diode can pass. that the diode is forward biased. A
forward-biased junction is shown in
BIASED JUNCTIONS
Fig. 14. Here the positive terminal
If a battery is connected to the of the battery is connected to the P-
ends of a PN junction diode, the type section and the negative termi-
battery potential will bias the junc- nal of the battery is connected to
tion. If we connect the battery so that the N-type section. Now let us con-
its polarity aids the flow of current sider what happens to the depletion
across the junction, we call it a layer at the junction of the P and N-
"forward-biased junction", whereas type material wnen the battery volt-
it we connect the battery so that trie age is applied.
polarity opposes tne flow of current The positive voltage connected to
across the junction, we say tnat it is trie end of trie P-type crystal will
a "reverse-biased junction". In botn repel noies towains trie juiction and
cases there will be some current attract electrons from the negative
flow through the junction, but as you ions near it. The combination of
might expect, with forward bias the holes moving towards the junction
current flow will be higher. to neutralize charged negative ions
In order to understand how tran- on the P side of the junction and elec-
sistors work, you must understand trons being taken from the negatively
both conditions of bias. You will charged ionized accepter atoms
study each condition separately, be- tends to neutralize the negative
cause the action that occurs at the charge on the P side of the junction.
junction is quite different in the two On the N side of the crystal, the
cases. In the operation of transis- negative terminal of the battery re-
tors both types of bias are used, pels electrons towards the junction.
and therefore it is important that These electrons tend to neutralize
you understand what happens in each the positive charge on the donor
case. atoms at the N side of the junction.
Forward Blew At the same time the negative po-
When we connect a battery to a tential at the N side of the crystal

22
 attracts holes away from the charged It is important for you to remem-
positive ions on the N side of the ber that in a forward biased junction
junction. Both of these actions tend conduction through the crystal will
to neutralize the positive charge on be by the majority carriers. Any
the donor atoms at the junction. intrinsic conduction across the junc-
The effect of the battery voltage tion will be by minority carriers
is to reduce the potential barrier and this will subtract from the total
at the junction and allow more current flow across the junction.
majority carriers to cross the junc- Increasing the forward bias will in-
tion. This means that we will have crease the current flow across the
more electrons flowing from the N- junction until the point is reached
type material across the junction where all the charges at the junction
to the P-type material and to the are neutralized, at which time the
positive terminal of the battery and potential barrier will disappear, and
more holes traveling from the P- current flow across the junction will
type material across the junction be unhindered by any potential
to the N-type material and towards across the junction.
the end of the crystal connected to Reverse Bias.
the negative terminal of the battery. If we reverse the battery connec-
You know that we already had acer- tions we will have what is known as
tain number of intrinsic minority reverse bias. This condition is
carriers crossing the junction, but shown in Fig. 15.
now the majority carriers outnum- With a reverse bias applied to a
ber them, so there will be a steady junction diode, the negative termi-
current flow from the negative bat- nal of the battery will be connected
tery terminal, through the N-sec- to the P-type section, and will at-
tion, across the junction and through tract holes away from the junction,
the P-section, to the positive bat- and increase the shortage of holes
tery terminal. on the P side of the junction. At the
Placing a forward bias on a junc- same time the positive terminal of
tion diode drives majority carriers the battery is connected to the N-
back into the depletion layer and al- type section of the crystal and this
lows conduction across the junction.
If the battery voltage is increased,
more carriers will arrive at the JUNCTION

junction and the current flow will

increase. Eventually, if we continue
to increase the battery voltage, we
will reach a point where all the
charges at the junction are neutral-
; ized. When this happens, the holes P- TYPE N- TYPE
will fill the P-type region right up
to the junction; electrons will fill

-III
the N-type region up to the junction;
and the only limit to current flow
through the diode will be the resist-
ance of the material on the two sides
of the junction. Fig. 15. Reverse-biased junction.

23
terminal will attract electrons away allow the passage of an equal num-
from the junction and increase the ber of majority carriers in the op-
shortage of electrons on the N side posite direction. This means that the
of the junction. This movement of flow of minority carriers across the
holes and electrons away from the junction is not fully offset by a flow
junction will in effect result in an of majority carriers in the opposite
increased potential barrier at the direction. Therefore, there will be a
junction. The increase in potential small current flow across the junc-
barrier occurs because there will tion due to the minority carriers
be fewer holes on the P side of the crossing the junction. This current
junction to neutralize the negative flow is very small and nearly con-
ions and fewer electrons on the N stant at all normal operating volt-
side to neutralize the positive ions ages in signal diodes and power
formed on this side of the junction. rectifier diodes. However, as you
The increase in potential barrier will see later, there are certain
will help prevent any further cur- types of diodes where this reverse
rent flow across the junction due current can increase quite rapidly
to majority carriers. even at low voltages.
The current flow across the bar- It is important to realize that when
rier, however, is not zero because a reverse bias is applied to a junc-
we will still have minority carriers tion diode, the bias increases the
crossing the junction. Holes forming potential difference across the junc-
in the N side of the depletion layer tion and makes it more difficult for
will be attracted by the negative po- majority carriers to cross the junc-
tential applied to the end of the P- tion. However, some minority car-
type section of the crystal, and elec- riers will still cross the junction
trons breaking loose from their with the result that there will be a
nuclei in the P side of the depletion small current flow across the junc-
layer will be attracted by the posi- tion due to the minority carriers.
tive voltage applied to the end of the
N-type section of the crystal. COMPARISON OF
We had this situation when there JUNCTION DIODES
was no bias applied to the junction. AND VACUUM TUBES
Holes from the N side would cross
over to the P section, and electrons Although the operation of junction
from the P side would cross over diodes designed for use as recti-
to the N section. However, when fiers is quite different from the op-
there was no bias applied to the eration of vacuum tubes, they can
crystal, these minority carriers perform identical tasks and there-
would neutralize ions near the junc- fore some comparison of the most
tion and allow the majority carriers important characteristics of both is
to cross the junction. However, since in order.
the minority carriers are now at- When there is no voltage applied
tracted away from the junction by the to a junction diode, the net current
potential applied to the crystal, all flow across the junction is zero. On
of the minority carriers do not re- the other hand, in a vacuum tube,
main near the junction to neutralize even though there may be no voltage
charged atoms so they no longer applied to the plate of the tube, some

24
of the electrons will leave the cath- ZENER DIODES
ode with sufficient velocity to travel
across the space between the cath- in junction diodes designed for use
ode and the plate and strike the plate. as rectifiers we must be careful not
This will result in a small current to exceed the rated reverse voltage
flow from the cathode to the plate of the diode. In other words, if we
of the tube even though there may place too high a reverse bias across
be no voltage applied to the plate of the junction, the junction will break
the tube. down, a very high current will flow
We can consider applying a posi- across the junction for ashort while,
tive voltage to the plate of avacuum and the diode will be destroyed. How-
tube and a negative voltage to the ever, in some diodes we make use
cathode as being similar to placing of this reverse current due to mi-
a forward bias on a junction diode. nority carriers. In diodes of this
Under both circumstances there will type both the P section and the N
be a current flow through the diode. section are doped quite heavily. The
In this respect the two are similar. junction between the P section and
When the voltages applied to the the N section is considerably larger
diode vacuum tube are reversed so than the junction of the rectifier-type
that there is a negative voltage ap- diode, so that when the diode begins
plied to the plate and apositive volt- to pass current in the reverse di-
age to the cathode, there will be no rection, it can pass it over a larger
current flow at all through the tube. area and thus avoid destroying the
The negative potential on the plate diode. This type of diode is used as
of the tube will repel electrons from a voltage reference and is referred
the plate. This reverse voltage situ- to as a voltage-reference diode or a
ation is similar to a reverse bias Zener diode.
across a junction diode. However, In the Zener diode, the current
when we place areverse bias across remains small with low reverse
a junction diode, there will be some voltages. At acertain voltage, called
current flow across the junction due the breakdown voltage, the current
to the conduction by minority car- will increase rapidly with any fur-
riers. As long as the breakdown ther increase in voltage.
voltage of the junction diode is not The breakdown voltage can be
exceeded, this current will be very varied by varying the diode mate-
small and almost constant. Ina good rial and construction. Zener diodes
diode, it is so small it can be can be made with a breakdown volt-
ignored. age as low as 1 volt, up to break-
We can summarize the charac- down voltages of several hundred
teristics of diode vacuum tubes and volts. The current that can pass
junction diodes as follows: with for- through any Zener diode before the
ward bias both the tube and junction diode will be damaged will depend
diodes will conduct. With reverse upon the junction area and the meth-
bias, the tube will not pass current; ods used to keep the diode cool.
the junction diode will pass a small In a circuit where a Zener diode
current. With no bias, the tube will is used, it will be used as a voltage
pass a small current; the junction reference or a voltage regulator. As
diode will not. the reverse voltage across the diode

25
 sistor or another part with the volt-
/Mr—. e age across the Zener diode.
UNREGUL ATE D REGULATED
INPUT OUTPUT TUNNEL DIODES

• A tunnel diode is a highly doped

junction diode made either of ger-
manitun or gallium arsenite. Both
the N region and the P region of the
Fig. 16. Circuit using Zener diode as diode are very highly doped. As a
a voltage regulator.
result of the high doping, the de-
pletion region around the junction
increases, a very small reverse is extremely narrow. Because of the
current will flow, and the value of narrow depletion region, holes and
this current will remain essentially electrons can cross the junction by
constant until the breakdown voltage more or less tunneling from one
is reached. At that voltage, any fur- atom to another. The exact action
ther increase in voltage will result of the charges crossing the junction
in a large increase in current across is somewhat difficult to visualize,
the junction. This large increase in but the characteristics of the tunnel
current tends to produce a voltage diode are comparatively simple.
drop in other components in the cir- With a reverse bias across the junc-
cuit so that the voltage across the tion, current across the junction in-
diode will remain essentially con- creases quite rapidly. If the reverse
stant. Thus a Zener diode can be bias is dropped to zero the current
used as a voltage regulator in acir- will drop back to zero. If the for-
cuit such as shown in Fig. 16. If ward bias, starting at zero and
the input voltage tends to rise, the gradually increasing, is placed
current through the diode will in- across the junction, current flow
crease. This increase in current across the junction will increase at
will increase the voltage drop across essentially the same rate as it in-
the resistor so that the output volt- creased with a negative bias. The
age will remain essentially constant. current across the junction will in-
The fact that with even a very small crease quite rapidly as the forward
increase in voltage the current bias is increased until arather sharp
through the diode will increase sub- peak is reached. If the forward bias
stantially means that the voltage is increased beyond this point, then
across the diode will remain almost the current begins to decrease.
constant. As the forward bias is increased
In some other applications the still further, the current across the
diode may be used as a reference junction decreases, forming acurve
voltage. This simply means that a such as shown in Fig. 17. This
Zener diode with a given breakdown decreasing current, with increasing
voltage is used in a circuit like voltage, results in a negative
Fig. 16. The voltage applied to the resistance characteristic. It might
diode will remain essentially con- be difficult to visualize what a
stant. In some circuits, we may negative resistance is, but you will
compare the voltage across a re- remember from Ohm's Law that re-

26
 of time until they are used; there-
CURRENT
fore you should at least have some
basic knowledge of what the tunnel
diode is.

P-I-N DIODES
The p-i-n diode, which is an ab-
VOLTAGE
breviation from positive-intrinsic-
negative, is a new diode which is
used in a somewhat different man-
ner from the diodes you have studied
previously. Rather than being used
as a detector or rectifier,this diode
Fig. 17. Voltage-current relation in a is used primarily as a variable re-
tunnel diode. sistor. It is a special type of diode,
and its resistance can be controlled
sistance is equal to voltage divided by applying a de bias to it. With a
by current. In a circuit where we reverse bias across the diode, it
have resistance, if the resistance is has a very high resistance. With no
constant and the voltage increases, bias, its resistance drops to about
then the current must increase; and 7000 ohms, and with forward bias
similarly if the voltage decreases, it drops to a comparatively low
the current must decrease. Here in value.
the tunnel diode we have a region The diode is particularly useful
where the opposite happens. If the in circuits where the strength of a
voltage increases, the current de- signal must be controlled. Its first
creases and if the voltage decreases, commercial use has been in fm
the current increases. Thus we have equipment and it is used in order to
something in the circuit that is giving prevent extremely strong fm signals
us the opposite effect of resistance; from causing overloading in the fm
we call this negative resistance. You receiver. A de bias is applied to the
will remember that resistance in a diode and the amplitude of the bias
circuit introduces losses. It is the depends upon the strength of the sig-
resistance in a resonant circuit that nal. When a very strong signal is
prevents a resonant circuit from applied, the reverse bias applied to
continuing to oscillate once it has the diode increases so that the re-
been excited into oscillation. How- sistance of the diode increases. This
ever, if we can put something with reduces the strength of the signal
negative resistance in the circuit, fed to the mixer and i -f stages in the
for example a tunnel diode, since it receiver and thus prevents over-
has the opposite effect of resistance, loading, particularly in the last
then the circuit should continue to stage of the receiver.
oscillate. Tunnel diodes can be used At this time p-i-n diodes are not
for this purpose. widely used in commercial applica-
At the present time, tunnel diodes tions, but you should be aware of
have not appeared in the commer- how the diode is used, because it is
cial entertainment-type equipment. quite likely that it will be widely
However, it is probably just amatter used in the future.

27
 POINT-CONTACT DIODE CATSWHISKER

Another semiconductor diode is SMALL P REGION

the diode detector used in many TV
receivers. This detector is a point-
contact diode. A cut-away view of a
point-contact diode is shown in Fig.
18 along with the schematic symbol. N-TYPE MATERIAL
The point-contact diode is made
of a small piece of either N-type or
111111111M111
P-type germanium or silicon. N-
type germanium or silicon is used
more often than P-type. In manu-
facturing a diode of N-type material,
a large contact is fastened to one
side of the crystal. A thin wire,
called a catswhisker, is attached to Fig. 19. sketch of a point-contact
the other side of the crystal. When diode showing %%here the P-type ger-
the catswhisker is attached to the manium is formed around the eats-
N-type crystal, a small region of whisker.
P-type material is formed around
the contact as shown in Fig. 19. that of a junction diode. With re-
Thus we have a PN junction that verse bias the current flow through
performs in much the same way as a point-contact diode is not as in-
the junctions we have already dis- dependent of the voltage applied to
cussed. the crystal as it was in the junction
The characteristics of the point- diode. In spite of these disadvan-
contact diode under forward and re- tages ,the point-contact diode makes
verse bias are somewhat different a better detector than the junction
from those of the junction diode. diode, particularly at high frequen-
With forward bias the resistance of cies because the point-contact diode
the diode is somewhat higher than has a lower capacity than the junc-
tion diode.
LEAD

SUMMARY

Again this is a very important

4- PLASTIC CASE
section, so you should review it be-
CATSINHISKER fore going on to the next section.
GERMANIUM PELLET
Make sure you understand what the

+ ce depletion layer is and why it is

formed. Also be sure you under-
4-LEAD
stand the movement of holes and

e electrons across a PN junction

when no voltage is applied to the
junction.
Fig. 18. (A) eut -away view of crystal Current flow across the junction
rectifier. (B) schematic symbol of it. with both forward and reverse bias

28
 is important. With forward bias cur- the junction is forward biased?
rent flow across the junction is by (ah) What do we mean when we say
majority carrier, and with reverse a junction is reverse biased?
bias it is by minority carrier. (ai) What is the difference between
vacuum-tube diodes and semi-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS conductor diodes insofar as
(ab) What are the two principal current flow through the diode
uses of semiconductor diodes ? is concerned when no voltage
é (ac) What is the depletion layer? is applied?
(ad) What do we mean by the po- (aj) What is the difference between
tential barrier? current flow in asemiconduc-
,.. (ae) Does the crystal develop an tor diode and a vacuum tube
overall charge as a result of under reverse voltage condi-
diffusion across the junction? tions?
(al) Do the minority carriers (ak) What is a Zener diode, and
crossing the junction have any what is it used for?
adverse effect on the diode? (al) What is a tunnel diode?
(ag) What do we mean when we say (am) What is a p-i-n diode?

29
 Semiconductor Triodes
Even though a junction diode will conductor crystals with three dif-
pass current in both directions, it ferent regions. The center region
passes current in one direction is made up of one type of germanium
much better than it does in the other, or silicon, and the two end regions
and therefore it can be used as a are made up of the other type of
detector. The tunnel diode can be germanium or silicon. In other
used as an oscillator, and in some words, in one type of junction tran-
special circuits as an amplifier; sistor the center has had accepter-
however, its usefulness in these ap- type region impurities added and the
plications is limited. In most cases, two end regions have had donor-
the semiconductor diode is like the type impurities added. In the other
vacuum-tube diode; it is more or type of junction transistor, the
less useless insofar as amplifying center region has had donor-type
a signal is concerned. In order to of impurities added and the two end
amplify a signal, a three element regions have had accepter-type im-
semiconductor is needed. Three ele- purities added.
ment semiconductors that are capa- The center region of the transis-
ble of amplification are called tran- tor is called the base. This is usu-
sistors. ally acomparatively thin region. One
There are a number of different of the end sections is called the
types of transistors in use today. emitter and the other end section is
The characteristics of the different called the collector.
types vary appreciably, but if you If the center section of the crystal
understand the operation of one type, has been treated with donor-type
you can understand how the others impurities, then the center section
work without too much difficulty. We becomes N-type germanium in the
started our explanation of semi- case of a germanium transistor or
conductor devices with a junction N-type silicon in the case of the
diode, so we will start our study of silicon transistor. In this case, the
triode semiconductors with a study two end sections will be treated with
of the junction transistor. You'll accepter-type impurities and they
find that most of the transistors you will both become P-type germanium
will study operate in amanner simi- or P-type silicon. We call this type
lar to the basic junction transistor. of transistor a PNP transistor. We
The most notable exception to this can have both germanium PNP and
is the field-effect transistor which silicon PNP transistors. An example
you will study later in this lesson. of this type of junction transistor is
shown in Fig. 20A along with the 'A
JUNCTION TRANSISTORS schematic symbol used to identify
it.
Both germanium and silicon are The other type of junction tran-
used in the manufacture of junction sistor is an NPN type. This type of
transistors. A triode-junction tran- transistor is produced by treating
sistor is made up of single semi- the center section with an accepter-

30
 EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR EMITTER BASE
P- TYPE COLLECTOR
N- TYPE P- TYPE N- TYPE P-TYPE
N- TYPE

EMITTER COLLECTOR

o o
BASE

Fig. 20. (A) shows a l'N 1' junction transistor and its schematic symbol. (11)
shows an NI'N junction transistor and its schematic symbol.

type impurity to produce P-type ger- junction transistor might be called

manium or silicon, and the two end a grown junction, a fused junction,
sections with a donor-type of im- an alloy junction or a diffused junc-
purity to produce N-type germanium tion. All these names simply de-
or silicon. This is the type of junc- scribe the manufacturing process
tion transistor shown in Fig. 20B used to make the transistor. They
along with the schematic symbol for are all junction transistors and all
it. As in the case of the PNP tran- operate on the same basic principle.
sistor, we can have either an NPN This does not mean to imply that
germanium transistor or an NPN the characteristics of all junction
silicon transistor. transistors are the same; they are
Notice that the schematic symbols not. There are wide differences in
for the PNP transistor and the NPN characteristics just as there are in
transistor are different. In the PNP various triode vacuum tubes.
transistor the arrow used to repre- To understand how junction tran-
sent the emitter points down toward sistors work, you must understand
the base, whereas in the NPN tran- junction diodes. Because it is so
sistor the arrow on the emitter important that you understand the
points up away from the base. Thus formation of the depletion layers at
on a schematic diagram of a piece the junctions we will review the ex-
of equipment using junction transis- planation of what happens at the junc-
tors, you can tell from the direction tions in explaining the junction tran-
in which the arrow is pointing sistors. The big difference between
whether the transistor is a PNP or the junction transistor and the junc-
an NPN transistor. tion diode is that in the transistor
There are several different ways there are two junctions close to-
of manufacturing junction transis- gether in the same crystal. One of
tors, and often you hear these tran- these junctions is biased in the for-
sistors referred to by the manufac- ward direction and the other in the
turing method used. For example a reverse direction and the presence

31
of one junction affects the operation gion. The minority carriers formed
of the other. in each section can cross over the
junction. For example, the electrons
PNP TRANSISTORS released in both the emitter and the
collector regions will cross the
In transistor operation, the emit- junctions into the base. These elec-
ter-base junction is always biased trons will neutralize a few ions in
in the forward direction and the col- the base region. When these ions are
lector-base junction is biased in the neutralized they will allow majority
reverse direction. Each of the two carriers from the emitter and col-
junctions by itself behaves just like lector to cross the junctions. In
the PN junction already described. other words, there will be holes
Let us consider what happens in from the emitter and holes from the
the PNP transistor before any volt- collector crossing the junctions into
ages are applied to the transistor. the base. Similarly, holes,which are
At the junctions, holes from the the minority carriers in the base re-
P-type emitter section and the P- gion (and are formed in the depletion
type collector diffuse across the layer) will cross the junctions into
junctions into the base. At the same the emitter and collector. When
time, electrons from the base dif- these holes cross the junctions they
fuse across the junctions into both will neutralize some of the nega-
the emitter and the collector. The
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR irk
holes diffusing into the base place P-TYPE N-TYPE P-TYPE gyp
a positive charge on the atoms near
the junctions. Similarly the elec-
trons diffusing from the base into NEGATIVE IONS NEG TIVE IONS
the emitter on one side of the base POSITIVE IONS

and the collector on the other side EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

P- TYPE N-TYPE

o
P-TYPE
of the base place a negative charge
HOLE CURRENT
4 —.—.. --..—.—
on the atoms on the emitter and L._

•
collector sides of the junctions. ICTR-ON CeRENT

These charged atoms, which are gitt, CURRENT

RECOMBINATION
called ions, will repel electrons and
il
CURRENTS
holes from the region of the junc-
tions. The positively charged ions in
the base will repel holes in the P EMITTER BASE
e
COLLECTOR
P-TYPE
sections away from the junctions. N-TYPE P- TYPE

Similarly, the negatively charged

ions in the emitter and collector
will repel electrons away from the
REVERSE CURRENT
junctions in the base. Thus we have DUE TO MINORITY
CARRIERS
two depletion layers formed, one at
leb
the emitter-base junction and the CURRENT
other at the base-collector junction.
You will remember that when we Fig. 21. (A) the formation of ions at
discussed the junction diode, we the junctions of a PNP transistor. (B)
mentioned that hole-electron pairs the current flow in the emitter-base
will be formed in the depletion re- circuit and (C) in the collector-base.

32
tively charged ions in the emitter away from the depletion area and
or collector region and allow some pushing electrons into the depletion
electrons to flow from the base into area tends to neutralize the charge
either the emitter or the collector. on the base side of the junction.
Thus, because of the intrinsic con- The net effect of biasing in a for-
duction due to hole-electron pairs ward direction is to neutralize the
being formed in the depletion region charges on each side of the junction
there will be some flow of carriers and allow current to flow across the
across the junction. However, the junction. Current flow is by majority
flow of majority carriers across carriers: electrons from the N-type
the junction will be exactly equal to base region and holes from the P-
the flow of minority carriers across type emitter region.
the junction so that the net current Thus in the emitter-base circuit
flow across each junction will be we have electrons flowing from the
zero. negative terminal of the battery to
The potential barriers formed at the base, through the base, across
the junction regions are shown in the junction, and through the emitter
Fig. 21A. Notice that the charges to the positive terminal of the bat-
formed at the junction are similar tery. At the same time we have holes
to those formed at a junction diode; being produced because electrons
we simply have two junctions to con- are being pulled out of the P-type
sider in a transistor. emitter by the positive potential ap-
Now when we place aforward bias plied to it. The holes will move
between the emitter and the base we through the emitter ,across the junc-
have an arrangement like that shown tion into the base and to the point
in Fig. 21B. Here the positive volt- where the base is connected to the
age applied to the end of the P-type negative terminal of the battery. At
emitter repels holes towards the this point they will pickup electrons
junction. These holes tend to neu- and disappear.
tralize the negative charge on the Not all the electrons going from
ions on the emitter side of the junc- the base to the emitter will reach
tion. The holes are formed at the end the positive terminal of the battery.
of the P-type section by electrons Some of these electrons will recom-
being taken out of this section by the bine with holes in the emitter. Simi-
positive potential applied to it. At larly, some of the holes traveling
the same time the positive potential from the emitter into the base will
applied to the emitter attracts the pick up an electron in the base. This
electrons that have given the ions current flow across the junction is
on the P side of the junction their called a recombination current, and
negative charge. This also weakens the transistor is designed to keep
the negative charge on the emitter this current as low as possible. In
side of the junction. other words we want the holes and
At the base, which is connected to electrons crossing the junction to
the negative side of the battery, the reach the terminals connected to the
holes will be attracted toward the battery.
negative terminal of the battery, and Now let us consider the other junc-
electrons will be pushed towards the tion, the base-collector junction.
depletion layer. The pulling of holes This junction is reverse biased as

33
shown in Fig. 21C. Here again we bias applied between the base and
have a depletion layer at the junc- the collector. Now let us see how the
tion. Also we have minority carriers two junctions affect each other.
being formed in the depletion layer. A transistor with both biased junc-
However, holes that are formed in tions is shown in Fig. 22. Here we
the base will cross the junction and have a number of different currents
then instead of neutralizing a nega- flowing. In the emitter-base circuit
tively charged atom near the junc- we have current flowing due to the
tion in the collector, these holes forward bias applied between these
will be attracted by the negative po- two. Electrons will flow from the
tential applied to the collector. Simi- negative terminal of the battery into
larly, electrons formed in the de- the base, across the junction, and
pletion layer of the P-type collector through the emitter to the positive
will cross the junction and be at- terminal of the battery. We will also
tracted by the positive potential ap- have some holes formed in the P-
plied to the base. Thus we have a type emitter section due to electrons
current flow due to the minority being pulled out of this section by the
carriers. Electrons in the depletion positive terminal of the battery.
layer of the collector section will Some of these holes will cross the
cross the junction and flow through junction into the N-type base where
the base to the positive terminal of they will pick up an electron and
the battery. Meanwhile electrons disappear. This current is called
from the negative terminal of the the recombination current.
battery will fill holes that are moving Many of these holes will cross
from the base, across the junction, the base and flow through the col-
and through the collector to the nega- lector, because the negative termi-
tive terminal. nal of the battery connected between
Thus you can see that while we the base and collector will attract
have a current by majority carriers them. This movement of holes ac-
due to the forward bias applied be- counts for most of the current flow
tween the emitter and the base, we in the emitter and collector cir-
also have a small current flowing cuits. Remember that holes are
through the base-collector circuit by being continually formed in the P-
minority carriers due to the reverse type emitter because electrons are

USEFUL HOLE
CURRENT Ice
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
P-TYPE N- TYPE P-TYPE

REVER;E
CURRENT Ice

4' ELECTRON CURRENT RECOMBiNATION

CURRENT
Ea
Ec
SW 4. —

le .teb + Ice le' let) -Icb lc 'Ice + Ict,

Fig. 22. Current Hoy, and carrier movement in a PNI) junction transistor.

34
 EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
being pulled out of the emitter by the N- TYPE P-TYPE N-TYPE

positive potential applied to it. These

holes will continually move through
the emitter, and into the base. Here
POSITIVE IONS POSITIVE IONS
some of them will combine with elec-
NEGATIVE IONS
trons and disappear, but the ma-
EMITTER P BA Y
SPEE
jority of them will flow through the N-TYPE-T
COLLECTOR
N-TYPE
collector to the negative terminal O C •-`•
of the collector where they will be HOLE
EULRERCETRON
CURRENT
NT

filled by electrons and disappear.

Another current that will flow is E.
RECOMBINATION
CURRENT
reverse current ' co that flows in the •
base-collector circuit. This is due
to the formation of minority car- EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
N-TYPE P TYPE N-TYPE
riers in the depletion layer.
Thus we have four currents flow-
ing in the PNP junction transistor.
The largest of these currents is due
MOVEMENT OF
to the movement of holes from the MINORITY CARRIERS

emitter through the base into the

collector to the negative terminal of
the battery connected to the collec- Fig. 23. (A) the formation of ions at
tor. We have in addition to this cur- the junctions of an NPN transistor.
rent three small currents flowing. (13) the current flow in the emitter-
We have the current due to the elec- base circuit and (C) in the collector-
tron movement from the negative base circuit.
terminal of the emitter-base battery
into the base, across the junction can start our study of this type of
and through the emitter to the posi- transistor by considering what hap-
tive terminal of this battery. We pens at the junctions, remembering
have the recombination current due that the action at the junction is
to holes combining with electrons similar to the action we studied at
in the base, and we have the reverse the simple PN diode junction.
current due to hole-electron pairs Let us first consider the action of
being formed in the depletion layer the holes and electrons before any
of the base-collector junction. The voltages are applied to the transis-
directions of the different move- tor. The charges that will be built
ments of holes and electrons are up are shown in Fig. 23A. Remem-
marked in Fig. 22. ber that holes from the base will
diffuse across both junctions into
NPN TRANSISTORS the emitter and the collector. Simi-
larly electrons from the emitter and
Although the operation of the NPN electrons from the collector will
transistor is somewhat different diffuse across the junctions into the
from that of the PNP type, if you base. The holes and electrons dif-
understand how the PNP transistor fusing across the junctions will
works, you should have no difficulty charge atoms near the junction.
understanding the NPN. Again, we Holes crossing the junctions into the

35
emitter and the collector will ionize two actions tend to neutralize the
the atoms on the emitter and collec- charge on the base side of the junc-
tor sides of the junctions so that tion.
they will have positive charges. Once the potential barrier at the
Similarly, electrons diffusing a- junction is weakened, electrons can
cross the junctions into the base will flow from the negative side of the
ionize atoms in the base near the battery into the emitter, through the
junctions so that they will have nega- emitter, and across the junction into
tive charges. Thus we will have po- the base and from the base to the
tential barriers at the junctions. positive side of the battery. At the
This is the same kind of potential same time the positive terminal of
barrier that we found existed across the battery can extract electrons
the PN junction in a diode. from the base, forming holes. Holes
The positively charged ions on the are then repelled toward the junc-
emitter and collector sides of the tion, across the junction, and through
junctions will force holes in the base the emitter toward the end of the
away from the junction. Similarly emitter that is connected to the nega-
the negatively charged atoms on the tive terminal of the battery. Here
base side of the junctions will force the holes will pick up electrons and
electrons in the emitter and collec- disappear. Thus we have a current
tor away from the junction so that flow through the emitter-base cir-
at the junctions we have a depletion cuit as shown in Fig. 23B.
layer. Now let us consider what happens
Now let us consider what happens when we apply a reverse bias be-
when we apply a forward bias be- tween the base and the collector.
tween the emitter and the base by Here the negative potential applied
connecting a battery between the two to the base will pull holes away from
as shown in Fig. 23B. Notice that the the junction, and the positive po-
negative terminal of the battery is tential applied to the collector will
connected to the end of the emitter, pull electrons away from the junc-
and the positive terminal is con- tion. Thus the negative charge on
nected to the base. the base side of the junction will be
Now, several things happen. The increased, and the positive charge
negative potential applied to the on the collector side of the junction
emitter will force electrons toward will be increased so that the potential
the junction. At the same time the barrier at the junction will be in-
negative potential will attract holes creased. This will prevent any cur-
away from the junction. Both of these rent flow through the base-collector
actions tend to neutralize the posi- circuit due to the majority carriers.
tively charged ions on the emitter At the same time electrons ,which
side of the junction. At the same are minority carriers, will break
time the positive terminal of the loose from their nuclei in the deple-
battery that is connected to the base tion layer on the base side of the
will attract electrons away from the junction and will be attracted by the
negatively charged atoms on the base positive potential applied to the col-
side of the junction. In addition, the lector. They will cross the junc-
positive potential will repel holes tion and flow through the collector
towards the junction so that these to the terminal connected to the pos i-

36
tive side of the battery, as shown in the base across the base-collector
Fig. 23C. At the same time holes junction and through the N-type col-
formed on the collector side of the lector to the positive terminal of the
junction in the layer will be attracted battery in the base-collector circuit.
by the negative terminal of the bat- At the same time the positive ter-
tery, and hence will cross the junc- minal of the battery in the emitter-
tion and flow over into the base and base circuit is connected to the base,
toward the negative terminal of the and this potential will pull electrons
battery. Here they will pick up an out of the P-type base, producing
electron and disappear. holes. These holes will then cross
Thus we will have a current flow the junction into the emitter, and they
in the base-collector circuit due to will be attracted by the negative po-
the minority carriers. This is the tential applied to the emitter and
same situation that we had in the hence will flow through it to the end
reverse biased base-collector cir- connected to the negative terminal
cuit of the PNP transistor. of the battery. Here they will pickup
Now let us see what happens when an electron and disappear.
bias voltages are applied across both At the same time, in the base-
junctions of the complete NPN junc- collector circuit we will have a re-
tion transistor as shown in Fig. 24. verse current flowing due to the
Considering first the emitter-base minority carriers. Holes appearing
circuit, we have electrons flowing in the collector side of the depletion
from the negative terminal of the layer will cross the junction into the
battery to the N-type emitter. Here base and flow to the base terminal
the electrons flow through the emit- connected to the negative terminal
ter, across the junction, and into the of the battery, biasing the base-col-
base. Some of these electrons reach- lector junction. Here each hole will
ing the base will recombine with pick up an electron and disappear.
holes in the base. This is called the Electrons in the depletion layer on
recombination current. However, the base side of the junction will be
the majority of the electrons reach- attracted by the positive potential
ing the base will be attracted by the applied to the end of the collector.
positive potential applied to the col- Hence they will cross the junction
lector and hence will flow through and flow toward the positive end of

USEFUL ELECTRON
CURRENT

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

N- TYPE P-TYPE N- TYPE

ELECTRON CURRENT
—••••

.-111.• •-re•

°HOLE.
'CURRENT

t
I
Ic • leti * Ice lg• le b-I c b Ic • IceiCe

Fig. 21. Current flo%% and carrier movement in an \l'N junction transistor.

37
the collector and from there to the tive terminal to the emitter and the
positive terminal of the battery con- negative terminal to the base. With
nected between the base and the col- the NPN transistor, the negative ter-
lector. minal of the battery is connected to
Of these different currents flow- the emitter and the positive terminal
ing, the important and useful cur- to the base. However, both are for-
rent flow is the flow of electrons ward biased because in each case the
from the emitter through the base positive terminal of the battery is
to the collector. Since this is the connected to the P-type germanium
useful current, we are interested and the negative terminal to the N-
in making this as large as possible type germanium.
in comparison to the other currents The base-collector junction of
flowing across the emitter-base both transistors is reverse biased.
junction. Thus, the recombination In the PNP transistor, the positive
current, which is due to electrons terminal of this battery is connected
from the emitter crossing into the to the base and the negative termi-
base and recombining with the holes , nal to the collector; whereas in the
serves no useful purpose and should NPN transistor, the negative termi-
be kept as low as possible. This is nal is connected to the base, and the
accomplished by adding more donor positive terminal to the collector.
atoms to the emitter than accepter Again, however, in both cases the
atoms to the base. Thus there will positive terminal is connected to
be many more free electrons in the the N-type germanium and the nega-
emitter than there will be holes in tive terminal to the P-type ger-
the base and the recombination cur- manium.
rent will be kept quite small. Also notice that in the PNP tran-
Also, since there are a limited sistor the useful current flow is by
number of holes in the base com- means of holes, whereas in the NPN
pared to the number of electrons in transistor the useful current flow is
the emitter, the number of holes by means of electrons.
crossing from the base to the emit-
ter is also kept low in comparison SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
to the number of electrons crossing (an) What is the base region of a
from the emitter into the base. In a transistor ?
good transistor, over 95% of the (ao) What two materials are widely
electrons that cross the emitter- used in the manufacture of
base junction flow to the collector. transistors?
Notice the differences and the (ap) What two types of junction
similarities between the PNP and transistors are widely used?
the NPN transistors. In both cases (aq) What type of bias is used a-
the emitter-base junction is forward cross the emitter-base junc-
biased and the base-collector junc- tion in a transistor?
tion is reverse biased. However, the (ar) What type of bias is used a-
battery connections must be re- cross the base-collector junc-
versed to provide the biases. In other tion of a transistor?
words, with the PNP transistor the (as) Is the base region of a tran-
battery used to bias the emitter-base sistor usually a thick region
junction is connected with the posi- or is it thin?

38
 (at) Draw a diagram ot a PNP transistor ana snow now the
transistor and snow now tne batteries are connected to
batteries are connected to provide tne correct bias a-
place tne correct bias across cross both junctions.
the two junctions. (ay) What are tne useiul current
(au) Draw a diagram of an NPN carriers in a PNP transistor?

Semiconductor Types
There are two basic types of tran- sistor is usually located midway
sistors that you will run into con- between the two ends. Suitable con-
tinuously. You are already familiar tacts are then welded to the emitter,
with these two types; they are the base and collector regions.
NPN transistor and the PNP tran- Of course, the actual bar of semi-
sistor. However, these transistors conductor material used is quite
are made in a number of different small. The emitter and the collector
ways and the manufacturing pro- are considerably larger than the
cesses result in transistors with dif- base; the base is kept as thin as
ferent characteristics. In this sec- possible and may have a thickmess
tion we are going to brietly discuss of less than .001".
some of tne important types and
cnaracteristics. We don texpect you
to remember ail these details; the
impor-tant tning tor yun to remember
e
is tnat they are basically either NPN
or PNP traasiscors ana operate in
tne same way as cause we nave dis-
ri
cussed previously.
Also in this section of the lesson Fig. 23. .% grown-junction transistor.
we'll discuss two other important
semiconductor devices, the field- As mentioned the early germanium
effect and unijunction transistors. transistors were of the grown-junc-
tion type. The disadvantage of this
GROWN-JUNCTION type of transistor is that it is not
TRANSISTORS particularly suitable for operations
The first commercially available at high frequencies. In addition, it is
junction transistors were of the quite temperature sensitive and can
grown-junction type. This type of become quite unstable at higher tem-
transistor is made from arectangu- peratures.
lar bar cut from agermanium crys-
ALLOY-JUNCTION
tal that has been grown. Suitable im-
TRANSISTORS
purities are added so that NPN re-
gions such as those shown in Fig. The alloy-junction transistor is
25 are formed. The base of the tran- made from a rectangular piece of

39
 frequency. In addition, they have a
higher current gain, and the current

O
gain remains stable as the tempera-
ture increases.
Surface-Barrier Transistor.
The surface-barrier transistor is
similar to the alloy-type transistor
except that depressions are etched
into the N-type wafer. This permits
smaller emitter and collector con-
tacts and results in lower capacities
between sections of the transistor
which in turn results in better high-
Fig. 26. ,An alloy-junction transistor. frequency performance.
In Fig. 27 we have shown asimpli-
semiconductor material to which fied sketch of a surface-barrier
suitable donor materials have been transistor. The sketch in Fig. 27B
added. This results in an N-type shows the carrier movement from
piece of germanium or silicon. Small the emitter across the base to the
dots of indium are fused into the collector. Notice that in the sketch
opposite sides of the wafer as shown the emitter is shown smaller than
in Fig. 26. The result is that P-type the collector, we have shown it this
semiconductor material will be for- way because this is the way the
med with the dots fused into the wafer semiconductor is actually manufac-
so that we will have a PNP transis- tured.
tor. Various manufacturing techniques
An NPN-type alloy-junction tran- are used in the manufacture of the
sistor may be made by fusing alead surface-barrier transistor. Both
antimony alloy into each of the two silicon and germanium types are
opposite sides of a P-type semi- made. In the manufacturing process
conductor wafer. In this type of different materials are evaporated
transistor it is possible to get a or plated on to the etched depres-
more uniform penetration of the sions depending on the type of tran-
lead antimony alloy into the semi-
conductor material, and this in turn
leads to better junction spacing. This
will cut down on the width of the
space between the emitter and col-
lector and give improved high-fre-
quency performance. In addition,
since the mobility of the electrons
is more than twice that of holes , the
NPN transistor will be better at high
frequencies. o
The general advantage of the
alloy-type junction over the grown- Fig. 27. Sketch of a surface barrier tran-
type junction transistors is that they sistor is shown at A. Hole movement
are usable at a somewhat higher across the base is shown at B.

40
sistor being manufactured. How- non-uniform base region. If the
ever, regardless of the manufac- emitter and collector junctions are
turing technique used, which is of made by the alloy technique, but the
no interest to the technician, the base region is made by the diffusion
surface-barrier transistors all have technique and the impurities in the
the characteristic of giving good base region varied, we have what is
performance at high frequencies. known as a drift transistor. In a
typical PNP-drift transistor, ac-
DIFFUSION TRANSISTORS cepter impurities are added in the
emitter and collector region. These
To understand diffusion you have impurities are controlled so that
to understand a little about the their concentration is uniform
molecular structure of materials. throughout the emitter and collector
If you look at the wall of a glass region. At the same time donor im-
jar, to the eye it appears solid with purities are added to the base region.
no space between the various mole- Their concentration is controlled so
cules making up the jar. However, that it is highest in the region of the
if you were to fill the jar with hydro- emitter-base junction and then drops
gen and stcre it for any length of off quickly and finally reaches acon-
time, you would find that in a short stant value which it maintains over
while, the jar was no longer filled to the base-collector junction, as
with hydrogen only, but contained a shown in Fig. 28. This type of tran-
mixture of hydrogen and air. The sistor is called a drift transistor,
reason is that the small hydrogen and its most important character-
atoms are able to diffuse or pass istic is its excellent performance
right through the spaces between the
molecules in the glass. At the same
time, molecules of air will diffuse 10.0•0 0 • 0 0 •

through the glass and pass on into e 0.... 0 0 0 0 0

00 0 0 0

the inside of the bottle. The hydro-

gen molecule is smaller than the air
Fig. 28. Diagram showing how a large
molecule; therefore the hydrogen
number of donor impurities increases
will diffuse out of the jar faster than the electron concentration in the base.
the air will diffuse in.
Diffusion can be used to add im- at high frequencies. However, notice
purities to either silicon or ger- that it is still a PNP transistor and
manium, and produce either N-type the basic theory of its operation is
or P-type semiconductor material. similar to that of any other PNP
The process can be controlled to transistor. The improved perform-
provide either very uniform base, ance is obtained by varying the con-
emitter, and collector regions, or it centration of donor impurities in the
can be controlled to provide non- base region.
uniform base, emitter, and collectorThe Mee. Type.
regions. It is also possible to manufacture
The Drift Type. a transistor using the diffusion tech-
One of the most important uses of nique entirely. An example of this
the diffusion technique is in the type is the mesa transistor.
manufacture of transistors with a In this type of transistor a semi-

41
conductor water is etenea down in
steps so that the base and emitter
regions appear as plateaus aoove
the collector region as snown in Fig.
29. The advantages of the mesa tran-
sistor are good fugn-trequency per-
formance and very goon consistency.
By tris we mean that it is possible
to control the manutacturing tech-
niques quite closely so that the char-
acteristics of mesa transistors of Fig. 30. A diffused planar-type tran-
the same type number will be quite sistor.
similar. This is not necessarily
true of other transistors; often their junctions exposed at the surface are
characteristics vary over a wide avoided in this type of construction.
range. Important characteristics of the
planar transistor are generally very
e b low reverse current and improved
de gain at low-current levels.

EPITAXIAL TRANSISTORS
One of the disadvantages of the
diffusion-type transistor is the rela-
tively hign resistance or the collec-
tor region. This results in slow
switening time; it limits the use-
Witless of trie transistor in nign-
frequency applications.lieautang the
resistance of inc coliecLor region
reduces tne colieceor oreaknown
voltage and tills in turn again reduces
Fig. 29. A mesa transistor. the usefulness of the transistor.
These problems can be overcome
The Planar Type. by the epitaxial technique. In this
Another type of transistor manu- technique a thin high-resistance
factured by the diffusion technique layer is produced in the collector
is the planar type of diffused tran- region and the remainder of the col-
sistor. This type of transistor is lector region is controlled to keep
shown in Fig. 30. Notice that each its resistance low. This results in a
of the junctions is brought back to a transistor that looks something like
common plane, whereas in the mesa the one shown in Fig. 31. The pri-
type the various junctions are built mary advantage of this transistor is
up in plateaus. The importance of that it provides good performance
the planar-type transistor is that at very high frequencies. This tech-
the junctions can be formed beneath nique can be combined with other
a protective layer. As aresult, many techniques to produce transistors
of the problems associated with having varying characteristics. The
other types of transistors having epitaxial transistor can be referred

42
to as a double-diffused epitaxial
transistor.. The thin high-resistance
collector region is formed by the
epitaxial technique and the base and
the emitter are formed by the dif-
fusion process - hence the term P-TYPE N—TYPE
double diffusion.
All the transistors that we have 1 41m1

discussed so far in this section of BIAS

the lesson are either NPN or PNP
transistors. The manufacturing
techniques used to manufacture
these transistors result in transis-
tors of different characteristics ,but Fig. :12. Dra lug shot% ing the basic
the basic theory of operation of these operation of a fie ld-e ffer t transistor.
transistors is thé same. Now, we'll
look at another semiconductor de- of the terminal to the other end,
vice which operates on a somewhat electrons will flow through the ma-
different principle. terial as shown. If we attach apiece
of P-type material to one side so that
the PN junction is formed and then
place a negative voltage on the P-
type material as shown in Fig. 32,
there will be no current flow across
HIGH -R — the junction, because the battery
biases the junction in such a way
LOW
COLLECTOR that electrons cannot flow from the
LAYER N-type material to the P-type mate-
rial nor can holes flow from the P-
type material to the N-type.
However, the negative voltage
applied to the P-type material sets
Fig. 31. double-diffused epitaxial up a field in the N-type material.
transistor. This field opposes the electrons
flowing through the N-type material
and forces them to move over to one
THE JUNCTION FIELD-
side so that the electron movement
EFFECT TRANSISTOR
follows the path shown in Fig. 32.
An interesting transistor that re- The negative voltage applied to the
sembles a vacuum tube very closely P-type material has the effect of in-
in its characteristics and to some creasing the resistance of the N-
extent its operation is a field-effect type material in the area in which
transistor. One type of field-effect the field is affected. It forms a de-
transistor can be made by taking a pletion layer around the junction so
piece of N-type material as shown there will be no free electrons in the
in Fig. 32. if the negative terminal N-type material near the junction.
of a battery is connected to one end If the negative bias voltage is made
of the material and the positive side high enough, it is able to prevent

43
 minal of the battery, is called the
"drain". The P-type material is
called the gate, as we mentioned
previously. The transistor is called
a field-effect transistor because it
is the field produced by the bias
voltage applied to the gate that con-
trols the flow of current through the
channel. This particular type of
transistor is called a junction tran-
sistor because a junction is formed
Fig. 33. Schematic representation of the between the P and N-type materials.
circuit shown in Fig. 32. It is called an N-channel transistor
because the material in the channel
the flow of electrons through the through which current flows has been
N-type material entirely so that the treated in such a way as to produce
current flow will be cut off. We call an N-type semiconductor material.
this voltage where the bias voltage is Thus the complete name for this
high enough to stop the flow of cur- type of transistor is an N-channel,
rent through the N-type material junction- gate, field-effect transis-
the "pinch-off" voltage. The N-type tor. We usually abbreviate field-
material is referred to as achannel, effect transistor FET, so you will
and the P-type material as a gate. see that this type of transistor is
This type of transistor is called a abbreviated JFET to indicate it is
"junction field-effect transistor." a junction-gate type.
The schematic representation of An amplifier using a field-effect
the circuit shown in Fig. 32 is shown transistor of this type is shown in
in Fig. 33. Notice that the end of the Fig. 34. In this circuit we have
N-type channel at which the elec- eliminated the bias battery by means
trons from the battery enter is of a resistor connected between the
called the "source". The other end, negative terminal of the battery and
the end from which the electrons the source. This resistor might be
leave and flow to the positive ter- compared to the cathode-bias re-

Fig. 34. An amplifier using an N-channel junction gate FET.

44
sistor in a triode vacuum tube am- age between the gate and the source.
plifier stage. In the amplifier cir- Thus we have a varying current,
cuit, electrons flow from the nega- which will vary as the input signal
tive terminal of the battery through varies, flowing from the source to
the resistor R2 to the source. In so the drain of the transistor and
doing they set up a voltage drop through the load resistor R3. This
across R2 having a polarity such varying current flowing through R3
that the source is positive with re- will produce an amplified signal
spect to ground. Since the gate con- voltage across R3.
nects back to ground through R1, It is interesting to note the simi-
the gate will be at ground potential larity between the circuit shown in
and this will make the source posi- Fig. 34 and a triode amplifier. When
tive with respect to the gate, or in the input signal swings the gate in a
other words, the gate negative with positive direction, current flowing
respect to the source. Therefore through the transistor will increase;
none of the electrons in the N chan- this will cause the voltage drop a-
nel will flow to the gate, because cross R3 to increase and therefore
the gate is negative. the voltage between the drain and

lig.:33. An amplifier using a I'-channel junction gate Fur.

Electrons will flow through the ground will decrease. Thus a posi-
N channel to the drain and then tive-going signal applied to the gate
through the load resistor R3 back will cause a negative-going signal at
to the positive terminal of the bat- the drain. In other words, this tran-
tery. As the input voltage applied sistor inverts the signal phase just
across the input terminals causes as the triode vacuum tube amplifier
the voltage between the gate and the stage does.
source to vary, the current flow P-Channel JFET.
from the source to the drain will It is possible to make a P-chan-
vary because the controlling action nel junction-gate field-effect tran-
of the gate on the current through sistor by using a P-type material
the channel depends upon the volt- between the source and drain. The

45
gate is then made of an N-type ma- been depleted from that area around
terial, The bias polarity is reversed the junction. The higher the negative
so that once again the PN junction voltage the further the electrons are
is biased and no current flows across depleted in the area around the junc-
the junction. tion, and as we pointed out previously
A schematic diagram of an ampli- if the voltage is made high enough,
fier using a P-channel junction-gate all of the electrons will be depleted
effect is shown in Fig. 35. Notice so that there will be no current flow
the schematic symbol for the P- through the channel. The transistor
channel unit: we have turned the di- is referred to as a depletion-type
rection of the arrow around just as transistor because the bias depletes
we did to distinguish between NPN the number of majority carriers
and PNP transistors. Also notice from the channel around the junc-
that in this circuit the battery po- tion region. Remember what we
larity is reversed. This is because mean by a depletion type of FET;
the carriers in the channel in the you'll see later there is another type.
P-channel unit will be holes. The
positive terminal of the battery
N -CHANNEL
which connects to the source through
GATE GLASS
R2 repels the holes and they travel INSULATOR
through the channel to the drain
where they are attracted by the nega-
tive potential, connected to the drain.
Meanwhile, holes arriving at the P TYPE
SURSTRATE
drain terminal are filled by elec-
trons which flow from the negative
terminal of the battery through R3
to the drain. At the same time, the
positive terminal of the battery at-
tracts elecb-ons from the source
creating new holes. These electrons Fig. 36. GI...rent flow through on in su -
flow from the source through R2 to lated-gate, N-ehannel field-effect tran-
the positive terminal of the battery. sistor with no bias applied.
The operation of the P-channel,
junction-gate effect is the same as
INSULATED-GATE
with the N-channel unit, except that
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
in one case the majority carriers
are electrons, and in the other case The transistors we have been dis-
they are holes. cussing so far are called junction-
In discussing the action of the gate field-effect transistors. There
junction-gate field-effect transis- is another type of field-effect tran-
tor, we often refer to the reverse sistor that is called an insulated-
bias across the junction creating a gate field-effect transistor. We usu-
depletion layer in the conducting ally abbreviate this IGFET.
channel. In the case of an N-channel In the insulated-gate field-effect
unit, the negative voltage on the P- transistor, the gate is completely
type gate will repel electrons at the insulated from the channel by a thin
junction so that the electrons have insulating material. For example,

46
a very thin piece of glass might be
placed between the conducting chan-
nel and the gate. Thus there is no t
actual junction formed between the
semiconductor materials in the
channel and the gate. In an N-chan-
nel, insulated-gate field-effect tran-
sistor, construction such as shown
in Fig. 36 is often used. Here we
have an N channel between the source
1
-111111-
and drain. The substrate on which Fig. 37. Current flow through an N-ehannel
the channel material is mounted is It:FET iih bias applied.
P-type material and the gate is
placed along the channel as shown channel. In effect, the resistance of
in the figure. The thin layer of glass the channel is increased. We refer
prevents any actual contact between to this type of channel as adepletion
the channel and the gate. channel. The transistor is called an
In operation, the source and the insulated-gate-field-effect transis-
substrate are connected to the nega- tor and it is also referred to as a de-
tive terminal of the battery and the pletion type because the flow of cur-
drain is connected to the positive rent through the transistor is con-
terminal. This will permit current trolled by producing a depletion
to flow from the negative terminal layer in the channel as in the case
of the battery to the source, through of the junction transistors discussed
the channel to the drain and then previously.
back to the positive terminal of the Both N-channel and P-channel
battery. IGFET's are manufactured. The
When a negative voltage is applied schematic symbols used to repre-
to the gate, it has the effect of re- sent the two different types are
pelling electrons away from the gate shown in Fig. 38A and B. In A, we
as before. In addition, the negative have shown the symbol used for an
potential applied to the gate attracts N-channel type, and in B the sche-
holes in the P-type material so that matic symbol used for a P-channel
the width of the channel is reduced type. In operation, the units perform
as shown in Fig. 37. Thus the cur- in essentially the same way as the
rent flow through the channel is re- junction-gate units with the excep-
stricted by the narrowing of the tion that there will be no current

D D
SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE

Fig. Insulated-gate fie Id-effect trans is tors. (..%) show s the schema tie symbol
for an N-channel unit and (13) the symbol for a P.-channel unit.

47
flow at all from the channel to the type field-effect transistor, instead
gate or from the gate to the chan- of placing a negative bias on the
nel. In the JFET, there may be very gate to reduce the width of the chan-
small leakage current across the nel, as we do in the depletion-type
junction. However, a JFET has a transistor, in the enhancement-type
high input resistance because this we place a positive bias on the gate
leakage current is low. The IGFET and produce the N channel.
has an even higher input resistance The enhancement-type field-ef-
because there is no current flow at fect transistor is always an insu-
all from the gate to the channel or lated gate type. In the case of ajunc-
from the channel to the gate. Thus tion FET, if we produced an en-
the input resistance of an IGFET is hancement type, we would have cur-
almost infinite. rent flow across the junction because
Enhancement Type. the voltage required to produce the
So far the field-effect transistors channel would forward bias the junc-
we have been discussing are all what tion. However, in the insulated-gate
are known as depletion types. In the FET, no current can flow across the
depletion type of FET, the channel junction because we have an insula-
is formed and a bias is placed on ting material between the gate and
the gate so as to reduce the size the channel. Thus we can put any
or width of the channel. In the en- type of bias we want, either forward
hancement-type of field-effect tran- or reverse bias, on the gate and we
sistor, there is no channel present still will not get a current flow from
until the bias is applied to the gate. the gate to the channel or from the
Thus, there is no current flow from channel to the gate.
the source to the drain through the The schematic symbol of an N-
transistor, unless there is a bias type IGFET of the enhancement type
applied to the gate. The polarity of is shown in Fig. 39A. Notice that
the bias applied to the gate is re- we have indicated there is no chan-
versed from what it is in the deple- nel by breaking the channel into
tion type, and this bias forms the three parts. When the correct bias
channel through which current can is applied to the gat, an N channel
flow. The operation of the units is between the source and the drain
the same as with the depletion type will be formed. The schematic sym-
with the single exception of the re- bol for the P-channel unit of an en-
verse bias. In other words, in the hancement-type IGFET is shown in
case of an N-channel enhancement- Fig. 39B.

D
SUBSTRATE

Fig. 39. A shows the schematic symbol for an N-channel enhancement-type

IGFET. B shows the P-channel unit.

48
 The operation of the enhancement- THE UNIIIINCTION
type IGFET is basically the same as
with the depletion type. It could be Another important semiconductor
used in a circuit similar to the cir- device is the unijunction. The uni-
cuits shown in Fig. 34 and Fig. 35. junction is different from a con-
One of the problems with IGFET 's ventional two-junction transistor in
is the very high resistance between that it has only a single junction.
the gate and the channel. In shipping Most unijunctions are made of a
these units the manufacturer usually bar of N-type silicon. There are two
wraps the leads in tin foil to keep base contacts made to this bar called
them connected together. If he base 1 and base 2. These contacts
doesn't do this, static charges can are made at the ends of the bar.
build up on the gate because of the Between the two bases is a single
very high resistance between the rectifying contact called the emitter.
gate and the channel. These static The schematic symbol of the uni-
charges may become high enough to junction is shown in Fig. 40.
actually puncture the insulation be- In Fig. 41 we have an equivalent
tween the gate and the channel and circuit showing how the unijunction
thus ruin the unit. operates. We have referred to the
In soldering an IGFET into a cir- resistance between base 1 and the
cuit, there might be enough leakage emitter as RB1 and the resistance
from the power line through the tip between base 2 and the emitter con-
of your soldering iron to ruin the tact as Iti32. When a dc voltage is
FET. To prevent this from happen- applied to the unijunction between
ing, ground leads should be used on B1 and B2, a current will flow
the various connections to the tran- through the base as shown. As long
sistor and these leads should be left as the voltage drop across RBi is
in place until the transistor is in- greater than the emitter voltage ithe
stalled in the circuit. Once the tran- emitter will be reverse biased so
sistor is soldered in place, you do that there will be no current flow
not have to be concerned about static across the junction between the
charges destroying the unit because emitter and the base. The voltage
the resistance in the circuit will be across the resistance representing
low enough to prevent static charges base 1 and the voltage across the
from building up to a high enough resistance representing base 2 will
value to destroy the transistor. remain constant. The two bases
Field-effect transistors are find- more or less act like two resistors
ing their way into commercial equip-
ment, and you should therefore be
sure you understand how they oper-
ate. You should review the sections
on field-effect transistors several
times if necessary because you can
be sure they are going to be widely
used in the future. They offer the
advantages of the transistor as well
as many of the advantages of the Fig. 40. Schematic symbol of a uni -
vacuum tube. junction.

49
 The unijunctions made for anum-
ber of years always made use of an
N-type base material and a P-type
emitter. However, recently some
unijunctions using a P-type base
material and an N-type emitter have
been developed. The schematic sym-
bol is the same, except that the di-
rection of the arrow is reversed.
Unijunctions have not been widely
used in commercial radio and TV
equipment; however, they have been
used in various pieces of test equip-
Fig. I. Egli i% alent circuit ,,ho%%ing
ment. It is quite likely that as more
the operation of the unijunetion
transistorized television receivers
in series. The positive voltage at the are manufactured, the unijunction
emitter junction prevents any elec- may be used in the sweep circuits
trons from leaving the base and since they are quite readily adapted
crossing the junction to the emitter to this type of application.
and also prevents holes from travel- The important thing for you to re-
ing from the emitter to the base. member at this time about the uni-
There will be a small leakage cur- junction is that the device has a
rent across the junction, but this is single junction and that the resist-
of no importance insofar as the op- ance of the two bases remains essen-
eration of the unijunction is con- tially constant until the emitter volt-
cerned. age exceeds the voltage across base
If the voltage, VE, exceeds the 1. Then the voltage drop across base
voltage across RBI.,then holes will 1 decreases while the current flow
enter the base and flow through RB1 through it increases, resulting in the
as shown by the arrows on the dia- negative resistance characteristic
gram. These holes will cause the of base 1.
number of electrons flowing in RBi
to increase. The net result will be SUMMARY
that you will have a drop in voltage
across RBi but at the same time an There are too many details in
increase in current. this section to try to summarize
You will remember from Ohm's them. The important thing for you
Law that the current flowing in a to do is to realize that the different
circuit is equal to the voltage di- names assigned to the conventional
vided by the resistance. If the volt- two-junction transistors indicate the
age drops, the current must drop. manufacturing process used to make
However, in this device we have a the transistor. Typical two-junction
situation where the voltage drops, transistors are either NPN or PNP
but the current increases. We refer transistors, and the basic theory of
to this as "negative resistance". De- operation of the two-junction tran-
vices that have this characteristic sistors is the same regardless of the
can be used in various types of am- manufacturing technique used. Dif-
plifier circuits. ferent manufacturing techniques re-

50
suit in transistors with different will melt and flow over the connec-
characteristics, but the theory of tion quickly. Also make sure that
operation is the same. the transistor leads are clean. It is
The field-effect transistor is a a good idea to use a heat sink be-
transistor that very closely re- tween the point at which you are
sembles a vacuum tube in many of soldering and the semiconductor de-
its characteristics. Remember that vice. A good heat sink is a pair of
there are two basic types: the junc- longnose pliers; simply hold the lead
tion field-effect transistor and the securely in the jaws of the pliers
insulated-gate field-effect transis- while you are soldering the lead in
tor. In the insulated-gate type, the place. Much of the heat developed
gate is insulated so that the leakage at the joint will flow through the
current to and from the gate is pliers and keep the semiconductor
practically zero. This type of tran- device itself from becoming exces-
sistor has a very high input resis- sively hot. The joint should be sol-
tance. dered as quickly as possible; get
You should also remember that the iron off the joint just as soon
field-effect transistors can be made as the solder has melted and flowed
in both N-channel types and P-chan- smoothly over the connection.
nel types. You'll recall that by de- Semiconductor devices can be
pletion type we are referring to a damaged by storing them in exces-
transistor where a channel is pres- sively warm places. Again, this is
ent. The input voltage to this type of particularly true of germanium
transistor controls its channel transistors which are more heat
width. JFET transistors are all of sensitive than silicon transistors.
the depletion type. The IGFET may Storing semiconductor devices at
be either the depletion type or the room temperature will prevent this
enhancement type. type of damage. You should avoid
The unijunction is a semiconduc- storing them in any place where they
tor device with a single junction. can become excessively hot.
Its use in commercial equipment is Now to check yourself on this im-
somewhat limited at this time, but portant section you should answer
you should understand the basic the following self-test questions.
fundamentals of the device because
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
it is quite likely that it will be used
in the future. (aw) Into what two basic types can
One important point about all the grown-junction transistor
types of transistors that we must be divided?
emphasize is that they are all easily (ax) What type of transistor can
damaged by excessive heat. This is the surface-barrier transis-
true particularly of germanium tor be classified as?
transistors, but silicon transistors (ay) What is the most important
can also be destroyed by excessive characteristic of the surface-
heat. Whenever you have to replace barrier transistor?
a transistor in a circuit, you should (az) What do we mean by a diffus-
make sure that the point at which sion transistor?
you have to solder the transistor in (ba) What is an important use of
the circuit is clean so that the solder the diffusion technique in

51
 manufacturing transistors? (be) What is adepletion-type field-
(bb) What is the difference between effect transistor?
a junction-gate field-effect (bd) What is an enhancement-type
transistor and an insulated- FET?
gate field-effect transistor? (be) What is a unijunction?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

(a) Four. form covalent bonds with four
nearby atoms and have an
(b) Germanium and silicon.
electron left over. When a
(e) A covalent bond is the sharing
of two electrons by two atoms, donor material is added to
one from each atom. germanium or silicon, N-type
(d) Four. A single atom of ger- material is formed.
manium or silicon will share (1) Arsenic, antimony, and phos-
an electron from its outer ring phorous.
and an electron from the outer (m) P-type semiconductor mate-
ring of a nearby atom to form rial is amaterial that has been
a covalent bond. It will do this doped with an impurity having
with four electrons to estab- three electrons in the valence
lish four covalent bonds. ring. This will leave acovalent
(e) Intrinsic conduction is con- bond that is short one electron
duction due to the forma- so there will be a hole in the
tion of hole-electron pairs bond. The hole is in effect a
throughout a germanium or positive charge and hence the
silicon crystal. majority carriers in the P-
(f) No. type material are the holes or
(g) Germanium. positive charges.
(h) Heat. (n) An accepter-type impurity is
(i) Silicon. an impurity with three elec-
(j) An N-type material is a ma- trons in the valence ring or
terial that has been doped so shell. It is an accepter-type
that electrons are the majority material because it leaves a
carriers. This is brought hole in the covalent bond which
about by using an impurity that can accept an electron.
has five electrons in the val- (o) Indium, boron and aluminum.
ence ring so that when it forms (p) Electrons are the majority
covalent bonds with nearby carriers in N-type material.
germanium or silicon atoms (q) Holes.
there will be an electron left (r) When the arsenic loses an
over. electron it will be. short one
(k) A donor material is an im- electron to completely neu-
purity which when added to tralize the charge on the nu-
silicon or germanium will cleus, and therefore the atom

52
 will have a positive charge. end to which the positive po-
Meanwhile the atom of silicon tential is connected creating
or germanium that has re- holes. Exactly the same num-
ceived the extra electron will ber of electrons will enter the
have a negative charge on it. end to which the negative po-
(s) There is no charge on the tential is connected to fill
crystal, it is neutral. Although holes arriving at the negative
some regions may have aposi- end.
tive charge, other regions may (z) No. For a given potential and
have a negative charge; the given size of crystal, elec-
crystal itself neither gains nor trons will move at approxi-
loses electrons and therefore mately twice the rate through
it does not have any charge. an N-type crystal as the holes
(t) Holes are produced. will through a P-type crystal.
(u) Diffusion is a random motion (an) The N-type material will have
of the carriers in a semi- the lower resistance. This is
conductor material. It goes on due to the higher mobility of
at all times in the crystal and the electrons in the N-type
every effort is made to keep material than the holes in the
diffusion as low as possible P-type material.
since it contributes nothing (ab) Detectors and rectifiers.
insofar as the usefulness of (ac) The depletion layer is an area
the material in semiconductor on both sides of the junction.
devices is concerned. On the P-side of the junction
Drift. there is a shortage of holes
Electrons are the majority and on the N-side of the junc-
carriers in an N-type mate- tion there is a shortage of
rial and they move from the electrons. The shortage is
end to which the negative po- caused by a few of the ma-
tential is applied towards the jority carriers crossing the
end to which the positive po- junction in each way building
tential is applied. up a charge at the junction so
(x) Holes are the majority car- that the majority carriers are
riers in a P-type material repelled away from the junc-
and they move from the end tion.
to which the positive potential (ad) The potential barrier is the
is applied to the end to which voltage built up across the
the negative potential is ap- junction by the diffusion of
plied. majority carriers across the
(Y) No - the crystal will remain junction. The holes that dif-
electrically neutral. In the fuse across the junction into
case of N-type material, ex- the N-side of the junction
actly the same number of elec- create an area that has anega-
trons will leave the positive tive charge in the P-side of
end of the crystal and enter the junction. Similarly, the
the negative end of the crystal. electrons diffusing across the
In the case of the P-type ma- junction into the P-side create
terial, electrons will leave the an area on the N-side of the

53
 junction that has a positive gion and a positive potential
charge. This charge across connected to the N region. The
the junction eventually be- positive potential connected to
comes high enough to prevent the N region repels holes in the
any further diffusion of holes P region away from the junc-
and electrons across the junc- tion so that they cannot cross
tion. the junction. Similarly, the
(ae) No. The net charge on the negative potential applied to
.
crystal will remain zero. the P region repels electrons
.
There may be areas on the in the N region away from the
crystal that have a positive junction so that they cannot
charge, and other areas that cross the junction. When a
have a negative charge, but junction is reverse biased,
since the crystal itself neither majority carriers normally
gains nor loses electrons, the cannot cross the junction.
net charge on the crystal will (ai) When there is no voltage ap-
remain zero. plied to a semiconductor
(af) Yes. Minority carriers cross- diode, the net current flow a-
ing the junction tend to weaken cross the junction is zero.
the potential barrier estab- However, in the case of a
lished across the junction by vacuum tube where there is
majority carriers diffusing a- no voltage applied between
cross the junction. When the plate and cathode, some elec-
potential barrier is weakened, trons will leave the cathode
additional majority carriers with sufficient energy to travel
can cross the junction. Thus over to the plate. As a result,
we end up with carriers cross- there will be a small current
ing the junction in both direc- through the tube even though
tions. This adds nothing to the there is no voltage applied be-
useful current that the diode tween the plate and cathode.
can handle, but it does con- (a)) When asemiconductor diode is
tribute to heating and thus reverse biased, there will be a
limits the useful current that small current flow across the
can cross the junction. junction due to minority car-
(ag) When a junction is forward riers. As long as the break-
biased we have a positive po- down voltage of the diode is
tential applied to the P-side not exceeded, this current will
and a negative potential ap- be quite small. In the case of
plied to the N-side. This per- a vacuum tube, when the plate
mits electrons to freely cross is made negative with respect
the junction from the N region to the cathode, the plate will
to the P region. Similarly repel electrons so that there
holes can cross the junction will be no current flow through
from the P region to the N the vacuum tube.
region. (ak) A Zener diode is a diode used
(ah) When a junction is reverse in applications where a re-
biased we have a negative po- verse bias is placed across the
tential connected to the P re- junction. The diode is designed

54
 to break down at acertain volt- (as) The base region is usually
age and then maintain a con- comparatively thin.
stant voltage. If the voltage (at) See Fig. 22.
tries to increase above this (au) See Fig. 24.
constant value, the current (ay) Holes are useful current car-
flow through the Zener diode riers in a PNP transistor.
will increase so that the diode (aw) NPN and PNP transistors.
can be used in voltage regu- (ax) An alloy-type transistor.
• lating circuits and also can be (ay) Good high-frequency perform-
used as a voltage reference ance.
source. (az) A diffusion transistor is a
(al) A tunnel diode is adiode where transistor which has been
the electrons cross the junc- made by diffusing the impuri-
tion by a process similar to ties into the emitter, base and
tunneling across the junction. collector regions.
The tunnel diode has a char- (ba) One of the most important uses
acteristic of introducing nega- of the diffusion technique is in
tive resistance into the circuit the manufacture of non-uni-
when a certain voltage is ap- form base regions.
plied across the junction. In (bb) In a junction-gate field-effect
other words, when the voltage transistor there is an actual
across the diode increases, contact between the channel
the current flow through the material and the gate. There
diode decrease. Similarly, will be some current flow a-
when the voltage decreases the cross the contact at all times
current increases. Because of due to minority carriers
this negative resistance char- crossing the junction. In addi-
acteristic, the tunnel diode can tion, if the junction is forward
be used as an oscillator. biased there will be a high
(am) A p-i-n diode is adiode that is current fl.ow across the junc-
primarily used as a variable tion. In an insulated-gate field-
resistance. The resistance of effect transistor a glass or
the diode varies as the voltage similar insulating material is
across it is varied. The p-i-n used between the material in
diode is used in automatic gain the channel and the gate. Since
control circuits to vary the there is an insulator between
strength of the signal reach- the gate and the channel, there
ing amplifier stages. will be little or no current flow
(an) The base region is the center across the insulator either due
region of the transistor. On to minority carriers when
one side of the base region is there is a reverse bias ap-
the emitter, and on the other plied, or due to majority car-
side is the collector. riers with a forward bias ap-
(ao) Germanium and silicon. plied.
(ap) PNP transistors and NPN (be) A depletion-type FET is aunit
transistors. in which the channel is present
(act) Forward bias. at all times. The transistor
(ar) Reverse bias. works by depleting or reducing

55
 the size of the channel. ductor device having two base
(bd) An enhancement FET is aunit connections but only a single
in which there is no channel junction. The junction is called
present until the operating the emitter. The single junc-
bias is applied between the tion makes the unijunction
gate and the material in which quite different from the con-
the channel is formed. ventional two-junction tran-
(be) A unijunction is a semicon- sistor.

11

56
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B112.

. Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

e
Most students want to know their grades as soon as possible, so they
mail in their answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the
next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable. However, don't hold your answers too long;
you may lose them. Don't hold answers to more than two sets of lessons
at any time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. Name the two most important semiconductor materials used for tran-
sistors.

2. When a donor type of material is added to a silicon or a germanium

crystal, what type of semiconductor material is produced? Does this
type have free electrons or free holes?

3. What effect do the two layers of ionized atoms at the junction in a PN

diode have on the majority carriers in the vicinity of the junction?

4. To which side of a PN junction diode do you connect the positive

battery terminal if you wish to place a forward bias on the junction?

5. If a reverse bias is applied to ajunction diode, what effect will a small

increase in bias have on the current flowing, provided the reverse
voltage does not exceed the breakdown voltage?

6. What is a Zener diode?

7. In a PNP transistor, what happens to a hole that crosses the emitter

and the base and moves into the collector?

8. What is a drift transistor?

9. What is an N-channel, junction-type field-effect transistor?

10. What do we mean when we refer to a field-effect transistor as an

enhancement type?
 ll

CASHING IN ON DISCONTENT
Discontent is a good thing--if it makes you want to
do something worthwhile. If you had not been dis-
contented, you would never have enrolled for the NRI
course.

Practically everyone is discontented. But some of

as are "floored" by discontent. We develop into com-
plainers. We find fault with anything and everything.
We end up as sour and dismal failures.

Those of us who are wise use our discontent as fuel

for endeavor. We keep striving toward a goal we have
set for ourselves. We are happy in our work. We face
defeat, and we come out the victors.

At this minute you may be discontented with many

things--your progress with your course, your earning
ability, yourself.

Make that discontent pay you dividends. Don't let it

throw you down. If you do, you may never be able to
get up again. Keep striving to remove the cause of
your discontent. Remember that it's always darkest
before the dawn. And a real NRI man works hardest
and accomplishes most when he is face to face with
the greatest discouragements.
t.
1
 f
)

el] rj
e ri Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
in
Mall ill Continuing Education School 139-LT-212
SERVICING •• ELECTRONICS • COMMUNICATIONS
LU

le le
g
Lei*
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

B112
 ru••••••up11.1,..,

P
 STUDY SCHEDULE

E 1. Introduction Pages 1-2

You learn some of the advantages and disadvantages
of transistors compared to vacuum tubes.

E 2. Semiconductor Fundamentals Pages 3-13

You learn about conductors, insulators and semicon-
ductors. You study important characteristics of ger-
manium and silicon and how they are "doped" for use
in transistors.

E 3. Current Flow in Semiconductors Pages 14 -18

You study current flow in N-type and P-type semi-
conductor material.

E 4. Semiconductor Diodes Pages 18 -29

You learn about current flow in diodes with forward
bias and reverse bias. You study several important
types of diodes.

El 5. Semiconductor Triodes Pages 30 -39

In this section you study PNP and NPN transistors
and how they are biased.

E 6. Semiconductor Types Pages 39 -52

In this section you learn about a number of different
types of transistors. You also study field-effect and
unijunction transistors.

E 7. Answer the Lesson Questions.

E 8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1967 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 2=6

JD4M168 1968 EDITION Printed in U.S.A.

i
s

I
 HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

In the preceding lessons you stud- today, but for the most part these
ied tubes, and you saw how they are transistors can be classified into
used in different circuits. In this two types, the NPN transistor and
lesson you will study semiconduc- the PNP transistor. If you under-
tor devices - these devices have stand how these two transistor types
already replaced tubes in many im- work, you should have little difficulty
portant applications and are rapidly understanding how all others work
moving into new areas that were and any new transistors that might
once dominated entirely by tubes. be introduced in the future. Youwill
An example of the importance run into many different types of
of semiconductor devices can be transistors identified by different
seen in entertainment-type equip- names, but these names usually re-
ment. Just a few years ago all the fer to the method used in manu-
rectifiers used in this equipment facturing the transistor rather than
were vacuum tubes. Today, however, the manner in which it operates.
the vacuum tube is no longer used There are some similarities be-
for this purpose; rectifiers in the tween tubes and semiconductors. A
mbdern entertainment-type equip- two-element vacuum tube can be
ment are all semiconductor devices. used to change an alternating cur-
Semiconductor devices used as rent to a direct current; a two-
rectifiers have two elements and are element semiconductor can be used
called diodes just as two-element for the same purpose. A triode vacu-
vacuum tubes are called diodes. um tube can be used to amplify a
Semiconductors used to amplify sig- signal; a transistor can be used for
nals usually have three or more ele- the same purpose. However, this is
ments and are called transistors. where the similarity ends. Most
There are a large number of dif- tubes are vacuum devices; in other
ferent types of transistors available words, all the air and gas have been

1
evacuated from inside the tube. On results in some reduction of the
the other hand, a semiconductor is power required in the equipment.
a solid device and there is no space Although semiconductors have
between the elements in it. We have many advantages over vacuum tubes ,
a current flow through a vacuum in they do have some disadvantages.
a tube, but we have a current flow One disadvantage is that it is usually
through a solid in a semiconductor. not possible to get as high a gain in
The importance of semiconduc- an amplifier stage using atransistor
tors cannot be overemphasized. as it is in a similar stage using a
They have completely supplanted the tube. Therefore to get the equivalent
vacuum tube in portable radio re- gain, more transistor stages are re-
ceivers and in automobile receivers. quired than vacuum-tube stages. An-
Almost all high fidelity and stereo other disadvantage of the transistor
equipment manufactured today uses is that its characteristics are not
semiconductors exclusively - the as constant as those of a vacuum
only tube-operated equipment of this tube. In other words, you are more
type you are likely to encounter is likely to run into difficulty replacing
equipment that is several years old. atransistor than you are in replacing
Semiconductors are finding their a tube because the replacement tran-
way into television receivers and it sistor's characteristics might be
is probably just a matter of time considerably different from the
before they completely replace the characteristics of the original tran-
vacuum tube. sistor. Another disadvantage of both
Semiconductors have several ad- diode semiconductors and transis-
vantages over the vacuum tube. Per- tors is that their characteristics can
haps one of the most important ad- vary appreciably with changes in
vantages is that they do not require temperature. As a matter of fact,
any heater or filament power. Not some semiconductor devices are
only is this a power saving in the easily destroyed by too much heat.
operation of the equipment, but it In spite of the fact that semicon-
also removes considerable heat ductor devices have some disadvan-
from the equipment. Heat is probably tages when compared to vacuum
the thing that causes the most dam- tubes, their advantages more than
age to parts in electronic equipment. outweigh the disadvantages and their
Thus with the removal of the heater importance in the field of electronics
or filament power from the equip- is continually growing. Therefore it
ment, other components such as ca- is important that the technician have
pacitors, etc. will last longer. a good understanding of semiconduc-
Semiconductors are very rugged. tor fundamentals, how they are used,
They are solid devices and hence and how they operate. Before going
not subject to breakage from me- ahead to see how semiconductors are
chanical shock as tubes are. An im- used as rectifiers and amplifiers,
portant advantage of transistors is we need to know more about certain
that they will operate on acompara- types of atoms, in order to under-
tively low voltage, and this usually stand how these devices work.

2
 Semiconductor Fundamentals
You have already learned that cer- guishes one material from another.
tain materials will conduct elec- In other words, the nucleus of acop-
tricity readily and that some mate- per atom does not have the same
rials will hardly pass any electric number of positive charges as the
current at all. The materials that nucleus of an iron atom.
will conduct current readily are Each atom normally has enough
called conductors and those that will electrons, which have a negative
not conduct current are called in- charge, to exactly neutralize the
sulators. Midway between the two positive charge on the nucleus. Thus,
types of materials is a group of the hydrogen atom which has a
materials called semiconductors. nucleus with one positive charge will
These materials are not good con- have one electron, and the helium
ductors, nor are they particularly atom which has a positive charge of
good insulators. Two examples of two in the nucleus will have two
semiconductor materials are ger- electrons. Another atom that has a
manium and silicon. These are the nucleus with 30 positive charges will
materials that we will be mostly have 30 electrons to exactly neutral-
concerned with in this section. Both ize the positive charge on the
diode semiconductors and transis- nucleus.
tors are made from germanium and The electrons in an atom arrange
silicon. A new material that shows themselves in shells around the nu-
promise for use in semiconductors cleus. The total number of electrons
is gallium arsenide. It's likely that will normally be just enough to neu-
this material will be used in semi- tralize the charge on the nucleus.
conductors in the future. Before However, there is a maximum num-
going ahead with our detailed study ber of electrons that can be forced
of semiconductor materials, let us into each shell. In the first shell
review a few important facts about around the nucleus, the maximum
conductors and insulators. number of electrons is 2. In the sec-
ond shell, the maximum number of
CONDUCTORS AND electrons is 8, and in the next shell
the maximum number of electrons
INSULATORS
is 18. A shell can have less than the
maximum number of electrons, but
You will remember that all mate- not more than the maximum number.
rials are made up of atoms. An atom Conductors.
is the smallest particle of a mate- An example of an atom in a con-
rial that retains the characteristicsductor is shown in Fig. 1. We have
of the material. drawn the shells in the form of
In the center of the atom is the rings, but remember that this atom
nucleus. This nucleus contains a actually has three dimensions, not
positive charge. The number of posi- two. Notice that in this atom there
tive charges on the nucleus distin- are two electrons in the first shell,

3
 there are two electrons in the first
shell, and 8 electrons in the second
shell. Both the shells are completely
filled and will be closely bound to
the nucleus. This means that it is
very difficult to get one of these
electrons out of an atom and there-
fore this material is an insulator
or nonconductor.
Remember the important differ-
ence between conductors and insula-
tors. A conductor is a material that
Fig. 1. .\ri atom of a vonductor. has one or two electrons in the outer
shell that are not closely bound to
8 electrons in the next shell and the nucleus, whereas an insulator is
only one electron in the third shell. a material in which the outer shell
The outer shell is called a valence of each atom is filled or almost filled
shell. The single electron in the so that the electrons are closely
third shell, which is called the bound to the atom and cannot be
valence electron, is not very closely easily removed. Because these elec-
bound to the nucleus; it can easily trons cannot be removed from the
be removed from the atom. Thus a atom, this type of material normally
material of this type has a large will not conduct current, and hence
number of electrons that can easily is called an insulator.
be removed from their atoms. When
these electrons are forced to move SEMICONDUCTOR
in one direction we have a current
MATERIAL
flow. Thus a material that has only
one or two electrons in an outer
shell that could have many more, A material that is classified as a
is a conductor, because the one or semiconductor has electrical char-
two electrons in the outer shell are acteristics midway between those of
not closely bound to the nucleus. a conductor and those of an insulator.
Insulators. The electrons in a semiconductor
An atom of an insulator is shown can be removed from their atoms
in Fig. 2. Notice that in this atom when some type of external energy,
such as voltage, heat, or light is ap-
plied to the material. Then the mate-
rial acts like a conductor.
The most important semiconduc-
tor materials used for transistors
are germanium and silicon. The first
low-cost transistors were germani-
um transistors, but recent develop-
ments have lowered the cost of sili-
con transistors so that most of the
new transistor types being intro-
Fig. 2. \ri atom of an insulator. duced are silicon. Both germanium

4
and silicon are very abundant ele-
ments, but neither is found in the
pure state, and it is quite difficult
to process them to the high state
of purity required for use in tran-
sistors. The first transistors were
made of germanium because tech-
niques for getting pure germanium
were developed first. However, now
Fig. 3. (A) is the germanium atom with
it is possible to refine silicon to the
a charge of 32. (B) shows the simpli-
high degree of purity required, at a fied symbol.
reasonable cost, and since silicon
has several advantages over ger- the four electrons in the outer shell
manium for use in semiconductor because the shell is not filled. The
devices it has in many ways re- other electrons are bound so closely
placed germanium. to the nucleus that they cannot easily
In general, there is not too much be removed. Therefore, germanium
difference between the operation of is often represented as shown in Fig.
semiconductor devices made from 3B.
gerrhanitun and those made from The Silicon Atom.
silicon. We will cover the impor- The arrangement of electrons
tant points of these devices made about the nucleus in a silicon atom
from both materials since you will is shown in Fig. 4A. The nucleus of
run into semiconductor devices of the silicon atom has a positive
both types. charge of 14. Therefore, there will
The Germanium Atom. be fourteen electrons revolving
The arrangement of electrons about the nucleus. There are two
about the nucleus in a germanium electrons in the first ring, eight in
atom is shown in Fig. 3A. The the second and four in the third.
nucleus of the germanium atom has Thus the first and second rings are
a positive charge of 32. Thus as filled, but there are only four elec-
you might expect, there will be 32 trons in the outer shell. These four
electrons revolving in the shells
about the nucleus. There are two
electrons in the first shell, eight
in the second, eighteen in the third
and four in the fourth shell. Thus,
the first, second and third shells are
filled, but there are only four elec-
trons in the outer shell. However,
these four electrons, which are
called the valence electrons, are
bound to the nucleus much more so
than the one or two electrons found
in the outer shell of a conductor.
The important electrons in the Fig. 4. (A) shows the silicon atom
germanium atom, insofar as its use tsith a charge of 14. (B) shows the
in semiconductors is concerned, are outer shell with four electrons.

5
electrons are the valence electrons In order to try to fill its outer
like the four in the germanium atom ring with electrons, a single ger-
and are bound fairly closely to the nu- manium atom or a single silicon
cleus. As in the case of the germani- atom will establish covalent bonds
um atom, the four electrons in the with four other atoms. This arrange-
outer ring are the ones that are of ment of atoms in a piece of ger-
importance in the use of silicon in manium is shown in Fig. 6A. A simi-
semiconductors. lar arrangement of atoms in apiece
Notice the similarity between the of silicon is shown in Fig. 6B. These
silicon and germanium atoms. In pieces of silicon and germanium are
both atoms, the outer shell or ring called crystals and the way in which
has four electrons, and all the other they are arranged is called alattice
shells are filled. structure. Each atom shares each of
The tendency of some materials its four valence electrons with one
like silicon and germanium, that do valence electron of another atom to
not have the outer shell completely form these bonds.
filled with electrons, is to get addi-
INTRINSIC CONDUCTION
tional electrons to fill up the outer
shell. In pure germanium and sili- Even at comparatively low tem-
con, the electrons in the outer shell peratures, there is heat energy in
of one atom are bound as closely to all materials. This energy is suffi-
that atom as the four electrons in the cient to cause a few of the electrons
outer shell of another atom. There- to move out of their proper place in
fore one atom cannot pull electrons the lattice structure of either the
away from another atom. Instead, germanium crystal or the silicon
two nearby atoms will share one crystal and become free electrons.
outer electron from each atom. In These free electrons are available
other words, two atoms of germani- for conduction of electric current.
um may share electrons as shown The number of free electrons avail-
in Fig. 5A; and two atoms of silicon able is much higher in germanium
may share electrons as shown in than it is in silicon.
Fig. 5B. By sharing electrons in When one of these electrons moves
this way, each atom will partly fill out of its position in the lattice struc-
its outer shell. This pair of shared ture, it leaves an empty space in the
electrons, one from each of two crystal lattice. This empty space is
atoms, is called "a covalent bond". called a hole. An electron from a

Fig. 5. The sharing of two electrons by two germanium atoms is shown at A; by

two silicon atoms at B.

6
 COVALENT BONDS COVALENT BONDS

Fig. 6. The lattice structure of germanium is shown at A; of silicon at B.

nearby atom can move into this hole reduced. This happens because more
thus creating a new hole at the place electrons are freed by the energy
it left. Another electron may move applied to the crystal. In addition,
out of still another atom to fill this the speed of the random movement
new hole, leaving behind it a hole. is increased.
This movement of an electron to fill The movement of an electron out
a hole thus creating a new hole in of an atom forms a hole in the atom.
the place it left makes it look as if Thus, whenever an electron is freed
holes themselves move. Further- from an atom a hole is formed. This
more, since the hole represents a free electron and the hole it forms
missing electron, it has a positive are called a "hole-electron pair".
charge. The formation of hole-electron pairs
In a piece of germanium or sili- is a continuous process. Also the
con, the electrons are in a constant filling of holes by electrons is acon-
state of motion about their atoms. tinuous process. In other words,the
If in its movement an electron process of an electron leaving its
comes closer to a hole than to its atom and forming a hole, and an-
own atomic nucleus, it will be other electron moving in to fill the
strongly attracted to the hole and hole and in so doing creating a new
will leave its atom. When there is no hole, is a continuous process. The
voltage applied across the crystal, conduction of electricity in pure
the movement of a hole or an elec- germanium or pure silicon crystals
tron is a random movement. Holes due to the formation of hole-elec-
and electrons may move in any di- tron pairs is called the intrinsic
rection. conduction.
If heat or some other form of ex- The conductivity of a germanium
ternal energy is applied to the crys- crystal or a silicon crystal ,which is
tal, the resistance of the material is the ability of the material to conduct

7
an electric current, depends on the elements called impurities are
average length of time an electron added to the crystals to alter their
is free and on the number of free characteristics. By adding these
electrons. We mentioned previously materials we can produce two types
that there are more electrons free of silicon and two types of germani-
if external energy, such as heat, is um. They are called N-type and P-
applied to the material. Therefore type. Now, let us study the charac-
the conductivity rises as the tem- teristics of these two types of mate-
perature of the material is in- rials.
creased.
This type of conduction is much N-TYPE MATERIAL
higher in germanium than it is in
silicon. As an example, if we had a N-type silicon or germanium can
germanium crystal exactly one be produced by adding as an impurity
centimeter on each side and meas- an element that has five electrons
ured the resistance across two in its outer ring. An example of this
parallel surfaces, we would find the type of material is arsenic. Arsenic
resistance to be approximately 60 has a positive charge of 33 on the
ohms. The resistance of an equiv- nucleus and has 33 electrons in the
alent piece of silicon would be ap- shells surrounding the nucleus.
proximately 60,000 ohms. Thus in- There are two electrons in the first
trinsic conduction is much higher in shell, eight in the second, eighteen
germanium than it is in silicon. in the third and five in the fourth
Intrinsic conduction in transistors or outer shell. In other words,
is undesirable. It is kept as low as arsenic is just like germanium ex-
possible by holding the operating cept that the nucleus has one more
temperature of the material down. positive charge and there is one addi-
Transistors are also shielded from tional electron in the outer shell.
light because light is a form of en- If a small amount of arsenic is
ergy and light striking the crystal added to the germanium, the arsenic
will increase the intrinsic conduc- atoms will form covalent bonds with
tion. Since silicon has a muchlower the germanium atoms as shown in
intrinsic conduction than germani- Fig. 7. However ,to form the covalent
um, semiconductors made from sili- bonds with its neighboring germani-
con are less affected by heat than are um atoms, the arsenic atom needs
semiconductors made from ger- only four of the electrons in its outer
manium. This is one of the chief shell. Therefore there will be one
advantages of silicon over germani- electron left over when the arsenic
um as a semiconductor material. atom forms covalent bonds with the
In their pure forms, neither ger- four neighboring germanium atoms.
manium nor silicon are useful in This electron is free to move about
semiconductor devices. In fact, in within the crystal in exactly the same
spite of intrinsic conduction, neither manner as a single valence electron
material is agood conductor at room in a good metal conductor. The addi-
temperature; they are both fairly tion of arsenic, which produces these
good insulators. To use these ma- free electrons, greatly reduces the
terials in semiconductors, con- resistance of the material.
trolled amounts of other selected When a small amount of arsenic

8
 ring will form covalent bonds with
germanium or silicon atoms leaving
a fifth electron free. Antimony,
which has 51 electrons ,also has been
used as a donor. Antimony has two
electrons in the first shell, eight in
the second, eighteen in the third,
eighteen in the fourth and five in the
fifth or valence shell.
P-TYPE MATERIAL
If instead of adding amaterial with
five electrons in its valence shell,
we add a material with only three
electrons in the valence shell, we
COVALENT BONDS EXCESS ELECTRON
have a situation where the impurity
added to the silicon or germanium
Fig. 7. Germanium ‘vith arsenic added. has one less electron than it needs
to establish covalent bonds with four
is added to a silicon crystal exactly neighboring atoms. Thus, in one
the same thing happens. The arsenic covalent bond there will be only one
atom forms covalent bonds with the electron instead of two. This will
silicon atoms. As in the case of the leave a hole in that covalent bond.
germanium atom, only four of the A material that is frequently used
electrons in the outer shell of the for this purpose is indium. Indium
arsenic atom are used in forming has 49 electrons, two in the first
these covalent bonds so there will shell, eight in the second, eighteen
be one electron left over. in the third, eighteen in the fourth
When germanium or silicon have and three in the fifth or valence shell.
had an impurity added to them we
say they have been doped. When
semiconductor material has been
doped with a material such as arse-
nic that results in there being ex-
cess electrons, we call it an N-type
material. The N refers to the nega-
tive carriers, which are the free
electrons. Arsenic is called adonor
impurity because it donates an easily
freed electron.
In addition to arsenic, other ma-
terials have been used as donors.
Phosphorus, which has a total of
fifteen electrons, can be used. The
phosphorus atom has two electrons
in the first shell, eight in the second HOLE
COVALENT BONDS
and five in the third. Four of the
electrons in the valence shell or Fig. 8. Silicon with indium added.

9
The manner in which indium forms P stands for positive; since holes
covalent bonds with neighboring sili- represent a shortage of an electron
con atoms is shown in Fig. 8. It forms we say they act as positive carriers.
covalent bonds with germanium The indium is called an accepter
atoms in the same way. impurity because its atoms leave
We mentioned previously that even holes in the crystal structure that
at comparatively cold temperatures are free to accept electrons. In addi-
there is some heat energy within tion to indium, boron and aluminum
the crystal and thus there will be a are also used as accepter impuri-
few free electrons moving about the ties. Boron has 5 electrons, two in
crystal. These free electrons are the first shell and three in the sec-
strongly attracted to the holes in ond which is the valence shell. Alu-
the covalent bond produced where minum has 13 electrons, two in the
an indium atom has replaced a sili- first shell, eight in the second and
con or a germanium atom. Thus an three in the third or valence shell.
electron will move into a hole in the
covalent bond producing a new hole CHARGES IN N-TYPE
in another atom and giving the effect
AND
that the hole is moving as shown in
Fig. 9. P-TYPE MATERIAL
Since a hole in the crystal actu-
ally represents a shortage of an When a donor material such as
electron, it is an area with a posi- arsenic is added to germanium or
tive charge. Therefore when asemi- silicon, the fifth electron in the va-
conductor material has been doped lence ring of the arsenic atom does
with a material such as indium that. not become part of a covalent bond.
produces holes in the lattice struc- This extra electron may move away
ture, we call it a P-type material. from the arsenic atom to one of the
nearby germanium or silicon atoms.
The arsenic atom has a charge of
+33 on the nucleus and normally has
33 electrons to neutralize this
charge. When the electron moves
away from the atom there will be
only 32 electrons to neutralize the
charge on the nucleus, and as a re-
sult there will be a small region of
positive charge around the arsenic
MOVEMENT
atom. Similarly, the excess elec-
OF HOLE
tron that has moved into a nearby
PATH OF ELECTRON
FILLING HOLE germanium or silicon atom will pro-
vide an excess electron in the atom.
In the case of the germanium atom
there will be a total of 33 electrons
around a nucleus requiring only 32
Fig. 9. ‘‘ hen an electron fills a hole, electrons to completely neutralize
another hole %%ill apparently move to it, and in the case of the silicon
here the electron atom there will be 15 electrons

10
around the nucleus requiring only electron to fill the hole in the co-
14 electrons to neutralize it. This valent bond, then the atom which has
means that the atom will have an given up the electron will be short
extra electron so that there will be an electron so that there will be a
a region of negative charge around region of positive charge around
this atom. this atom. Again, while this giving
It is important to notice that al- up of an electron by a germanium
though there is a region of positive atom and the acceptance of an elec-
charge around the arsenic atom after tron by the indium atom ionizes or
the electron has moved away, and a charges both atoms involved, the
region of negative charge around the net charge on the crystal is still
germanium or silicon atom taking up zero. We simply have one atom that
the extra electron, the total charge is short an electron and another
on the crystal remains the same. In atom that has one too many. The
other words, a given crystal will crystal itself does not take on any
have a net charge of zero. This charge.
means that there will be exactly These ionized atoms produced in
enough electrons to neutralize the both the N-type and the P-type ger-
positive charges on the nuclei on manium and the N-type and the P-
the various atoms. But because some type silicon are not concentrated in
of the electrons may move about in any one part of the crystal, but in-
the crystal, there will be regions in stead are spread uniformly about
the crystal where there are nega- the crystal. If any region within the
tive charges and other regions where crystal were to have a very large
there are positive charges, even number of positively charged atoms,
though the net charge on the crystal these atoms would attract free elec-
is zero. trons from other parts of the crystal
In a P-type material to which ma- to neutralize part of the charged
terial such as indium has been add- atom, so that the charge would be
ed we will have a similar situation. spread uniformly about the crystal.
You will remember that the indium Similarly, if alarge number of atoms
atom has only three electrons in its within a small region have had an
valence ring. These are all that were excess of electrons, these electrons
needed to neutralize the positive would repel each other and spread
charge on the nucleus. However ,
with throughout the crystal.
only three electrons in the valence Both holes and electrons are in-
ring, there is a hole in one of the volved in conduction at all times.
covalent bonds formed between the Holes are called positive carriers
indium atom and the four adjacent and electrons negative carriers. The
germanium or silicon atoms. If an one present in greatest quantity is
electron moves in to fill this hole, called the majority carrier; the
then there is one more electron in other is the minority carrier. In an
the indium atom than is needed to N-type material, electrons are the
neutralize the charge on the nucleus. majority carriers and holes are the
Thus there will be a region of nega- minority carriers, whereas in a P-
tive charge around the indium atom. type material, holes are the majority
Similarly, if one of the germanium carriers and electrons the minority
or silicon atoms has given up an carriers.

11
 transistors and steps are taken to
SUMMARY
keep it as low as possible. The for-
mation of hole-electron pairs in-
This is a very important section creases as the temperature in-
of this lesson. You have covered creases and is a much more serious
many of the fundamentals of semi- problem in germanium-type semi-
conductors on which we will build conductor material than in silicon-
the remainder of the lesson. It is type semiconductor material.
important that you understand the Semiconductor materials can be
basic theory of semiconductors in doped by adding small amounts of
order to be able to understand how impurities. If a material with five
semiconductor diodes and transis- electrons in the valence ring is add-
tors work. We will summarize the ed, the material is called a donor-
important points that were covered type impurity. This type of mate-
in the preceding section. rial has one electron left over after
If any of these points are not clear, it forms covalent bonds with four
you should go back and study the les- neighboring germanium or silicon
son again until they are clear. If you atoms. Thus there will be an excess
understand the first section of the of electrons. We then refer to this
lesson, you should be able to under- kind of material as an N-type
stand the material following without material.
too much difficulty. However, if you If the germanium or silicon is
do not understand what has been doped with an impurity, called an
covered previously, you will have accepter impurity, having three
difficulty understanding what is to electrons in the valence shell, the
follow. impurity forms covalent bonds with
Pure semiconductor material the four neighboring germanium or
such as germanium or silicon is a silicon atoms. However, there will
very poor conductor. In fact, it is be a hole in one of the covalent bonds
an insulator if it is protected from because the impurity has only three
all outside sources of energy. How- electrons available to form covalent
ever, even at room temperature bonds with four neighboring ger-
there is enough heat present in ger- manium and silicon atoms. This type
manium and silicon to produce some of germanium or silicon is called
electron and hole movement. The P-type because there will be holes
movement is much greater in ger- in the material, and these holes act
manium than it is in silicon. as positive carriers.
An electron movement out of a Another point to remember is that
covalent bond in a germanium or when an electron is freed or when a
silicon atom leaves a hole in that hole captures an electron, the atoms
bond. The hole will attract an elec- involved become charged, or ion-
tron from a nearby atom, producing ized. Thus throughout both N-type
a hole in that atom. Thus, both the and P-type germanium or N-type
hole and the electron appear to move. and P-type silicon we have small
The holes are positive carriers and regions of charge. However, the net
the electrons negative carriers of charge on the crystal is zero and the
electricity. This formation of hole- charged regions are evenly distri-
electron pairs is undesirable in buted throughout the material.

12
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS has greater resistance?
(j) What is an N-type material?
(a) How many electrons are there (k) What is a donor material?
in a valence shell or ring in a (1 ) Name two materials used as
silicon atom? donors.
(3) What are the two types of ma- (m) What is P-type material?
terial most widely used in (n) What is an accepter impurity?
semiconductor devices? (0 ) Name three types of accepter

(e) What is meant by a covalent material.

bond? (p) In N-type material what is the
(d) How many covalent bonds will majority carrier?
a single germanium or silicon (q) What are the majority car-
atom establish? riers in the P-type material?
(e) What is intrinsic conduction? (r) When a donor impurity such as
(f) Is intrinsic conduction de- arsenic loses an electron in a
sirable? semiconductor material, what
(g) In which type of conductor ma- happens to the arsenic and to
terial, germanium or silicon, a nearby atom that gains the
is intrinsic conduction the electron insofar as their rela-
greatest? tive charge is concerned?
(h) What is the greatest cause of (s) Although there are small
an increase in intrinsic con- areas that have positive and
duction in germanium? negative charges in a doped
(i) Which semiconductor mate- semiconductor, what is the
rial, silicon or germanium, overall charge on the crystal?

13
Current Flow in Semiconductors

In order to understand how tran- You might at first think that when
sistors operate, there are several there is no voltage applied there
new ideas that you must master. would be no motion of the free holes
First, you must understand how cur- and electrons. However, this is not
rent flows through both N-type and true--as you learned when we dis-
P-type semiconductor materials. cussed intrinsic conduction, there
Current flow through an N-type ma- is a certain amount of energy pres-
terial is not too different from cur- ent in the crystal. This energy might
rent flow through metals, which you be due to the temperature of the
have already studied. However, crystal, because as we pointed out
there is quite a difference in the way before, even at room temperature
current flows through a P-type ma- the crystal does have heat energy.
terial. Motion of the free holes or electrons
When a P-type material is placed due to energy of this type is at ran-
next to an N-type material, we have dom; in other words there is no net
what is called a junction. The action movement in any one direction.
that occurs at the point of contact Holes move one atom at a time, and
between these two different types of any hole may move from its starting
materials is extremely important. location to any of the surrounding
It is this action that makes the tran- atoms. This means that a hole may
sistor possible. start off in one direction as it moves
In this section of the lesson we from one atom to another, and then
will study how current flows through may move in almost the opposite
N-type and P-type materials. We direction as it moves to still athird
need to understand current flow atom. Similarly, elgctron movement
through both types of germanium or is in a random direction; a given
silicon to be able to understand how electron may move in first one di-
a junction works. In a later section rection and then in another.
we will see how a junction works. When electrons and holes are in
Later, we will see what happens in motion, the different carriers are
a transistor, which has two junc- moving in different directions. Re-
tions. member that when there is a hole in
This section is extremely impor- one atom, and an electron moves
tant, and you should be sure that you from another atom to fill that hole,
understand it completely. Once you a new hole appears in the second
understand this material, it will be atom. In other words, the electron
a simple step to see how transistors has moved from the second atom to
can be used to amplify signals. the first, whereas the hole has moved
in the opposite direction from the
DIFFUSION first atom over to the second atom
that gave up the electron. The re-
As we have mentioned, adding im- sult is that the effective current flow
purities to pure germanium or sili- of any one carrier is cancelled by
con adds free electrons or holes. the movement of the other carrier

14
and the resulting current flow in any holes, they will carry the current.
direction is zero. When the electrons are attracted
This random motion of carriers is by the voltage applied to the positive
called diffusion. It goes on at all terminal, they will move towards the
times in a crystal whether there is positive terminal. When an electron
a voltage applied to the crystal or moves away from the covalent bond
not. Every effort is made in the de- that produced this free electron, it
sign of transistors to keep this dif- will leave behind an atom with aposi-
fusion as low as possible. tive charge, which we call apositive
ion. The electrons moving towards
DRIFT one end of the crystal set up aregion
that has a local negative charge, as
Another type of carrier movement shown in Fig. 10. This negative
in semiconductors is known as charge sets up apotential difference
"drift". This is the type of move- between that part of the crystal and
ment that is obtained when avoltage the positive terminal of the battery.
is applied across the crystal. Since In other words the attraction of the
the manner in which current flows positive battery terminal causes
through N-type and P-type material electrons to bunch up near the end of
is different, let's consider them the crystal connected to the positive
separately. terminal. The electrons are drawn
N-Type Material. from the crystal into the wire con-
In Fig. 10 we have shown an N- necting the crystal to the positive
type crystal with a voltage applied terminal of the battery by this po-
to it. The voltage difference sup- tential difference.
plied by the battery provides aforce Meanwhile, the electrons that have
which makes it easier for the elec- left the atoms at the other end of the
trons to move in one direction than crystal have left behind positive
in the other. In an N-type material, ions. This sets up a region of posi-
the electrons will be attracted by the tive charge around the end of the
positive terminal of the battery. Be- crystal connected to the negative
cause in the N-type material the terminal of the battery so there will
electrons greatly outnumber the be a potential difference between the
negative terminal of the battery and
ELECTRONS POSITIVE this region of positive charge. This
IONS
potential difference will pull elec-
trons from the wire into the crystal.
oca.
4 -1P— These electrons replace the free
o-e electrons that were attracted to the
()Go
positive terminal of the battery.
The number of electrons leaving
N-TYPE MATERIAL the crystal at the end connected to
the positive terminal of the battery
will be exactly equal to the number
of electrons entering the crystal at
-4>

III- the end connected to the negative

Fig. 10. N-type crystal t.ith voltage terminal of the battery. Since the
applied to it. crystal was electrically neutral be-

15
NEGATIVE HOLES
to the positive terminal of the bat-
IONS
tery build up a region of negative
charge at this end of the material.
The extra electrons are drawn from
these ions by the positive terminal
of the battery, and a new hole is
formed. These holes then drift to-
P-TYPE MATERIAL
wards the end of the semiconductor
that is connected to the negative ter-
minal of the battery, and build up a
II positive charge at this end of the
semiconductor. This positive charge
Fig. 11. l'-type crystal with voltage attracts free electrons from the ex-
applied to it. ternal circuit. As a hole is filled
with an electron, it disappears.
fore the battery was connected and Thus in the P-type material, we
the number of electrons in it are have an electron flow in the external
constant, the crystal remains elec- circuit from the negative terminal
trically neutral. of the battery to the semiconductor,
P-Type Material. and from the semiconductor to the
Conduction through P-type mate- positive terminal of the battery.
rial is quite different from conduc- However, in the semiconductor it-
tion through N-type material. In the self, current flow is by means of
P-type semiconductor, nearly all of holes, which drift from the end of
the current is carried by holes. When the semiconductor that is connected
a battery is applied to a P-type to the positive terminal to the end
semiconductor, as shown in Fig. 11, that is connected to the negative
the voltage causes the holes to drift terminal of the battery. Keep this
towards the negative terminal. They point in mind, that even in the P-
are repelled by the positive potential type material where conduction
applied to the one end of the mate- within the material is by holes (which
rial and attracted by the negative are positive carriers) the current
potential applied to the other end. flow in the external circuit is by
When a hole starts moving away means of electrons and is in the
from the end of the material con- conventional direction from the
nected to the positive terminal of negative terminal towards the posi-
the battery, it moves because it is tive terminal of the battery in the
filled by an electron attracted from external circuit.
a nearby germanium atom. There are several important dif-
When the hole in an accepter type ferences between conduction in N-
atom is filled with an electron, the type semiconductors and conduction
atom actually has one electron more in P-type semiconductors. In both
than it needs to neutralize the charge cases electrons flow from the ex-
on the nucleus. Thus, the atom has a ternal circuit into the crystal and
negative charge, or in other words it then out of the crystal into the ex-
becomes a negative ion. Negative ternal circuit. However, in the N-
ions that are formed near the end of type crystals, the excess electron
the semiconductor that is connected produced when a donor atom forms

16
covalent bonds with four germanium an N-type semiconductor, current
atoms is a free electron that can flows through the semiconductor be-
move about in the crystal. However, cause of the movement of the free
in the P-type material, the electrons electrons produced by the donor
are not free, but can move only to atoms that have been added to the
holes. Since a hole can capture an semiconductor material. In the P-
electron from any of its surround- type semiconductor, current flow
ing atoms, it is the hole that is free through the crystal is by means of
to move in any direction. holes which are produced when an
Another important difference be- accepter-type impurity is added to
tween the N-type and the P-type ma- the crystal.
terials is that a free electron moves In both cases current flow in the
approximately twice as fast as a external circuit is from the negative
hole. This affects the conductivity of terminal of the battery to the crystal
the two types of semiconductor ma- and from the crystal to the positive
terial. If we have two crystals, one terminal of the battery. In the N-
an N-type and the other a P-type, type material, electron flow through
if the N-type material has the same the crystal is from the end connected
number of free electrons as the P- to the negative terminal of the bat-
type has holes, the N-type will have tery to the end connected to the posi-
a lower resistance because the free tive terminal of the battery. In the
electrons can move approximately P-type semiconductor, the holes
twice as fast as the holes in the P- flow from the end of the semicon-
type material. ductor connected to the positive ter-
minal of the battery to the end of the
SUMMARY semiconductor connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.
The important thing to remember The speed with which electrons
from this section is that there are move through N-type material is
two types of carrier movement in about twice the speed with which
semiconductors. The first is called holes move through P-type material.
diffusion and is simply a random Thus N-type material has better
movement of the carriers in the conductivity than P-type material,
semiconductor material. The cur- which means that N-type germanium
rent flow produced by one carrier is will have a lower resistance than
cancelled by the movement of the P-type germanium.
other, and the resultant current flow
in any direction is zero. Diffusion SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
is the random motion of electrons or
holes in a doped semiconductor due (t) When an accepter-type im-
to the energy of the material. purity is added to a silicon or
The other type of movement we a germanium crystal, what
discussed is called drift. This type type of carrier is produced in
of conduction is produced when a the crystal?
potential is connected across a (u) What is diffusion?
semiconductor. This potential can (v) What is the name given to the
cause either electrons or holes to movement of carriers in a
move within the semiconductor. In semiconductor material when

17
 a voltage is applied across the through a crystal, will the
material? crystal be charged?
(w) What are the majority car- (z) Is the rate of travel of elec-
riers in an N-type material trons through N-type mate-
and in what direction do they rial the same as the rate of
move when a voltage is ap- travel of holes through P-type
plied across the material? material?
(x) What are the majority car- (aa) If you had two identical pieces
riers in a P-type material and of silicon and one was doped
in what direction do they move so that it was N-type material
through the material when a and the other doped so that it
potential is applied across the was P-type material, which
material? would have the lower resist-
(Y) When current is flowing ance?

Semiconductor Diodes
Just as there are diode tubes, in the diagram we have represented
there are also diode semiconduc- the crystal as a box-like structure
tors. Some diode semiconductors with one half being P-type material
are used as detectors; others are and the other half N-type material
used as rectifiers in power supplies with a junction between the two sec-
to change ac to pulsating de. Diodes tions.
used as detectors are often referred This type of diode is called a
to as signal diodes.Both germanium junction diode. The action that takes
and silicon signal diodes are widely place at the junction of the P-type
used. Diodes used for power recti- crystal and the N-type crystal is
fication are almost exclusively sili- what we will be most concerned with
con diodes. Relatively small silicon now. In order to understand how a
diodes can often handle consider- junction diode works, you must learn
ably more current than a large rec- something about the movement of
tifier tube. electrons and holes near the junc-
A semiconductor diode is made tion. The movement of holes and
by taking a single crystal and adding
LARGE AREA JUNCTION
a donor impurity to one region and CONTACT
an accepter impurity to the other.
This will give us a single crystal LEAD LEAD
with a P section and an N section.
Where the two sections meet, we
have what is called a junction. Con- LARGE AREA
CONTACT
tacts are fastened to the two ends
P-TYPE N-TYPE
of the crystal so that a simple PN CRYSTAL CRYSTAL
junction diode like the one shown in
Fig. 12 is formed. For simplicity Fig. 12. Simple PN juncLion.

18
electrons will form what is called tive charge. When the hole leaves
a depletion layer at the junction. Now the P side of the junction because it
let us see what the depletion layer has been filled by an electron, the
is and how it is formed. atom that gains the extra electron
will have a negative charge.
DEPLETION LATER As a result of this diffusion across
the junction, a region will build up
Remember that in an N-type crys- around the junction called the de-
tal there are free electrons, and in pletion area. On the P side of the
a P-type crystal there are free junction there will be an area where
holes. Also remember that the elec- the holes are missing. On the N side
trons and holes are moving about of the junction there will be an area
the crystal with a random motion, where electrons are missing; thus
called diffusion. In the PN junction we get the name depletion layer.
diode, holes will be moving about The missing holes on the P side
in the P section and electrons in the of the junction will result in anega-
N section. Some of the holes will tive charge on the P side and the
cross over the junction from the P missing electrons on the N side will
section into the N section and be produce a positive charge on the N
filled by a free electron. Similarly, side of the junction. The negative
some of the electrons in the N-type charge on the P side of the junction
material will' diffuse across the will build up until it has sufficient
junction and fill a hole in the P sec-amplitude to prevent any further
tion. electrons from the N side from
When an atom in the N section crossing the junction to the P side.
loses an electron the atom becomes Remember that the negative charge
charged or ionized. It will have a built up on the P side of the junction
positive charge because it will have will repel electrons from the nega-
one less electron than is needed to tive side. Similarly, the positive
completely neutralize the charge on charge built up on the N side of the
the nucleus. Thus electrons diffusing junction will prevent holes from the
across the junction to fill a hole on P side from crossing the junction in-
the P side of the junction will leave to the N-type material. Thus this
behind atoms with apositive charge. area, which is called the depletion
At the same time, when an electron layer because it is short holes on one
fills a hole on the P side, the atom side and electrons on the other side,
will have one more electron than it is also sometimes called the barrier
needs to completely neutralize the layer, because the charges built up
charge on its nucleus, and there- form barriers to prevent any further
fore that atom will have a negative diffusion of holes or electrons
charge. Similarly, holes diffusing across the junction. It is also some-
from the P side of the junction over times called a potential barrier be-
into the N side will leave behind cause a negative potential is built up
atoms with a negative charge. When on the P side of the junction and a
the hole moves over to the N side, positive potential is built up on the
it will mean the atom into which it N side of the junction.
moves will have an electron missing The action taking place at the junc-
and therefore it will assume aposi- tion is quite important and is illus-

19
 P-TYPE
JUNCTION
L TYPE o the N side of the junction prevents
any further movement of holes from
0.0.0* ()POSITIVE IONS
0000. 0
0000 0 0 0.0 • eNEGATIVE IONS the P-type material across the junc-
0000. 0,0'0' • FREE ELECTRONS tion into the N-type material.
0000- 0 0 0.0• o HOLES
The charge on the ions is shown
in Fig. 13B. Notice that on the P
IONIZED DONORS
side of the junction the atoms that
have lost holes by gaining electrons
O o have a negative charge. At the junc-
tion the potential drops to zero and
then reverses on the N side where
IONIZED ACCEPTORS
the ionized atoms have a positive
+ HOLES
charge because they have lost elec-
O O o trons.
In Fig. 13C we see the carrier
charges which are available to neu-
ELECTRONS
tralize the ionized atoms. At some
distance from the junction there are
o holes with a positive charge. How-
ever, as we approach the junction,
the concentration of these holes de-
Fig. 13. (A) locations of ions and car- creases because they are repelled
riers at a PN junction; (B) charges at away from the junction by the posi-
junction due to ionized impurity atoms; tive ions on the N side of the junc-
(C) carrier charges available; (D) re- tion. On the N side of the junction
sultant charges. at some distance from the junction
we have many electrons available,
trated in Fig. 13A. On the P sidé of but as we approach the junction, the
the junction we have shown ionized charge drops to zero because these
atoms that have a negative charge electrons are repelled away from the
because the holes in these atoms junction by the negative ions on the
have been filled by electrons. The P side of the junction.
holes have escaped and travelled or The resultant charges on the crys-
diffused across the junction into the tal are shown in Fig. 13D. As be-
N-type material. On the N side of the fore, the crystal will have atendency
junction we have shown atoms that to remain neutral, or in other words
are ionized and have a positive not to have any charge. Some dis-
charge. These atoms have apositive tance from the junction the atoms
charge because they have lost elec- will have exactly the correct num-
trons. These electrons have diffused ber of holes and electrons so that
across the junction into the P-type the net charge on the atoms is zero.
material. Thus we have a charged As we approach the junction, the
area at the junction. The negative negative ions on the P side will re-
charge on the P side of the junction sult in an area in the crystal that
prevents any further movement of has a negative charge. As we move
electrons from the N-type material closer to the junction, the charge
across the junction into the P-type will drop to zero so that at the junc-
material, and the positive charge on tion itself the net charge on the

20
atoms is zero. Then the charge junction will be attracted by the
builds up in a positive direction on negative ions on the P side of the
the N side of the junction due to the depletion layer at the junction and
ionized atoms that have lost elec- pass across the junction. These
trons. As we move away from the holes will tend to neutralize the ions
junction we again reach a region on the P side of the junction. Simi-
where the atoms have exactly the larly, free electrons produced on
correct number of electrons to neu- the P side of the junction will pass
tralize the charges on the nucleus across the junction, and neutralize
so the net charge in that area will positive ions on the N side of the
be zero. junction. This is an example of in-
So far we have been discussing trinsic conduction, conduction due to
only the action of the majority car- the formation of hole-electron pairs,
riers at the PN junction. However, and as we mentioned, this type of
there is one other important point conduction is undesirable.
we must consider in order to com- Now let us consider what happens
pletely understand what happens at due to the minority carriers cross-
the junction. You will remember ing the junction. Holes crossing the
some time ago that we mentioned junction from the N-type material to
that holes and electrons are in acon- the P-type material tend to neutral-
tinuous state of motion in the crys- ize the positive ions on the P side of
tal due to the energy of the crystal. the junction. Similarly, electrons
For example, even at room tempera- traveling from the P side of the
ture, the crystal contains a certain junction to the N side of the junction
amount of heat energy and this en- tend to neutralize the negative ions
ergy is sufficient to cause motion on the N side of the junction. This
of both electrons and holes. In the flow of minority carriers across the
N-type material an electron will junction weakens the potential bar-
leave an atom creating a hole. This rier in the region around the atoms
hole will be filled by an electron they neutralize. When this happens,
from another atom. Thus we have the majority carriers are able to
the continual formation of hole- cross the junction at the location of
electron pairs. Away from the junc- the neutral atom. This means that
tion, this formation of hole-electron the holes from the P side will cross
pairs does not have any effect on the over to the N side, and electrons
carrier concentration in the crystal. from the N side will cross over to
In other words, the holes will remain the P side.
the majority carriers in the P-type The result is that we have both
region, and the electrons will remain holes and electrons crossing the
the majority carriers in the N-type junction in both directions. The hole
side of the crystal. that crosses from the N side to the
However, as we mentioned pre- P side due to intrinsic conduction
viously, both holes and electrons are permits a hole to cross from the P
involved in conduction at all times. side to the N side by diffusion.Simi-
There are minority carriers in both larly, an electron that crosses the
regions - holes in the N region and junction from the P side to the N
electrons in the P region. The holes side due to intrinsic conduction per-
produced in the N region near the mits another electron to go from the

21
 N side to the P side by diffusion. JUNCTION HOLE MOVEMENT

The result of the holes and electrons

crossing the junction in both direc-
tions is that these movements cancel
each other, and the charge on the
atoms at the junction remains the
P- TYPE N-TYPE
same. This movement of holes and
ELECTRON MOVEMENT
electrons in both directions con-
tributes nothing towards the net

III
charge or current flow through the
junction. However, the flow across
the junction will produce a certain
amount of heating; it will in effect Fig. IL Fomard-biased junction.
use up a percentage of the total ca-
pacity of the junction to pass current junction diode with the polarity such
so that the net result is to reduce that it aids the movement of majority
the amount of useful current the carriers across the junction,we say
diode can pass. that the diode is forward biased. A
BIASED JUNCTIONS forward-biased junction is shown in
Fig. 14. Here the positive terminal
If a battery is connected to the of the battery is connected to the P-
ends of a PN junction diode, the type section and the negative termi-
battery potential will bias the junc- nal of the battery is connected to
tion. If we connect the battery so that the N-type section. Now let us con-
its polarity aids the flow of current sider what happens to the depletion
across the junction, we call it a layer at the junction of the P and N-
"forward-biased junction", whereas type material when the battery volt-
if we connect the battery so that the age is applied.
polarity opposes the flow of current The positive voltage connected to
across the junction, we say that it is the end of the P-type crystal will
a "reverse-biased junction". In both repel holes towards the junction and
cases there will be some current attract electrons from the negative
flow through the junction, but as you ions near it. The combination of
might expect, with forward bias the holes moving towards the junction
current flow will be higher. to neutralize charged negative ions
In order to understand how tran- on the P side of the junction and elec-
sistors work, you must understand trons being taken from the negatively
both conditions of bias. You will charged ionized accepter atoms
study each condition separately,be- tends to neutralize the negative
cause the action that occurs at the charge on the P side of the junction.
junction is quite different in the two On the N side of the crystal, the
cases. In the operation of transis- negative terminal of the battery re-
tors both types of bias are used, pels electrons towards the junction.
and therefore it is important that These electrons tend to neutralize
you understand what happens in each the positive charge on the donor
case. atoms at the N side of the junction.
Forward Bias. At the same time the negative po-
When we connect a battery to a tential at the N side of the crystal

22
attracts holes away from the charged It is important for you to remem-
positive ions on the N side of the ber that in a forward biased junction
junction. Both of these actions tend conduction through the crystal will
to neutralize the positive charge on be by the majority carriers. Any
the donor atoms at the junction. intrinsic conduction across the junc-
The effect of the battery voltage tion will be by minority carriers
is to reduce the potential barrier and this will subtract from the total
at the junction and allow more current flow across the junction.
majority carriers to cross the junc- Increasing the forward bias will in-
tion. This means that we will have crease the current flow across the
more electrons flowing from the N- junction until the point is reached
type material across the junction where all the charges at the junction
to the P-type material and to the are neutralized, at which time the
positive terminal of the battery and potential barrier will disappear, and
more holes traveling from the P- current flow across the junction will
type material across the junction be unhindered by any potential
to the N-type material and towards across the junction.
the end of the crystal connected to Reverse Blas.
the negative terminal of the battery. If we reverse the battery connec-
You know that we already had acer- tions we will have what is known as
tain number of intrinsic minority reverse bias. This condition is
carriers crossing the junction, but shown in Fig. 15.
now the majority carriers outnum- With a reverse bias applied to a
ber them, so there will be a steady junction diode, the negative termi-
current flow from the negative bat- nal of the battery will be connected
tery terminal, through the N-sec- to the P-type section, and will at-
tion, across the junction and through tract holes away from the junction,
the P-section, to the positive bat- and increase the shortage of holes
tery terminal. on the P side of the junction. At the
Placing a forward bias on a junc- same time the positive terminal of
tion diode drives majority carriers the battery is connected to the N-
back into the depletion layer and al- type section of the crystal and this
lows conduction across the junction.
If the battery voltage is increased,
more carriers will arrive at the JUNCTION
junction and the current flow will
increase. Eventually, if we continue
to increase the battery voltage, we
will reach a point where all the
charges at the junction are neutral-
ized. When this happens, the holes
P- TYPE N- TYPE
will fill the P-type region right up
to the junction; electrons will fill
the N-type region up to the junction;
and the only limit to current flow 'II
through the diode will be the resist-
ance of the material on the two sides
of the junction. Fig. 15. Reverse-biased junction.

23
terminal will attract electrons away allow the passage of an equal num-
from the junction and increase the ber of majority carriers in the op-
shortage of electrons on the N side posite direction. This means that the
of the junction. This movement of flow of minority carriers across the
holes and electrons away from the junction is not fully offset by a flow
junction will in effect result in an of majority carriers in the opposite
increased potential barrier at the direction. Therefore, there will be a
junction. The increase in potential small current flow across the junc-
barrier occurs because there will tion due to the minority carriers
be fewer holes on the P side of the crossing the junction. This current
junction to neutralize the negative flow is very small and nearly con-
ions and fewer electrons on the N stant at all normal operating volt-
side to neutralize the positive ions ages in signal diodes and power
formed on this side of the junction. rectifier diodes. However, as you
The increase in potential barrier will see later, there are certain
will help prevent any further cur- types of diodes where this reverse
rent flow across the junction due current can increase quite rapidly
to majority carriers. even at low voltages.
The current flow across the bar- It is important to realize that when
rier, however, is not zero because a reverse bias is applied to a junc-
we will still have minority carriers tion diode, the bias increases the
crossing the junction. Holes forming potential difference across the junc-
in the N side of the depletion layer tion and makes it more difficult for
will be attracted by the negative po- majority carriers to cross the junc-
tential applied to the end of the P- tion. However, some minority car-
type section of the crystal, and elec- riers will still cross the junction
trons breaking loose from their with the result that there will be a
nuclei in the P side of the depletion small current flow across the junc-
layer will be attracted by the posi- tion due to the minority carriers.
tive voltage applied to the end of the
N-type section of the crystal. COMPARISON OF
We had this situation when there JUNCTION DIODES
was no bias applied to the junction. AND VACUUM TUBES
Holes from the N side would cross
over to the P section, and electrons Although the operation of junction
from the P side would cross over diodes designed for use as recti-
to the N section. However, when fiers is quite different from the op-
there was no bias applied to the eration of vacuum tubes, they can
crystal, these minority carriers perform identical tasks and there-
would neutralize ions near the junc- fore some comparison of the most
tion and allow the majority carriers important characteristics of both is
to cross the junction. However, since in order.
the minority carriers are now at- When there is no voltage applied
tracted away from the junction by the to a junction diode, the net current
potential applied to the crystal, all flow across the junction is zero. On
of the minority carriers do not re- the other hand, in a vacuum tube,
main near the junction to neutralize even though there may be no voltage
charged atoms so they no longer applied to the plate of the tube, some

24
of the electrons will leave the cath- ZENER DIODES
ode with sufficient velocity to travel
across the space between the cath- In junction diodes designed for use
ode and the plate and strike the plate. as rectifiers we must be careful not
This will result in a small current to exceed the rated reverse voltage
flow from the cathode to the plate of the diode. In other words, if we
of the tube even though there may place too high a reverse bias across
be no voltage applied to the plate of the junction, the junction will break
the tube. down, a very high current will flow
We can consider applying a posi- across the jtmction for ashort while,
tive voltage to the plate of avacuum and the diode will be destroyed. How-
tube and a negative voltage to the ever, in some diodes we make use
cathode as being similar to placing of this reverse current due to mi-
a forward bias on a junction diode. nority carriers. In diodes of this
Under both circumstances there will type both the P section and the N
be a current flow through the diode. section are doped quite heavily. The
In this respect the two are similar. junction between the P section and
When the voltages applied to the the N section is considerably larger
diode vacuum tube are reversed so than the junction of the rectifier-type
that there is a negative voltage ap- diode, so that when the diode begins
plied to the plate and apositive volt- to pass current in the reverse di-
age to the cathode, there will be no rection, it can pass it over a larger
current flow at all through the tube. area and thus avoid destroying the
The negative potential on the plate diode. This type of diode is used as
of the tube will repel electrons from a voltage reference and is referred
the plate. This reverse voltage situ- to as a voltage-reference diode or a
ation is similar to a reverse bias Zener diode.
across a junction diode. However, In the Zener diode, the current
when we place areverse bias across remains small with low reverse
a junction diode, there will be some voltages. At acertain voltage, called
current flow across the junction due the breakdown voltage, the current
to the conduction by minority car- will increase rapidly with any fur-
riers. As long as the breakdown ther increase in voltage.
voltage of the junction diode is not The breakdown voltage can be
exceeded, this current will be very varied by varying the diode mate-
small and almost constant. Ina good rial and construction. Zener diodes
diode, it is so small it can be can be made with a breakdown volt-
ignored. age as low as 1 volt, up to break-
We can summarize the charac- down voltages of several hundred
teristics of diode vacuum tubes and volts. The current that can pass
junction diodes as follows: with for- through any Zener diode before the
ward bias both the tube and junction diode will be damaged will depend
diodes will conduct. With reverse upon the junction area and the meth-
bias, the tube will not pass current; ods used to keep the diode cool.
the junction diode will pass a small In a circuit where a Zener diode
current. With no bias, the tube will is used, it will be used as a voltage
pass a small current; the junction reference or a voltage regulator. As
diode will not. the reverse voltage across the diode

25
 sistor or another part with the volt-
+
We--• • age across the Zener diode.

UNREGULATED REGULATED
INPUT OUTPUT TUNNEL DIODES

- • A tunnel diode is a highly doped

- junction diode made either of ger-
manium or gallium arsenite. Both
the N region and the P region of the
Fig. 16. Circuit using Zener diode as diode are very highly doped. As a
a voltage regulator. result of the high doping, the de-
pletion region around the junction
increases, a very small reverse is extremely narrow. Because of the
current will flow, and the value of narrow depletion region, holes and
this current will remain essentially electrons can cross the junction by
constant until the breakdown voltage more or less tunneling from one
is reached. At that voltage, any fur- atom to another. The exact action
ther increase in voltage will result of the charges crossing the junction
in a large increase in current across is somewhat difficult to visualize,
the junction. This large increase in but the characteristics of the tunnel
current tends to produce a voltage diode are comparatively simple.
drop in other components in the cir- With a reverse bias across the junc-
cuit so that the voltage across the tion, current across the junction in-
diode will remain essentially con- creases quite rapidly. If the reverse
stant. Thus a Zener diode can be bias is dropped to zero the current
used as a voltage regulator in acir- will drop back to zero. If the for-
cuit such as shown in Fig. 16. If ward bias, starting at zero and
the input voltage tends to rise, the gradually increasing, is placed
current through the diode will in- across the junction, current flow
crease. This increase in current across the junction will increase at
will increase the voltage drop across essentially the same rate as it in-
the resistor so that the output volt- creased with a negative bias. The
age will remain essentially constant. current across the junction will in-
The fact that with even a very small crease quite rapidly as the forward
increase in voltage the current bias is increased until arather sharp
through the diode will increase sub- peak is reached. If the forward bias
stantially means that the voltage is increased beyond this point, then
across the diode will remain almost the current begins to decrease.
constant. As the forward bias is increased
In some other applications the still further, the current across the
diode may be used as a reference junction decreases, forming acurve
voltage. This simply means that a such as shown in Fig. 17. This
Zener diode with a given breakdown decreasing current, with increasing
voltage is used in a circuit like voltage, results in a negative
Fig. 16. The voltage applied to the resistance characteristic. It might
diode will remain essentially con- be difficult to visualize what a
stant. In some circuits, we may negative resistance is, but you will
compare the voltage across a re- remember from Ohm's Law that re-

26
 of time until they are used; there-
CURRENT
fore you should at least have some
basic knowledge of what the tunnel
diode is.

P-I-N DIODES
The p-i-n diode, which is an ab-
VOLTAGE
breviation for pos itive- intrins ic-
negative, is a new diode which is
used in a somewhat different man-
ner from the diodes you have studied
previously. Rather than being used
as a detector or rectifier,this diode
Fig. 17. Voltage-current relation in a is used primarily as a variable re-
tunnel diode. sistor. It is a special type of diode,
and its resistance can be controlled
sistance is equal to voltage divided by applying a de bias to it. With a
by current. In a circuit where we reverse bias across the diode, it
have resistance, if the resistance is has a very high resistance. With no
constant and the voltage increases, bias, its resistance drops to about
then the current must increase; and 7000 ohms, and with forward bias
similarly if the voltage decreases, it drops to a comparatively low
the current must decrease. Here in value.
the tunnel diode we have a region The diode is particularly useful
where the opposite happens. If the in circuits where the strength of a
voltage increases, the current de- signal must be controlled. Its first
creases and if the voltage decreases, commercial use has been in fm
the current increases. Thus we have equipment and it is used in order to
something in the circuit that is giving prevent extremely strong fm signals
us the opposite effect of resistance; from causing overloading in the fm
we call this negative resistance. You receiver. A de bias is applied to the
will remember that resistance in a diode and the amplitude of the bias
circuit introduces losses. It is the depends upon the strength of the sig-
resistance in a resonant circuit that nal. When a very strong signal is
prevents a resonant circuit from applied, the reverse bias applied to
continuing to oscillate once it has the diode increases so that the re-
been excited into oscillation. How- sistance of the diode increases. This
ever, if we can put something with reduces the strength of the signal
negative resistance in the circuit, fed to the mixer and i -f stages in the
for example a tunnel diode, since it receiver and thus prevents over-
has the opposite effect of resistance, loading, particularly in the last
then the circuit should continue to stage of the receiver.
oscillate. Tunnel diodes can be used At this time p-i-n diodes are not
for this purpose. widely used in commercial applica-
At the present time, tunnel diodes tions, but you should be aware of
have not appeared in the commer- how the diode is used, because it is
cial entertainment-type equipment. quite likely that it will be widely
However, it is probably just amatter used in the future.

27
 POINT-CONTACT DIODE CATSWHISKER

Another semiconductor diode is SMALL P REGION

the diode detector used in many TV
receivers. This detector is a point-
contact diode. A cut-away view of a
point-contact diode is shown in Fig.
18 along with the schematic symbol. N-TYPE MATERIAL
The point-contact diode is made
of a small piece of either N-type or
P-type germanium or silicon. N-
type germanium or silicon is used
more often than P-type. In manu-
facturing a diode of N-type material,
a large contact is fastened to one
side of the crystal. A thin wire,
called a catswhisker, is attached to
Fig. 19. Sketch of a point-contact
the other side of the crystal. When
diode showing where the l'-type ger-
the catswhiskèr is attached to the manium is formed around the cats-
N-type crystal, a small region of whisker.
P-type material is formed around
the contact as shown in Fig. 19. that of a junction diode. With re-
Thus we have a PN junction that verse bias the current flow through
performs in much the same way as a point-contact diode is not as in-
the junctions we have already dis- dependent of the voltage applied to
cussed. the crystal as it was in the junction
The characteristics of the point- diode. In spite of these disadvan-
contact diode under forward and re- tages, the point-contact diode makes
verse bias are somewhat different a better detector than the junction
from those of the junction diode. diode, particularly at high frequen-
With forward bias the resistance of cies because the point-contact diode
the diode is somewhat higher than has a lower capacity than the junc-
tion diode.
LEAD

SUMMARY

Again this is a very important

• PLASTIC CASE
section, so you should review it be-
CATSWHISKER fore going on to the next section.
GERMANIUM PELLET
Make sure you understand what the
depletion layer is and why it is
formed. Also be sure you under-
stand the movement of holes and

o ++0
electrons across a PN junction
when no voltage is applied to the
junction.
Fig. 18. (A) cut-away vie%% of crystal Current flow across the junction
rectifier. (B) schematic symbol of it. with both forward and reverse bias

28
 is important. With forward bias cur- the junction is forward biased?
rent flow across the junction is by (ah) What do we mean when we say
majority carrier, and with reverse a junction is reverse biased?
bias it is by minority carrier. (ai) What is the difference between
vacuum-tube diodes and semi-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
conductor diodes insofar as
(ab) What are the two principal current flow through the diode
uses of semiconductor diodes ? is concerned when no voltage
(ac) What is the depletion layer? is applied?
(ad) What do we mean by the po- (aj) What is the difference between
tential barrier? current flow in asemiconduc-
(ae) Does the crystal develop an tor diode and a vacuum tube
overall charge as a result of under reverse voltage condi-
diffusion across the junction? tions?
(af) Do the minority carriers (ak) What is a Zener diode, and
crossing the junction have any what is it used for?
adverse effect on the diode? (al) What is a tunnel diode?
(ag) What do we mean when we say (am) What is a p-i-n diode?

29

ir
 Semiconductor Triodes

Even though a junction diode will conductor crystals with three dif-
pass current in both directions, it ferent regions. The center region
passes current in one direction is made up of one type of germanium
much better than it does in the other, or silicon, and the two end regions
and therefore it can be used as a are made up of the other type of
detector. The tunnel diode can be germanium or silicon. In other
used as an oscillator, and in some words, in one type of junction tran-
special circuits as an amplifier; sistor the center has had accepter-
however, its usefulness in these ap- type region impurities added and the
plications is limited. In mosteases, two end regions have had donor-
the semiconductor diode is like the type impurities added. In the other
vacuum-tube diode; it is more or type of junction transistor, the
less useless insofar as amplifying center region has had donor-type
a signal is concerned. In order to of impurities added and the two end
amplify a signal, a three element regions have had accepter-type im-
semiconductor is needed. Three ele- purities added.
ment semiconductors that are capa- The center region of the transis-
ble of amplification are called tran- tor is called the base. This is usu-
sistors. ally acomparatively thin region. One
There are a number of different of the end sections is called the
types of transistors in use today. emitter and the other end section is
The characteristics of the different called the collector.
types vary appreciably, but if you If the center section of the crystal
understand the operation of one type, has been treated with donor-type
you can understand how the others impurities, then the center section
work without too much difficulty. We becomes N-type germanium in the
started our explanation of. semi- case of a germanium transistor or
conductor devices with a junction N-type silicon in the case of the
diode, so we will start our study of silicon transistor. In this case, the
triode semiconductors with a study two end sections will be treated with
of the junction transistor. You'll accepter-type impurities and they
find that most of the transistors you will both become P-type germanium
will study operate in amanner simi- or P-type silicon. We call this type
lar to the basic junction transistor. of transistor a PNP transistor. We
The most notable exception to this can have both germanium PNP and
is the field-effect transistor which silicon PNP transistors. An example
you will study later in this lesson. of this type of junction transistor is
shown in Fig. 20A along with the
JUNCTION TRANSISTORS schematic symbol used to identify
It.
Both germanium and silicon are The other type of junction tran-
used in the manufacture of junction sistor is an NPN type. This type of
transistors. A triode-junction tran- transistor is produced by treating
sistor is made up of single semi- the center section with an accepter-

30
 EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
P- TYPE N- TYPE P- TYPE N- P-TYPE N- TYPE

EMITTER COLLECTOR

o o
BASE

Fig. 20. (A) shows a l'NP junction transistor and its schematic symbol. (B)
shows an Nrsi junction transistor and its schematic symbol.

type impurity to produce P-type ger- junction transistor might be called

manium or silicon, and the two end a grown junction, a fused junction,
sections with a donor-type of im- an alloy junction or a diffused junc-
purity to produce N-type germanium tion. All these names simply de-
or silicon. This is the type of junc- scribe the manufacturing process
tion transistor shown in Fig. 20B used to make the transistor. They
along with the schematic symbol for are all junction transistors and all
it. As in the case of the PNP tran- operate on the same basic principle.
sistor, we can have either an NPN This does not mean to imply that
germanium transistor or an NPN the characteristics of all junction
silicon transistor. transistors are the same; they are
Notice that the schematic symbols not. There are wide differences in
for the PNP transistor and the NPN characteristics just as there are in
transistor are different. In the PNP various triode vacuum tubes.
transistor the arrow used to repre- To understand how junction tran-
sent the emitter points down toward sistors work, you must understand
the base, whereas in the NPN tran- junction diodes. Because it is so
sistor the arrow on the emitter important that you understand the
points up away from the base. Thus formation of the depletion layers at
on a schematic diagram of a piece the junctions we will review the ex-
of equipment using junction transis- planation of what happens at the junc-
tors, you can tell from the direction tions in explaining the junction tran-
in which the arrow is pointing sistors. The big difference between
whether the transistor is a PNP or the junction transistor and the junc-
an NPN transistor. tion diode is that in the transistor
There are several different ways there are two junctions close to-
of manufacturing junction transis- gether in the same crystal. One of
tors, and often you hear these tran- these junctions is biased in the for-
sistors referred to by the manufac- ward direction and the other in the
turing method used. For example a reverse direction and the presence

31
of one junction affects the operation gion. The minority carriers formed
of the other. in each section can cross over the
junction. For example, the electrons
PNP TRANSISTORS released in both the emitter and the
collector regions will cross the
In transistor operation, the emit- junctions into the base. These elec-
ter-base junction is always biased trons will neutralize a few ions in
in the forward direction and the col- the base region. When these ions are
lector-base junction is biased in the neutralized they will allow majority
reverse direction. Each of the two carriers from the emitter and col-
junctions by itself behaves just like lector to cross the junctions. In
the PN junction already described. other words, there will be holes
Let us consider what happens in from the emitter and holes from the
the PNP transistor before any volt- collector crossing the junctions into
ages are applied to the transistor. the base. Similarly, holes,which are
At the junctions, holes from the the minority carriers in the base re-
P-type emitter section and the P- gion (and are formed in the depletion
type collector diffuse across the layer) will cross the junctions into
junctions into the base. At the same the emitter and collector. When
time, electrons from the base dif- these holes cross the junctions they
fuse across the junctions into both will neutralize some of the nega-
the emitter and the collector. The EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR 0
holes diffusing into the base place P-TYPE N-TYPE P-TYPE

a positive charge on the atoms near IS

o
the junctions. Similarly the elec-
trons diffusing from the base into F-
NEGATIVE IONS \
NEC TIVE IONS
the emitter on one side of the base POSITIVE IONS

and the collector on the other side EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

P- TYPE N-TYPE P-TYPE
of the base place a negative charge 1140.
LE CURRENT
on the atoms on the emitter and
....!
collector sides of the junctions. ELECTRON CURRENT
These charged atoms, which are CURRENT

called ions, will repel electrons and CURRENTS

holes from the region of the junc-

tions. The positively charged ions in
the base will repel holes in the P
e
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
P- TYPE N-TYPE P- TYPE
sections away from the junctions.
Similarly, the negatively charged
ions in the emitter and collector
will repel electrons away from the
REVERSE CURRENT
junctions in the base. Thus we have DUE TO MINORITY
Ec
CARRIERS
two depletion layers formed, one at
the emitter-base junction and the CURRENT

other at the base-collector junction.

You will remember that when we Fig. 21. (A) the formation of ions at
discussed the junction diode, we the junctions of a PNP transistor. (B)
mentioned that hole-electron pairs the current flow in the emitter-base
will be formed in the depletion re- circuit and (C) in the collector-base.

32
tively charged ions in the emitter away from the depletion area and
or collector region and allow some pushing electrons into the depletion
electrons to flow from the base into area tends to neutralize the charge
either the emitter or the collector. on the base side of the junction.
Thus, because of the intrinsic con- The net effect of biasing in a for-
duction due to hole-electron pairs ward direction is to neutralize the
being formed in the depletion region charges on each side of the junction
there will be some flow of carriers and allow current to flow across the
across the junction. However, the junction. Current flow is by majority
flow of majority carriers across carriers: electrons from the N-type
the junction will be exactly equal to base region and holes from the P-
the flow of minority carriers across type emitter region.
the junction so that the net current Thus in the emitter-base circuit
flow across each junction will be we have electrons flowing from the
zero. negative terminal of the battery to
The potential barriers formed at the base, through the base, across
the junction regions are shown in the junction, and through the emitter
Fig. 21A. Notice that the charges to the positive terminal of the bat-
formed at the junction are similar tery. At the same time we have holes
to those formed at a junction diode; being produced because electrons
we simply have two junctions to con- are being pulled out of the P-type
sider in a transistor. emitter by the positive potential ap-
Now when we place aforward bias plied to it. The holes will move
between the emitter and the base we through the emitter, across the junc-
have an arrangement like that shown tion into the base and to the point
In Fig. 21B. Here the positive volt- where the base is connected to the
age applied to the end of the P-type negative terminal of the battery. At
emitter repels holes towards the this point they will pick up electrons
junction. These holes tend to neu- and disappear.
tralize the negative charge on the Not all the electrons going from
ions on the emitter side of the junc- the base to the emitter will reach
tion. The holes are formed at the end the positive terminal of the battery.
of the P-type section by electrons Some of these electrons will recom-
being taken out of this section by the bine with holes in the emitter. Simi-
positive potential applied to it. At larly, some of the holes traveling
the same time the positive potential from the emitter into the base will
applied to the emitter attracts the pick up an electron in the base. This
electrons that have given the ions current flow across the junction is
on the P side of the junction their called a recombination current, and
negative charge. This also weakens the transistor is designed to keep
the negative charge on the emitter this current as low as possible. In
side of the junction. other words we want the holes and
At the base, which is connected to electrons crossing the junction to
the negative side of the battery, the reach the terminals connected to the
holes will be attracted toward the battery.
negative terminal of the battery, and Now let us consider the other junc-
electrons will be pushed towards the tion, the base-collector junction.
depletion layer. The pulling of holes This junction is reverse biased as

33
shown in Fig. 21C. Here again we bias applied between the base and
have a depletion layer at the junc- the collector. Now let us see how the
tion. Also we have minority carriers two junctions affect each other.
being formed in the depletion layer. A transistor with both biased junc-
However, holes that are formed in tions is shown in Fig. 22. Here we
the base will cross the junction and have a number of different currents
then instead of neutralizing a nega- flowing. In the emitter-base circuit
tively charged atom near the junc- we have current flowing due to the
tion in the collector, these holes forward bias applied between these
will be attracted by the negative po- two. Electrons will flow from the
tential applied to the collector. Simi- negative terminal of the battery into
larly, electrons formed in the de- the base, across the junction, and
pletion layer of the P-type collector through the emitter to the positive
will cross the junction and be at- terminal of the battery. We will also
tracted by the positive potential ap- have some holes formed in the P-
plied to the base. Thus we have a type emitter section due to electrons
current flow due to the minority being pulled out of this section by the
carriers. Electrons in the depletion positive terminal of the battery.
layer of the collector section will Some of these holes will cross the
cross the junction and flow through junction into the N-type base where
the base to the positive terminal of they will pick up an electron and
the battery. Meanwhile electrons disappear. This current is called
from the negative terminal of the the recombination current.
battery will fill holes that are moving Many of these holes will cross
from the base, across the junction, the base and flow through the col-
and through the collector to the nega- lector, because the negative termi-
tive terminal. nal of the battery connected between
Thus you can see that while we the base and collector will attract
have a current by majority carriers them. This movement of holes ac-
due to the forward bias applied be- counts for most of the current flow
tween the emitter and the base, we in the emitter and collector cir-
also have a small current flowing cuits. Remember that holes are
through the base-collector circuit by being continually formed in the P-
minority carriers due to the reverse type emitter because electrons are

USEFUL MOLE
CURRENT Ice
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
P-TYPE N-TYPE P-TYPE

-•• 1.•• • .,1• 0

4'ELECTRON CURRENT RECOMBINATION

CURRENT
Ec E
SW + —

t
c.I cb+I ce
lc Ice'Icb

Fig. 22. Current flow and carrier movement in a EP junction transistor.

34
 EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
being pulled out of the emitter by the N- TYPE P-TYPE N-TYPE

positive potential applied to it. These

holes will continually 'move through
the emitter, and into the base. Here 1/#0
POSITIVE IONS POSITIVE IONS
some of them will combine with elec-
NEGATIVE IONS
trons and disappear, but the ma-
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
jority of them will flow through the N-TYPE P-TYPE N-TYPE
collector to the negative terminal I ._ ...E
MS TL
10
..11_.

CURRENT •-••
of the collector where they will be .-..
••— • •
filled by electrons and disappear. HOLE CURRENT

Another current that will flow is E.

RECOMBINATION
CURRENT
reverse current 'co that flows in the 4
.

base-collector circuit. This is due

to the formation of minority car- EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

o
N-TYPE P-TYPE N-TYPE
riers in the depletion layer.
Thus we have four currents flow-
ing in the PNP junction transistor. Icb

The largest of these currents is due

to the movement of holes from the
MOVEMENT OF
MINORITY CARRIERS
Ec 1
emitter through the base into the 1. 11 1
1->

collector to the negative terminal of

the battery connected to the collec- Fig. 23. (A) the formation of ions at
tor. We have in addition to this cur- the junctions of an NPN transistor.
rent three small currents flowing. (B) the current flom, in the emitter-
We have the current due to the elec- base circuit and (C) in the collector-
tron movement from the negative base circuit.
terminal of the emitter-base battery
into the base, across the junction can start our study of this type of
and through the emitter to the posi- transistor by considering what hap-
tive terminal of this battery. We pens at the junctions, remembering
have the recombination current due that the action at the junction is
to holes combining with electrons similar to the action we studied at
in the base, and we have the reverse the simple PN diode junction.
current due to hole-electron pairs Let us first consider the action of
being formed in the depletion layer the holes and electrons before any
of the base-collector junction. The voltages are applied to the transis-
directions of the different move- tor. The charges that will be built
ments of holes and electrons are up are shown in Fig. 23A. Remem-
marked in Fig. 22. ber that holes from the base will
diffuse across both junctions into
NPN TRANSISTORS the emitter and the collector. Simi-
larly electrons from the emitter and
Although the operation of the NPN electrons from the collector will
transistor is somewhat different diffuse across the junctions into the
from that of the PNP type, if you base. The holes and electrons dif-
understand how the PNP transistor fusing across the junctions will
works, you should have no difficulty charge atoms near the junction.
understanding the NPN. Again, we Holes crossing the junctions into the

35
emitter and the collector will ionize two actions tend to neutralize the
the atoms on the emitter and collec- charge on the base side of the junc-
tor sides of the junctions so that tion.
they will have positive charges. Once the potential barrier at the
Similarly, electrons diffusing a- junction is weakened, electrons can
cross the junctions into the base will flow from the negative side of the
ionize atoms in the base near the battery into the emitter, through the
junctions so that they will have nega- emitter, and across the junction into
tive charges. Thus we will have po- the base and from the base to the
tential barriers at the junctions. positive side of the battery. At the
This is the same kind of potential same time the positive terminal of
barrier that we found existed across the battery can extract electrons
the PN junction in a diode. from the base, forming holes. Holes
The positively charged ions on the are then repelled toward the junc-
emitter and collector sides of the tion, across the junction, and through
junctions will force holes in the base the emitter toward the end of the
away from the junction. Similarly emitter that is connected to the nega-
the negatively charged atoms on the tive terminal of the battery. Here
base side of the junctions will force the holes will pick up electrons and
electrons in the emitter and collec- disappear. Thus we have a current
tor away from the junction so that flow through the emitter-base cir-
at the junctions we have a depletion cuit as shown in Fig. 23B.
layer. Now let us consider what happens
Now let us consider what happens when we apply a reverse bias be-
when we apply a forward bias be- tween the base and the collector.
tween the emitter and the base by Here the negative potential applied
connecting a battery between the two to the base will pull holes away from
as shown in Fig. 23B. Notice that the the junction, and the positive po-
negative terminal of the battery is tential applied to the collector will
connected to the end of the emitter, pull electrons away from the junc-
and the positive terminal is con- tion. Thus the negative charge on
nected to the base. the base side of the junction will be
Now, several things happen. The increased, and the positive charge
negative potential applied to the on the collector side of the junction
emitter will force electrons toward will be increased so that the potential
the junction. At the same time the barrier at the junction will be in-
negative potential will attract holes creased. This will prevent any cur-
away from the junction. Both of these rent flow through the base-collector
actions tend to neutralize the posi- circuit due to the majority carriers.
tively charged ions on the emitter At the same time electrons ,which
side of the junction. At the same are minority carriers, will break
time the positive terminal of the loose from their nuclei in the deple-
battery that is connected to the base tion layer on the base side of the
will attract electrons away from the junction and will be attracted by the
negatively charged atoms on the base positive potential applied to the col-
side of the junction. In addition, the lector. They will cross the junc-
positive potential will repel holes tion and flow through the collector
towards the junction so that these to the terminal connected to the pos 1-

36
tive side of the battery, as shown in the base across the base-collector
Fig. 23C. At the same time holes junction and through the N-type col-
formed on the collector side of the lector to the positive terminal of the
junction in the layer will be attracted battery in the base-collector circuit.
by the negative terminal of the bat- At the same time the positive ter-
tery, and hence will cross the junc- minal of the battery in the emitter-
tion and flow over into the base and base circuit is connected to the base,
toward the negative terminal of the and this potential will pull electrons
battery. Here they will pick up an out of the P-type base, producing
electron and disappear. holes. These holes will then cross
Thus we will have a current flow the junction into the emitter, and they
in the base-collector circuit due to will be attracted by the negative po-
the minority carriers. This is the tential applied to the emitter and
same situation that we had in the hence will flow through it to the end
reverse biased base-collector cir- connected to the negative terminal
cuit of the PNP transistor. of the battery. Here they will pick up
Now let us see what happens when an electron and disappear.
bias voltages are applied across both At the same time, in the base-
junctions of the complete NPN junc- collector circuit we will have a re-
tion transistor as shown in Fig. 24. verse current flowing due to the
Considering first the emitter-base minority carriers. Holes appearing
circuit, we have electrons flowing in the collector side of the depletion
from the negative terminal of the layer will cross the junction into the
battery to the N-type emitter. Here base and flow to the base terminal
the electrons flow through the emit- connected to the negative terminal
ter, across the junction, and into the of the battery, biasing the base-col-
base. Some of these electrons reach- lector junction. Here each hole will
ing the base will recombine with pick up an electron and disappear.
holes in the base. This is called the Electrons in the depletion layer on
recombination current. However, the base side of the junction will be
the majority of the electrons reach- attracted by the positive potential
ing the base will be attracted by the applied to the end of the collector.
positive potential applied to the col- Hence they will cross the junction
lector and hence will flow through and flow toward the positive end of

USEFUL ELECTRON
CURRENT

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

N- TYPE P- TYPE N- TYPE

It' !eV' Ice `Icleice

Fig. 2t. Current Hot% and varrier movement in an l'N junution transistor.

37
the collector and from there to the tive terminal to the emitter and the
positive terminal of the battery con- negative terminal to the base. With
nected between the base and the col- the NPN transistor ,the negative ter-
lector. minal of the battery is connected to
Of these different currents flow- the emitter and the positive terminal
ing, the important and useful cur- to the base. However, both are for-
rent flow is the flow of electrons ward biased because in each case the
from the emitter through the base positive terminal of the battery is
to the collector. Since this is the connected to the P-type germanium
useful current, we are interested and the negative terminal to the N-
in making this as large as possible type germanium.
in comparison to the other currents The base-collector junction of
flowing across the emitter-base both transistors is reverse biased.
junction. Thus, the recombination In the PNP transistor, the positive
current, which is due to electrons terminal of this battery is connected
from the emitter crossing into the to the base and the negative termi-
base and recombining with the holes, nal to the collector; whereas in the
serves no useful purpose and should NPN transistor, the negative termi-
be kept as low as possible. This is nal is connected to the base, and the
accomplished by adding more donor positive terminal to the collector.
atoms to the emitter than accepter Again, however, in both cases the
atoms to the base. Thus there will positive terminal is connected to
be many more free electrons in the the N-type germanium and the nega-
emitter than there will be holes in tive terminal to the P-type ger-
the base and the recombination cur- manium.
rent will be kept quite small. Also notice that in the PNP tran-
Also, since there are a limited sistor the useful current flow is by
number of holes in the base com- means of holes, whereas in the NPN
pared to the number of electrons in transistor the useful current flow is
the emitter, the number of holes by means of electrons.
crossing from the base to the emit-
ter is also kept low in comparison SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
to the number of electrons crossing (an) What is the base region of a
from the emitter into the base. In a transistor?
good transistor, over 95% of the (ao) What two materials are widely
electrons that cross the emitter- used in the manufacture of
base junction flow to the collector. transistors ?
Notice the differences and the (ap) What two types of junction
similarities between the PNP and transistors are widely used?
the NPN transistors. In both cases (aq) What type of bias is used a-
the emitter-base junction is forward cross the emitter-base junc-
biased and the base-collector junc- tion in a transistor?
tion is reverse biased. However,the (ar) What type of bias is used a-
battery connections must be re- cross the base-collector junc-
versed to provide the biases. In other tion of a transistor?
words, with the PNP transistor the (as) Is the base region of a tran-
battery used to bias the emitter-base sistor usually a thick region
junction is connected with the posi- or is it thin?

38
 (at) Draw a diagram of a PNP transistor and show how the
transistor and show how the batteries are connected to
batteries are connected to provide the correct bias a-
place the correct bias across cross both junctions.
the two junctions. (ay) What are the useful current
(au) Draw a diagram of an NPN carriers in a PNP transistor?

Semiconductor Types
There are two basic types of tran- sistor is usually located midway
sistors that you will run into con- between the two ends. Suitable con-
tinuously. You are already familiar tacts are then welded to the emitter,
with these two types; they are the base and collector regions.
NPN transistor and the PNP tran- Of course, the actual bar of semi-
sistor. However, these transistors conductor material used is quite
are made in a number of different small. The emitter and the collector
ways and the manufacturing pro- are considerably larger than the
cesses result in transistors with dif- base; the base is kept as thin as
ferent characteristics. In this sec- possible and may have a thickness
tion we are going to briefly discuss of less than .001".
some of the important types and
characteristics. We don't expect you
to remember all these details; the
important thing for you to remember
is that they are basically either NPN
or PNP transistors and operate in
the same way as those we have dis-
cussed previously.
Also in this section of the lesson l'ig. 25. .% gro%% n-j any t
ion transistor.
we'll discuss two other important
semiconductor devices, the field- As mentioned the early germanium
effect and unijunction transistors. transistors were of the grown-junc-
tion type. The disadvantage of this
CROWN-JUNCTION type of transistor is that it is not
TRANSISTORS particularly suitable for operations
The first commercially available at high frequencies. In addition, it is
junction transistors were of the quite temperature sensitive and can
grown-junction type. This type of become quite unstable at higher tem-
transistor is made from arectangu- peratures.
lar bar cut from agermanium crys-
ALLOY-JUNCTION
tal that has been grown. Suitable im- TRANSISTORS
purities are added so that NPN re-
gions such as those shown in Fig. The alloy-junction transistor is
25 are formed. The base of the tran- made from a rectangular piece of

39
 frequency. In addition, they have a
higher current gain, and the current
gain remains stable as the tempera-

O
ture increases.
Surface-Barrier Transistor.
The surface-barrier transistor is
similar to the alloy-type transistor
except that depressions are etched
into the N-type wafer. This permits
smaller emitter and collector con-
tacts and results in lower capacities
between sections of the transistor
which in turn results in better high-
Fig. 26. ‘n allo>-junction transistor. frequency performance.
In Fig. 27 we have shown asimpli-
semiconductor material to which fied sketch of a surface-barrier
suitable donor materials have been transistor. The sketch in Fig. 27B
added. This results in an N-type shows the carrier movement from
piece of germanium or silicon. Small the emitter across the base to the
dots of indium are fused into the collector. Notice that in the sketch
opposite sides of the wafer as shown the emitter is shown smaller than
in Fig. 26. The result is that P-type the collector, we have shown it this
semiconductor material will be for- way because this is the way the
med with the dots fused into the wafer semiconductor is actually manufac-
so that we will have a PNP transis- tured.
tor. Various manufacturing techniques
An NPN-type alloy-junction tran- are used in the manufacture of the
sistor may be made by fusing alead surface-barrier transistor. Both
antimony alloy into each of the two silicon and germanium types are
opposite sides of a P-type semi- made. In the manufacturing process
conductor wafer. In this type of different materials are evaporated
transistor it is possible to get a or plated on to the etched depres-
more uniform penetration of the sions depending on the type of tran-
lead antimony alloy into the semi-
conductor material, and this in turn
leads to better junction spacing. This
will cut down on the width of the
space between the emitter and col-
lector and give improved high-fre-
quency performance. In addition,
since the mobility of the electrons
is more than twice that of holes, the
NPN transistor will be better at high
frequencies. o
The general advantage of the
alloy-type junction over the grown- Fig. 27. Sketch of a surface barrier tran-
type junction transistors is that they sistor is shown at A. Hole movement
are usable at a somewhat higher across the base is shown at B.

40
sistor being manufactured. How- non-uniform base region. If the
ever, regardless of the manufac- emitter and collector junctions are
turing technique used, which is of made by the alloy technique, but the
no interest to the technician, the base region is made by the diffusion
surface-barrier transistors all have technique and the impurities in the
the characteristic of giving good base region varied, we have what is
performance at high frequencies. known as a drift transistor. In a
typical PNP-drift transistor, ac-
DIFFUSION TRANSISTORS cepter impurities are added in the
emitter and collector region. These
To understand diffusion you have impurities are controlled so that
to understand a little about the their concentration is uniform
molecular structure of materials. throughout the emitter and collector
If you look at the wall of a glass region. At the same time donor im-
jar, to the eye it appears solid with purities are added to the base region.
no space between the various mole- Their concentration is controlled so
cules making up the jar. However, that it is highest in the region of the
if you were to fill the jar with hydro- emitter-base junction and then drops
gen and store it for any length of off quickly and finally reaches acon-
time, you would find that in a short stant value which it maintains over
while, the jar was no longer filled to the base-collector junction, as
with hydrogen only, but contained a shown in Fig. 28. This type of tran-
mixture of hydrogen and air. The sistor is called a drift transistor,
reason is that the small hydrogen and its most important character-
atoms are able to diffuse or pass istic is its excellent performance
right through the spaces between the
molecules in the glass. At the same
time, molecules of air will diffuse H. 0 0 0 0 O o 0 0 o

through the glass and pass on into e 00 000 O 0 0 0 0

000 o 0

the inside of the bottle. The hydro-

gen molecule is smaller than the air
Fig. 28. Diagram showing how a large
molecule; therefore the hydrogen number of donor impurities increases
will diffuse out of the jar faster than the electron concentration in the base.
the air will diffuse in.
Diffusion can be used to add im- at high frequencies. However, notice
purities to either silicon or ger- that it is still a PNP transistor and
manium, and produce either N-type the basic theory of its operation is
or P-type semiconductor material. similar to that of any other PNP
The process can be controlled to transistor. The improved perform-
provide either very uniform base, ance is obtained by varying the con-
emitter, and collector regions, or it centration of donor impurities in the
can be controlled to provide non- base region.
uniform base, emitter, and collector The Mesa Type.
regions. It is also possible to manufacture
The Drift Type. a transistor using the diffusion tech-
One of the most important uses of nique entirely. An example of this
the diffusion technique is in the type is the mesa transistor.
manufacture of transistors with a In this type of transistor a semi-

41
conductor wafer is etched down in
e
steps so that the base and emitter
regions appear as plateaus above
the collector region as shown in Fig.
29. The advantages of the mesa tran-
sistor are good high-frequency per-
Cá=22
formance and very good consistency.
By this we mean that it is possible
to control the manufacturing tech-
niques quite closely so that the char-
acteristics of mesa transistors of
Fig. 30. A diffused planar-type tran-
the saine type number will be quite
sistor.
similar. This is not necessarily
true of other transistors; often their junctions exposed at the surface are
characteristics vary over a wide avoided in this type of construction.
range. Important characteristics of the
planar transistor are generally very
e low reverse current and improved
dc gain at low-current levels.

EPIT AXIAL TRANSISTORS

One of the disadvantages of the

diffusion-type transistor is the rela-
tively high resistance of the collec-
tor region. This results in slow
switching time; it limits the use-
fulness of the transistor in high-
frequency applications. Reducing the
resistance of the collector region
reduces the collector breakdown
voltage and this in turn again reduces
Fig. 29. t mesa transistor. the usefulness of the transistor.
These problems can be overcome
The Planar Type. by the epitaxial technique. In this
Another type of transistor manu- technique a thin high-resistance
factured by the diffusion technique layer is produced in the collector
is the planar type of diffused tran- region and the remainder of the col-
sistor. This type of transistor is lector region is controlled to keep
shown in Fig. 30. Notice that each its resistance low. This results in a
of the junctions is brought back to a transistor that looks something like
common plane, whereas in the mesa the one shown in Fig. 31. The pri-
type the various junctions are built mary advantage of this transistor is
up in plateaus. The importance of that it provides good performance
the planar-type transistor is that at very high frequencies. This tech-
the junctions can be formed beneath nique can be combined with other
a protective layer. As aresult, many techniques to produce transistors
of the problems associated with having varying characteristics. The
other types of transistors having epitaxial transistor can be referred

42
to as a double-diffused epitaxial
transistor. The thin high- resistance
collector region is formed by the
epitaxial technique and the base and
the emitter are formed by the dif-
fusion process - hence the term P-TYPE N—TYPE
double diffusion.
All the transistors that we have
discussed so far in this section of — BIAS
the lesson are either NPN or PNP
transistors. The manufacturing
techniques used to manufacture
these transistors result in transis-
tors of different characteristics ,but Fig. 12. Drawing showing the basic
the basic theory of operation of these operation of a field-effect transistor.
transistors is thé same. Now, we'll
look at another semiconductor de- of the terminal to the other end,
vice which operates on a somewhat electrons will flow through the ma-
different principle. terial as shown. If we attach apiece
of P-type material to one side so that
the PN junction is formed and then
place a negative voltage on the P-
type material as shown in Fig. 32,
there will be no current flow across
HIGH -R — the junction, because the battery
biases the junction in such a way
LOW
COLLECTOR that electrons cannot flow from the
LAYER N-type material to the P-type mate-
rial nor can holes flow from the P-
type material to the N-type.
However, the negative voltage
applied to the P-type material sets
Fig. 31. A double-diffused epitaxial up a field in the N-type material.
transistor.
This field opposes the electrons
flowing through the N-type material
THE JUNCTION FIELD- and forces them to move over to one
EFFECT TRANSISTOR side so that the electron movement
follows the path shown in Fig. 32.
An interesting transistor that re- The negative voltage applied to the
sembles a vacuum tube very closely P-type material has the effect of in-
in its characteristics and to some creasing the resistance of the N-
extent its operation is a field-effect type material in the area in which
transistor. One type of field-effect the field is affected. It forms a de-
transistor can be made by taking a pletion layer around the junction so
piece of N-type material as shown there will be no free electrons in the
in Fig. 32. If the negative terminal N-type material near the junction.
of a battery is connected to one end If the negative bias voltage is made
of the material and the positive side high enough, it is able to prevent

43
 minal of the battery, is called the
"drain". The P-type material is
called the gate, as we mentioned
previously. The transistor is called
a field-effect transistor because it
is the field produced by the bias
voltage applied to the gate that con-
trols the flow of current through the
channel. This particular type of
transistor is called a junction tran-
sistor because a junction is formed
Fig. 33. Schematic representation of the between the P and N-type materials.
circuit shown in Fig. 32. It is called an N-channel transistor
because the material in the channel
the flow of electrons through the through which current flows has been
N-type material entirely so that the treated in such a way as to produce
current flow will be cut off. We call an N-type semiconductor material.
this voltage where the bias voltage is Thus the complete name for this
high enough to stop the flow of cur- type of transistor is an N-channel,
rent through the N-type material junction- gate ,field-effect transis-
the "pinch-off" voltage. The N-type tor, We usually abbreviate field-
material is referred to as achannel, effect transistor FET, so you will
and the P-type material as a gate. see that this type of transistor is
This type of transistor is called a abbreviated JFET to indicate it is
"junction field-effect transistor." a junction-gate type.
The schematic representation of An amplifier using a field-effect
the circuit shown in Fig. 32 is shown transistor of this type is shown in
In Fig. 33. Notice that the end of the Fig. 34. In this circuit we have
N-type channel at which the elec- eliminated the bias battery by means
trons from the battery enter is of a resistor connected between the
called the "source". The other end, negative terminal of the battery and
the end from which the electrons the source. This resistor might be
leave and flow to the positive ter- compared to the cathode-bias re-

Fig. 34. An amplifier using an N-channel junction gate FET.

44
sistor in a triode vacuum tube am- age between the gate and the source.
plifier stage. In the amplifier cir- Thus we have a varying current,
cuit, electrons flow from the nega- which will vary as the input signal
tive terminal of the battery through varies, flowing from the source to
the resistor R2 to the source. In so the drain of the transistor and
doing they set up a voltage drop through the load resistor R3. This
across R2 having a polarity such varying current flowing through R3
that the source is positive with re- will produce an amplified signal
spect to ground. Since the gate con- voltage across R3.
nects back to ground through R1, It is interesting to note the simi-
the gate will be at ground potential larity between the circuit shown in
and this will make the source posi- Fig. 34 and a triode amplifier. When
tive with respect to the gate, or in the input signal swings the gate in a
other words, the gate negative with positive direction, current flowing
respect to the source. Therefore through the transistor will increase;
none of the electrons in the N chan- this will cause the voltage drop a-
nel will flow to the gate, because cross R3 to increase and therefore
the gate is negative. the voltage between the drain and

Fig. 35. \II i.tinplifier using a P-channel junction gat( FET.

Electrons will flow through the ground will decrease. Thus a posi-
N channel to the drain and then tive-going signal applied to the gate
through the load resistor R3 back will cause a negative-going signal at
to the positive terminal of the bat- the drain. In other words, this tran-
tery. As the input voltage applied sistor inverts the signal phase just
across the input terminals causes as the triode vacuum tube amplifier
the voltage between the gate and the stage does.
source to vary, the current flow P-Channel JFET.
from the source to the drain will It is possible to make a P-chan-
vary because the controlling action nel junction-gate field-effect tran-
of the gate on the current through sistor by using a P-type material
the channel depends upon the volt- between the source and drain. The

45
gate is then made of an N-type ma- been depleted from that area around
terial. The bias polarity is reversed the junction. The higher the negative
so that once again the PN junction voltage the further the electrons are
is biased and no current flows across depleted in the area around the junc-
the junction. tion, and as we pointed out previously
A schematic diagram of an ampli- if the voltage is made high enough,
fier using a P-channel junction-gate all of the electrons will be depleted
effect is shown in Fig. 35. Notice so that there will be no current flow
the schematic symbol for the P- through the channel. The transistor
channel unit; we have turned the di- is referred to as a depletion-type
rection of the arrow around just as transistor because the bias depletes
we did to distinguish between NPN the number of majority carriers
and PNP transistors. Also notice from the channel around the junc-
that in this circuit the battery po- tion region. Remember what we
larity is reversed. This is because mean by a depletion type of FET;
the carriers in the channel in the you'll see later there is another type.
P-channel unit will be holes. The
positive terminal of the battery
which connects to the source through N- CHANNEL
GATE GLASS
R2 repels the holes and they travel INSULATOR
through the channel to the drain
where they are attracted by the nega-
tive potential connected to the drain.
Meanwhile, holes arriving at the P TYPE
SUBSTRATE
drain terminal are filled by elec-
trons which flow from the negative
terminal of the battery through R3
to the drain. At the same time, the
positive terminal of the battery at-
tracts electrons from the source
creating new holes. These electrons Fig. 36. Current flow through an insu-
flow from the source through R2 to lated-gate, N-channel field-effect tran-
the positive terminal of the battery. sistor with no bias applied.
The operation of the P-channel,
junction-gate effect is the same as
INSULATED-GATE
with the N-channel unit, except that
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
in one case the majority carriers
are electrons, and in the other case The transistors we have been dis-
they are holes. cussing so far are called junction-
In discussing the action of the gate field-effect transistors. There
junction-gate field-effect transis- is another type of field-effect tran-
tor, we often refer to the reverse sistor that is called an insulated-
bias across the junction creating a gate field-effect transistor. We usu-
depletion layer in the conducting ally abbreviate this IGFET.
channel. In the case of an N-channel In the insulated-gate field-effect
unit, the negative voltage on the P- transistor, the gate is completely
type gate will repel electrons at the insulated from the channel by a thin
junction so that the electrons have insulating material. For example,

46
a very thin piece of glass might be
placed between the conducting chan-
nel and the gate. Thus there is no
actual junction formed between the
semiconductor materials in the
channel and the gate. In an N-chan-
nel, insulated-gate field-effect tran-
sistor, construction such as shown
in Fig. 36 is often used. Here we IF
have an N channel between the source
and drain. The substrate on which Fig. 37. Current flots through an N-ehannel
the channel material is mounted is I(;FFT %.ith bias applied.
P-type material and the gate is
placed along the channel as shown channel. In effect, the resistance of
in the figure. The thin layer of glass the channel is increased. We refer
prevents any actual contact between to this type of channel as adepletion
the channel and the gate. channel. The transistor is called an
In operation, the source and the insulated-gate-field-effect transis-
substrate are connected to the nega- tor and it is also referred to as a de-
tive terminal of the battery and the pletion type because the flow of cur-
drain is connected to the positive rent through the transistor is con-
terminal. This will permit current trolled by producing a depletion
to flow from the negative terminal layer in the channel as in the case
of the battery to the source, through of the junction transistors discussed
the channel to the drain and then previously.
back to the positive terminal of the Both N-channel and P-channel
battery. IGFET 's are manufactured. The
When a negative voltage is applied schematic symbols used to repre-
to the gate, it has the effect of re- sent the two different types are
pelling electrons away from the gate shown in Fig. 38A and B. In A, we
as before. In addition, the negative have shown the symbol used for an
potential applied to the gate attracts N-channel type, and in B the sche-
holes in the P-type material so that matic symbol used for a P-channel
the width of the channel is reduced type. In operation, the units perform
as shown in Fig. 37. Thus the cur- in essentially the same way as the
rent flow through the channel is re- junction-gate units with the excep-
stricted by the narrowing of the tion that there will be no current

D D
SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE

Fig. 38. Insulated-gate field-effeet transistors. (..1) shous the sehematic symbol
for an N-channel unit and (B) the symbol for a P-rhannel unit.

47
flow at all from the channel to the type field-effect transistor, instead
gate or from the gate to the chan- of placing a negative bias on the
nel. In the JFET, there may be very gate to reduce the width of the chan-
small leakage current across the nel, as we do in the depletion-type
Junction. However, a JFET has a transistor, in the enhancement-type
high input resistance because this we place a positive bias on the gate
leakage current is low. The IGFET and produce the N channel.
has an even higher input resistance The enhancement-type field-ef-
because there is no current flow at fect transistor is always an insu-
all from the gate to the channel or lated gate type. In the case of ajunc-
from the channel to the gate. Thus tion FET, if we produced an en-
the input resistance of an IGFET is hancement type, we would have cur-
almost infinite. rent flow across the junction because
Enhancement Type. the voltage required to produce the
So far the field-effect transistors channel would forward bias the junc-
we have been discussing are all what tion. However, in the insulated-gate
are known as depletion types. In the FET, no current can flow across the
depletion type of FET, the channel junction because we have an insula-
is formed and a bias is placed on ting material between the gate and
the gate so as to reduce the size the channel. Thus we can put any
or width of the channel. In the en- type of bias we want, either forward
hancement-type of field-effect tran- or reverse bias, on the gate and we
sistor, there is no channel present still will not get a current flow from
until the bias is applied to the gate. the gate to the channel or from the
Thus, there is no current flow from channel to the gate.
the source to the drain through the The schematic symbol of an N-
transistor, unless there is a bias type IGFET of the enhancement type
applied to the gate. The polarity of is shown in Fig. 39A. Notice that
the bias applied to the gate is re- we have indicated there is no chan-
versed from what it is in the deple- nel by breaking the channel into
tion type, and this bias forms the three parts. When the correct bias
channel through which current can is applied to the gate, an N channel
flow. The operation of the units is between the source and the drain
the same as with the depletion type will be formed. The schematic sym-
with the single exception of the re- bol for the P-channel unit of an en-
verse bias. In other words, in the hancement-type IGFET is shown in
case of an N-channel enhancement- Fig. 39B.

D
SUBSTRATE

Fig. 39. A shot‘s the schematic symbol for an N-channel enhancement-type

IGFET. B shows the P-channel unit.

48
 The operation of the enhancement- THE IINITUNCTION
type IGFET is basically the same as
with the depletion type. It could be Another important semiconductor
used in a circuit similar to the cir- device is the unijunction. The uni-
cuits shown in Fig. 34 and Fig. 35. junction is different from a con-
One of the problems with IGF ET 's ventional two-junction transistor in
is the very high resistance between that it has only a single junction.
the gate and the channel. In shipping Most unijunctions are made of a
these units the manufacturer usually bar of N-type silicon. There are two
wraps the leads in tin foil to keep base contacts made to this bar called
them connected together. If he base 1 and base 2. These contacts
doesn't do this, static charges can are made at the ends of the bar.
build up on the gate because of the Between the two bases is a single
very high resistance between the rectifying contact called the emitter.
gate and the channel. These static The schematic symbol of the uni-
charges may become high enough to junction is shown in Fig. 40.
actually puncture the insulation be- In Fig. 41 we have an equivalent
tween the gate and the channel and circuit showing how the unijunction
thus ruin the unit. operates. We have referred to the
In soldering an IGFET into a cir- resistance between base 1 and the
cuit, there might be enough leakage emitter as RB i and the resistance
from the power line through the tip between base 2 and the emitter con-
of your soldering iron to ruin the tact as RB2. When a dc voltage is
FET. To prevent this from happen- applied to the unijunction between
ing, ground leads should be used on B1 and B2, a current will flow
the various connections to the tran- through the base as shown. As long
sistor and these leads should be left as the voltage drop across RBi is
in place until the transistor is in- greater than the emitter voltage, the
stalled in the circuit. Once the tran- emitter will be reverse biased so
sistor is soldered in place, you do that there will be no current flow
not have to be concerned about static across the junction between the
charges destroying the unit because emitter and the base. The voltage
the resistance in the circuit will be across the resistance representing
low enough to prevent static charges base 1 and the voltage across the
from building up to a high enough resistance representing base 2will
value to destroy the transistor. remain constant. The two bases
Field-effect transistors are find- more or less act like two resistors
ing their way into commercial equip-
ment, and you should therefore be
sure you understand how they oper-
ate. You should review the sections
on field-effect transistors several
times if necessary because you can
be sure they are going to be widely
used in the future. They offer the
advantages of the transistor as well
as many of the advantages of the Fig. .10. Schematic symbol of a uni -
vacuum tube. junction.

49
 The unijunctions made for anum-
ber of years always made use of an
N-type base material and a P-type
emitter. However, recently some
uni junctions using a P-type base
material and an N-type emitter have
been developed. The schematic sym-
bol is the same, except that the di-
rection of the arrow is reversed.
Unijunctions have not been widely
used in commercial radio and TV
equipment; however, they have been
used in various pieces of test equip-
Fig. -if. Equivalent circuit shoving
the operation of the unijunction. ment. It is quite likely that as more
transistorized television receivers
in series. The positive voltage at the are manufactured, the unijunction
emitter junction prevents any elec- may be used in the sweep circuits
trons from leaving the base and since they are quite readily adapted
crossing the junction to the emitter to this type of application.
and also prevents holes from travel- The important thing for you to re-
ing from the emitter to the base. member at this time about the uni-
There will be a small leakage cur- junction is that the device has a
rent across the junction, but this is single junction and that the resist-
of no importance insofar as the op- ance of the two bases remains essen-
eration of the unijunction is con- tially constant until the emitter volt-
cerned. age exceeds the voltage across base
If the voltage, VE, exceeds the 1. Then the voltage drop across base
voltage across RBI.,then holes will 1 decreases while the current flow
enter the base and flow throughRBi through it increases, resulting in the
as shown by the arrows on the dia- negative resistance characteristic
gram. These holes will cause the of base 1.
number of electrons flowing in Rin
to increase. The net result will be SUMMARY
that you will have a drop in voltage
across RBi but at the same time an There are too many details in
increase in current. this section to try to summarize
You will remember from Ohm's them. The important thing for you
Law that the current flowing in a to do is to realize that the different
circuit is equal to the voltage di- names assigned to the conventional
vided by the resistance. If the volt- two-junction transistors indicate the
age drops, the current must drop. manufacturing process used to make
However, in this device we have a the transistor. Typical two-junction
situation where the voltage drops, transistors are either NPN or PNP
but the current increases. We refer •transistors, and the basic theory of
to this as "negative resistance". De- operation of the two-junction tran-
vices that have this characteristic sistors is the same regardless of the
can be used in various types of am- manufacturing technique used. Dif-
plifier circuits. ferent manufacturing techniques re-

50
suit in transistors with different will melt and flow over the connec-
characteristics, but the theory of tion quickly. Also make sure that
operation is the same. the transistor leads are clean. It is
The field-effect transistor is a a good idea to use a heat sink be-
transistor that very closely re- tween the point at which you are
sembles a vacuum tube in many of soldering and the semiconductor de-
its characteristics. Remember that vice. A good heat sink is a pair of
there are two basic types: the junc- longnose pliers; simply hold the lead
tion field-effect transistor and the securely in the jaws of the pliers
insulated-gate field-effect transis- while you are soldering the lead in
tor. In the insulated-gate type, the place. Much of the heat developed
gate is insulated so that the leakage at the joint will flow through the
current to and from the gate is pliers and keep the semiconductor
practically zero. This type of tran- device itself from becoming exces-
sistor has a very high input resis- sively hot. The joint should be sol-
tance. dered as quickly as possible; get
You should also remember that the iron off the joint just as soon
field-effect transistors can be made as the solder has melted and flowed
in both N-channel types and P-chan- smoothly over the connection.
nel types. You'll recall that by de- Semiconductor devices can be
pletion type we are referring to a damaged by storing them in exces-
transistor where a channel is pres- sively warm places. Again, this is
ent. The input voltage to this type of particularly true of germanium
transistor controls its channel transistors which are more heat
width. JFET transistors are all of sensitive than silicon transistors.
the depletion type. The IGFET may Storing semiconductor devices at
be either the depletion type or the room temperature will prevent this
enhancement type. type of damage. You should avoid
The unijunction is a semiconduc- storing them in any place where they
tor device with a single junction. can become excessively hot.
Its use in commercial equipment is Now to check yourself on this im-
somewhat limited at this time, but portant section you should answer
you should understand the basic the following self-test questions.
fundamentals of the device because
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
it is quite likely that it will be used
in the future. (aw) Into what two basic types can
One important point about all the grown-junction transistor
types of transistors that we must be divided?
emphasize is that they are all easily (ax) What type of transistor can
damaged by excessive heat. This is the surface-barrier transis-
true particularly of germanium tor be classified as?
transistors, but silicon transistors (ay) What is the most important
can also be destroyed by excessive characteristic of the surface-
heat. Whenever you have to replace barrier transistor?
a transistor in a circuit, you should (az) What do we mean by a diffus-
make sure that the point at which sion transistor?
you have to solder the transistor in (ba) What is an important use of
the circuit is clean so that the solder the diffusion technique in

51
 manufacturing transistors? (be) What is adepletion-type field-
(bb) What is the difference between effect transistor?
a junction-gate field-effect (bd) What is an enhancement-type
transistor and an insulated- FET?
gate field-effect transistor? (be) What is a unijunction?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

(a) Four. silicon or germanium will
(D) Germanium and silicon. form covalent bonds with four
(e) A covalent bond is the sharing nearby atoms and have an
of two electrons by two atoms, electron left over. When a
one from each of the two donor material is added to
atoms. germanium or silicon, N-type
(d) Four. A single atom of ger- material is formed.
manium or silicon will share (1) Arsenic and antimony.
an electron from its outer ring (m) P-type semiconductor mate-
and an electron from the outer rial is amaterial that has been
ring of a nearby atom to form doped with an impurity having
a covalent bond. It will do this three electrons in the valence
with four electrons to estab- ring. This will leave acovalent
lish four covalent bonds. bond that is short one electron
(e) Intrinsic conduction is con- so there will be a hole in the
duction due to the forma- bond. The hole is in effect a
tion of hole-electron pairs positive charge and hence the
throughout a germanium or majority carriers in the P-
silicon crystal. type material are the holes or
(f) No. positive charges.
(g) Germanium. (n) An accepter-type impurity is
(h) Heat. an impurity with three elec-
(i) Silicon. trons in the valence ring or
(j) An N-type material is a ma- shell. It is an accepter-type
terial that has been doped so material because it leaves a
that electrons are the majority hole in the covalent bond which
carriers. This is brought can accept an electron.
about by using an impurity that (o) Indium, boron and aluminum.
has five electrons in the val- (13) Electrons are the majority
ence ring so that when it forms carriers in N-type material.
covalent bonds with nearby (q) Holes.
germanium or silicon atoms (r) When the arsenic loses an
there will be an electron left electron it will be short one
over. electron to completely neu-
(k) A donor material is an im- tralize the charge on the nu-
purity which when added to cleus, and therefore the atom

52
 will have a positive charge. end to which the positive po-
Meanwhile the atom of silicon tential is connected creating
or germanium that has re- holes. Exactly the same num-
ceived the extra electron will ber of electrons will enter the
have a negative charge on it. end to which the negative po-
(s) There is no charge on the tential is connected to fill
crystal, it is neutral. Although holes arriving at the negative
some regions may have aposi- end.
tive charge, other regions may (z) No. For a given potential and
have a negative charge; the given size of crystal, elec-
crystal itself neither gains nor trons will move at approxi-
loses electrons and therefore mately twice the rate through
it does not have any charge. an N-type crystal as the holes
(t) Holes are produced. will through a P-type crystal.
(u) Diffusion is a random motion (aa) The N-type material will have
of the carriers in a semi- the lower resistance. This is
conductor material. It goes on due to the higher mobility of
at all times in the crystal and the electrons in the N-type
every effort is made to keep material than the holes in the
diffusion as low as possible P-type material.
since it contributes nothing (ab) Detectors and rectifiers.
insofar as the usefulness of (ac) The depletion layer is an area
the material in semiconductor on both sides of the junction.
devices is concerned. On the P-side of the junction
Drift. there is a shortage of holes
Electrons are the majority and on the N-side of the junc-
carriers in an N-type mate- tion there is a shortage of
rial and they move from the electrons. The shortage is
end to which the negative po- caused by a few of the ma-
tential is applied towards the jority carriers crossing the
end to which the positive po- junction in each way building
tential is applied. up a charge at the junction so
(x) Holes are the majority car- that the majority carriers are
riers in a P-type material repelled away from the junc-
and they move from the end tion.
to which the positive potential (ad) The potential barrier is the
is applied to the end to which voltage built up across the
the negative potential is ap- junction by the diffusion of
plied. majority carriers across the
(Y) No - the crystal will remain junction. The holes that dif-
electrically neutral. In the fuse across the junction into
case of N-type material, ex- the N-side of the junction
actly the same number of elec- create an area that has anega-
trons will leave the positive tive charge in the P-side of
end of the crystal and enter the junction. Similarly, the
the negative end of the crystal. electrons diffusing across the
In the case of the P-type ma- junction into the P-side create
terial, electrons will leave the an area on the N-side of the

53
 junction that has a positive gion and a positive potential
charge. This charge across connected to the N region. The
the junction eventually be- positive potential connected to
comes high enough to prevent the N region repels holes in the
any further diffusion of holes P region away from the junc-
and electrons across the junc- tion so that they cannot cross
tion. the junction. Similarly, the
(ae) No. The net charge on the negative potential applied to
crystal will remain zero. the P region repels electrons
There may be areas on the in the N region away from the
crystal that have a positive junction so that they cannot
charge, and other areas that cross the junction. When a
have a negative charge, but junction is reverse biased,
since the crystal itself neither majority carriers normally
gains nor loses electrons, the cannot cross the junction.
net charge on the crystal will (ai) When there is no voltage ap-
remain zero. plied to a semiconductor
(af) Yes. Minority carriers cross- diode, the net current flow a-
ing the junction tend to weaken cross the junction is zero.
the potential barrier estab- However, in the case of a
lished across the junction by vacuum tube where there is
majority carriers diffusing a- no voltage applied between
cross the junction. When the plate and cathode, some elec-
potential barrier is weakened, trons will leave the cathode
additional majority carriers with sufficient energy to travel
can cross the junction. Thus over to the plate. As a result,
we end up with carriers cross- there will be a small current
ing the junction in both direc- through the diode even though
tions. This adds nothing to the there is no voltage applied be-
useful current that the diode tween the plate and cathode.
can handle, but it does con- (aj) When asemiconductor diode is
tribute to heating and thus reverse biased, there will be a
limits the useful current that small current flow across the
can cross the junction. junction due to minority car-
(ag) When a junction is forward riers. As long as the break-
biased we have a positive po- down voltage of the diode is
tential applied to the P-side not exceeded, this current will
and a negative potential ap- be quite small. In the case of
plied to the N-side. This per- a vacuum tube, when the plate
mits electrons to freely cross is made negative with respect
the junction from the N region to the cathode, the plate will
to the P region. Similarly repel electrons so that there
holes can cross the junction will be no current flow through
from the P region to the N the vacuum tube.
region. (ak) A Zener diode is a diode used
(ah) When a junction is reverse in applications where a re-
biased we have a negative po- verse bias is placed across the
tential connected to the P re- junction. The diode is designed

54
 to break down at acertain volt- (as) The base region is usually
age and then maintain a con- comparatively thin.
stant voltage. If the voltage (at) See Fig. 22.
tries to increase above this (au) See Fig. 24.
constant value, the current (ay) Holes are useful current car-
flow through the Zener diode riers in a PNP transistor.
will increase so that the diode (aw) NPN and PNP transistors.
can be used in voltage regu- (ax) An alloy-type transistor.
lating circuits and also can be (ay) Good high-frequency perform-
used as a voltage reference ance.
source. (az) A diffusion transistor is a
(al) A tunnel diode is adiode where transistor which has been
the electrons cross the junc- made by diffusing the impuri-
tion by a process similar to ties into the emitter, base and
tunneling across the junction. collector regions.
The tunnel diode has a char- (ba) One of the most important uses
acteristic of introducing nega- of the diffusion technique is in
tive resistance into the circuit the manufacture of non-uni-
when a certain voltage is ap- form base regions.
plied across the junction. In (bb) In a junction-gate field-effect
other words, when the voltage transistor there is an actual
across the diode increases, contact between the channel
the current flow through the material and the gate. There
diode decreases. Similarly, will be some current flow a-
when the voltage decreases the cross the contact at all times
current increases. Because of due to minority carriers
this negative resistance char- crossing the junction. In addi-
acteristic, the tunnel diode can tion, if the junction is forward
be used as an oscillator. biased there will be a high
(am) A p-i-n diode is adiode that is current flow across the junc-
primarily used as a variable tion. In an insulated-gate field-
resistance. The resistance of effect transistor a glass or
the diode varies as the voltage similar insulating material is
across it is varied. The p-i-n used between the material in
diode is used in automatic gain the channel and the gate. Since
control circuits to vary the there is an insulator between
strength of the signal reach- the gate and the channel, there
ing amplifier stages. will be little or no current flow
(an) The base region is the center across the insulator either due
region of the transistor. On to minority carriers when
one side of the base region is there is a reverse bias ap-
the emitter, and on the other plied, or due to majority car-
side is the collector. riers with a forward bias ap-
(ao) Germanium and silicon. plied.
(ap) PNP transistors and NPN (bc) A depletion-type FET is aunit
transistors. in which the channel is present
(aq) Forward bias. at all times. The transistor
(ar) Reverse bias. works by depleting or reducing

55
 the size of the channel. ductor device having two base
(bd) An enhancement FET is aunit connections but only a single
in which there is no channel junction. The junction is called
present until the operating the emitter. The single junc-
bias is applied between the tion makes the unijunction
gate and the material in which quite different from the con-
the channel is formed. ventional two-junction tran-
(be) A unijunction is a semicon- sistor.

56
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B112.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grades as soon as possible, so they

mail in their answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish the
next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable. However, don't hold your answers too long;
you may lose them. Don't hold answers to more than two sets of lessons
at any time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. Name the two most important semiconductor materials used for tran-
sistors.

2. When a donor type of material is added to a silicon or a germanium

crystal, what type of semiconductor material is produced? Does this
type have free electrons or free holes?

3. What effect do the two layers of ionized atoms at the junction in a PN

diode have on the majority carriers in the vicinity of the junction?

4. To which side of a PN junction diode do you connect the positive

battery terminal if you wish to place a forward bias on the junction?

5. If a reverse bias is applied to ajunction diode, what effect will a small

increase in bias have on the current flowing, provided the reverse
voltage does not exceed the breakdown voltage?

6. What is a Zener diode?

7. In a PNP transistor, what happens to a hole that crosses the emitter

and the base and moves into the collector?

8. What is a drift transistor?

9. What is an N-channel, junction-type field-effect transistor?

10. What do we mean when we refer to a field-effect transistor as an

enhancement type?
ye
CASHING IN ON DISCONTENT
Discontent is a good thing--if it makes you want to
do something worthwhile. If you had not been dis-
contented, you would never have enrolled for the NRI
course.

Practically everyone is discontented. But some of

us are "floored" by discontent. We develop into com-
plainers. We find fault with anything and everything.
We end up as sour and dismal failures.

Those of us who are wise use our discontent as fuel

for endeavor. We keep striving toward a goal we have
set for ourselves. We are happy in our work. We face
defeat, and we come out the victors.

At this minute you may be discontented with many

things--your progress with your course, your earning
ability, yourself.

Make that discontent pay you dividends. Don't let it

throw you down. If you do, you may never be able to
get up again. Keep striving to remove the cause of
your discontent. Remember that it's always darkest
before the dawn. And a real NRI man works hardest
and accomplishes most when he is face to face with
the greatest discouragements.
•
t
ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

HOW TRANSISTORS
ARE USED
B113
 STUDY SCHEDULE
By dividing your study into the steps given below, you can get
the most out of this part of your NRI Course in the shortest
possible time. Check off each step when you finish it.

a L Introduction Pages 1-3

This gives a brief discussion of the advantages and disad-
vantages of transistors compared to vacuum tubes, and alook
at the basic circuits you will study.

2. The Common-Base Circuit Pages 4-9

The common-base circuit for both NPN and PNP transistors is
discussed.

3. The Common-Emitter Circuit Pages 10 -15

The common-emitter circuit is the most frequently used
transistor circuit. You learn about both NPN and PNP
common-emitter circuits.

4. The Common-Collector Circuit Pages 16 -21

You study both NPN and PNP common-collector circuits.

5. Transistor Characteristics Pages 22 -28

You study characteristic curves and various transistor
characteristics.

6. Typical Transistor Circuits Pages 29 -37

You learn how basic transistor circuits are modified to be used
as audio and if amplifiers.

7. A Typical Transistor Receiver Pages 38 -41

We take acomplete schematic diagram of aradio receiver using
transistors and see how the stages you have studied are used
together.

8. Answers to Self-Test Questions Pages 41 -44

9. Answer the Lesson Questions.

10. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

P113M1074 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Just a few years agoa germanium receivers on the market and in use
transistor cost considerably more today that use transistors exclu-
than most vacuum tubes ,and the cost sively. In addition, there are hybrid
of silicon transistors was many receivers that use both tubes and
times that of germanium transis- transistors.
tors. Silicon transistors were priced
TRANSISTORS
so high that their use in commercial
entertainment devices was prohibi- AND TUBES
tive. Even germanium transistors A transistor can do almost any-
were priced so high that it was hard thing a vacuum tube can do. Some-
to justify their use in entertainment- times a transistor can perform a
type equipment. Now, however, both task better than a vacuum tube;
germanium and silicon transistors sometimes it cannot perform the
are relatively inexpensive. There task as well as a vacuum tube.
are many transistors of both types Advantages of Tubes.
priced lower than even the most in- The big advantage vacuum tubes
expensive vacuum tubes. For this have over transistors is that it is
reason they are widely used in com- usually possible to obtain a higher
mercial equipment. All portable gain with a single vacuum tube than
,
radio receivers manufactured today it is with asingle transistor. In addi-
use transistors. You will not run into tion, a number of tubes can be com-
a portable receiver using tubes ex- bined in a single envelope so that a
cept in the case of a receiver that single vacuum tube may actually
is many years old. Automobile contain three or more separate tubes
radios use transistors, and most in the same envelope. This often re-
stereo and hi-fi equipment is made sults in the multi-purpose tube being
entirely with solid-state devices. more economical than the equivalent
There are many portable television number of transistors that would be

1
required to perform the same func- BASIC TRANSISTOR
tions.
Another advantage of the tube is CIRCUITS
that today 's engineers are more used
to working with them. Thus the cost In the span of the few short years
of designing a piece of electronic in which transistors have been man-
equipment, such as a color TV re- ufactured for commercial applica-
ceiver, using tubes is less than the tions, there have been a large num-
cost of designing acolor TV receiver ber of different transistor types
using transistors. manufactured. Each year manufac-
The characteristics of tubes are turers introduce new types, and we
more uniform than those of transis- can expect that this will continue
tors. In other words, it is easier to year after year. This might make
duplicate circuits using tubes than you think that it will be an almost
circuits using transistors. Further- impossible Job to keep up with new
more, when it comes time to re- developments in the field of transis-
place a transistor, you may find the tors. However, this is not the case.
replacement has quite different Like tubes, transistors are used in
characteristics from the original certain basic circuits. If you learn
and that the stage will perform quite these basic circuits and how they
differently from the manner in which work, you should be able to under-
it did with the original transistor. stand new circuits as you encounter
You are not likely to run into this them. In addition, there are certain
situation with a tube. basic characteristics of transistors
Advantages of Transistors. that are important. Once you learn
To offset the advantages of the what these characteristics are and
vacuum tube, the transistor offers what they mean, you will be in a
many other advantages. Generally position to evaluate new transis-
speaking, a transistor for aparticu- tors as they appear on the market
lar Job is smaller than a vacuum in comparison with older transis-
tube. The transistor is more rugged tors with which you may be more
than the vacuum tube and there is familiar.
less chance of it breaking. A tran- As you will remember from your
sistor does not require any power study of vacuum tubes, the triode
to heat a cathode or filament - this tube has three elements: a cathode,
reduces the power requirement of a plate and a grid. You will re-
the equipment and also reduces the member that we found that there
amount of heat that must be dis- are three different types of circuits
sipated by the equipment. The lower in which a triode tube can be used:
temperature inside the equipment the grounded-cathode circuit, the
generally results in longer life from grounded-plate circuit, and the
all the other parts in the equipment. grounded-grid circuit. Similarly, a
Transistors operate on lower triode transistor has three ele-
voltages than vacuum tubes. This ments: an emitter, abase ,
and acol-
often results in savings in the power lector. There are three basic cir-
supply and also in the voltage ratings cuits in which a triode transistor
of the other components in the can be used. These circuits are
circuit. called the common-base circuit,the

2
common-emitter circuit, and the other two. This is the circuit that
common-collector circuit. In tran- will give the greatest voltage and
sistor circuits we usually use the power gain. However, we will start
word "common" when speaking of our study of the three circuits with
different circuits, but actually a the common-base because you have
common-base circuit is agrounded- already seen the circuit in the pre-
base circuit—in other words a cir- ceding lesson and also because it is
cuit where the base is at the ac a little easier to understand than the
ground potential. other two circuits.
Now let's study the three basic In studying these three basic cir-
circuits to learn something about the cuits we will compare their char-
important characteristics of each acteristics with the three basic
type. It is important for you to under- vacuum-tube circuits. You will see
stand these three circuits. If you a great deal of similarity between
understand them you should have no the three circuits insofar as per-
difficulty with the other circuits you formance is concerned, but you will
encounter in this book because they also see some very noticeable dif-
will all be variations of one of these ferences. You should keep in mind
three circuits. that, although the end results may be
Of the three circuit variations in the same, there is a great deal of
which a triode transistor may be difference between the way acircuit
used, the common-emitter circuit using a vacuum tube and one using
is found more frequently than the a transistor works.

3
 The Common-Base Circuit
Typical common-base circuits a forward bias on the emitter-base
are shown in Fig. 1. The circuit junction, the positive terminal of the
shown at A is for an NPNtransistor; battery must be connected to the
the circuit shown at B is for a PNP emitter and the negative terminal to
transistor. the base; similarly, battery B2 is
The solid arrows on the two dia- reversed because , to place areverse
grams indicate the direction of use- bias on the base-collector junction,
ful electron flow. In the circuit the negative terminal must be con-
shown at A, electrons flow from the nected to the collector and the posi-
negative terminal of battery Bi, tive terminal to the base.
through resistor R1, through the In Fig. 1B the positive terminal of
NPN transistor, into the emitter, B1 is connected to the emitter
across the emitter-base junction to through resistor Rl. The positive
the base, then across the base-col- potential applied to the emitter will
lector junction into the collector, and attract electrons from the emitter.
from the collector through the col- When an electron is attracted from
lector resistor Re to the positive the emitter it will flow in the direc-
terminal of battery B2. Notice that tion indicated by the solid arrows,
the emitter-base junction is forward through resistor R1 to the positive
biased, and the base-collector junc- terminal of Bi. Meanwhile, when an
tion is reverse biased as in alltran- electron is pulled from the emitter,
sistor circuits. a hole is created. The hole travels
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1B, the through the transistor in the direc-
batteries are reversed. Since this is tion indicated by the outlined arrow.
a PNP transistor, in order to place The hole crosses the emitter-base
junction, then travels through the
base, across the base-collector
junction, and to the terminal of the
collector that is connected to the
collector resistor Re. There the hole
is filled by an electron and dis-
appears. The electrons needed tofill
the holes reaching the collector ter-
minal are supplied by battery B2.
Thus there will be an electron flow
from the negative terminal of this
battery through the resistor Re to the
collector terminal of the transistor
as shown by the solid arrows on the
diagram.
You will remember from the pre-
ceding lesson that the majority car-
Fig. I. Basic common-base circuits. The riers diffusing across the junctions
circuit at (A) is for an NPN transistor; in a transistor set up potential bar-
the one at (B) for a PNP transistor. riers which prevent an additional

4
flow of majority carriers across the like a low impedance by shunting it
junction. In the transistor circuits with a capacitor. So let's consider
shown in Fig. 1, battery B1 places this end of Re as being at ground or
a forward bias on the emitter-base zero potential and see what the volt-
junction that partially overcomes age is at the other end.
this potential barrier and allows Since current flows through Re in
some majority carriers to cross the the direction shown, the end of Re
junction. The exact number of connected to the collector is nega-
majority carriers that will cross tive. We can show this on a graph
the junction depends upon the char- as in Fig. 3A. The voltage is nega-
acteristics of the transistor and upon tive so we represent it by a line
the voltage of battery Bi. Thus, in drawn below the zero-voltage axis.
the circuits shown in Fig. 1, we will
have a static current flowing. Static O
current is simply a fixed current or
a current flow that depends upon the o
operating voltages applied and not VOLTAGE AT COLLECTOR
upon the signa 1voltage .This current END OF Rc

is often called the "zero-signal"

current, and it will set up a voltage
drop across the collector resistor IN PUT
SIGNAL
Re . VOLTAGE

A COMMON-BASE
NPR AMPLIFIER
Now let us see what happens when o
a signal voltage is applied to the in-
put of these transistor circuits. In
DROP ACROSS Rc
Fig. 2 we have shown a common-
base amplifier circuit using an NPN
transistor. Let's see how this cir- OUTPUT
cuit can be used to amplify asignal. VOLTAGE

Let us consider first the voltage

across R. The end of Re that is con-
nected to battery B2 is essentially
Fig. 3. Noltage t.a%eforms for the circuit
at signal ground potential. This is
of Fig. 2.
because B2 is a low impedance at
signal frequencies or is made to act Now, what happens when we apply
a signal like Fig. 3B to the input?
Consider first the input signal at
point 1 in Fig. 3B. At point 1 the
INPUT R, Rc≥OUTPUT
signal is zero and hence it has no
effect on the static or zero-signal
current flowing through the transis-
• 11 11 11
82 tor. The only current flowing will be
the zero-signal current due to the
Fig. 2. .‘ common-base amplifier circuit battery voltages. Therefore the volt-
using an NPN transistor. age across Re can be represented

5
by the straight line extending to point ted to the battery will be positive.
1 in Fig. 3C. Now as the ac signal Now we have a voltage across R1
moves to point 2 on the input curve, that is in series with the voltage of
we have a voltage drop across re- battery B1 and hence adds to it.This
sistor Rl. The polarity of this volt- means that the forward bias across
age drop makes the end of R1 con- the emitter-base junction will be in-
nected to the emitter positive and creased and the number of majority
the end connected to the battery carriers crossing the junction will
negative. This means that the polar- increase. The current flow through
ity is opposite to the polarity of Bi. Rc will increase. When currentflow
Therefore the voltage across R 1will through this resistor increases, the
subtract from the voltage of battery voltage drop across the resistor will
B1 insofar as the net emitter-base increase and the end of the resistor
voltage is concerned. This means that is connected to the collector will
that the signal will reduce the for- become more negative with respect
ward bias applied between the emit- to the other end. Hence the voltage
ter and base and hence reduce the appearing across the output termi-
number of majority carriers (elec- nals will swing to point 4 as shown
trons) that can cross the emitter- in Fig. 3C. When the input signal
base junction. When the number of drops back to point 5 or zero signal
carriers crossing this junction de- voltage, the voltage across the out-
creases, the number of electrons put similarly will fall back to zero
flowing through Re will decrease. signal voltage at point 5 on the out-
When the number of electrons put voltage curve.
flowing through Re decreases, the Now let 's consider what is happen-
voltage drop across the resistor will ing in the output of this amplifier.
decrease. This is shown in Fig. 3C. First we have a de voltage across
The curve rises,getsclosertozero, Re; this is the static or zero signal
between points 1and 2. This shows voltage. When a signal is applied to
that the voltage is decreasing. the input, the zero signal voltage
When the input voltage drops to varies. if we remove the zero sig-
point 3, we once again have the situa- nal voltage, which we can easily do
tion where the input voltage is zero. by taking the output off through a
The current flowing through the col- capacitor, we have the output volt-
lector resistor Re will increase to age shown in Fig. 3D. This is the
the zero signal current, and the out- actual amplified output obtained
put voltage shown in Fig. 3C will in- from the transistor.
crease to the zero signal voltage, Two important things to notice in
point 3, which is the voltage that this circuit are that the output volt-
appeared across this resistor be- age is in phase with the input volt-
fore any signal was applied. Hence age and that the output voltage is
the current will increase. several times the input voltage. In
Now let us see what happens when other words when the input voltage
the input signal swings in the op- swings positive, the output voltage
posite direction. When the signal goes positive and when the input volt-
swings to point 4, the end of resistor age goes negative, the output voltage
R1 that is connected to the emitter goes negative. We can obtain avolt-
will be negative and the end connec- age gain using this type of circuit.

6
 A COMMON-BASE the voltage of battery B1 and hence
PNP AMPLIFIER will increase the forward bias on the
emitter-base junction. This will
When a PNP transistor is used as cause an increased movement of
an amplifier in a common-base cir- holes through the transistor and
cuit as shown in Fig. 4, the output hence an increase in current flow
voltage is also in phase with the in- through Rc .The increase in current
put voltage. However, the way in flow through Re results in an in-
which this circuit operates is quite creased voltage drop across Re so
different from the way the NPN cir- that the end of the resistor connected
cuit operates. to the collector becomes more posi-
tive with respect to the other end.
Thus when the input voltage moves
from point 1 to point 2 in Fig. 5B,
INPUT Ri Pc OUTPUT the voltage across Re will move from
point 1 to point 2 as shown in Fig.
5C.
Similarly, when the input voltage
swings negative, the voltage across
R1 will subtract from the forward
Fig. 4. A common-base amplifier circuit bias applied across the emitter-
using a PN I' transistor. base junction, reducing the bias.
This will reduce the hole movement
Notice that the polarity of the volt-
VOLTAGE AT COLLECTOR
age across Re is the opposite to what ENO OF Pc
it was in Fig. 2. In Fig. 4, the end
of the resistor connected to the col- o
lector is positive and the end con- O
nected to battery B2 is negative.
Thus the voltage at the collector end
of Re will be positive with respect to INPUT
SIGNAL
the other end of the resistor, and VOLTAGE
under zero signal conditions can be
represented by a straight line above
the zero axis as shown in Fig. 5A.
o
VOLTAGE
Now, what happens when t..n input ACROSS Pc
signal like Fig. 5B is applied tothis
circuit? When the input voltage is o
zero, the collector current flowing
through Re will be the zero signal
current as shown in Fig. 5C extend- 2

ing to point 1 on the curve. But when

the voltage applied across R1 swings o ___ i
3 5
_/\/__ OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
positive to point 2 in Fig. 5B, the
emitter end of this resistor is posi- 4

tive, and the end connected to the

battery will be negative. This means Fig. 5. Voltage waveforms for the circuit
that the voltage will be in series with of Fig. 4.

7
through the transistor, which will the emitter current does not reach
reduce the number of electrons flow- the collector, the collector current
ing through Re. When the number of will be less than the emitter cur-
electrons flowing through this resis- rent. Technicians say that the cur-
tor decreases, the voltage drop rent gain is less than 1. For ex-
across the resistor decreases with ample, if the current in the emitter
the result that the end of the resis- circuit increases by 1 milliampere,
tor connected to the collector will the current in the collector circuit
become less positive with respect will increase, but the increase will
to the other end. This means that be something less than 1 milliam-
when the input signal swings from pere.
point 3 to point 4 on the input curve Two other characteristics of a
as shown in Fig. 5B, the signalvolt- transistor amplifier that are im-
age appearing across Re will swing portant are the input impedance and
from point 3 to point 4 as shown in the output impedance. The input im-
Fig .5C. pedance is simply the ratio of the
If we once again remove the zero signal voltage over the signal cur-
signal current from our graph, we rent. If we represent the signal volt-
have the graph shown in Fig. 5D. age by e, ,and the signal current by
This represents the actual output and the impedance by Z ,N then the
signal voltage and, as you can readily input impedance will be:
see, it is in phase with the input
signal. Z, =
1,

CHARACTERISTICS OF The output impedance is the ratio

COMMON-BASE CIRCUITS of the output signal voltage over the
output signal current. If we repre-
Even though the action of the PNP sent the output signalvoltage byeour
transistor is quite different from and the output current by ioUT and
the action of the NPNtransistor,the the output impedance by ZouT ,then
net result using the common-base the output impedance will be:
circuit is the same with both types eo j T
ZouT
of transistors. In both cases we have io

the output voltage in phase with the

input voltage, and we have voltage If we examine the common-base
amplification. In other words, the circuit shown in Fig. 2, we see that
output signal voltage is greater than the input voltage is applied across
the input signal voltage. R 1. This will cause some signal cur-
You will remember that when you rent to flow through the resistor Rl.
studied this circuit in the preceding In addition, the entire emitter cur-
lesson you learned that not all ma- rent drawn by the transistor must
jority carriers leaving the emitter flow through Rl. Therefore, even
and crossing the emitter-base junc- with the small signal voltage the
tion will reach the collector. Some signal current must be quite high.
of these carriers will be attracted This means that the ratio of the volt-
by the potential of the emitter-base age divided by the current will be low
battery and flow out of the base to or, in other words, we will have a
the battery. Therefore, since all of low input impedance.

8
 On the other hand, since the stage shown at A and the grounded-grid
is capable of giving voltage gain,the circuit shown at B. The battery
output voltage which will be de- shown between the grid and the cath-
veloped across Re will be much ode of the grounded-grid circuit is
higher than the input voltage. At the seldom found in practice, because
same time, since the collector cur- resistor R1 can be made to supply
rent is less than the emitter cur- the bias required by the tube or, in
rent the signal current flowing in some instances, a resistor placed
the output will be lower than the in the grid circuit is used todevelop
signal current flowing in the input. bias. In this case the grid resistor
Therefore the output impedance will will be bypassed by a capacitor.
be considerably higher than the input
impedance. In fact, the output imped-
SUMMARY
ance will be quite high. Therefore in
the common-base amplifier we have The common-base circuit has a
a very low input impedance and a very low input impedance and ahigh
reasonably high output impedance. output impedance. This output volt-

age is in phase with the input volt-

COMMON-BASE AND age and is greater than the input
OROUNDED-GRID voltage. The current gain of the stage
CIRCUITS COMPARED is less than one. A common-base
circuit is often used in applications
The common-base circuit is often where we want to match a low im-
compared to the grounded-grid vac- pedance to a high impedance.
uum tube circuit. The two circuits
are shown in Fig. 6for comparison
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
purposes. Notice the similarity be-
tween the common-base circuit (a) In the common-base circuit, is
it possible to get acurrent gain?
(b) What is the phase relationship
between the amplified signal
voltage and the input signal
voltage in a common-base cir-
cuit?
(c) What are the majority carriers
in a common-base circuit using
a PNP transistor?
(d) Why is it possible to get avolt-
age gain ina common-base am-
plifier circuit even though we do
not have a current gain?
(e) What are the relative input and
output impedances of the com-
mon-base amplifier circuit?
Fig. 6. Comparison of a common-base tran- (f) To what type of vacuum tube
sistor circuit (A) with a grounded-grid circuit can the common-base
vacuum tube circuit (11). circuit be compared?

9
 The Common-Emitter Circuit
The most frequently used transis- tive terminal of Bi and flow to the
tor circuits are the common-emitter emitter. They cross the emitter-
circuits shown in Fig. 7. The circuit base junction, then flow through the
shown at A is for an NPN transistor, base, across the base-collector
and the circuit shown at B is for a junction, and through resistor Re to
PNP transistor. Battery BI in both the positive terminal of B2.
cases provides the forward bias In the circuit shown in Fig. 7Bthe
needed for the emitter-base junc- electrons are attracted from the
tion, and battery B2 provides the emitter by the positive potential of
reverse bias needed for the base- B1 and flow to the positive terminal
collector junction. In Fig. IA battery of Bi. The electrons leaving the
Bi was connected sothat the emitter emitter leave holes behind. These
was made negative with respect to holes flow through the emitter,
the base. In Fig. 7A the emitter is across the emitter-base junction,
also made negative with respect to through the base, across the base-
the base. This provides forward bias collector junction, and to the termi-
for the emitter-base junction of the nal of the collector. Here the holes
NPN transistor. are filled by electrons supplied by
The solid arrows on the two dia- battery B2. The electrons from B2
grams in Fig. 7 indicate the direc- leave the negative terminal of the
tion of electron flow in the circuit. battery, flow through the collector
In Fig. 7A electrons leave the nega- resistor Re and to the terminal of
the collector.
Notice the difference between
these circuits and the common-base
circuits shown in Fig. 1.In the com-
mon-base circuits, the useful tran-
sistor current flows through the in-
put resistor RI, whereas in the cir-
cuits shown in Fig. 7, the useful
transistor current does not flow
through Rl. The result is that the
common-emitter circuit has amuch
higher input resistance than the
common-base circuit. This is an ad-
vantage because it means that the
generator driving the common-
emitter circuit does not have to have
such a low output impedance.
Notice that in the two circuits
shown in Fig. 7 electrons flow
through the collector resistor Re in
opposite directions. In the circuit
Fig. 7. Common-emitter circuits for (A) an shown at A, the electrons flow from
NPN transistor, and (B) a PNP transistor. the collector through the resistor to

10
the battery, making the end of the Fig. 8A. Now when the input signal
resistor connected to the collector swings in a positive direction so that
negative with respect to the other the end of R1 connected to the base
end. In the circuit shown at B,elec- is positive and the end connected to
trons flow from the negative termi- ground is negative, the voltage
nal of B2 to the collector, making across resistor R1 will be in series
the end of the resistor connected to with the voltage of battery Bi. This
the battery negative with respect to will increase the forward bias ap-
the end connected to the collector. plied across the emitter-base junc-
In other words, the polarity of the tion of the transistor. This will in-
voltage across Re in the circuit crease the number of electrons
shown in Fig. 7A is opposite to the crossing the emitter-base junction
polarity of the voltage across Re and hence increase the number of
in the circuit shown in Fig. 7B. Now electrons flowing through the tran-
let us see how this type of circuit sistor to the collector. Therefore
works. the number of electrons flowing
through resistor Re will increase,
A COMMON-EMITTER and the voltage drop across the re-
NPR AMPLIFIER sistor will increase, making the end
of the resistor connected to the col-
A common-emitter circuit using lector more negative with respect to
an NPN transistor is shown in Fig.
7A. As in the common-base circuit o
you just studied, battery B2 is alow
impedance (or can be bypassed by a
o o
capacitor to make it act like a low VOLTAGE
o
AT COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE AT COL-

LECTOR END OF Re

impedance); therefore, the end of END OF Re

Re connected to the battery is at sig- O

nal ground potential. Since current 2

flows through the resistor in the di-

INPUT INPUT
rection shown by the arrows ,the end SIGNAL SIGNAL
VOLTAGE
of Rc connected to the collector will VOLTAGE

be negative with respect to the end O

connected to the battery. The po- e

larity of the end of the resistor con- o 5
VOLTAGE
nected to the collector can be repre- 5 ACROSS
Rc
VOLTAGE
sented by the straight line drawn ACROSS O
Rc
below the zero axis as shown by
curve 1 of Fig. 8A. 4

Now let us consider what happens

when an input signal is applied tothe
o
5 5
input, as shown in curve 2of Fig. 8A. OUTPUT OUTPUT
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
At point 1, the input voltage is zero,
and the only current flowing through
the transistor is caused by the bat- Fig. A. Voltage %%aveforms for the circuits
tery voltages. The signal voltage of Fig. 7. (A) is for the NPN transistor
across Re at that instant is zero and circuit, and (1)) is for the ¡'NP transistor
identified at point 1 on curve 3 of circuit.

11
 the end connected to the battery. nent of the total voltage appearing
Thus the output voltage will swing in across the resistor Re. Again, this
a negative direction to point 2on the de component can easily be removed
output voltage curve, 3 of Fig. M. by connecting a capacitor in series
As the input voltage drops back to with one of the output leads.
zero, the forward bias applied Compare the output voltage curve
across the emitter-base junction shown in 4 of Fig. M with the input
will decrease until, when the signal voltage shown in 2 of Fig. 8A.Notice
voltage reaches point 3, the forward that when the input voltage swings
bias will be made up of only the bat- positive to point 2, the output voltage
tery voltage and zero-signal current swings negative to point 2. Similarly,
will be flowing through Re. The volt- when the input voltage swings in a
age across Re will drop to point 3 negative direction to point 4, the out-
on the output voltage curve, 3of Fig. put voltage swings in a positive di-
8A. rection to point 4. This means that
When the polarity of the input sig- when the input is going in a positive
nal reverses, making the end of R1 direction, the output is going in a
that is connected to the base nega- negative direction. In other words,
tive and the end connected to ground the output signal voltage appearing
positive, the input voltage across across the load resistor Re is 180°
resistor R1 will oppose the bias volt- out-of-phase with the input signal
age applied between the emitter and voltage appearing across Rl. From
base by battery Bi. Thus the forward this we can conclude that when an
bias applied across the emitter-base NPN transistor is used in acommon-
junction will decrease, and the cur- emitter circuit, the amplified output
rent flowing across this junction will voltage will be 180° out-of-phase
decrease. When the current flowing with the input voltage. Also notice
across this junction decreases, the when comparing curve 4 with curve
•collector current, and hence the cur- 2 that the amplitude of curve 4 is
rent flowing through load resistor greater than the amplitude of curve
Re ,will decrease. When the current 2. In other words, there is avoltage
flowing through this resistor de- gain in this circuit.
creases, the voltage drop across it
will decrease, and the voltage at the A COMMON-EMITTER
end of the resistor connected to the PAP AMPLIFIER
collector will approach zero. This
is represented by point 4 on curve Although we have a somewhat dif-
3 of Fig. M. ferent situation in a common-emit-
Finally, when the input signal volt- ter amplifier using a PNP transis-
age again drops to zero as shown at tor, the net result is the same.
point 5 on curve 2 of Fig. 8A, the In a common-emitter amplifier
voltage across Re will again in- using a PNP transistor, as shown
crease in a negative direction until in Fig. 7B, the electron current
it reaches point 5 on curve 3 of Fig. through resistor Rc is in the opposite
8A. direction to what it was in the am-
In curve 4 we have shown the out- plifier using the NPN transistor. In
put signal voltage that can be ob- the PNP amplifier, the electrons
tained by removing the de compo- flow from the negative terminal of

12
battery B2, through load resistor 1 to point 2 on curve 3 of Fig. 8B.
Re into the collector to fill the holes When the input signal applied
crossing the base-collector junc- across R1 swings in a negative di-
tion. The electrons flowing through rection so that the end of R1 that is
load resistor Re set up a voltage connected to the base is negative
drop across it havinga polarity such and the end connected to ground is
that the end of the resistor connected positive, the voltage across resis-
to the collector is positive with re- tor R1 will be in series with the
spect to the end connected to the bat- voltage of battery B1 and will add
tery, as shown in Fig. 7B. Thus, if to the forward bias applied across
we plot the voltage at the collector the emitter-base junction by the bat-
end of this resistor with respect to tery. This increased forward bias
the other end we have a curve like will result in an increase in the num-
the one shown in 1 of Fig. 8B. Here ber of holes crossing the emitter-
the zero-signal voltage across Re is base junction which will, in turn,
represented by a straight line drawn mean that there will be an increase
above the zero voltage axis to indi- in the number of holes reaching the
cate the fact that this voltage is posi- collector. If more holes reach the
tive. collector, more electrons will have
Now, when an input signal like the to flow through the output load re-
one shown in curve 2 of Fig. 8B is sistor, Itc, to fill these holes. The
applied across R1, the collector cur- result will be that the voltage drop
rent will vary as before. When the across this resistor will increase
input signal swings positive so that above the zero-signal voltage level,
the end of R1 that is connected tothe and the end of Re connected to the
base is positive and the end con- collector will become more positive
nected to ground is negative, the with respect to the end connected to
voltage across R1 will oppose the B2. This increase in voltage is shown
voltage of battery Bi, thus reducing as point 4 on curve 3 in Fig. 8B.
the forward bias applied across the The complete cycle across Re ob-
emitter-base junction. When the for- tained with an input voltage such as
ward bias is reduced, the number of shown in curve 2 is shown in curve
holes crossing this junction and 3 of Fig. 8B. When the dc component
traveling through the base, across across resistor Re is removed, we
the base-collector junction to the have the results shown by curve 4of
collector terminal is reduced. lithe Fig. 8B. Notice that once again the
number of holes reaching the col- output signal is 180° out-of-phase
lector is reduced, the number of with the input signal.
electrons flowing through Re to fill By comparing the NPN amplifier
the holes reaching the collector will with the PNP amplifier, you can im-
be reduced. Hence the voltage drop mediately see that, although the ac-
across Re will decrease, in other tion is somewhat different inthe two
words drop toward zero. This is circuits, the net results are the
shown by curve 3 of Fig. 8B. When same. In both cases we have voltage
the input voltage shown in curve 2 amplification, and in both cases we
swings in the positive direction, find that in the common-emitter cir-
from point 1 to point 2, the output cuit the output signal is 180° out-of-
voltage across Re moves from point phase with the input. Another way of

13
saying this is that acommon-emitter
amplifier reverses the phase of the
signal.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMMON-EMITTER
CIRCUIT

The common-emitter circuit is

the most important of all transistor
circuits; it is by far the most widely
used.
It is quite easy to get relatively
high gain using the common-emitter
circuit. Voltage gains from 80 to Fig. 9. Comparison of common-emitter tran-
100 are quite easily obtained. You sistor circuit (A) and grounded-cathode
can also obtain a current gain with vacuum-tube circuit (13).
this circuit.
Although the input impedance of circuit, it is possible to obtain volt-
this circuit is not as high as the in- age gains of 80 to 100, and the phase
put impedance of a vacuum tube cir- is shifted 180° .
cuit, it is substantially higher than In order to help you see the simi-
the input impedance of the common- larity between these two circuits,
base circuit. Therefore it can be the common-emitter circuit and the
driven by a much higher impedance grounded-cathode vacuum tube cir-
device than a common-base circuit. cuit are shown in Fig. 9. The bat-
In a typical common-emitter circuit tery shown in the cathode circuit of
we usually have an input impedance the grounded-cathode amplifier is
of somewhere between 1000 and 2000 not found in actual practice because
ohms. The output impedance is not a resistor can be used in this circuit
quite as high as the output imped- to avoid the necessity of this extra
ance of the common-base circuit, battery. You will see later that simi-
but it is still high, usually having a lar arrangements are used in tran-
value of around 20,000 ohms. sistor circuits to avoid the necessity
of using two batteries to operate a
single stage.
COMMON-EMITTER AND
GROUNDED-CATHODE
SUMMARY
CIRCUITS COMPARED
The common-emitter circuit is the
Because of circuit similarities most frequently used transistor cir-
and performance similarities, the cuit. The voltage gain is from 80 to
common-emitter circuit can be 100 and there is also considerable
compared to the grounded-cathode current gain. It has a medium input
vacuum tube circuit. The grounded- resistance and an output resistance
cathode is the most common of all of about 20,000 ohms. The output sig-
vacuum tube circuits. With it, as nal is 180° out-of-phase with the in-
with the common-emitter transistor put signal.

14
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS ance of the common-base cir-
cuit?
(g) Is it possible to get a current (i) Draw schematic diagrams of
gain using the common-emit- common-emitter circuits using
ter circuit? NPN and PNP transistors. You
(h) What is the relationship be- should do this from memory
tween the input signal voltage since it is important that you
and the amplified output signal remember these circuit con-
voltage? figurations.
(i) How does the input impedance (k) To what vacuum tube circuit
of the common-emitter circuit can the common-emitter cir-
compare with the input imped- cuit be compared?

15
The Common-Collector Circuit
The third possible circuit con- base circuits shown in Fig. 1and the
figuration using a triode transistor common-emitter circuits shown in
is the common-collector circuit. In Fig. 7. Let's see how each of these
this type of circuit the collector is circuits works.
operated at signal ground potential.
Although this circuit is not found as A COMMON-COLLECTOR
often as the common-emitter cir- NPN AMPLIFIER
cuit, it does have some characteris-
tics that are useful in some special In the circuit shown in Fig. 10A,
applications. electrons flow from the negative ter-
A common-collector circuit using minal of Bi through the emitter re-
an NPN transistor is shown in Fig. sistor Re to the emitter. They flow
10A, and one using aPNPtransistor across the emitter-base junction,
is shown in Fig. 10B. The arrows on through the base, across the base-
the diagram in Fig. 10A show the collector junction, to the positive
direction of electron flow through terminal of B2. Battery B1 biases
the circuit. The solid arrows in 10B the emitter-base junction in a for-
show the electron flow, and the out- ward direction, whereas B2 biases
lined arrow indicates the direction the base-collector junction in a re-
of hole movement through the PNP verse direction.
transistor. Compare the circuits Electrons flowing through Re set
shown in Fig. 10 with the common- up a voltage drop across Re withthe
polarity indicated on the diagram.
The end of the resistor connected to
the emitter is positive with respect
to the end connected to the battery.
If we plot the voltage at the emitter
end of the resistor, it will be like
curve 1 of Fig. 11A. The voltage is
represented by a straight line drawn
above the zero voltage axis to indi-
cate that it is positive with respect
to the other end of the resistor.
Now let us consider what happens
when an input signal like that shown
by curve 2 of Fig. 11A is applied
across the input terminals. When
this signal swings in a positive di-
rection from point 1to point 2, the
end of R1 connected to the base will
be positive and the other end will be
negative.
Fig. 10. Common-collector circuits. (A) This means that the voltage across
for an NPN transistor, and (B) for a PNP R1 will be in series with battery Bi
transistor. and will add to the forward bias ap-

16
 VOLTAGE AT
o 0 tracts from the total voltage across
EMITTER END OF Re the emitter-base junction. You will

o o notice that the voltage across Re

O

VOLTAGE AT
opposes the voltage of battery
O EMITTER END OF Re Therefore an increase in the volt-
age across Re results in an increase
2 in the opposition tothe voltage of bat-
tery Bi. When the input signal swings
5 in a positive direction, the voltage
INPUT
SIGNAL
INPUT across Re increases, opposing the
SIGNAL
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE increase in emitter-base voltage
producing it. In other words, we have
• 100% voltage feedback. All of the am-
O
plified voltage appearing across Re
VOLTAGE opposes the input voltage producing
ACROSS
4 Rs It.
O
4 VOLTAGE
When the voltage across R1 swings
ACROSS
Re
in a negative direction as shown be-
tween points 3 and 4 on the input
voltage curve, 2 of Fig. 11A, the in-
put voltage will oppose the voltage of
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
battery Bi. This will reduce the
emitter-base bias, resulting in
fewer electrons crossing the emit-
Fig. 11. Voltage waveforms for the circuits ter-base junction. This means that
of Fig. 10. (A) is for the N1'N transistor the current flowing in the circuit
circuit; (B) is for the PM' transistor cir- will decrease, and therefore the
cuit. voltage across Re will decrease.
This is shown between points 3 and
plied across the emitter-base Junc- 4 on curve 3 of Fig. 11A. This de-
tion. This will increase the flow of crease in the voltage across Re will
electrons across this junction, and result in a reduction of the opposi-
hence increase the current flow tion of this voltage to the voltage of
through the circuit and through Re. battery Bi. In other words, we again
The increase in current through Re have a situation where the output
will result in an increase in the volt- signal voltage being produced across
age drop across Re. This means that Re is opposing the input signal volt-
the end of the resistor connected to age producing it.
the emitter will become more posi- In curve 4 of Fig. 11A we have
tive with respect to the other end. shown the output voltage with the de
The change in the voltage is indi- component removed. Notice that this
cated by points 1 and 2 on curve 3 voltage is in phase with the input
of Fig. 11A. voltage. Also notice that this volt-
Let's stop for a minute and con- age is smaller than the input volt-
sider what happens to the voltage age. Since we have 100% voltage
applied across the emitter-base feedback in this circuit, the output
junction at this time. When the volt- voltage will always be less than the
tage across Re increases, it sub- input voltage. This situation is simi-

17
lar to the situation in the grounded- and the grounded end positive. The
plate or cathode-follower vacuum voltage across R1 will be in series
tube amplifier. This transistor cir- with battery B1 and will add to the
cuit is often compared to the emitter-base forward bias. This will
grounded-plate amplifier, and we result in an increase in the number
will soon see the similarity between of holes crossing the emitter-base
these two circuits. junction. More electrons will there-
fore be pulled out of the emitter to
A COMMON-COLLECTOR produce additional holes across this
PNP AMPLIFIER junction. The current flowing
through Re will increase, resulting
In the common-collector circuit in an increase in the voltage drop
using a PNP transistor, the polarity across Re. This increase is shown
of the voltage across Re is the op- between points 3 and 4 on curve 3of
posite of what it was with the NPN Fig. 11B.
transistor. Thus the voltage at the Once again we have shown the out-
emitter end of resistor Re is repre- put signal voltage in curve 4. Notice
sented by a straight line drawn be- this is identical to the output signal
low the zero signal axis as shown by voltage obtained with the NPN tran-
curve 1 of Fig. 11B. In curve 2 of sistor. Notice that although the basic
Fig. 11B we have shown an input sig- operation of the two circuits is
nal similar to the one shown in curve somewhat different, the net result is
2 of Fig. 11A. When this input signal the same. In both cases we have 100%
swings in a positive direction sothat voltage feedback, so the output is
the end of R1 connected to the base less than the input. Also notice that
is positive and the grounded end is in both cases the output signal volt-
negative, the voltage across R1 will age is in phase with the input signal
oppose the voltage of battery Bi. voltage.
This will reduce the forward bias
applied across the emitter-base CHARACTERISTICS OF
junction and reduce the number of COMMON-COLLECTOR
holes crossing this junction. You will CIRCUITS
remember that holes are formed in
the emitter by pulling the electrons The common-collector circuit has
off the emitter. If fewer holes are several interesting characteristics.
formed, fewer electrons will be It has the highest input impedance
pulled off the emitter, and hence the of the three circuits. You can see
current flowing through Re will de- why this is true if you refer to Fig.
crease. When the current flowing 10. The input impedance will be the
through Re decreases, the voltage ratio of the input voltage over the
drop across Re decreases. This can input current. The voltage applied
be seen between points 1 and 2 on across resistor R1 will cause acer-
curve 3 of Fig. 11B. tain current to flow through it. In
When the input voltage applied addition, this input voltage will cause
across R1 swings in a negative di- a signal current to flow from the
rection as between points 3 and 4 of emitter, through the transistor, to
curve 2, the end of resistor R1 con- the collector. In the circuit shown
nected to the base will be negative in Fig. 10A, part of the electrons

18
travelling from the emitter to the output voltage, there is very little
collector will be attracted by the voltage to produce feedback into the
base and hence will flow through Rl. input circuit which could cause in-
However, since the output signal stability or oscillation. Also, there
voltage subtracts from the input sig- is no phase reversal in the circuit
nal voltage insofar as signal volt- and therefore the output voltage is
age applied between base and emit- in phase with the input voltage.
ter is concerned, the actual signal We have redrawn the common-
current flowing through the transis- collector circuit in Fig. 12A to make
tor will be quite small. Therefore it easier to compare it with a cath-
the total input signal current will ode-follower or grounded-plate
be small and this, in turn, will re- vacuum tube circuit shown in Fig.
sult in the input impedance being 12B. Notice the similarity between
high. On the other hand, the output the cathode - follower and common
impedance of the transistor will be collector circuit.
low. This is due to the fact that the
emitter signal current flows through
the resistor Re and that very little
voltage will be developed across this
resistor. As a matter of fact, the INPUT OUTPUT

voltage cannot be equal to the input

signal voltage because if it was it
would cancel the signal voltage en-
tirely. Therefore, since the output o
voltage is small, the ratio of the
voltage divided by the current will
be small and the output impedance
will be low.
In a common-collector circuit the
voltage gain is always less than one.
This means that the output voltage
will always be less than the input
voltage. We have already pointed
out that this must be true because
otherwise the output voltage would Fig. 12. Comparison of a common-collector
completely cancel the input voltage. transistor circuit (..it) and a cathode-follow-
Of course, this is impossible be- er vacuum-tube circuit (W.
cause it is the input voltage that
causes the current change through Because the common-collector
the transistor which in turn develops circuit has a high input impedance
the output voltage. All of the output and a low output impedance it is often
voltage is fed back into the input used as an impedance matching de-
circuit and therefore we say that we vice to match a relatively high im-
have 100% voltage feedback. pedance to a low impedance. An ex-
The common-collector circuit has cellent use of this type of circuit is
the best stability of the three tran- in the video amplifier of color TV
sistor circuits. This is what you receivers. In a color TV receiver
might expect because, with the low a delay line, that slows up or delays

19
the video signal, is used inthe video The common-base circuit is the
amplifier. This delay line is used so circuit in which the base is common
that the brightness signals beingfed to both the input and output circuits.
to the color picture tube will be It has a very low input resistance but
slowed down a little so that they will has the highest output resistance of
arrive at the picture tube at the same the three basic circuits. The current
time as the color signal. A delay gain is always less than 1, but this
line is a comparatively low imped- type of circuit is quite stable. In
ance device and the common-collec- fact, temperature changes have little
tor circuit provides an excellent effect on the operation of the circuit,
method of matching from the higher whereas this is not always true of the
impedance video amplifier stages to common-emitter circuit. There is
the low impedance of the delaying no phase reversal in a voltage am-
line. It is quite likely that when more plifier used in this type of circuit;
transistorized color TV receivers in other words, the output voltage
are manufactured, this circuit will will be in phase with the input volt-
be very uscful in this application. age.
The common-collector amplifier
SUMMARY is an amplifier in which the collector
circuit is common to both the input
It is important for you to under- and output circuits. This circuit has
stand the three basic transistor cir- the highest input resistance, but the
cuits. You will find that transistors output resistance is very low; it may
in commercial equipment will be ar- be as low as 100 ohms. This is the
ranged in one of these three basic only one of the three circuits that
circuits. has a lower output resistance than
The most commonly used of the input resistance. In this circuit the
three circuits is the common-emit- voltage gain is always less than 1
ter circuit. In this circuit,the emit- because there is 100% voltage feed-
ter is common to both the input and back. The stability of this circuit is
the output circuits. It is operated at excellent--the best of the three cir-
signal ground potential. In the com- cuits. Again, there is no phase re-
mon-emitter circuit a voltage gain versal when this circuit is used;the
of from 80 to 100 can easily be ob- output voltage is in phase with the
tained. In addition ,
there will be con- input voltage.
siderable current gain in this cir-
cuit. Other important characteris- SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
tics of this circuit are a medium
input resistance, usually somewhere 1)What is the phase relationship
(
between 1000 and 2000 ohms, and between the output voltage and
an output resistance in the neighbor- the input voltage in a common-
hood of 20,000 ohms. You should also collector circuit?
remember that this is the voltage (m) What will the voltage gain of
amplifier circuit that produces a the common-collector circuit
18CP phase shift. In other words, the be?
output signal voltage will be 180° (n) What are the relative input and
out-of-phase with the input signal output impedances of the com-
voltage. mon-collector circuit?

20
(o) To what vacuum tube circuit the input signal voltage?
can we compare the common- (r) Which transistor circuits will
collector circuit? give you a voltage gain?
(p) In which transistor circuits will (s) Which transistor circuits will
you find an output voltage that give you a current gain?
is in phase with the input volt- (t) Which transistor circuits have
age? a relatively high input imped-
(q) Which transistor circuits give ance?
you an output signal voltage (u) Which transistor circuit has a
that is 180° out-of-phase with low output impedance?

21
 Transistor Characteristics
You will remember from your electrodes. For example, the emit-
study of tubes that they have certain ter current is represented by the
important characteristics that tell letter E or e. Base current is repre-
the technician a great dealabout how sented by B or b and collector cur-
the tube should perform. The impor- rent is represented by the letter C
tant tube characteristics are the or c. Using these symbols, the dc
mutual conductance, amplification emitter current is designated bythe
factor and plate resistance. Like- symbol 1E . The rms emitter current
wise, there are certain transistor is represented by the symbol Ie ,
and
characteristics that are important the instantaneous emitter current is
to the technician. They enable him represented by the symbol i e .Simi-

to compare one transistor with an- larly, de base current is represented

other and to get an idea of what to by Ig ,rms base current is repre-

expect from a transistor in a cer- sented by Ib, and instantaneous base

tain circuit. All of this information current is represented by ib. Collec-
is helpful in determining whether or tor de current is represented by l c,

not a transistor is performing the rms collector current is repre-

way it should. sented by l e ,and instantaneous col-

In addition, there are alarge num- lector current is represented by ie.

ber of symbols used in describing Two characteristics that are often
transistor performance. Many of referred to in transistors are the
these symbols are of interest only forward current and the reverse
to circuit designers and engineers, current. The symbol used to repre-
but the technician should be familiar sent the de forward current is I F,

with the more important ones and be and i r is used to represent the in-

able to evaluate from a transistor stantaneous-forward current. The

manual the important transistor dc reverse current is represented
characteristics. In this section of by I, and the instantaneous-reverse
this lesson we are going to cover current is represented by I.
some of the more important symbols You will remember that in normal
and transistor characteristics. operation a transistor is operated
with a forward bias across the emit-
TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS ter-base junction and areverse bias
across the base-collector junction.
As you might expect, the letter I Thus in an NPN transistor, current
is used to represent current in tran- can flow from the emitter, across
sistor circuits. When the capital the emitter-base junction, through
letter Iis used, it indicates de cur- the base, across the base-collector
rent or rms current. When the small junction and through the collector
letter iis used, it indicates instan- to the positive terminal of the bat-
taneous current. tery, placing the reverse bias across
Currents flowing in the various the base-collector junction. How-
transistor electrodes are identified ever, we also point out that there
by means of aletter representing the would be at all times some minority

22
carriers crossing the various junc- CURRENT GAIN
tions in a reverse direction. Thus
there will be a current flow across As we mentioned, a transistor is
the base-collector junction due to primarily acurrent operated device.
holes travelling from the collector Its ability to amplify is due to the
across the junction into the base. fact that it can transfer a current
This reverse current is kept as from a comparatively low resistant
small as possible because it con- circuit to ahigher-resistant circuit.
tributes «nothing to the usefulness One of the important characteris-
of the transistor. As a matter of tics of a transistor is its current
fact, the current crossing the junc- gain.
tion tends to heat the junction and Since the current gain that can be
cause a number of undesirable obtained with a transistor depends
effects. Transistor manuals often upon the circuit in which the tran-
list the reverse current across the sistor is used, two symbols are used
collector-base junction. The current for current gain. These symbols are
that is listed is the current that will the Greek letters alpha (a) which
flow across the junction when the represents the current gain in a
junction is reverse biased and the common-base circuit, and the Greek
emitter is open circuited. Th;_s de letter Beta (13), which is used to
current is represented by the sym- represent the current gain in acom-
bol - I c a 0 .The letters CB indicate mon-emitter circuit. The two are
that the current is across the col- interrelated; let's see how and ex-
lector-base junction in the reverse actly what each symbol means.
direction. The letter 0 indicates that Alpha.
the other electrode, the emitter, is Alpha is equal to the change in
open. This symbol is so widely used, collector current divided by the
that it is often abbreviated l c 0. change in emitter current needed to
Groups of symbols are used in this produce this change in collector cur-
manner to indicate other transistor rent. This is often represented by
current. For example, the symbol the symbols:
lc Eo is used to represent the de col-
A Ic
lector current with the collector Π=
A Ie
junction reverse biased and the base
open circuited. The small triangles are Greek letter
There are other symbols used in deltas, which are used to indicate a
conjunction with transistors, but the change; in this case, achange in cur-
ones covered in this section are the rent.
most important ones for the tech- You will remember that in acom-
nician to remember, along with the mon-base circuit the current gain
few new ones we will cover in the is less than 1because the change in
next section. If you read through this collector current is slightly less
section carefully and understand how than the change in emitter current.
these symbols are put together, the This is due to the fact that not all of
chances are that you will be able to the carriers crossing the emitter-
figure out any that you are likely to base junction reach the collector.
encounter that will be of importance Some of them are attracted to the
to you. battery in the emitter-base circuit,

23
and some of them are lost through Beta is another characteristic
recombination in the base. Thus the frequently found in transistor speci-
number of carriers reaching the col- fications. If you know the beta of a
lector will be slightly less than the transistor, you immediately know
number of carriers crossing the the current gain that the transistor
emitter-base junction. However, in will give when it is used in a com-
a good transistor the majority of the mon-emitter circuit. From this, as
carriers do reach the collector so you will soon see, you can also de-
that the current gain in the common- termine the current gain that will be
base circuit is close to 1. Typical obtained in the common-base cir-
values run around .95, which indi- cuit, if the value is not given in the
cates that 95% of the carriers cross- characteristics. The beta cut-off
ing the emitter-base junction reach frequency is the frequency at which
the collector. the current gain of the transistor in
Transistor manufacturers often a common-emitter circuit drops to
list the alpha of a transistor in the 70.7% of what it is at lower frequen-
transistor characteristics. This will cies.
immediately tell you what current Converting Values.
gain can be obtained from the tran- Manufacturers often give either
sistor used in a common-base cir- the alpha or the beta of atransistor,
cuit. Also, as you will see later, you but seldom both. Sometimes when the
can determine from this figure the alpha is given you want to know the
current gain that will be obtained in value of beta and vice versa. Actu-
the same transistor in a common- ally it is quite easy to convert from
emitter circuit. Another character- one to the other. If you know the alpha
istic often given is the alpha cut-off of a transistor you can find beta from
frequency. This is the frequency at the formula:
which the current gain of the tran- a
sistor in the common-base circuit e
drops to 70.7% of what it is at lower
frequencies. If you know the beta of a transistor
Beta. you can find alpha from the formula:
You will remember that in the
common-emitter circuit we had a a
0
_
current gain. This means that the
1 +e
value of beta will always be greater Now let 's work a couple of examples
than 1. to see how easy it is toconvert from
Beta is defined as the change in one value to the other. Let 's assume
collector current divided by the that we have a certain transistor
change in base current. It is often and the manufacturer lists the value
represented by the expression: of alpha as .95. Let's find the value
of beta.
A Ic
B —1- 713 Starting with the formula:

Again, the small triangles are used a

to indicate achange in current. Typi-
cal values of beta may run as high
as 80 or 100. We substitute .95 for alpha and get:

24
 .95 .95 Another characteristic or term
5-
1 - .95 _ .05 that is frequently used in transistor
manuals is the gain-bandwidth prod-
We can eliminate the decimals in uct. The gain-bandwidth product is
this division by moving both the deci- the frequency at which beta equals
mal points two places to the right so one. In other words, as the fre-
we have: quency at which the transistor is
95 _ 95 _ used is increased, the current gain
5 = ug- - --g- - 19 in the common-emitter circuit will
drop off. At some frequency beta
Thus if alpha is equal to .95, beta will be equal to one and this is called
will be equal to 19. the gain-bandwidth product.
Now let's assume we have been
given the value of beta as 19and see CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
what value of alpha we get. We know
it should be .95. Starting with the When you studied vacuum tubes,
formula: you learned that characteristics are
5 used to supply information about the
a =
1 +0 manner in which a given tube per-
forms. By means of curves a great
we substitute 19 for beta and get: deal of information about the tube
can be condensed and presented in
= 19 19 a convenient form. It is possible to
a 1 + 19 - 20 see what the tube will do with dif-
ferent operating voltages and under
to get the value of alpha we need different operating conditions.
only divide 19 by 20: Transistor characteristic curves
are used for exactly the same rea-
.95
20/19.0 son. The curves give information
about the way in which a transistor
18 0
will perform in a convenient com-
1 00
pact form.
_1-.0._
A typical set of characteristic
so we get a value of .95 for alpha if transistor curves is shown in Fig.
we start with 19 for beta. 13. These curves are for a transis-
Sometimes the gain of a transis- tor used in a common-emitter cir-
tor is referred to as a forward cur- cuit. They indicate what the collec-
rent-transfer ratio. In other words, tor current will be with different
instead of referring to the gain in values of collector-to-emitter volt-
a common-base circuit we say that ages and with different base cur-
the forward current-transfer ratio rents. This type of curve is the most
is alpha; we know this will always be widely used transistor characteris-
less than one. Similarly, in the com- tic curve.
mon-emitter circuit we refer to beta The curves shown in Fig. 13 can be
as the forward current-transfer used to determine the beta of atran-
ratio which, in effect, is the same sistor for different collector-to-
thing as the current gain of the tran- emitter voltages. For example, at a
sistor. voltage of -4 volts, notice that when

25
 -20

-0.1

-6 -8 -10 -12
COLLECTOR-TO-EMITTER VOLTS

Courtesy RCA
Fig. 13. Typical collector characteristic curves for a transistor used in a common-emitter
circuit for different base currents.

the base current changes from -.3 -33 milliamperes. Thus for the
milliamperes to -.4 milliamperes change in base current of -.1 mawe
the collector current changes from have a change in collector current
approximately -26 milliamperes to of -7 ma. Therefore:
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1.0 0.5 0 -4 -8 -12 -16 -20 -24 -28

Collector to Base Voltage (Vcb )-Volts

Courtesy Raytheon Mfg. Co.

Fig. 14. Typical characteristic curves for a PNP transistor used in a common-base cir-
cuit for different emitter currents.

26
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0 —0.05 —0.1 —0.15 —0.2 —0.25

BASE—TO—EMITTER VOLTS (Vim)
Courtesy RCA
Fig. 15. A typical transfer curve.

-7 70 from a curve of this type.The curve

-.1 1 also indicates the range over which
the transistor is comparatively
Another set of transistor charac- linear. For example, with the base-
teristic curves for a PNP transis- to-emitter voltage of 100 millivolts,
tor is shown in Fig. 14. This set of you can see that the collector cur-
curves is for a transistor used in a rent changes will not be linear with
common-base circuit. Curves of this changes in input voltage. However,
type are not given as often as those with a fixed base-to-emitter voltage
shown in Fig. 13 for the common- of about -175 millivolts, small
emitter circuit, since the common- changes in this voltage will result
emitter circuit is more widely used in linear current changes.
than the common-base circuit.
However, manufacturers often re- SUMMARY
lease detailed specification sheets
on certain transistor types where In this section of the lesson we
curves of this type are given. have touched briefly on some of the
Another characteristic curve that important transistor characteris-
is frequently given is the transfer tics. You learned that alpha is aterm
characteristic curve, shown in Fig. used to represent the current gain
15, which enables you to find the of a transistor in a common-base
collector current for different base- circuit. The alpha of a transistor is
to-emitter voltages at a fixed col- always less than 1,which means that
lector-to-emitter voltage. An in- the current gain of a transistor in a
dication of the collector current common-base circuit is always less
change that might be expected with than one.
a given input voltage can be obtained Beta is the symbol used to repre-

27
sent the current gain of atransistor cuit to determine whether or not it
in a common-emitter circuit. The is operating properly. Being able
common-emitter circuit always has to do this is a great help to a tech-
a current gain, and therefore the nician because he is able to deter-
value of beta will always be greater mine whether or not he is getting
than 1. Remember aIs othat the value all he should be able to get out of
of beta is not constant; it depends a particular circuit.
to some extent upon the collector SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
current.
You studied anumber of important What are the symbols used to
symbols that are used in transistor represent the de currents in
manuals to describe transistor per- the various transistor elec-
formance and in many technical trodes?
bulletins on transistor circuitry. What is meant by the symbol
The characteristic curves studied ICB ?
in this lesson are typical of charac- (x) Based on the transistor sym-
teristic curves issued by transistor bols you studied in this section
manufacturers. They give you an in- of this lesson, what would you
dication of what the collector cur- expect the symbol Vc E tornean?
rent will be for different values of (Y) What is the Greek letter aused
collector voltage and different to represent in transistor cir-
values of emitter or base currents cuitry?
depending upon whether the transis- (z) What is the maximum value that
tor is used in a common-base or a a can have?
common-emitter circuit. (aa) What is meant by the forward
Transistors are newcomers tothe current-transfer ratio in a
electronics field compared to vacu- common-base circuit ?
um tubes. As a result, from time (ab) What symbol is used to repre-
to time you may see different types sent the current gain of atran-
of characteristic curves on transis- sistor in the common-emitter
tors issued by manufacturers.How- circuit?
ever, by studying the curves and the (ac) What is meant by the alpha cut-
information given by the manufac- off frequency?
turer on the transistor you can usu- (ad) What is the gain bandwidth
ally learn a great deal about the product of a transistor?
transistor and the type of perform- (ae) If the beta of a transistor is 24,
ance you would expect from it, and what is the value of alpha ?
from this information you can (d) Find the beta value of a tran-
evaluate its performance in the cir- sistor if alpha is equal to .99.

28
 Typical Transistor Circuits
So far the circuits we have dis- ted to the base through the resistor
cussed have been basic transistor Rl. This would tend to make the
circuits. The circuits could be used base positive with respect to the
in essentially these forms, but it is emitter, which is what we want in
more convenient to modify these cir- order to place aforward bias across
cuits slightly in actual usage. the emitter-base junction. You will
The disadvantage of the circuits remember that some of the elec-
we have shown is that they use two trons travelling from the emitter
separate batteries, one to supply across the junction into the base
the forward bias required across leave the transistor through the base
the emitter-base junction and asec- connection. These electrons will
ond battery to supply the reverse flow through the resistor R1 and set
bias required across the base-col- up a voltage drop across the resis-
lector junction. In actual practice, tor having the polarity shown. Al-
these circuits are modified so that though the number of electrons flow-
both voltages can be obtained from a ing through R1 will be very small,
single voltage source. In battery- by using a large value resistor for
operated equipment this eliminates R1 we can develop considerable volt-
the need for a second battery. In age drop across it. Therefore even
equipment that operates from a though the base is connected directly
power line, it simplifies the power to the positive terminal of the bat-
supply somewhat so that the power tery through R1, the voltage drop
supply can be arranged to provide across R1 subtracts from the bat-
either a positive or a negative volt- tery voltage so that the net emitter-
age with respect to ground instead base voltage is quite small. Usu-
of having to supply both positive and ally the base will be positive with
negative voltages. respect to the emitter by only a few
In this section of this lesson we tenths of a volt, which is all that is
will look at a number of typical required to forward bias the junc-
transistor amplifier stages. tion.
The collector is connected to the
AUDIO AMPLIFIERS positive terminal of the battery
through R2. The value of R2 is chosen
A typical common-emitter audio
NP/1 C2
amplifier circuit using an NPN tran-
sistor is shown in Fig. 16. Notice
that the circuit is somewhat differ-
ent from the common-emitter cir-
cuits you have seen previously in-
asmuch as only one battery is used
in this circuit. Notice that the nega-
tive terminal of the battery is con-
nected to the emitter. The positive Fig. 16. A common-emitter audio amplifier
terminal of the battery is connec- using an NIIN transistor.

29
so that the current flowing through it
will result in a voltage drop across
the resistor that is less than the volt-
age drop across Rl. This means that
the collector is positive with respect
to the base, which is again the con-
dition required to place a reverse
bias across the base-collector junc-
tion. Fig. 17. A common-emitter audio amplifier
In operation, the input signal
using a PNP transistor.
causes the base-emitter forward
bias to vary. This in turn causes the
number of electrons crossing the tive terminal of the battery is con-
emitter-base junction to vary and nected to the base of the transistor
hence the collector current varies. through Rl. This places a negative
The varying collector current flow- voltage on the base with respect to
ing through the resistor R2 will re- the emitter, which will forward bias
sult in an amplified signal voltage the emitter-base junction. As in the
being developed across R2. This am- previous case, however, the entire
plified signal voltage is fed to the voltage will not be applied across the
load through the coupling capacitor emitter-base junction because of the
C2. voltage drop across Rl. Some elec-
In a typical circuit you will often trons will flow from the negative ter-
find that both C1and C2 are electro- minal of the battery through R1 and
lytic capacitors. Electrolytic ca- into the base of the transistor to fill
pacitors are used because the im- holes. This will result in a voltage
pedances found in transistor circuits drop across R1 having the polarity
are much lower than those found in shown in the diagram. This voltage
vacuum tube circuits. You will re- drop will subtract from the battery
member that the capacitor Cl will voltage so that once again the for-
act as a voltage divider along with ward emitter-base bias is only afew
R1 and divide the input signal in tenths of a volt.
such a way that part of it will ap- In this circuit, as in the previous
pear across the capacitor and part circuit, the voltage drop across R2
of it will appear across the transis- will be less than the voltage drop
tor input impedance. The amount that across R1, and therefore the collec-
will be lost across the capacitor will tor will be negative with respect to
depend upon its reactance in com- the base so that we will have a re-
parison with the input impedance of verse bias across the base-collec-
the transistor. Therefore, to keep tor junction.
the reactance of the capacitor low, The operation of this circuit is
a large value capacitor is usually essentially the same as the opera-
used. tion of the circuit shown in Fig. 16.
Fig. 17 is a schematic of a com- The only exception is that in the
mon-emitter amplifier using a PNP transistor holes will be the ma-
transistor. Notice that the circuit is jority carriers whereas in the pre-
identical except that the battery is ceding NPN transistor, electrons
reversed. In this circuit, the nega- were the majority carriers.

30
Bias Stabilization. crease still further. This action will
In the circuit shown in Fig. 16 we continue until eventually the current
have used an NPN transistor. In the through the transistor becomes so
collector region, in addition to free high that the transistor is destroyed.
electrons which are the majority The simplest way to overcome this
carriers, there will be some free problem is to add a bias-stabilizing
holes. These holes, which are the resistor in series with the emitter
minority carriers will tend to cross lead. A typical circuit in which this
the collector-base junction and flow has been added is shown in Fig. 18.
into the base of the transistor.Some The bias-stabilizing resistor is
of the electrons travelling from the marked R3 on the diagram. Capaci-
emitter across the emitter-base tor C3 bypasses the signa 1 around
junction into the base will fill these this resistor to prevent degenera-
holes. This is one of the reasons tion.
why the collector current will al- If a transistor heats and the base-
ways be less than the emitter cur- collector junction resistance is
rent. Some of the holes, however, lowered in this circuit, we will have
will be filled by electrons that would the same situation as before; the re-
normally leave the transistor at the sistance will go down and the mi-
base and flow through R1. nority carriers crossing from the
If the temperature of the transis- collector into the base will increase.
tor increases, the resistance of the This will cause the current through
base-collector junction will de- R1 to go down which in turn will re-
crease, and this will allow additional duce the voltage drop across the re-
holes to cross from the collector into sistor and tend to increase the emit-
the base. This, in turn, will reduce ter-base forward bias.However,the
the number of electrons flowing increase in forward bias will tend
through R1 which will reduce the to cause the emitter current to in-
voltage drop across it. crease. This increase in current will
If the voltage drop across R1 is result in an increase in the voltage
reduced, the effective emitter-base drop across R3. Since this voltage
forward bias will be increased be- subtracts from the forward bias, it
cause this bias is equal to the battery will tend to keep the forward bias
voltage less the voltage dropacross across the emitter-base junction
Rl. The increase in forward bias reasonably stable. Although there
across the emitter-base junction will be some increase in current, it
will result in a higher emitter cur- is usually not large enough to damage
rent. This, in turn, will result in a the transistor.
higher current across the emitter-
base junction, through the base, and
across the base-collector junction.
The increase in current across the
base-collector junction will result
in a further increase in the tempera-
ture of this junction which in turn
will reduce the resistance again, Fig. 18. common-emitter circuit %% ith a
causing the number of minority car- bias stabilizing resistor in the emitter
riers crossing the junction to in- circuit.

31
Common-Base Amplifier. base current which flows only
The common-base circuit is through R 1. Thus any variations in
sometimes found in voltage ampli- base current will have little effect
fier circuits. This circuit is particu- on the base voltage which appears
larly useful in TV receivers where across R4. Capacitor C3 bypasses
some voltage amplification is re- R4 and assures that the base is
quired without a phase shift. You grounded for ac signals.
will remember that with acommon-
emitter type of amplifier circuit RF AMPLIFIERS
there is a 18CP phase shift,whereas
in a common-base circuit there is Radio frequency amplifiers are
no phase shift. almost always tuned amplifiers.
They make use of series-resonant
and parallel-resonant circuits so
that they can be tuned to accept one
signal and reject all others. If alow
resistance is connected across a
parallel-resonant circuit, the re-
sistance will load the circuit sothat
its selectivity will be destroyed. In
other words, it will be unable to se-
lect one signal and reject another.
This is one of the problems that we
Fig. 19. A single-battery common-base face with transistor rf amplifiers.
amplifier %%ith bias stabilization. Transistor amplifiers must take in-
to account the fact that transistors
The circuit shown in Fig. 19 is a are relatively low impedance de-
common-base circuit modified for vices and if they are connected di-
use with a single battery. R1 and R4 rectly across aresonant circuit they
make up a voltage divider which is will load the circuit and reduce the
connected across the battery. The selectivity.
forward bias, which is required for A typical transistor i-f amplifier
the emitter-base junction, is de- is shown in Fig. 20. Although this
veloped across R4.
N-P-N
The emitter resistor, R3, serves
two purposes in the common-base
amplifier. First, it is the impedance
across which the input signal is de-
veloped. Second, it acts as a bias-
stabilizing resistor. As a bias-
stabilizing resistor, it works exactly
like resistor R3 in Fig.18, reducing
the forward bias of the emitter-base
junction if the emitter current tends
to increase. Fig. 20. Transistor input impedance
Resistors R1 and R4 are chosen matched by a step-down input i -f trans-
such that the battery current through former and output impedance matched to
R1 and R4 is much greater than the tuned circuit by tapping down on coil.

32
is used as the intermediate fre- for you. The important point for you
quency amplifier in aradio receiver, to see is how the transistor is con-
it is still a radio frequency ampli- nected into the circuit and tounder-
fier since it is designed to amplify stand why this provision has been
radio frequency signals. made.
Notice that instead of using a One disadvantage of the circuit
double-tuned input transformer, as shown in Fig. 20 is that it is some-
used in i -f stages using tubes, a what unstable. This is due to the
single-tuned transformer is used. capacity and resistance across the
The secondary of the 1-f transformer base-collector junction. Energy can
has far fewer turns than the pri- be fed from the collector circuit to
mary. Therefore the transformer the base which is connected directly
acts like a step-down transformer. to the input circuit. If the energy fed
The low input impedance of the tran- back into the input circuit is of the
sistor does not load the primary of correct phase to reinforce or add to
the transformer which is aparallel- the input signal, the transistor may
resonant circuit. Insofar as the pri- go into oscillation and generate a
mary is concerned, the step-down signal of its own.
transformer effectively matches it Neutralization.
to the transistor so that excessive Two circuits that are used to over-
loading is avoided. come this undesirable effect are
In the output circuit, the collector shown in Fig. 21. In both of these
is connected to a tap on the primary circuits neutralization is used to
winding of a secondi-f transformer. overcome the undesirable effects of
The lower end of this transformer feedback.
primary is connected to the positive In the circuit shown in Fig. 21A,
terminal of the battery and is effec- tap 2 on the primary of the output
tively at signalground potential. The i-f transformer is operated at signal
upper end of the transformer is at ground potential. This tap on the
some comparatively high impedance transformer is grounded through the
with respect to ground. Somewhere .01-mfd capacitor connected from
along the transformer windingthere terminal 2 of the transformer to the
will be a point at which the imped- emitter. The collector is connected
ance of the transformer winding is to terminal 1 and signal currents
equal to the output impedance of the flowing between terminals 1 and 2
transistor. The idea is to connect will induce a voltage in the portion
the collector to this point and by so of the winding between terminals 2
doing match the collector tothe pri- and 3. Thus a voltage is set up at
mary winding of the transformer to terminal 3 having the opposite po-
get maximum signal transfer and at larity to the voltage in terminal 1.
the same time avoid loading the This voltage is fed through Cl back
parallel-resonant circuit. to the base of the transistor.
As a technician, you will not have Now, if sufficient energy is fed
to be concerned about finding the from the collector of the transistor
correct impedance point at which to across the base-collector junction to
connect a transistor to an 1-f trans- the base to cause instability, a sig-
former; the engineers who designed nal with the opposite polarity is fed
the set will have taken care of this through Cl to the base of the tran-

33
 N-P-N
The circuit shown in Fig. 21B is
similar to the circuit shown in Fig.
20 except that neutralization is added
by means of capacitor Cl connected
from the secondary of the output i -f
transformer back to the base. The
polarity of the signal voltage fed
through this capacitor to the base is
opposite to the polarity of the signal
voltage fed back through the transis-
tor itself across the base-collector
junction, so that these two signals
will tend to cancel.
When a circuit like the one shown
in Fig. 21B is used, the neutralizing
capacitor Cl will be somewhat
larger than the neutralizing capaci-
tor Cl shown in Fig. 21A because
there is quite a step-down in voltage
between the primary and secondary
windings of the i -f transformer.
Since Cl in Fig. 21B is connected
to the secondary, the voltage will be
considerably lower at this point than
Fig. 21. Two methods of neutralizing a
transistor i
-f stage. it is at the primary. Therefore, a
larger capacity is needed in order
S istor. These two signal voltages to feed sufficient voltage back tothe
tend to cancel each other so that base to prevent oscillation.The cir-
there is not sufficient net feedback cuit shown in Fig. 21B is somewhat
to the base to cause oscillation. less critical than the circuit shown
In this circuit the tuned part of in Fig. 212‘.
the output i -f transformer consists The gain obtained in an i -f stage
of the entire winding between ter- using a transistor is considerably
minals 1and 3. You will notice that less than that obtained in an i -f stage
this winding is tuned by a capacitor using a vacuum tube. As a result,
so that they form a parallel reso- many receivers using transistors in
nant circuit. Since terminal 2 is op- the i -f amplifier have two or more
erated at ground potential and the i -f stages. Most modern receivers
collector is connected to terminal using vacuum tubes, on the other
1, the transistor is connected across hand, have only one i -f stage.
only a portion of the i
-f transformer
so that it does not load the trans- OSCILLATOR AND MIXER
former excessively and reduce the STAGES
selectivity of the parallel resonant
circuit. At the same time, with this You will remember that modern
arrangement the instability that was radio receivers are superhetero-
encountered in the circuit shown in dyne receivers. In the superhetero-
Fig. 20 is avoided. dyne receiver, the signal being re-

34
ceived is mixed in the mixer or con- N-P-N

verter stage with a signal generated

in a local oscillator. Mixing these
two signals together results in the
formation of two new signals, one
with a frequency equal to the sum
of the two frequencies and the other
with a frequency equal to the differ-
ence between the two. Both signals
are modulated with the original in-
telligence being transmitted by the
+9V
broadcast station.
In modern receivers the differ- Fig. 23. A converter stage using one tran-
ence signal is amplified by the i -f sistor as both oscillator and mixer.
amplifier because the i -f amplifier
is tuned to this frequency. This sig- between the base and ground. This
nal is then fed to a detector where arrangement prevents the input im-
the audio signal is separated from pedance of the transistor from load-
the carrier, and then the audio sig- ing the tuned circuit. The signal from
nal is amplified further and fed to a the local oscillator is fed through
loudspeaker. Cl to L2 and hence to the base of
Typical mixer and oscillator cir- the mixer. In the mixer, the two
cuits are shown in Fig. 22. Here an signals beat together to produce the
NPN transistor is used in a com- desired i -f signal.
mon-emitter mixer circuit. The pri- The oscillator circuit uses an-
mary winding of the loop antenna, Li other NPN transistor in a common-
on the diagram, is inductively cou- emitter circuit. This circuit is one
pled to L2. The signal picked up by form of the Hartley Oscillator which
the loop is fed to L2 and then applied you have seen used previously with
MIXER I-F vacuum tubes.
LOOP
TRANSFORMER
The circuit shown in Fig.22 works
ANTENNA
well and seldom gives trouble; it's
TO I- F main disadvantage is that two tran-
LI STAGES
sistors are required. You are not
likely to see this arrangement ex-
cept in some of the more expensive
L2 / 1K
AVC + 6V transistor receivers. The usual
970
practice is to use one transistor as
/ »CI
/ 1.05 both the mixer and the oscillator.
10 X
A converter stage, where asingle
OSCILLATOR
transistor is used as both the mixer
and oscillator, is shown in Fig. 23.
Here an NPN transistor is used ma
.001
common-emitter circuit. In this cir-
cuit the signal is picked up by the
loop antenna, which is inductively
Fig. 22. Oscillator and mixer stages using coupled to L2. The signal voltage is
separate transistors. induced in series with L2, and this

35
is applied to the base of the transis- of the transistor. As far as the in-
tor through L3, and to ground through coming signal is concerned, the
the .1-mfd capacitor. emitter is essentially at ground po-
At the same time, energy is fed tential and hence the mixer operates
from the collector into the primary as a common-emitter mixer.
of the i
-f transformer and from the The oscillator signal, on the other
primary of the i
-f transformer back hand, is coupled to the feedback
to L4. L4, C2, C4, and C5 make up winding L4 in the emitter circuit.
the oscillator tank circuit. IA is in- Therefore, as far as this signal is
ductively coupled to L3, and energy concerned, the base is the common
is fed from L3 to the base of the element and the oscillator operates
transistor. Thus we have two signals as a common-base circuit. In spite
fed to the base of the transistor,the of the fact that the two signals are
incoming signal picked up by the loop fed into different elements of the
antenna, and the signal generated in transistor, mixing still takes place
the oscillator tank circuit. These two because of the non-linear character-
signals are mixed in the transistor istic of the emitter-base junction.
and the resulting difference-fre-
quency signal is selected by the i
-f SUMMARY
transformer and fed to the first i
-f
amplifier. The circuits we have studied in
Another transistor mixer-oscil- these two sections of this lesson are
lator circuit is shown in Fig. 24. This basic transistor circuits. Transis-
is quite an interesting circuit inas- tors are found in circuits other than
much as the transistor is used in both these. Other common circuits in
a common-base and a common- which transistors are found are mul-
emitter circuit at the same time. tivibrators and switching circuits
In this circuit the incoming signal such as used in electronic equip-
induced in L3 is applied to the base ment. However, the circuits that we
/-F have studied in this section are what
TRANSFORMER
might be considered basic circuits;
you should learn these circuit con-
figurations before going on to more
complex circuits.
Do not expect to remember what
these circuits look like simply by
taking a quick look at the diagram
in the lesson texts. You should take
the time to draw each of these cir-
cuits yourself. Draw a circuit two
or three times, copying it from the
book, then close the book and try to
draw it yourself. The chances are
that the first time you try to do this
Fig. 24. Converter stage using one tran- you will find that you cannot repro-
sistor connected in a common-base circuit duce the circuit, but after two or
for the oscillator signal, and a common- three attempts you should be able
emitter circuit for the rf signal. to do so. Knowing what these basic

36
circuits look like will be a big help (ai) What advantage does the com-
to you. You might not understand mon-base amplifier circuit of-
what all the parts are used for at fer over the common-emitter
this time, but we are going to study circuit?
all of these circuits again in later (aj) In an i-f amplifier such as the
lessons. If you are familiar with the one shown in Fig. 20, why is the
general circuit configuration, it will secondary of the input i
-f trans-
be a big help to you because you will former untuned and shown as
know what the circuit looks like and having fewer turns than the pri-
hence will be ready for the next step, mary winding?
that of learning what each and every (ak) What is the purpose of connect-
part in the circuit is used for. ing the collector in the transis-
tor circuit shown in Fig. 20 to
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
a tap on the primary winding of
(ag) In the circuit shown in Fig. 16, the output i-f transformer ?
why is the emitter-base for- (al) How are the effects of collec-
ward bias considerably less tor-base signal feedback elimi-
than the battery voltage? nated in transistor amplifiers?
(ah) Why is it necessary to provide (am) What type of circuits are used
bias stabilization in transistor in the converter stage shown in
amplifiers? Fig. 24?

37
A Typical Transistor Receiver
Cne important use for transistors This is done to avoid loading the
is in portable receivers. Transis- high Q i
-f transformer and to pro-
tors are ideally suited for portable vide maximum power transfer.
equipment because of their small Maximum power transfer can be ob-
size and modest current and voltage tained only when impedances are
requirements. matched. The load impedance of this
A typical portable receiver is transistor is quite low, probably
shown in Fig. 25. This receiver uses about 30,000 ohms, whereas that of
circuits similar to those you have al- the resonant circuit is over 500,000
ready studied in this lesson. We will ohms so the transistor collector is
run through this receiver quickly to connected to the tap.
help you see how the various stages The i -f transformer T2 is astep-
you studied are used together in a down transformer. The input imped-
complete receiver. ance of the first i -f stage is very
For the purpose of study, we will low, approximately 50 ohms.A step-
divide the receiver into two sections, down transformer is required in
the rf section and the audio section. order to match the high-impedance
In the rf section we will include all primary circuit to the low-imped-
the stages where the signal present ance secondary circuit.
is not an audio signal. The secondary of transformer T2
is tapped. The center tap, marked
THE RI' SECTION
5 on the diagram, is at signal ground
The rf section of this receiver potential because it is connected to
consists of three stages: the con- ground through the .1-mfd capacitor
verter, which is actually a combi- C6. This capacitor is in effect a di-
nation mixer and oscillator, two i
-f rect connection at the i
-f signalfre-
stages, and the second detector, quency. Signal voltages fed from the
which is also part of the audio sec- emitter through the .1-mfd capaci-
tion. The transistors used in these tor C5 will cause a current flow
stages are NPN transistors. You will through the part of the secondary
remember that we can identify these between terminals 3 and 5. The cur-
transistors as NPN transistors be- rent flowing through this half of the
cause the arrow used to identify the secondary will set up a field which
emitter is pointing up, away from the will induce a voltage between ter-
base. minals 2 and 5. This voltage is ap-
The converter stage in this re- plied between the base and ground
ceiver is similar to the mixer-oscil- and neutralizes the i -f stage. This
lator stage shown in Fig. 23. Here voltage applied between the base and
we have a transistor used in acom- ground because of the signal fed
mon emitter circuit performing the back through C5 is out-of-phase with
functions of both mixer and oscilla- the signal voltage fed from the col-
tor. The primary winding of the i
-f lector through the transistor back
transformer T2 is tapped, and the to the base, so the two signals
collector is connected to the tap. cancel.

38
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Fig. 25. Schematic diagram of a complete portable radio using transistors in all stages.
 Both transistors used as i
-f am- plied to the input, but in a class B
plifiers are connected in common- stage the collector current in-
emitter circuits, and the collector is creases appreciably when the signal
connected to a tap on the i -f trans- is applied. A class B transistor
former to avoid loading the trans- stage, like a class B tube stage, is
former. The second i -f amplifier is biased to cut-off. In a transistor
neutralized by the signalfed through circuit this means that there is
the .1-mfd capacitor C7 back to the little or no forward bias across the
secondary of the i-f transformer T3. emitter-base junction.
The forward bias needed across Notice the resistor R21. The sym-
the emitter-base junction is de- bol used to identify this resistor is
veloped by the resistors in the emit- that of a conventional resistor with
ter circuit. R2 develops the voltage a circle drawn around it and the
needed for the converter ,and R6 and letter T inside the circle. This is a
R9 develop the voltages for the two thermistor. You will remember that
i-f stages. a thermistor is a resistor with a
The last i-f transformer T4 is a negative temperature coefficient. In
step-down transformer, and the sec- other words, if the temperature in-
ondary of this transformer is con- creases, its resistance decreases.
nected to a diode second detector. Thermistors are used in this circuit
This diode rectifies the rf signal so to avoid instability in the output
that the audio signal appears in the stages which temperature changes
diode output across the 1500-ohm would otherwise produce.
volume control R12A.
SUMMARY
THE AUDIO SECTION
We do not expect you to remem-
The audio section of this receiver ber all the circuits used in this re-
is made up of three stages. A PNP ceiver. The purpose of presenting
transistor is used in a common- this schematic diagram is to give
emitter circuit as the first audio you a general idea of how the vari-
frequency amplifier. The circuit ous circuits you studied in this les-
used in this stage is similar to the son may be used together in a com-
audio amplifier you already studied. plete portable receiver. These cir-
The second audio stage is called cuits are typical of those that you
the driver stage on the schematic will find in portable radio receivers.
diagram. It is called a driver be- In the output stages of some re-
cause it is a power amplifier. It is ceivers there is only a single tran-
used to supply power to the push- sistor instead of the two transis-
pull output stage. The push-pull out- tors in the push-pull circuit found
put stage in this receiver uses two in this receiver. You will also find
transistors in a common-emitter some portables with only one i -f
circuit. This stage is aclass B push- stage. Ci course a receiver with a
pull amplifier. It is somewhat dif- single i -f stage will not have the
ferent from the class A driver used sensitivity of this receiver.
in the preceding stage. In a class A Spend some time studying this
stage, the average collector current schematic diagram; it will help you
does not change when a signal is ap- become familiar with transistor cir-

40
cuits. This will be a big help to you review these early lessons. It is a
in later lessons when you study these good idea to review one or two of
circuits in more detail. your earlier lessons with each new
lesson you study. By doing this you
LOOKING AHEAD
will pick up many of the fine points
In the next group of lessons you are you missed the first time you went
going to study the various types of over the lesson and, in addition, you
circuits found in modern electronic will be sure that you do not forget
equipment. Your next lesson dis- what you have already learned.
cusses power supplies.
Power supplies are important be- ANSWERS TO
cause they are found in every piece SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
of electronic equipment. In portable
equipment the power supply is usu- (a) No. In the common-base cir-
ally made up of one or more bat- cuit the collector current is al-
teries. In equipment designed to op- ways less than the emitter cur-
erate from the power line,the power rent because part of the emit-
supply will often contain a trans- ter current leaves the transis-
former designed either to step-up tor through the base. Although
or to step-down the power-line volt- this current is quite small, it
age. In addition it will contain arec- does subtract from the emitter
tifier designed to change alternating current. Therefore the collec-
current to direct current and then tor current will be less than the
some means of smoothing out the emitter current and the current
pulsating direct current at the out- gain of the stage will be less
put of the rectifier into smooth dc. than one.
The power supply will often consist (b) They are in phase.
of one or more voltage-divider net- (c) Holes.
works designed to provide more than (d) We can obtain a voltage gain in
one operating voltage from a single a common-base amplifier be-
power supply. cause the output load resistor
In the lesson on power supplies can be made quite large. Thus,
and in the following lessons we will even though the signal current
discuss the circuit in generalterms flowing through the load resis-
first, pointing out what the circuit tor is smaller than the input
must do, what is needed to accom- signal current, the fact that the
plish the desired results, what the output load resistor can be
basic circuit looks like, and some of made many times the input im-
the more important variations of the pedance of the transistor re-
basic circuit. Then we will go into sults in the output voltage being
typical circuits; where possible we greater than the input signal
will give part values and other per- voltage. The output voltage will
tinent information that might help be the product of the output sig-
you become more familiar with these nal current times the load re-
circuits. In the following lessons you sistor. The input voltage is
will find that you will use many of the equal to the product of the input
basic fundamentals studied in the signal current times the input
first thirteen lessons. Do not fail to resistance. As long as the out-

41
 put product is greater, we will (n) The common-collector circuit
have a voltage gain. has a comparatively high input
(e) A very low input impedance; impedance and a low output im-
high output impedance. pedance. Its input impedance
(f) To the grounded grid vacuum is higher than that of the other
tube circuit. two circuits, and at the same
Yes. In the common-emitter time, it is the only circuit in
(g)
circuit the signal voltage is ap- which the output impedance is
plied across the input resistor. lower than the input impedance.
None of the emitter current that (o) The grounded plate or cathode -
is flowing to the collector flows follower circuits.
through this resistor. The ac- (13) The common-base circuit and
tual signal current flowing in the common-collector circuit.
the input is comparatively (c1) The common-emitter circuit.
small. At the same time, the (r) The common-base circuit and
collector current is equal tothe the common-emitter circuit.
emitter current minus any cur- (s) The common-emitter circuit
rent lost in the base and there- and the common-collector cir-
fore is much larger than the cuit.
signal input current. As a re- (t) The common-emitter circuit
sult, a current gain is possible and the common-collector cir-
with the common-emitter cir- cuit.
cuit. (u) The common-collector circuit.
(h) The amplified signal voltage is (v) Emitter current IE ;collector
many times the input signal current lc ; and base current
voltage and is 180° out-of- 1
8.

phase with it in the common- (w) IC Bo is the symbol used to

emitter circuit. represent the collector-base
(i) The input impedance of the reverse current with the col-
common-emitter circuit is lector-base junction reverse
much higher than the input im- biased and the emitter open.
pedance of the common-base (x) The symbol V is widely used
circuit. to represent voltage. The
(I) See Fig. 7A for the common- capital C and the ca.pitalE have
emitter circuit using an NPN been used to represent the col-
circuit and Fig. 7B for a cir- lector and emitter under de
cuit using a PNP transistor. conditions. Therefore, the
(k) The common-emitter circuit symbol vc E means the de col-
can be compared with the tube lector-to-emitter voltage.
circuit in which a tube is used (Y) The Greek letter a represents
in a typical grounded-cathode the current gain of a transis-
circuit. tor in a common-base circuit.
(1) The output signal voltage will (z) The maximum value that a can
be in phase with the input sig- have will be some value slightly
nal voltage. less than one. The current gain
(m) The voltage gain of a common- of the transistor in a common-
collector circuit is less than base circuit will always be less
one. than one. This is due to the fact

42
 that the emitter current will be (ag) The forward bias across the
greater than the collector cur- emitter-base junction is equal
rent because some of the car- to the battery voltage less the
riers leaving the emitter are voltage drop across Rl. There
lost in the base and do not reach will be a substantial voltage
the collector. drop across R1 because elec-
(aa) The forward current-transfer trons leaving the base of the
ratio is the gain of the transis- transistor flowing through this
tor in a common-base circuit resistor will develop a voltage
and hence it is equal to a. drop which subtracts from the
(ab) The Greek letter B. battery voltage. Even though the
(ac) The alpha cut-off frequency is current flowing through the re-
the frequency at which the cur- sistor is small, the resistance
rent gain of a transistor in a of the resistor is large so that
common-base circuit drops to the net forward bias across the
.707 of its gain at lower fre- emitter-base junction is only a
quencies. few tenths of a volt.
(ad) It is the frequency at which (ah) Bias stabilization is necessary
beta drops to one. because reverse collector-
(ae) .96. base current due to minority
We find the value of a by using carriers crossingfrom the col-
the formula lector into the base will effec-
tively reduce the base current.
= ---
1•Fe This will reduce the voltage
drop across the base resistor
substituting 24 for 0, we get:
and increase the forward bias
on the transistor. The in-
24 = 24
a - creased forward bias may
1+24 25
cause sufficient current to flow
.96 through the transistor to de-
25)24.0 stroy the transistor.
225 (ai) The common-base amplifier
150 circuit provides voltage ampli-
150 fication without a phase shift.
In some applications, particu-
a = .96
larly in television receivers,
(af) Beta equals 99. this may be an advantage.
We find the value of 5 by using (aj) The low input resistance of a
the formula transistor would load a reso-
nant circuit and thus reduce
- the selectivity of the circuit.
1 -a
By using an untuned secondary
substituting .99 for a, we get:
and a step-down transformer,
.99 = ,91 the effects of loading on the
1 - .99 .01 resonant circuit can be elimi-
nated.
99 (ak) The collector is connected to a
= — = 99
1 tap on the transformer to elimi-

43
 nate the effect of loading on the back cancels the signal fed back
tuned circuit, which will cause through the transistor itself.
poor selectivity. (am)The oscillator circuit uses a
(al) By neutralization - that is, common-base circuit; the sig-
feeding a signal equal to but nal rf circuit uses a common-
180 ° out-of-phase with the col- emitter circuit. The two cir-
lector-base feedback signal cuits are used with the single
back into the base circuit so transistor used in the converter
that the signal deliberately fed stage.

BIPOLAR NPN BIPOLAR PNP UNIJUNCTION DIODE

SILICON CONTROLLED
ZENER DIODE FOUR LAYER DIODE SWITCH (SCSI TUNNEL DIODE

DIAC SILICON CONTROLLED N CHANNEL P CHANNEL

RECTIFIER (SCR) JUNCTION FET JUNCTION FET

GATE TURN OFF P CHANNEL N CHANNEL

TRIAC RECTIFIER IGTOI DEPLETION MOSFET ENHANCEMENT MOSFET

Table I. Semiconductor device symbols.

44
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B113.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

3 mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However,donit hold your answers too
long; you may lose them.Don %hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. In a PNP transistor circuit, is the collector made (a) positive or (b)

negative with respect to the base?

2. Name the three basic transistor circuits and tell what vacuum-tube
circuit each one resembles.

3. Which basic transistor circuit produces a 18CP phase shift?

4. Which of the following transistor amplifiers has a current gain?

(a) common-base or (b) common-emitter?

5. Which basic transistor circuit has the highest input resistance?

6. (a) What does the term "alpha "applied toa transistor mean? (b) What
does the term "beta" mean?

7. If the alpha of a certain transistor is .96, find the beta of the same
transistor.

8. If the beta of a certain transistor is 49, find the alpha of the same
transistor.

9. In the circuit shown in Fig. 16, the transistor will be very sensitive
to temperature changes. How can this be overcome?

10. If a transistor has an alpha cut-off frequency of 100 kc, is it suitable

for use as a 455 kc i-f amplifier?
 FIRST IMPRESSIONS
First impressions mean a lot in this busy world.
An applicant for a job has a pretty tough time making
the grade if his appearance and first few words do
not make a favorable impression on the employment
manager. A salesman likewise gets the "cold shoulder"
if there is anything about him which annoys the
prospect.
With technical material of any kind, however, first
impressions can be very treacherous. Cftentimes a
simple technical book will contain a number of ap-
parently complicated diagrams, charts, graphs,
sketches or tables. Since we glance mostly at illus-
trations when inspecting a book, we are apt to get a
misleading impression. Also, paragraphs, pages or
entire lessons may seem difficult during the first
reading, but become almost magically clear during
the second or third reading.
If the first impressions of a required task are
favorable, fine and dandy; if unfavorable, don't be
discouraged, but wade right into the work and give
it a chance to prove that first impressions don't al-
ways count.
Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-213
 4»

POWER SUPPLIES FOR

00111166eue
riaJ
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

*1W1 V__J 911

A1r 11
-1 B201

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

b
 POWER SUPPLIES
FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
B201
 STUDY SCHEDULE

D 1. Introduction Pages 1-2

The basic purpose of a power supply is discussed.

ID 2. Rectifier Circuits Pages 3-12

You learn about half-wave, full-wave, and bridge-type
rectifier circuits using both vacuum-tube and selenium
rectifiers.

D 3. Filter Circuits Pages 13-25

In this section we take up capacitor filters, R-C filters,
L-C filters, and choke input filters, and learn what
factors affect the output voltage of a filter network.

U 4. Typical Power Supplies Pages 26-37

You study ac-dc supplies, full-wave power supplies,
and high-voltage supplies.

ID 5. Answer Lesson Questions.

[II 6. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1968 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

JDL5M373 1973 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

One of the most important sec- be considerably higher than those

tions in electronic equipment is the of a power supply in a similar tube-
power supply. It is the section that operated device. All power supplies
furnishes the operating voltages and have basically the same function,
currents required by the various regardless of the parts and circuitry
stages. If the power supply is not used to make them;the power supply
operating properly, the equipment must supply the operating voltages
can't do the job it's supposed to do. and currents required by the vari-
In your career as an electronics ous stages in the equipment.
technician, you will encounter many You have already studied the basic
different types of power supplies.In components used in power supplies.
equipment using tubes you will find In this lesson you will learn more
power supplies that must supply the about these components and how they
heater voltage for the various tubes are used together in this particular
and, in addition, a de supply voltage application. You will be introduced
that is often considerably higher than to some new circuits and will learn
the power line voltage. enough about power supplies to en-
On the other hand, the power sup- able you to understand the purpose
ply in transistorized equipment will for which each part in a power sup-
be quite different from that used in ply is used. Once you know why the
tube-operated equipment. Most various parts are used and under-
power supplies in transistorized stand what each one is supposed to
equipment will have to reduce the do, you should be able to service
voltage to some value less than the any power supply defect you en-
line voltage. counter.
However, the current require- We will first take up the different
ments of the power supply ina tran- rectifier circuits used in modern
sistorized piece of equipment may power supplies. The power supplied

1
by power companies for home and electronic equipment may not re-
industrial use is ac power, whereas quire the same operating voltage. It
the tubes and transistors used in is more economical to use a single
electronic equipment require de op- power supply and a voltage divider
erating voltages. Therefore, in a than to use a separate power supply
power supply designed to operate for each voltage needed.
from a power line, we must have The power supplies in modern
some means of changing the ac to electronic equipment use solid state
de. The device used to do this is rectifiers in most low-voltage appli-
called a rectifier. cations. Vacuum tubes are seldom
Once the ac is changed to dc by a used today as rectifiers in such de-
rectifier, we have what is called a vices as radio or television re-
pulsating de at the output of the recti- ceivers or in other modern equip-
fier. This is actually de with ac ment. However, there are still mil-
superimposed on it. A power supply lions of radios and television re-
must therefore have some means of ceivers in use today that do use
filtering or smoothing the pulsating vacuum-tube rectifiers. Therefore,
de to get pure dc. This is done by you will probably have to work on
means of a filter network, which this type of power supply as aserv-
separates the ac and dc components ice technician even though it is ob-
of the pulsating de at the rectifier solete as far as its use in new equip-
output so that only the de appears at ment is concerned and you still
the output of the filter network. should know how this type of recti-
Many power supplies also have fier works. For this reason, we will
some type of voltage-divider net- cover not only the new rectifier cir-
work. Such a network is designed to cuits using solid state rectifiers, but
provide several different operating also a number of the older fre-
voltages from one power supply.All quently-used rectifier circuits using
the tubes or transistors ma piece of vacuum tubes.

2
 Rectifier Circuits
Any device that will pass current years ago the selenium rectifier be-
in one direction but not in the other gan to replace the vacuum tube as
direction can be used as arectifier. the rectifier in entertainment-type
You have already seen one example equipment.
of this type of device: the vacuum A typical selenium rectifier is
tube. In a vacuum tube, as long as shown in Fig. 1. A selenium recti-
the voltage applied to the plate is fier is made up of a series of se-
positive with respect to the voltage lenium discs with a coating of se-
applied to the cathode, the current lenium oxide on the surface of one
will flow from the cathode to the side of each disc. Electrons can flow
plate of the tube. However, if the from the selenium to the selenium
voltage applied to the plate is nega- oxide quite readily, but they cannot
tive with respect to the voltage ap- readily flow in the other direction,
plied to the cathode, there will be from the selenium oxide to the se-
no current flow through the tube be- lenium. Thus, a selenium rectifier
cause current cannot normally flow permits current to flow through it in
through the tube from the plate to the one direction, but offers a high re-
cathode. Thus, a two-element or sistance to current flow through it
diode tube was used for many years in the opposite direction.
as the rectifier in the power supply This type of rectifier is often
of radio and television receivers. called a dry-disc rectifier: "dry "to
The diode tube is entirely satis- distinguish it from earlier rectifiers
factory as a rectifier, but it does that used a wet chemical solution,
have one big disadvantage. In order "disc" because it is made up of discs.
to handle the currents required in The square plates that are visible
large radio receivers or in tele- in Fig. 1are cooling fins. The discs
vision receivers arectifier tube with used are usually round and are
a rather heavy cathode or filament
is required. Considerable power
must be applied to the heater toheat
the large cathode or filament,there-
by bringing it to the temperature re-
quired for it to emit an abundant sup-
ply of electrons. Not only does this
increase the power consumed by the
equipment; also, a substantial
amount of heat is given off by the
diode and this, in turn, heats up
other parts in the equipment. This
often contributes to a shortened life
of the other parts.
As we mentioned, diode vacuum
tubes were used for many years as
the rectifiers in radio and television Fig. 1. A typical selenium rectifier de-
receivers. However, a number of signed for use in electronic equipment.

3
placed between the cooling fins, fier, and at the same time it has a
which are necessary because the higher reverse resistance (in other
rectifier does have some resistance words it will permit a smaller cur-
and the current flowing through this rent to flow through it lathe reverse
resistance produces heat which must direction than a selenium rectifier).
be dissipated. Two typical silicon rectifiers are
The advantage of the selenium shown in Fig. 2. The rectifier at the
rectifier over the diode tube is that top is called a top-hat rectifier be-
the selenium rectifier does not have cause of its shape. A rectifier of
a cathode that must be heated, and this type and size is capable of hand-
hence the power required to heat the ling currents several times those
cathode is saved. In addition, the required in a color TV receiver.
total heat dissipated into the equip- We have shown a photograph of the
ment from the selenium rectifier is two rectifiers with adime in between
somewhat lower than from a tube them so you can get an idea of the
capable of handling the same cur- relative size of the two units. The
rent. lower rectifier is capable of hand-
Both the vacuum tube rectifier and ling currents of two or three am-
the selenium rectifier have been re- peres.
placed in modern radio and televi- In addition to their small size and
sion receivers by the silicon recti- high current-handling capabilities,
fier. The silicon rectifier, like the silicon rectifiers have another big
selenium rectifier, does not require advantage over selenium and vacuum
any heater power; in addition, a tube rectifiers due to modern
silicon rectifier is much smaller manufacturing techniques: they are
than a selenium rectifier. It has a relatively inexpensive to manufac-
much lower forward resistance; that ture. Furthermore, unless they are
is, it offers far less opposition to overloaded, their life is almost in-
current flow through it in the forward definite.
direction than does aselenium recti- Now, let's see how the various
types of rectifiers are used in power
supply circuits.

HALF -WAVE RECTIFIERS

You already know that the power

supplied by most power companies
is ac power and that the voltage sup-
plied has a waveform that is called
a sine wave. A typical single cycle
is shown in Fig. 3A. A rectifier cir-
cuit using a diode tube is shown in
Fig. 3B. Let 's assume that the wave-
form shown at A represents the volt-
age at terminal A of Fig. 3 with re-
Fig. 2. Two typical silicon rectifiers with spect to the voltage at terminal B.
a dime between them to show their rela- This means that for the first half-
tive size. cycle (that is, the voltage waveform

4
 other half. As a result, the rectifier
is called a half-wave rectifier. If
we operate this type of rectifier from
a 60-cycle power line, we will get
60 current pulses through the recti-
fier during one half-cycle and 60 in-
tervals during which there is no
current flow through the rectifier.
Fig. 3. How current flows in a half-wave Another half-wave rectifier is
rectifier circuit for one ac cycle. We have shown in Fig. 4. Here we have shown
omitted the rectifier heater to simplify the a solid-state rectifier in place of the
diagram. tube. This could be either aselenium
rectifier or a silicon rectifier --the
from point 1to point 3), the plate of same symbol is used for both types.
the tube will be positive. When the Notice the schematic symbol used
plate of the tube is positive, it will for the rectifier. Also notice that the
attract electrons from the cathode; arrows indicate that the direction of
therefore, current can flow through current flow through the circuit is
the tube. opposite to the direction in which the
Thus during the first half-cycle, arrow points in the schematic
as the plate voltage starts at point symbol. The reason for this is that
1 and builds up to point 2, the cur- in the early days of electricity,
rent through the tube will increase scientists thought that current
from point 1 to point 2 as shown in flowed from positive to negative.
Fig. 3C. As the voltage decreases Therefore, this symbol was designed
during the first half-cycle from point to show the direction in which cur-
2 to point 3, the current through the rent flowed. But it was discovered
tube will decrease as shown from later that current flow was actually
point 2 to point 3 in Fig. 3C. When electron flow and that it flowed from
the voltage in Fig. 3A reaches point negative to positive, a direction op-
3 there will be zero potential be- posite from that in which the early
tween points A and B inthe rectifier scientists thought it flowed. Although
circuit and current will stop flowing. we know current flow is from nega-
During the next half-cycle termi- tive to positive, we still use the same
nal A will be negative with respect symbol; it has never been changed
to terminal B. This means that the so that the arrow is actually pointing
plate of the tube will be negative; in the direction opposite to the di-
hence no current can flow through rection of electron flow.
the tube. Therefore, the current will
be zero (as shown in the waveform 2

in Fig. 3C) as the voltage swings

from point 3 to point 5.
The rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 0 4

3 conducts when the plate of the tube

is positive. Since this occurs during
one half the time of each cycle then
the rectifier conducts during one Fig. 4. A half-wave selenium rectifier
half of the cycle but not during the circuit.

5
 In a power supply of this type junction, which will repel electrons
using a selenium rectifier .with ter- and prevent them from crossing the
minal A positive with respect to junction. At the same time there will
terminal B, the selenium rectifier be a positive voltage, applied on the
will offer only a low resistance to N side of the junction, which will
the flow of current through it; there- prevent any holes from the P side
fore, current flows in the circuit crossing the junction. In other
from B through the load and through words, there will be a reverse bias
the rectifier and back toterminal A. placed across the junction; hence
During the next half-cycle ,
when ter- the carriers cannot cross the junc-
minal A is negative with respect to tion and there will be no current flow
terminal B, the selenium rectifier through the circuit.
will offer a very high opposition to Of the three types of half-wave
the flow of current through it so that rectifiers, the silicon-type rectifier
there will be little or no current flow is the most widely used in modern
through the load (as shown in Fig. equipment because of its small size,
4C). low cost and very low forward volt-
We mentioned that the schematic age drop.
symbol for the rectifier in Fig. 4 Sometimes, in order to operate a
also represents a silicon rectifier. piece of electronic equipment, a
If a silicon rectifier is used, the higher voltage is required than can
rectifier will simply consist of aPN be obtained directly from the power
junction. The P-type material will line. Under these circumstances a
be on the side represented by the step-up transformer may be used
arrow and the N-type material by to step up the voltage as shown in
the flat line. With a PN junction Fig. 5. The secondary-to-primary
rectifier in the circuit when termi- turns-ratio is simply adjusted to
nal A is positive and terminal B is provide the required voltage step-
negative, we will have a positive up. A half-wave rectifier is then
voltage applied to the P side of the used as shown to rectify the ac and
junction and a negative voltage ap- change it to pulsating dc. The oper-
plied to the N side of the junction. ation of the half-wave rectifier is
The negative voltage will repel elec- exactly the same in the circuit as
trons from the N side of the junction
across the junction into the P-type
A
material. Electrons will be attracted
through the P-type material by the
positive potential applied to it. In
other words, there will be aforward
bias placed across the junction and
current can readily flow through the
rectifier because the carriers can
cross the junction.
During the next half-cycle when
the polarity reverses, terminal A Fig. 5. A half-wave rectifier circuit using
will be negative and terminal B posi- a power transformer to produce an output
tive. Thus there will be a negative voltage greater than the power line volt-
voltage, applied to the P side of the age.

6
it was in the preceding circuits; how-
cl 02
ever, the rectifier will have to have
a higher voltage rating to make up
for the fact that it is being used in
a higher voltage circuit.
The disadvantage of the circuit
shown in Fig. 5 is that power trans-
formers are comparatively expen-
sive. By means of the circuit shown
in Fig. 6 a voltage approximately
twice the voltage obtainable from Fig. 6. A half-wave voltage-doubler cir-
the half-wave rectifier circuits cuit.
shown in Figs. 3 and 4 can be ob-
tained. This circuit can be operated positive with respect to terminal B.
directly from the power line and is This means that terminal B is nega-
known as a voltage-doubler circuit. tive. Electrons flow from terminal
The operation of this circuit is B through the load and through D2.
quite simple. During one half-cycle They are attracted by apositive volt-
terminal A will be negative with re- age which is equal to the voltage
spect to terminal B. During this across Cl plus the line voltage. Thus
half-cycle electrons flow from A the peak voltage that can be de-
into the side of the capacitor Cl veloped across the load will be equal
marked with the minus sign. The to twice the peak line voltage.
electrons flowing into this side of You might wonder whythe current
the capacitor force electrons out of flows through only one rectifier dur-
the other side leaving a positive ing each half-cycle. During the first
charge on this side of Cl. The elec- half-cycle, when terminalA is nega-
trons leaving the positive side of Cl tive with respect to terminal B, the
flow through the rectifier Dl, back electrons flowing through Dl and
to side B of the power line which is charging Cl cannot flow through D2
positive and which will attract elec- because the diode is connected in
trons. Thus, during this half-cycle, such a way as to prevent current
when terminal A is negative with flow through it in that direction.
respect to terminal B, capacitor Cl Similarly, during the next half-
is charged with the polarity shown. cycle, when terminal B is negative
The peak charge on Cl will be equal and terminal A is positive, current
to the peak value of the ac input volt- cannot flow through Dl because it
age. would have to flow through it in the
During the next half-cycle, when reverse direction. Current can flow
terminal A is positive with respect through the diodes only in the direc-
to terminal B, we have a situation tion shown and it will flow through
where the voltage between terminals Dl during one half-cycle and through
A and B is effectively placed in D2 during the other half-cycle.
series with the voltage charging ca- This type of power supply is known
pacitor Cl. These series-connected as a half-wave doubler circuit. It is
voltages will cause a current toflow called a voltage-doubler circuit be-
through the load and through D2. cause the voltage across the load is
During this half-cycle terminal A is effectively double the line voltage.
It is called a hall-wave circuit be- The tube has two plates and asingle
cause there is a current pulse tothe filament which is used with both
load during only one half of each plates. In operation, this tube acts
cycle. The half-wave voltage-dou- as two separate diode tubes.
bler circuit is widely used in modern The power transformer used in
radio and television receivers. It's the rectifier circuit has three wind-
a very important circuit and you ings. The primary winding is the
should be sure you understand how winding that connects to the power
it works before leaving it. line. A low-voltage winding is used
When a half-wave rectifier is used to provide the current required to
in the power supply, the current will heat the filament of the rectifier
flow through the rectifier in aseries tube. It serves no other purpose as
of pulses. With a 60-cycle power far as the operation of the rectifier
supply line, there will be 60 pulses circuit is concerned. This winding
per second: one pulse during each is often referred to as the filament
positive-half cycle and nothing dur- winding.
ing each negative-half cycle. The The high-voltage winding on the
net result is that you will have cur- transformer is the winding that will
rent flowing through the rectifier for supply the pulsating current to the
no more than half the time.This re- load resistor. Notice that this wind-
sults in a pulsating dc output from ing has a center tap. In operation,
the rectifier that is rather difficult one half of the winding first supplies
to smooth out to the pure dc required the current and then, during the next
in most equipment to operate the half-cycle, the other half of the wind-
tubes and/or transistors. A some- ing supplies current tothe load.
what better arrangement is the full- We can see how this rectifier cir-
wave rectifier that passes current cuit works if we consider one half-
during both halves of the ac voltage cycle during which terminal 1 of the
cycles. high-voltage secondary is positive.
This means that terminal 2 will be
FULL -WAVE RECTIFIERS negative with respect to terminal 1
A typical full-wave rectifier cir- and terminal 3 will be even more
cuit is shown in Fig. 7. Notice that negative. Electrons will leave the
the tube used is a twin diode tube. center tap, terminal 2, and flow
through ground to the load resistor.
They will flow through the load re-
sistor to the filament of the recti-
fier tube and then be attracted to
the plate connected toterminal lbe-
cause this plate has a positive volt-
age applied to it. No electrons will
flow to the other plate because this
plate is negative with respect to
both terminals 1and 2.
During the next half-cycle, the
polarity of the secondary voltage
Fig. 7. full-wave rectifier circuit using will reverse. At this time terminal
a single rectifier tube with two plates. 3 will be positive, terminal 2 nega-

8
tive with respect to it, and terminal
1 even more negative. During this
half-cycle electrons will leave ter-
minal 2 and flow through ground to
the load, through the load and to the
filament of the rectifier tube, and
then to the plate connected to ter-
minal 3 because this plate now has
the positive voltage applied to it. No
electrons will flow to terminal lbe-
cause terminal 1 is negative with Fig. 8. ,‘ bridge-rectifier circuit.
respect to both terminals 2 and 3. because twice as many turns are re-
Notice that with the full-wave rec- quired on the secondary to get the
tifier circuit we get a current pulse required voltage.
through the load resistor during each A circuit that gets around the re-
half-cycle. This means that for a quirement of a center-tapped sec-
60-cycle power line we will get 120 ondary is shown in Fig. 8. This is
pulses of current through the load. called a bridge-rectifier circuit; it
Since there is current flowing is also often called a full-wave
through the load during each half- bridge-rectifier circuit because
cycle, this type of rectifier produces current flows to the load during each
an output that is much easier to fil- half-cycle.
ter to a smooth de than the output A quick look at the circuit im-
from a half-wave rectifier. mediately shows us that four rec-
Either selenium rectifiers or sili- tifiers are required in a circuit of
con rectifiers can be substituted in this type. At one time this was a
this type of circuit in place of the disadvantage because of the cost of
rectifier tube. This type of circuit rectifiers, but silicon rectifiers are
was widely used in older television comparatively inexpensive today and
receivers along with vacuum tubes. it is usually more economicaltouse
Modern TV receivers use silicon the extra two silicon rectifiers and
rectifiers and frequently use bridge- avoid the center tap on the secondary
rectifier circuits or voltage-doubler winding of the power transformer.
circuits in place of this circuit. The power transformer shown in
Fig. 8 would be far more economi-
BRIDGE-RECTIFIER cal to manufacture than the one
CIRCUITS shown in Fig. 7.
One of the disadvantages of the The operation of the bridge rec-
full-wave rectifier circuit shown in tifier is comparatively simple. When
Fig. 7 is that it requires a trans- terminal A is positive and terminal
former with a center-tapped sec- B is negative, current willflow from
ondary. The total voltage across the terminal B through the rectifier
entire secondary winding is actually marked 2 on the diagram and then
twice the voltage between the center through the load to the junction of
tap and either end of the secondary rectifiers 3 and 4. It will then flow
winding. This type of transformer is through rectifier 4 back to terminal
more expensive to manufacture than A on the transformer. During the
a transformer without a center tap next half-cycle, when terminal A is

9
negative and terminal B is positive, required instead of the four required
current will flow fromterminal A on in the bridge-rectifier circuit.
the transformer through the recti- The operation of the full-wave
fier marked 1 on the diagram and voltage-doubler circuit is quite sim-
then through the load back to the ple. During one half-cycle terminal
junction of rectifiers 3 and 4. This A of the power transformer second-
time the current will flow through ary will be negative and terminal B
rectifier 3 back to terminal B of the will be positive. During this half-
power transformer. cycle current flows from terminal
Notice that during each half-cycle A through diode D2 to the capacitor
current flows through two of the rec- C2 charging the capacitor as shown.
tifiers. During one half-cycle it will Electrons flow into the negative side
flow through rectifiers 2 and 4 and of the capacitor and out the positive
during the other half-cycle it will side back to terminal B of the power
flow through rectifiers 1and 3.Also transformer. During the next half-
notice that current flows during both cycle, terminal B of the power trans-
half-cycles; therefore, this bridge former secondary will be negative
rectifier is a full-wave rectifier. and terminal A will be positive.Dur-
Bridge rectifiers have been used ing this half-cycle electrons leave
in television receivers where com- terminal B of the power transformer
paratively high operating voltages and flow into capacitor C1. They flow
and high currents are required. The into the side of the capacitor marked
bridge circuit eliminates the need with the minus sign and force elec-
for the center tap on the power trans- trons out of the plus side.Electrons
former secondary winding and thus leaving the plus side flow through
reduces the cost of the transformer. diode DI back to terminal A of the
The voltage regulation (the ratio of power transformer, which is posi-
the full-load voltage to the no-load tive.
voltage) obtainable with this type of The capacitors C1and C2 are con-
power supply is as good as the regu- nected in series and they supply the
lation that can be obtained from the voltage to the load. The capacitors
full-wave rectifier circuit shown in are charged by the current flowing
Fig. 7.
A 0I
FULL-WAVE
VOLTAGE DOUBLERS
A full-wave voltage-doubler cir-
cuit is shown in Fig. 9. One advan-
tage of this type of circuit is that
we get the same load voltage as you
have in a circuit like the bridge rec-
tifier shown in Fig. 8, although only
half as many turns are required on
the secondary of the power trans-
former. This will result in asavings
in the cost of the power transformer.
Another advantage of this type of cir-
cuit is that only two rectifiers are Fig. 9. A full-wave voltage doubler.

10
through the diodes, and since there can be obtained from this type of
is a charging pulse each half-cycle power supply. You will find the power
we will get 12 0charging pulses from supply widely used both in mono-
a 60-cycle power line. Since there chrome and color television receiv-
is a charging pulse during each half- ers. Be sure you understand how it
cycle, the circuit is afull-wave rec- operates because you will run into
tifier. The actual voltage that will it frequently.
be available across Cl and C2 in In comparing this power supply
series will depend upon the power with the half-wave doubler circuit
transformer secondary resistance, shown in Fig. 6, we immediately see
the resistance of the diodes when that the full-wave doubler circuit is
they are conducting, the size of the best suited to equipment where a
two capacitors, and the size of the power transformer is used. The
load. As the resistance of the load half-wave voltage-doubler circuit is
increases, the current that will flow widely used in equipment where no
through the load decreases, and the power transformer is used.
charge on each capacitor becomes
SUMMARY
closer to the peak value of the ac
voltage between terminals A and B. The rectifier circuits that we have
Notice that in the diagram we have discussed in this section of the les-
shown the direction of current flow son are extremely important. As you
through the load. The load current is know, the power supplied by the
supplied entirely by the charged ca- power companies is alternating cur-
pacitors Cl and C2. As the capaci- rent and the tubes and transistors
tors supply current to the load, elec- in electronic equipment require di-
trons leave the negative plate of C2 rect current for their operation.
and flow through the load in the di- Therefore, equipment designed to
rection shown. These electrons flow operate from the power line must
into the positive side of Cl forcing use some type of rectifier to convert
electrons out of the negative side the alternating current to direct cur-
into the positive side of C2. Thus rent. One of the circuits shown in
the current flow through the load this section of the lesson is likely
tends to reduce the charge across the to be found in any type of electronic
capacitors. Of course, during each equipment you will service.
half-cycle one of the diodes conducts The half-wave rectifier circuit
to build the charge across one of the shown in Fig. 5 is perhaps the most
capacitors up towards the peak value widely used. All table model radio
of the line voltage. receivers use this type of rectifier
While this type of rectifier circuit circuit without a power transformer
offers some advantages over the cir- so that the receiver can operate di-
cuits shown in Figs. 7and 8, it does rectly from the power line .The ha lf-
not have as good voltage regulation wave voltage-doubler circuit shown
as they have. However, by using in Fig. 6 is widely used intelevision
capacitors of large capacity for Cl receivers where operating voltages
and C2, and with modern silicon higher than those that can be ob-
rectifiers that have avery low re- tained directly from the power line
sistance when they are conducting, are needed. In some of the older
reasonably good voltage regulation radio receivers and many older tele -

11
vision receivers a full-wave recti- garding rectifier circuits, why not
fier circuit such as shown in Fig. 7 try to draw the circuits yourself ?It
will be found. This type of circuit would be worthwhile, and you don't
was used almost exclusively in tele- have to draw them from memory --
vision receivers before the develop- copying them first fr om the book will
ment of low-cost selenium and sili- help you to remember what they look
con rectifiers. like. Eventually, you'll be able to
The bridge-rectifier circuit draw them from memory and recog-
shown in Fig. 8 is used in many tele- nize various circuits on the sche-
vision receivers, particularly large matic diagram of any radio or TV
television receivers where fairly receiver or piece of electronic
high voltages and high currents are equipment you may encounter.
required. This type of circuit is also After reviewing this section, do
used in some transistorized equip- the following self-test questions.
ment where lower than line voltages
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
are required. In this instance, in-
stead of being a step-up trans- (a) In a half-wave rectifier circuit
former, the transformer will be a such as the circuit in Fig. 5,
step-down transformer that steps how many current pulses per
the line voltage down to a low value. second will there be through
The bridge-rectifier circuit is then the load when the power line
used so that good voltage regulation frequency is 60 pulses per sec-
can be obtained and so that at the ond?
same time a comparatively large (b) What is the disadvantage of a
current can be taken from the power half-wave rectifier circuit?
supply. (c) What is the purpose of the diode
The full-wave voltage-doubler marked DI in the half-wave
circuit has been used in many tele- voltage-doubler circuit shown
vision receivers -- in those which in Fig. 6?
use power transformers where volt- (d) Why is the circuit shown in Fig.
ages higher than the line voltage are 7 called a full-wave rectifier
required -- yet at the same time, circuit?
the transformer serves primarily (e) What is the disadvantage of the
as an isolation transformer. In other full-wave rectifier circuit
words, the secondary voltage is ap- shown in Fig. 7?
proximately equal to the primary (f) What are the advantages of the
voltage. The higher voltage required bridge-rectifier circuit shown
is obtained by the voltage-doubling in Fig. 8?
action. The output from the full-wave (g) What advantage does the volt-
doubler circuit is somewhat easier age-doubler circuit shown in
to filter or smooth out than the out- Fig. 9 have over the voltage-
put from the half-wave doubler cir- doubler circuit shown in Fig.
cuit, because with the former we 6?
have 120 pulses per second through (b )What are the advantages and
the load and with the latter we have disadvantages of the full-wave
only 60 pulses per second. voltage doubler over the
Before leaving this section re- bridge-rectifier circuit?

12
 Filter Circuits
The output from the rectifiers we In the bridge rectifier shown in
discussed in the preceding section Fig. 8two rectifiers act as switches
is not pure de. Instead, it is pulsat- and close to connect the load across
ing dc: "direct" because it flows in the transformer secondary during
only one direction, "pulsating" be- one half-cycle; then during the next
cause it is varying in amplitude half-cycle the other two switches
rather than flowing steadily. A close, giving the effect of turning
pulsating de voltage is avoltage that the load around so that the current
does not change polarity, but does flows through it in the same direc-
change in amplitude. The voltage at tion and the voltage applied across
the output of a half-wave rectifier the load has the same polarity. The
will be zero during one half of each output from a full-wave rectifier
cycle and swing in a positive direc- circuit will produce avoltage across
tion during the other half of each the load that looks like Fig. 10B.
cycle. As you can see from the wave-
Looking at the half-wave circuits forms shown in Fig. 10, the output
shown in Fig. 3 and 4, you can con- taken directly from the rectifier is
sider the rectifier more or less as not a pure de. There is a voltage,
a switch. During one half-cycle the but the voltage drops to zero, builds
switch is closed so that the load is up to the maximum value, and drops
connected directly across the power to zero again. In the half-wave cir-
line, and during the other half-cycle cuit it remains at zero for a half-
the switch is open so that no voltage cycle and then builds up again in a
is applied to the load. The voltage positive direction. In the full-wave
across the load in a half-wave rec- rectifier circuit- the voltage builds
tifier circuit looks like Fig. 10A. up across the load during each half-
The first half-cycle represents the cycle. In either case, this pulsating
cycle when the switch is closed and voltage will cause a pulsating cur-
the load is connected directly across rent through the load which is en-
the power line, and the second half- tirely unsuitable for use in elec-
cycle represents the cycle when the tronic equipment. Fortunately, there
switch is open and there is no volt- are convenient methods that can be
age applied across the load. We have used to filter or smooth this voltage
shown what the voltage across the to a pure de voltage.
load will look like for four cycles in
Fig. 10A.
In a full-wave rectifier circuit
such as shown in Fig. 7, you have
two switches. During one half-cycle
one switch closes and connects the
load across one half of the power
transformer secondary; then ,during
the next half-cycle, the other switch
closes and connects the load across
the other half of the transformer Fig. 10. Output voltage from half-wave
secondary. and full-wave rectifier.

13
 The pulsating de voltage at the is sometimes used in circuits where
output of the rectifier is actually a the current drained or taken from
dc voltage with an ac volta.ge, called the power supply is low. If the rec-
a ripple voltage or a hum voltage, tifier must supply high current to
superimposed on it. The circuits the circuit, this type of filter is gen-
used to get rid of this ripple or hum erally unsatisfactory because there
voltage are called filter circuits. will be too much ripple or hum pres-
There are a number of different ent across the load. In other words,
types of filter circuits found in elec- the simple filter is simply not capa-
tronic equipment; in this section we ble of eliminating all the ac or ripple
will cover some of the circuits more voltage present at the output of the
commonly used. rectifier.
Both circuits shown in Fig. 11
THE SIMPLE
work in the same way. Current flows
CAPACITOR CIRCUIT through the rectifier during one half-
One of the simplest filters is the cycle, as in the half-wave rectifier
single capacitor filter shown in Fig. circuits we studied previously. When
11. In Fig. 11A we have shown a terminal A is positive, electrons
rectifier circuit using a tube and in will flow from terminal B through
Fig. 11B a rectifier circuit using a the load and through the rectifier
silicon rectifier. Notice that the cir- back to terminal A .At the same time,
cuits are practically identical --we electrons will flow into the negative
simply changed the rectifying de- side of the capacitor and out the
vices in the two circuits. positive side and through the tube
The simple capacitor-type filter or silicon rectifier back to terminal
A. The capacitor eventually will be
charged to a value almost equal to
the peak line voltage. This will hap-
pen when the ac line voltage reaches
its peak value with terminal A at its
peak positive voltage with respect to
terminal B.
Now, if the load on the rectifier
circuit is light (that is, if the load
resistor is a high resistance that
draws very little current), as the
ac input voltage between terminal
A and B drops, capacitor C will be-
411- gin to supply the current required
A• by the load. Electrons will start to
leave the negative side of the capaci-
tor and flow through the load resis-
tor back to the positive side of the
capacitor. They will continue doing
this as the ac voltage drops to zero
and remains at zero during the next
half-cycle and starts to build up
Fig. 11. A simple capacitor-type filter. again in the positive direction. The

14
capacitor will continue to supply
current to the load as long as the
voltage across the capacitor is
15
greater than the ac input voltage.
Eventually, the input voltage will
reach a value greater than the ca-
pacitor voltage; then we '11 get acur-
rent flow into the capacitor and
through the rectifier to recharge the
capacitor.
In Fig. 12 we have shown the ac
input voltage. Notice that during the Fig. 12. Voltage naveshapes for asimple
first half-cycle between points land capacitor filter. (A) Input voltage; (B)
2 in Fig. 12A the ac voltage is in- output voltage.
creasing in a positive direction.
Let's assume that terminal A in Fig. There are several important
11 is becoming positive with respect points you should notice in the cir-
to terminal B. This explanation ap- cuits shown in Fig. 11. Notice that
plies to both of the two circuits the current does not flow during an
shown. During this first half-cycle entire half-cycle, but flows only
the capacitor is charging and follows when the line voltage exceeds the
a curve as shown from point 1 to voltage across the capacitor. This
point 2 in Fig. 12B. Now, as the ac may be for a very short interval if
cycle drops from point 2 to point 3 a load is ahigh resistance and draws
on curve A in Fig. 12, the voltage very little current, or it may be for
drops faster than the capacitor dis- a sizable portion of a half-cycle if
charges. During the interval from the load is a low resistance and
point 2 to point 5 and almost to point draws a high current from the power
6, as shown in Fig. 12A, the capaci- supply. However, since the current
tor discharges very little. The dis- flows through the rectifier in pulses,
charge is shown on the curve from then the current pulse through the
point 2 over to the number 5on curve rectifier must be many times the
B. At this point the ac input voltage average de current flowing through
exceeds the capacitor voltage ,sothe the load. This is because the pulse
capacitor is recharged again. or current that flows through the
In circuits where the drain or rectifier during the interval in which
load current is low, the capacitor the rectifier is conducting must sup-
will discharge very little between ply enough current to the capacitor
current pulses that recharge it so to charge the capacitor and makeup
that the voltage across the capacitor for the current it is going to supply
and hence the voltage across the load for the remainder of the cycle.
remain almost constant. Of course, When the rectifier is not conduc-
as the requirements of the load in- ting it is because the voltage across
crease, the capacitor willdischarge it is what we call a reverse voltage.
more so that there will be more of a In other words, it has a polarity op-
voltage drop across the capacitor posite from that which the rectifier
and across the load than in circuits needs to conduct. In the case of the
where current drain is low. vacuum tube circuit this means that

15
the plate of the tube is negative with As we mentioned previously, the
respect to the cathode; in the case simple capacitor-type filter shown
of the silicon rectifier, that there in Fig. 11 is usable only where a
is a reverse bias across the Junc- small current is required by the
tion. load. If the current required is
Crie of the important character- small, the output capacitor can be
istics of a rectifier is the maximum made large enough so that it dis-
peak reverse voltage that can be charges very little between pulses.
placed across the rectifier before it If the current required by the load
breaks down. In the circuit shown in is high, on the other hand, then the
Fig. 11 the capacitor will be charged capacitor will discharge appreciably
as shown and the charge can equal between charging pulses, resulting
the peak line voltage. During the in a varying voltage applied to the
next half-cycle, when the polarity load. This is essentially the same
of the input voltage reverses, ter- as applying de mixed with ac to the
minal A will be negative and termi- load. Additional filtering is required
nal B will be positive. When this in applications of this type in order
voltage reaches its peak, the peak to eliminate ac so that we will have
reverse voltage across the rectifier pure de across the load.
will be equal to twice the peak line
voltage. The rectifier must be able AN B-C FILTER
to withstand this voltage without
breaking down. This important char- An improved filter, which is often
acteristic, by which rectifiers are called a pi filter because it looks
rated, is usually referred to as like the Greek letter pi (n), is shown
"PRV" (peak reverse voltage), al- in Fig. 13. You will notice that this
though it may also be called "PIV" filter consists of two capacitors, Cl
(peak inverse voltage). The two are and C2, and a filter resistor, Rl.
simply the maximum reverse or in- The operation of the half-wave
verse voltages that can be applied rectifier and capacitor Cl, which is
across the rectifier without its called the input filter capacitor, is
breaking down. In circuits such as the same as in the simple capacitor
those shown in Fig. 11, the Ply filter shown in Fig.11.The rectifier
should be considerably higher than tube passes current pulses to charge
twice the peak line voltage in order capacitor Cl with the polarity indi-
to allow a reasonable safety factor. cated on the diagram. However, if the

hg. H-C pi-type filter.

16
load resistance R, is low enough to
draw appreciable current from the LOW DC
VOLTAGE
supply, then the voltage across Cl r I

will discharge appreciably during PULSATING

DC O HIGH Rc 2 PL
HIGH
DC
the portion of the cycle when the INPUT VOLTAGE

rectifier tube is not conducting.

Thus, we have de with an ac super-
imposed on it across Cl.
Now, to see the action of R1 and
C2, let us first consider how the ca-
R1
pacitor C2 reacts to ac and to de.
Remember that a capacitor is a de- HIGH AC
VOLTAGE Ft
vice that will not pass de -- it can
be charged so that a de voltage will
PULSATING
DC
INPUT
O LOW xc zRi. LOW
AC
VOLTAGE
exist across it, but applying de to
the plates of the capacitor will not
cause a current to flow through it.
Although electrons cannot cross
through the dielectric of a capaci- Fig. 14. Equivalent circuits showing the
tor, however, applying ac to the di- reaction of an R-C filter to dc at A. and
electric of a capacitor yields the to ac at B.
effect of a current flowing through
it. This is due to the fact that elec- capacitor is really perfect because
trons will flow first into one plate there will always be a small de cur-
and then into the other as the po- rent (called a leakage current). In
larity of the ac voltage reverses. other words, the capacitor offers a
You will remember from your very high resistance to de, so we
study of capacitors that a capacitor have shown it as resistor Et c2. Most
offers what is called capacitive re- of the de voltage applied to the input
actance (or opposition) to the flow of this filter network will appear
of ac through it. The exact react- across the capacitor, and there will
ance that any capacitor will offer be very little dc dropped across the
to the flow of ac through it is given resistor Rl. The exact drop across
by the formula: this resistor will depend upon the
1 size of the resistor and the current
Xc = drawn by the load.
6.28 Xf xC
Now look at Fig. 14B which shows
You can see from this formula the reaction of the circuit to an ac
that the larger the value of the ca- voltage. The capacitor has a very
pacitor, the lower the capacitive re- low reactance to ac, so most of the
actance will be to an ac voltage of ac voltage will be dropped across
a particular frequency. In Fig. 14A R1, because the resistance of R1 is
we have shown how the filter con- much higher than the reactance (X)
sisting of R1 and C2 reacts to de; of C2. R1 and C2 act as a voltage
in Fig. 14B, we have shown how it divider network with most of the ac
reacts to ac. being dropped across R1 because
As you know, a "perfect" capaci- its resistance is much higher than
tor will not pass de -- although no the reactance of C2.

17
 There is another way of looking if R1 were not on the circuit. Be-
at this type of power supply which cause Cl charges to a higher volt-
may help you see exactly what is age than C2, and while discharging
happening in the circuit. Refer back tends to charge C2, the voltage
to Fig. 13; the explanation applies across C2 is more nearly constant
to the circuit using the vacuum tube than the voltage across Cl.
rectifier shown at A and to the one
using the silicon rectifier shown at AN L-C FILTER
B.
When terminal A is positive with The disadvantage of the resistor-
respect to terminal B, the diode will capacitor type of filter shown in Fig.
conduct and current can flow through 13 soon becomes apparent if you con-
the diode and through the load.Dur- sider the size of the resistor and
ing this part of the cycle electrons capacitor needed to obtain effective
will flow into the plates of Cl and filtering and also the effect that the
C2 marked with a minus sign. At high value of resistance in the cir-
the same time electrons will flow cuit has on the de voltage present.
out of the other plate of both ca- Consider Fig. 13 again for amin-
pacitors. Electrons leaving the posi- ute. Suppose that the ac component
tive side of Cl will flow directly of the pulsating de across Cl is 10
through the diode being attracted by volts and that the maximum ac com-
the positive voltage at terminal A. ponent that can be applied tothe load
Because the resistance of the recti- is only 1 volt. This means that the
fier is low, Cl can charge up to a filter network consisting of R1 and
value almost equal to the peak ac C2 must produce a 9-to-1 voltage
voltage. However, the electrons division. In other words, of the 10
leaving the positive side of C2 must volts ac appearing across Cl we
flow through the filter resistor Rl. must drop 9 volts across R1 and 1
Thus, capacitor C2 cannot charge to volt across C2. This means that the
as high a voltage as capacitor Cl. resistance of R1 must be about 9 or
When the ac input voltage drops 10 times the reactance of C2.
so that the diode no longer conducts, A 25-mfd capacitor (which is
capacitors C2 and Cl begin supply- fairly large, particularly if it must
ing the power required by the load. be built to withstand high voltages),
However, capacitor Cl is charged has a reactance of about 100 ohms
to a higher voltage than capacitor at a frequency of 60 cycles. If we
C2. Hence, capacitor Cl begins sup- used such a capacitor for C2, then
plying power to the load and also the resistance of R1 would have to
tries to charge capacitor C2. Since be 10 times its reactance, or about
electrons flowing from the negative 1000 ohms. If the current drawn by
side of Cl to the positive side must the load is 100 milliamperes, then
flow through filter resistor R1, the the voltage drop across R1 due to the
attempt of these electrons to charge load current flowing through it will
C2 and flow through the load resis- be 1000 ohms times .lamp (100 ma),
tor will be somewhat restricted by or 100 volts. This means that we will
Rl. The net effect is that the resis- be losing 100 volts of our de voltage
tor R1 prevents C2 from charging across Rl. Furthermore, the power
to as high a peak voltage as it would being wasted by this resistor will be

18
 L

Fig. 15. An L-C filter.

equal to the voltage across it times time the only opposition that the
the current flowing through it, which choke will offer to the flow of de
is 100 x .1, or 10 watts.You can see through it is due to the resistance of
that we have an appreciable voltage the wire used to wind the coil. By
drop and a sizable amount of power using a large size wire, this resist-
wasted by this resistor. ance can be kept quite low. The choke
In some cases the current drawn may have ade resistance of 100 ohms
through the filter resistor is not so or less and at the same time have a
high that the voltage dropacross the reactance of several thousand ohms
resistor cannot be tolerated. Thus to the 60-cycle ac applied to it.
you will see this type of filter used The reaction of the L-C filter to
in equipment when the current taken dc is shown in Fig. 16A, and the re-
from the power supply is moderate. action to ac is shown in Fig. 16B.
In equipment when the current drawn In 16A we see that as far as the de
is high, a different type of filter is is concerned, the choke acts as a
used. Such a filter is shown in Fig.
LOW R
15. Notice that this circuit is iden-
tical to Fig. 13, except that we have
substituted an iron-core choke for
LOW DC
VOLTAGE
p
HIGH HIGH

o
Rl. The action of this filter network Rt. DC
VOLTAGE
is quite similar to that of the filter
network shown in Fig.13.Aga.in,ca-
pacitor Cl is charged by the recti-
fier and because there is no resist-
ance in the circuit other than the HIGH R
rectifier resistance, it charges to a ti HIGX
HLAc

fairly high value. Just as before,

VOLTAGE LOW
however, the voltage across it will LOW
C RL AC
be pulsating (the equivalent of de
with ac superimposed on it).
o VOLTAGE

Now consider the reaction of the

choke to ac and dc.Youwill remem-
ber that a choke has inductance,and Fig. 16. Equivalent circuit showing the
an inductance offers reactance to reaction of an L-C filter to de at A. and
the flow of ac through it. At the same to ac at B.

19
low resistance while the capacitor charged will not be as high as the
acts as avery high resistance. Thus, voltage to which Cl is charged be-
we have practically all of our de volt- cause of the opposition of the choke.
age appearing across the capacitor When the ac input voltage drops
and very little of it being lost across below the voltage to which Cl is
the choke. However, as shown in charged, the rectifier will no longer
16B, the choke acts as ahigh resist- conduct and no current can flow
ance to the ac while the capacitor through it. Now Cl and C2 and choke
acts as a low resistance.Thus, most Li must supply the current needed
of the ac voltage will appear across by the load. C2 does this by attempt-
the choke and very little of it will ing to discharge. Cl also tries to
appear across the capacitor. discharge to charge C2 and to supply
There is another way of looking part of the current required by the
at the action of the L-C filter. We load. At the same time there is a
can consider the charging of the ca- magnetic field built up in the choke
pacitors and the opposition offered Li which does not collapse instantly
by the choke more or less in the but instead tries to keep current
same way as we considered the flowing in the direction it was flow-
action of the R-C filter in Fig. 13. ing when the rectifier was conduct-
During the first half-cycle, when ing. It too helps to maintain the cur-
terminal A of either rectifier cir- rent flow through the load RL. Thus
cuit is positive and terminal B is in this type of filter we have energy
negative, the rectifier will conduct. stored in three places: the capaci-
Electrons will flow from terminal tors Cl and C2 (as we did inthe cir-
B into the sides of C1and C2 marked cuit in Fig. 13), and in the magnetic
with a minus sign. These electrons field of choke Ll.
will force electrons out of the posi- In the circuits shown in Fig. 15,
tive side of Cl and they will flow the rectifier tube in Fig. 15A offers
through the rectifier with little or a certain amount of resistance tothe
no opposition. However, the elec- flow of current through it. In addi-
trons leaving the positive side of tion, the rectifier tube has acathode
C2 will encounter opposition in the which must be heated by a heater.
choke. This is because at the instant It takes some time for the cathode
when the electrons first try to get to come up to operatingtemperature ;
through the choke there is no mag- when a tube first starts conducting,
netic field built up in the choke.You the cathode is below normal opera-
will remember that a choke is ade- ting temperature, and the tube offers
vice that opposes any change in cur- a higher resistance to the flow of
rent flowing through it. Therefore, current through it than it does when
the choke tries to keep the electrons the tube reaches its full operating
leaving the positive side of C2 from temperature. Thus when the power
flowing through it. Eventually this supply is first turned on and the tube
opposition offered by the choke is reaches a temperature at which the
overcome, a magnetic field is built cathode begins toemit electrons ,the
up in the choke, and some of the tube offers considerable resistance
electrons can flow through the choke to the flow of current through it. This
and capacitor C2 will be charged. limits the charging current through
However, the voltage to which C2 is the tube that charges the input filter

20
capacitor Cl. In a matter of a few to a reasonable value. As the current
seconds capacitor C1 is charged and flowing to the thermistor heats the
from then on the current that must thermistor and its resistance goes
flow through the tube is within the down, the charge across capacitor
tube 's capabilities. Cl will build up slowly so that the
In the circuit shown in Fig. 15B, diode current never reaches an ex-
however, the silicon rectifier does cessively high value. By the time
not have a cathode which must be the capacitor is fully charged, the
heated -- as soon as the power is thermistor temperature will have
turned on the rectifier begins to con- increased to a point where the re-
duct to charge the input capacitor sistance of the thermistor has
Cl. If you turn the equipment on at dropped to a low value so that the
the peak of the ac cycle there will thermistor has very little effect on
be a very high voltage immediately the overall operation of the circuit.
impressed across Cl and a very
high current will flow through the L
rectifier. As a matter of fact, the R1
current might be so high that it could
burn out the rectifier. Even if the
power is turned on when the ac volt-
age is at zero, a high current will
flow through the diode to charge Cl
as the voltage rises to a peak value
with terminal A positive with respect
to terminal B. If Cl is large enough,
this could burn out the rectifier. Fig. 17. Power supply with series-limiting
This problem of excessively high resistor.
charging current can be overcome
with the circuit shown in Fig. 17. If you have to service a power
Here a resistor is connected in supply of this type (where aresistor
series with the silicon rectifier to or a thermistor is used in the cir-
limit the current flow. In some cuit in series with a silicon recti-
equipment, this resistor is a fairly fier) and you find that the resistor
low resistance, fixed-value resis- or thermistor is opened, do not
tor. In other applications, the re- simply short the resistor or ther-
sistor may be athermistor. You will mistor out of the circuit. If you do
remember that a thermistor is are- the chances are that the diode will
sistor with a negative temperature burn out either the first time that
coefficient. This means that the re- you turn the equipment on or shortly
sistance of the thermistor decreases thereafter.
as its temperature increases. The rectifier tubes used in low
With a thermistor for the resis- power equipment such as radio and
tor R1 shown in the circuit in Fig. television receivers are high vacu-
17, the thermistor will offer afairly um rectifier tubes. However, in
high resistance to currentflow when transmitters and in industrial appli-
the equipment is first turned on. This cations where high voltages are in-
will limit the charging current that volved you will often run into mer-
flows through the diode to charge C1 cury-vapor rectifier tubes. Tubes

21
of this type cannot be subjected to age divider network for the ac, so
high peak currents through them that most of the ac is dropped across
without damaging the tube. A mer- the filter choke and very little of it
cury-vapor rectifier tube in the cir- appears across the load.
cuit such as shown in Fig. 15A lasts A more elaborate filter network is
only a short time. We can keep the the two-section filter shown in Fig.
peak current through the tube down 19. Again, it is a choke-input filter
to a safe value by using a somewhat because the first element in the fil-
different filter circuit known as a ter network is a choke. This type of
choke-input filter. filter network is frequently used in
power supplies of radio and TV
CHORE-INPUT FILTERS
transmitters and of industrial elec-
The filter circuits shown in Figs. tronic equipment where mercury-
15 and 17 are called capacitor-input vapor rectifier tubes are used.
filters because the rectifier is con- The choke-input filter has several
nected directly to the input filter ca- advantages over the capacitor-input
pacitor. A choke-input filter such as filter, even though the voltage ob-
those frequently used with a mer- tained at the output of a choke-input
cury-vapor rectifier tube is shown filter is not quite as high as it is at
In Fig. 18. Here, the rectifier tube the output of equivalent capacitor-
is connected to a filter choke rather input filters. In other words, if you
than a capacitor. Power supplies of feed the same pulsating de into a
this type will be found in radio and choke-input filter you will not obtain
television transmitters and in indus- as high an output voltage for agiven
trial applications where compara- load as you can with a capacitor-
tively high voltages are encountered. input filter. However, this type of
It is easy to see how this type of filter has better voltage regulation
filter works when we remember that than a capacitor-input filter. The
the pulsating de at the output of the voltage regulation of a power supply
rectifier tube is actually de with ac is the ratio of the full-load voltage
superimposed on it. The choke offers to the no-load voltage. With achoke-
little or no opposition to the flow of input filter there is not as great a
de through it. On the other hand,the variation between the no-load and the
choke offers a high reactance to the full-load voltages as there is in the
flow of ac through it and at the same capacitor-input filter.
time the capacitor offers a low re- Another big advantage of the
actance to the ac across it. Thus the choke-input filter is that the peak
choke and the capacitor forma volt- current passed by the rectifier tube
is held to a reasonable value. In a
choke-input filter, the choke offers
considerable reactance to any
change in current flow through it.
Thus, when the rectifier tube tries
to conduct current heavily to charge
Cl in Fig. 19, the input-filter choke
Li offers considerable reactance or
opposition to the change in current
Fig. 18. A choke-input filter. flow through it. It tends to smooth

22
 The input filter choke, which is Li
in Fig. 19, is often aswingingchoke.
A swinging choke is designed sothat
it saturates rather easily and thus
its inductance will vary appreciably
as the current through the choke
changes. When the current through
the choke becomes high, the induc-
Fig. 19. two-section choke-inpu filter. tance and hence the inductive re-
actance of the choke decrease, but
out the pulses of current throughthe when the current through the choke
rectifier tube. The current pulse is low, the inductance and hence the
flowing through the rectifier tube inductive reactance increase. Thus
flows for a slightly longer time than we have in effect a variable react-
it would flow with an equivalent ca- ance between the rectifier tube and
pacitor-input type of filter, and the the input-filter capacitor; this vari-
peak amplitude of the current flow- able reactance helps to improve
ing through the rectifier tube is not voltage regulation at the power sup-
as high as it would be with the ca- ply output. This type of choke is
pacitor input filter. This is a big particularly useful in circuits where
advantage in a power supply using the load current goes through wide
mercury-vapor rectifier tubes, be- variations. If the load current goes
cause they can easily be destroyed down, the reactance of the choke in-
by excessively high current pulses creases. The increased reactance
through them. limits the charging action of the rec-
The filter network shown in Fig. tifier tube and keeps the output volt-
19 is quite effective in eliminating age from rising appreciably. On the
hum. Consider what would happen other hand, if the load current in-
if the output of the rectifier had an creases, the reactance of the choke
ac voltage of 100 volts superimposed decreases, allowing the rectifier to
on the dc. If the two sections of the charge Cl to a higher value so the
filter network are designed so that capacitor can supply the increased
each choke has a reactance about 10 current demand.
times as high as the reactance of the
FACTORS AFFECTING
capacitors, each section will have
THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE
approximately a 10-to-1 ripple volt-
age division; thus if there are 100 In any filter network containing a
volts ac at the output of the rectifier, filter choke or a filter resistor, the
Li and Cl will divide this voltage so de current flowing through the load
that there will be only 10 volts ap- must also flow through the filter
pearing across Cl. Now L2 and C2 choke or filter resistor. Thus ,there
act as a voltage divider networkand will be a voltage drop across this
divide this 10 volts further, so that choke or resistor; the exact value
the voltage across C2 would be only of the voltage drop will depend upon
1 volt. Thus, the two-section filter the de resistance and the current
has reduced the ac hum or ripple flowing. We already pointed out that
voltage at the rectifier output from if a 1000-ohm filter resistor is used
100 volts to 1volt. in the circuit and the current that is

23
flowing is 100 milliamperes, the Of course, it is difficult to say
voltage drop across the filter resis- whether a filter capacitor is large
tor will be 100 volts. On the other or small. Whether or not it is large
hand, if a filter choke having a de for the particular circuit depends
resistance of 100 ohms is used, a upon how much current is being
current of 100 milliamperes will drawn from the circuit. If the cur-
produce a voltage drop of only 10 rent drain is low, then a capacitor
volts across it. of 10 or 20-mfd will usually be suffi-
If the current drawn by the load cient to keep the power supply output
changes, the output voltage at the voltage at or near the peak value of
output of the filter network will the ac voltage applied to the rectifier
change. You can see why this is so-- tube. However, if the current drain
the current must flow through the from the power supply is large,then
filter resistor or filter choke. If the the voltage across the power supply
current flowing through the choke or output will be considerably less than
resistor changes, the voltage drop the peak ac value if the capacitors
across it will change, and hence the used are 10-mfd or 20-mfd capaci-
voltage at the output of the power tors.
supply will have some tendency to To give you some idea of how the
change. size of the input filter capacitor af-
The output voltage is also affected fects the output voltage, we have
by the size of the filter capacitors shown a graph in Fig. 20. The graph
used. If the filter capacitors used are is for a full-wave rectifier. It shows
small, then the rectifier is unable how the output voltage varies with
to keep them completely charged; if different load currents for both 4-
the filter capacitors are large, once mfd and 8-mfd capacitors. We have
the rectifier gets them charged,they shown this for three separate input
will stay charged to a voltage near voltages. Notice that in each case
the peak ac voltage being applied to when the current drain is low, the
the rectifier tube. output voltage is substantially above
550
10
the rms input voltage applied to the
rectifier. Remember, of course , that
500 the peak value of a300-volt rms volt-
age is actually 1.4 times 300 volts.
3s
450 brp
Fig. 21 shows a comparison be-
I
- 4 A.,. tween a choke-input and capacitor-
o-

400
input type of filter. Notice that with
a a capacitor input the output voltage
l
e kre ,
at low loads is substantially higher
4

V' 350
Mx.

o than it is for achoke input. However,

Afp as the load is increased, the output
0 300
o voltage from a capacitor-input type
of filter drops rapidly. The output
250 0
40 80 120 160 200 240 voltage from the choke-input type
DC LOAD CURRENT IN MA
filter also drops as the load is in-
Fig. 20. How the size of the input ca- creased, but it does not drop nearly
pacitor of a filter affects the output volt- as rapidly as it does with a capaci-
age for different values of load current. tor-input type of filter.

24
 4 WO CAPACITOR INPUT TO FILTER — rectifier. The same filter circuits
CHOKE INPUT TO FILTER
700 are also used with full-wave recti-
gr
fiers.
g_ 600 Study the circuits shown in this
Ce
section. You should be familiar with
o500 each of these circuits. You might
try drawing these circuits several
a. ----
0
400 &Oa times to get familiar with the cir-
3
cuit arrangement. Copy them from
cn 300
----- j
).0
the book the first few times you try
é-
-J
drawing them and then try to repro-
0 200
duce the circuit from memory. This
o
will help you remember what the cir-
cuits look like, and if you can re-
1000
50 100 150 200 250 300
member what they look like, the
DC LOAD CURRENT IN MA
chances are that you'll be able to
remember how they work.
Fig. 21. How the output voltage of a fil-
ter network varies for different values of
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
load currents and input voltages. The
solid curves are for a capacitor-input
(1) To what value may the input
filter; the dashed curves for achoke-input
filter capacitor charge in a
filte r.
simple capacitor filter such as
shown in Fig. 11?
SUMMARY (j) In what type of application may
a simple capacitor-type filter
In this section we have covered (such as shown in Fig. 11) be
some of the more important types used?
of filter networks you are likely to (k) What advantage does an R-C
encounter in your career as an elec- pi-type filter (such as shown
tronics technician. You have seen in Fig.13)have over the simple
that these networks vary from com- capacitor-type filter shown in
paratively simple filters consisting Fig. 11?
only of a capacitor up to networks (1) What is the disadvantage of the
containing two chokes and two filter R-C pi-type filter, and how
capacitors. can this disadvantage be over-
Simpler types of filter networks come?
can be used where the current drain (m) What is the purpose of the re-
is low and where the filtering does sistor R1 in the power supply
not have to be very good. The more shown in Fig. 17?
elaborate filters are used in power (n) Why are choke-input filters
supplies having a high current drain used with mercury-vapor rec-
and in cases where good filtering is tifier tubes?
required to supply pure de at the (o) What advantage does a choke-
power supply output. input filter have over a ca-
The circuits in this section of the pacitor-input filter ?
lesson are shown with a half-wave (P) What is a swinging choke?

25
 Typical Power Supplies
The two main sections of the power tice that the heaters of the various
supply are the rectifier and the filter tubes are connected in series and
section. Now that we have discussed that they are operated on ac. In this
both these sections, let's examine type of power supply youwill always
some typical power supplies and see find that the heater of the rectifier
what they look like. First we'll look tube, in this case a 35W4 tube, is
at some power supplies using tube- connected directly to one side of the
type rectifiers which might be found power line. The heater of this par-
in equipment using vacuum tubes. ticular tube is tapped, and a pilot
Remember that in these circuits the light is connected in parallel with
rectifier operates in the same way one part of the heater. The pilot
as a selenium or silicon rectifier light will light when the set is turned
would operate. Insofar as the recti- on. The tube is designed to be op-
fication action is concerned, it erated with the pilot light connected
makes little difference whether in parallel with part of the heater,
a tube, a selenium rectifier, or a so if in servicing a receiver using
silicon rectifier is used. In the cir- a tube with apilot light tap you should
cuits where tubes are used, we will find that the pilot light is burned out,
in some cases show how the tube it is a good idea to replace it to keep
heaters are connected. After look- the heater current in the rectifier
ing at a few tube circuits we will tube within its rated value.
look at some typical power supplies Next to the 35W4 rectifier tube in
using silicon rectifiers and then at the heater circuit (or heater string,
a more complex regulated supply. as it is usually called) you will al-
ways find the high-voltage power
UNIVERSAL AC-DC
output tube. By a high-voltage tube
POWER SUPPLIES we mean a tube that requires a high
The universal ac-dc power supply heater voltage. In the diagram we
is so called because it can be op- have shown, the tube is a 50B5 tube.
erated from either an ac or a de As the 50 suggests, a heater voltage
power line. When these power sup- of 50 volts is required to operate
plies were first used in radio re- the tube.
ceivers, manufacturers played this 5H
feature up, but actually this type 35W4 e+
of power supply is used to keep costs 30
r riff‘17
50
« --

at a minimum. WIFDT_
I 8-
The circuit of an ac-dc power sup- -o

ply for a 5-tube radio receiver is

shown in Fig. 22. This supply not
only supplies the dc voltages re-
115-120
quired by the plates and screens of VOLTS 5085 1213A6 128E6 12AT6
AC/DC
the tubes in the receiver but also
contains the heater supply for the
SWITCH
heaters of the various tubes. First,
let us look at the heater supply.No- Fig. 22. A typical ac-dc power supply.

26
 Next to the output tube you will of a capacitor-input filter; the input
usually find the i-f tube. In this dia- filter capacitor is the 30-mfd ca-
gram, the i -f tube is a 12BA6 tube. pacitor, and the output filter capaci-
It is a tube with a 12.6-volt heater. tor is the 50-mfd capacitor. Usually
Next to the i -f tube you will find these two capacitors are in a single
the converter tube. The 12BE6 tube container that has only three leads
is a converter tube designed so that brought out from it. Since the nega-
the single tube performs two tasks: tive leads are both connected to B-,
one part of the tube is the oscillator a common negative lead and two
and the other part is the mixer. separate positive leads are usually
The last tube in the heater string used. The capacitor is usually a
is always the first audiotube.Inthis tubular type of capacitor with apaper
circuit it is a 12AT6 tube. This tube cover impregnated with wax. The ca-
is placed at the end of the heater pacitor is mounted on the receiver
string nearest B- to keep hum at a chassis by means of a mounting
minimum, because hum picked up in strap, or in areceiver with aprinted
the first audio tube will be amplified circuit board, the leads are soldered
by the entire audio system and could directly to the circuit board. Often
be objectionable. The 12AT6 tube is this is the only kind of mechanical
a dual-diode-triode tube: it has two mounting used.
diodes and a triode inside the same Capacitors in this type of receiver
glass envelope. As the 12 preceding are usually rated at 150 volts. The
the type designation suggests, the normal output voltage of this type of
tube requires a heater voltage of power supply under load is usually
about 12 volts--to be exact, 12.6 somewhere between 90 and 105 volts.
volts. Not all universal ac-dc power sup-
Now if we examine the rectifier plies use a filter choke. In the cir-
circuit you will see that the plate is cuit shown in Fig. 22, the plates and
connected to a center tap on the rec- screens of all of the tubes are op-
tifier heater. This means that the B erated from the B+ output of this
supply current flowing through the power supply. However, sometimes
plate of the tube must flow either you will find a filter resistor used
through part of the rectifier heater in the power supply in place of the
or through the pilot light back to one filter choke. When this is done, the
side of the power line. The purpose plate of the output tube is usually
of connecting the plate this way is to connected directly to the cathode of
provide some protection inthe event the rectifier tube so that the current
of a short in the receiver.lf there is drawn by the output tube plate will
a short in the receiver,the rectifier not flow through the filter resistor.
tube will begin passing excessive This tube usually draws more cur-
current. If this current becomes too rent than all the other tubes in the
high, the pilot light and half the rec- receiver combined.
tifier heater will burn out, opening The output tube is normally abeam
the circuit and protecting the re- tube or a pentode tube, and the plate
ceiver and the house wiring. current depends very little on plate
The rest of the power supply is voltage. Therefore if there is some
similar to the circuit you studied hum voltage applied to the plate of
already. The filter network consists the tube, it usually does not cause

27
any plate current variation and hence long as all the tubes warm up at the
is not heard as hum in the output same rate, their resistances change
from the loudspeaker. The screen at the same rate. In this way, ahigh
voltage for the output tube and the voltage across any of the tubes is
plate and screen voltages for the re- avoided.
maining tubes are obtained at the Before leaving our study of this
output of the power supply where the type of power supply, it is worth-
additional filtering obtained from the while to consider what will happen
filter resistor and the output filter if a tube such as the 12BA6 tube in
capacitor will reduce the ripple from Fig. 22 develops acathode-to-heater
the rectifier to a low value. shortage. The cathode will usually
In some of the later table-model be connected either to B- directly
radio receivers only four tubes are or to B- through a low-value resis-
used; a selenium rectifier or asili- tor; this will effectively short out
con rectifier is used in place of a the heaters of the 12BE6 and 12AT6
rectifier tube because either of these tubes and, as a result, these tubes
has a considerably longer life. In re- will not light.
ceivers of this type, tubes with If you're called upon to service
higher heater voltage requirements a receiver of this type and you find
are often used, so that the sum of the that one or more of the tubes is not
heater voltages required by the four heating, lookf or acathode-to-heater
tubes adds up to about 120 volts. If short in either the tube which doesn 't
the heater voltage required by the light that is highest up on the string,
tubes is less than the line voltage, a or the tube preceding it. If none of
voltage-dropping resistor can be the tubes lights this is an indication,
placed in series with the heaters to since the tubes are connected in
use up the leftover voltage. This will series, that the series string is open
cause the total voltage drop across -- chances are that the heater of one
the series-dropping resistor and the of the tubes has burned out.
tubes to be equal to the line voltage,
thus allowing each of the tubes to
A TYPICAL FULL-WAVE
have its required heater voltage.
Of course, in any heater string POWER SUPPLY
where tube heaters are connected in
series, all the tubes must have the Fig. 23 illustrates atypical power
same heater current rating. Tubes supply using a power transformer
designed for this type of service and full-wave rectifier. This type is
have what is called a controlled found in many radio and TV re-
warm-up. This means that the tube ceivers and transmitting equipment,
heaters are made so that they all as well as in the equipment used in
reach operating temperature at the industrial electronics.
same time. This prevents one tube Notice that the power transformer
from warming up too quickly and has a primary winding to which the
from having too high avoltage across 115-volt ac power line is connected;
its heater. a high-voltage secondary with its
The voltage across the tube heater center tap grounded, and the two end
will depend upon its resistance, leads connected to the plates of the
which changes with temperature. As rectifier tube; and the two filament

28
 5H
heater voltage ratings of 6.3 volts.
The filament winding must be capa-
ble of supplying the heater current
required by all of the tubes. The
tubes may require different heater
currents since they are connected
in parallel. You can determine the
total current the winding must sup-
ply by looking up the heater current
required by the individual tubes in a
Fig. 23. A typical power supply using a
transformer and full-wave rectifier. tube manual and adding the se figures
together.
Again, the filter network used in
windings. One filament winding is this power supply is acapacitor-in-
used to supply the heater voltage pit type. Notice that the capacitors
required by the rectifier tube, and have alower capacity than those used
one filament winding is used to sup- in the circuit shown in Fig. 22. It is
ply the heater voltage for all the not as necessary to use large capaci-
other tubes in the set. tors in a full-wave rectifier type of
In this power supply we have shown power supply as it is in a half-wave
a 5U4G rectifier tube, which re- rectifier to obtain the same amount
quires a heater voltage of 5volts and of filtering. Of course, in some
a heater current of 3 amps. Thus power supplies in which it is essen-
the rectifier filament winding on the tial to keep the hum voltage very low,
transformer must be capable of sup- you will find larger filter capacitors.
plying 5 volts at a current of 3 am- You may also find a two-sectionfil-
peres. ter using an additional choke and a
The winding marked filament third filter capacitor.
number two Ls used to supply the In a power supply such as the one
heater voltage required by all the shown in Fig. 23, the twocapacitors
other tubes in the set. You will no- will probably be mounted in asingle
tice that this winding is called the container. If a cardboard tubular
filament winding, not the heater type is used, one common negative
winding. This is a carry-over from lead and two separate positive leads
the old days of radio when most of will be brought out of the container.
the tubes were filament-type tubes The same color leads will probably
and few had a separate cathode and be used for the two positive sections
heater. since they both have the same ca-
In an electronic device using this pacity. In some pieces of equipment
type of power supply, the heaters of a metal can-type capacitor might
the tubes (with the exception of the be used -- with this type the can is
rectifier tube) are connected in usually the negative terminal.
parallel. Since the tubes are con- Mounting the capacitor on the metal
nected in parallel, you will find that chassis automatically makes the
all of the tubes are designed to op- connection between the negative ter-
erate from the same heater voltage. minal and the chassis. The positive
In most cases equipment using this leads are brought out of two sepa-
type of power supply has tubes with rate terminals.

29
 DUAL-VOLTAGE rent also flows through the ther-
POWER SUPPLIES mistor R3 through R4 and into the
negative plate of capacitor C3. Elec-
A diagram of a typical dual-volt- trons flow out of the positive plate
age power supply is shown in Fig. through the diode D2 back to termi-
24. This diagram is actually quite nal B of the power line. When ter-
similar to the diagram of circuits minal A of the power line is positive
used in amodern color-TV receiver. and terminal B is negative the volt-
Notice that a voltage that is nega- age will be placed in series with the
tive with respect to ground is de- voltage built up across C3, so that
veloped by the diode DI and its as- capacitor C4 is charged to a value
sociated circuitry. Diodes D2 and approaching twice the peak line volt-
D3 are used in a half-wave voltage age through diode D3. This provides
doubler circuit. an output voltage which is positive
In this circuit when terminal A is with respect to ground and approxi-
negative with respect to terminal B, mately equal to twice the ac line
current flows from A through R1 and voltage.
Dl to charge capacitor Cl.A simple The thermistor R3 is put in the
pi-type R-C filter is used in this circuit to prevent high current
section of the power supply because surges through the silicon diodes D2
the current requirements are low and D3 when the equipment is first
and there will be very little voltage turned on. R4 is used in the circuit
drop across R2. At the same time to provide further protection. If the
with the two capacitors, smallvalue equipment is turned on and operating
capacitors can be used and adequate for some time, the resistance of the
filtering obtained. thermistor will drop to a low value.
When terminal A is negative, cur- If the equipment is turned off for a

Di R2

Li
— D3
3 I II ten
C3 +I
120V. r i_ C5
AC D2 — C4 I

• •

Fig. 24. A typical dual-voltage power supply.

30
 PLATE
TRANS
SWINGING SMOOTHING
CHOKE CHOKE
é)
(
816
1000V

4 MFD
non
ma
pz,
r, 1000V

g. 816

FILAMENT
TRANS.

Fig. 25. A typical transmitter power suppl ).

few seconds and then turned back HIGH-VOLTAGE

on, the charging current through the POWER SUPPLIES
diodes could be quite high and dam-
age them. R4 is put in the circuit; Another power supply is shown in
its value does not change and it Fig. 25. This is the type of power
limits the current through the diodes supply you will find in transmitting
to prevent their damage under this equipment or in other equipment
circumstance. where high operating voltages are
The power supply shown in Fig. required. Notice that in this power
24 is typical of the power supply you supply, full-wave rectification is
are likely to run into in both mono- used. Also notice that it has two
chrome and color television re- separate rectifier tubes. Separate
ceivers. A voltage-divider network rectifier tubes rather than a single
may be used across the output of tube with two plates are used in high-
either supply to provide different voltage supplies because the volt-
value voltages. This power supply is ages are so high that they would
comparatively inexpensive; it elimi- simply arc across inside the tube.
nates the need of a power trans- The type 816 tubes shown in this
former and with modern silicon supply are mercury-vapor tubes de-
diodes is comparatively trouble- signed for use in power supplies
free. where the operating voltages are not

31
too high and where the current re- transmitting equipment because its
quirements are not too great. They primary purpose is to smooth out the
are often used in power supplies ripple and also to distinguish it from
where the ac input voltage to the the swinging choke used at the input
rectifier is between 1000 and 2000 of the filter network. A smoothing
volts, and the current drain does not choke is designed to keep its induc-
exceed 250 ma. As far as the trans- tance as nearly constant as possible,
mitting-type power supplies are whereas a swinging choke is de-
concerned, an output voltage of 1000 signed so that its inductance will
volts across each half of the sec- vary as the current through it varies.
ondary of the high-voltage trans- Notice that the filter capacitors
former is not considered high. used in this power supply are 4-mfd
The high-voltage transformer capacitors. Each of these capacitors
found in this type of power supply is is usually mounted in its own sepa-
frequently called a plate trans- rate container. Occasionally you will
former because it is used to supply find two small high-voltage capaci-
the high voltage required to operate tors in the same container, but this
the plates of the various tubes in the is not common practice. Also notice
transmitter. The rectifier tubes are that the capacitors have a much
operated from a separate filament smaller capacity than those in the
transformer. In apower supply using two power supplies we discussed
type 816 tubes, the filament voltage previously. These capacitors are
required by these tubes is 2.5 volts oil-filled capacitors and it is quite
and the current required is 2 amps. costly to make this type of capacitor
Therefore, this filament trans- with a large capacity. On the other
former must be capable of supplying hand, capacitors used in circuits like
a total of 4 amps at a voltage of 2.5 those in Fig. 22, Fig. 23, and Fig.
volts. The filament transformer 24 are electrolytic capacitors and
must have good insulation between very large capacities can be obtained
the secondary winding, the trans- at a very moderate cost.
former core, and the primary wind- Effective filtering is obtained with
ing; otherwise the high voltage will the smaller-size capacitors in this
arc through the insulation either to supply, because two filter chokes are
the primary winding or tothe trans- used. The inductance and hence the
former core. inductive reactance of these chokes
At the input of the power supply are usually somewhat higher than
filter network is a swinging choke. that of filter chokes used in lower
This is common practice in trans- voltage equipment. The choice of
mitter power supplies because it using either large chokes or large
improves the voltage regulation, and filter capacitors is simply one of
also because it affords additional cost. At low voltages it is more eco-
protection for the mercury-vapor nomical to use large capacitors and
rectifier tubes. low-inductance chokes, but at high
The second choke in the power voltages it is more economical to
supply is called a smoothing choke. use high-inductance chokes and low
This is the same type of choke shown capacities. The net result is the
in the power supplies in Figs.22 and same as far as the filtering action
23. It is called a smoothing choke in is concerned. Another component

32
that you will find in transmitting- keep the voltage from climbingtoan
type power supplies is a bleeder. A unsafe value.
bleeder is a resistor connected Another important reason for
across the power supply output. The using the bleeder is that an oil-filled
bleeder serves two purposes: it im- capacitor such as those found in this
proves the voltage regulation and is type of power supply can hold a
also used for safety. charge for a long time. If the two
A bleeder resistor connected 4-mfd capacitors used in the supply
across the power supply keeps the were charged up to a voltage of 1000
minimum current at a reasonable volts or more and atechnician serv-
value. If the current drawn by the icing the equipment accidentally
load connected to this power supply touched one of these capacitors, he
were to drop to zero, the two filter could receive a very dangerous
capacitors would be charged up to a shock. Under certain conditions it
value equal to the peak voltage could be fatal. This danger can be
across half of the secondary of the greatly reduced by connecting a
plate transformer. If the trans- bleeder across the power supply so
former had an /Ins voltage of 1000 that when the equipment is turned
volts across each half of the sec- off the capacitors are discharged
ondary, this would mean that the ca- through the bleeder.
pacitors would charge up to a volt- You may have occasion towork on
age of about 1400 volts. This may high-voltage power supplies at some
be high enough to destroy the capaci- future date. Remember that a
tors. Also, the chokes have adefinite bleeder is connected across the
maximum voltage that can be applied power supply for safety as well as to
to them. If the voltage goes toohigh, improve the voltage regulation.
the insulation between the choke Therefore if the bleeder in a power
winding and the core may break supply burns out, it should be re-
down. This will destroy the chokes. placed. However, never rely on a
If either of the chokes or capacitors bleeder to discharge high-voltage
shorts, the rectifier tubes will pass filter capacitors. If you have to work
such a high current that they maybe on a high-voltage power supply, your
ruined. There is also the danger of first step should be to remove all
burning out the plate transformer. voltages from the supply.Todothis,
Furthermore, if the voltage reaches turn the power supply off; if there
too high a value, the rectifier tubes are fuses in it, remove the fuses so
may arc over internally. A bleeder that no one can accidentally turn it
connected across the power supply on; disconnect it completely from
output can eliminate this danger. the source if you can. Often it is not
With the bleeder across the output, possible or convenient to completely
if the equipment current drops to or disconnect the equipment from the
almost to zero, the bleeder current voltage source but if it is shut off
will continue to flow. If the output and any fuse in the circuit is re-
voltage starts to rise, the bleeder moved, it should be safe. Next, be-
current will increase because the fore you start to work on the supply,
current flowing through any resistor discharge all filter capacitors in the
increases if the voltage across it in- power supply. The capacitors should
creases. The bleeder current will be discharged with aheavy metal rod

33
that has a good insulated handle so is used in a TV receiver that is de-
that you will not come in contact with signed for operation from the power
the metal rod. Use the metal rod to line and also from a 12-volt dc
short together the terminals of the source. When the power plug is
capacitor to discharge it. Touch the plugged into a 12 0-volt line and the
grounded terminal of the capacitor switch is turned on, the receiver
first and slide the rod over to touch will operate from the power line.
the other terminal. Do this several When the power plug is disconnected
times to be sure the charge is com- and switch Si is closed, the receiver
pletely removed. After the capaci- can be operated from a 12-volt bat-
tors have been discharged, the power tery.
supply should be safe to work on. The operation of the power supply
Keep this point in mind :high volt- from the power line is comparatively
age capacitors, or for that matter simple. Two diodes, DI and D2, are
any large capacitors, should be dis- used in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
charged before you start to work on When the transformer Ti, which is
a piece of equipment. Many techni- a step-down transformer, has a po-
cians fail to do this. There are some larity such that the end of the sec-
technicians who can tell about the ondary connected to DI is negative,
terrific shock they received when current will flow through the diode
they failed to discharge a filter ca- D1 to ground and into the negative
pacitor. There are others that did plate of C3. Electrons flow out of
not survive the experience to tell the positive plate of C3 tothe center
about it. tap of the power transformer which
is positive with respect to the end
A TRANSISTOR-REGULATED connected to Dl. During the next
POWER SUPPLY half-cycle, when the end of the sec-
A regulated power supply employ- ondary connected to D2 is negative,
ing transistor voltage regulators is current will flow through D2 to
shown in Fig. 26. This power supply ground, into the negative plate of C3,

120V.

12V.
DC

OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Fig. 26. A transistor-regulated power supply.

34
out of the positive plate of C3 and zener D3 remains constant so that
back to the center tap of the sec- the voltage across R2 will reflect
ondary winding on the power trans- the entire output voltage rise. This
former. will reduce the forward bias on Q1
The remainder of the components which, in turn, will reduce the
used for the power supply are used emitter-collector current. The re-
for the purpose of regulating the duction in the emitter-collector cur-
voltage. In other words, the power rent will reduce the voltage drop
supply voltage is maintained con- across R5 which, in turn, will re-
stant at approximately 12 volts re- duce the forward bias on Q2; this
gardless of the load drawn from the has the effect of increasing its re-
supply. The transistor Q2 is a PNP sistance. The increased resistance
transistor that is used as a series tends to keep the output voltage from
voltage regulator. Notice that the increasing.
emitter of this- transistor connects If the output voltage decreases ,
the
directly to the positive side of C3. opposite happens. The base voltage
You can consider this transistor as on Q1 falls, as does the emitter volt-
working more or less as a variable age. However, the emitter voltage
resistor: if the output voltage tends falls more than the base voltage, so
to rise, the resistance increases and the forward bias is increased. This
if the voltage tends to fall, the re- increases the emitter-to-collector
sistance decreases. current through Q1 which increases
The effective resistance of Q2 is the forward bias on Q2. This has the
varied by varying the forward bias effect of reducing the resistance on
across the emitter-base junction. Q2 and tends to keep the output volt-
Notice the zener diode D3. This diode age from falling.
is connected in series with R2. The This type of power supply is one
zener has a constant voltage of 6.3 of the more complex power supplies
volts across it. Therefore, the volt- that you are likely to encounter in
age drop across R2 will be equal to electronic equipment. The voltage
the output voltage minus 6.3 volts. regulation is required in order to
This is the emitter voltage applied keep the voltage reasonably constant
to Ql. The base voltage is deter- on the various transistors used on
mined by the voltage division oc- the TV receiver. In most cases,
curring between R4, R3 and R6. R4 such precise voltage regulation is
is adjustable so that the output volt- not required in entertainment-type
age can be adjusted to 12 volts. Under equipment.
these circumstances a certain cur- VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
rent will flow through Q1 and through
R5 and this will set the forward bias We mentioned previously that
on Q2. If the output voltage tends to more than one operating voltage is
rise, the base voltage on Q1 will sometimes needed in the various
rise but by an amount less than the stages of apiece of electronic equip-
emitter voltage. The divider network ment. Rather than use a separate
consisting of R4, R3 and R6 will supply for each voltage needed, the
prevent the base from risingthe full usual procedure is to use a single
amount of the output voltage rise. On supply designed to give the highest
the other hand ,the voltage across the voltage needed, and then obtain the

35
lower voltages required by means of tain good voltage regulation at ter-
a voltage divider connected across minals C and B.
the power supply output. A typical The current flowing through R2
voltage divider is shown in Fig. 27. will be made up of the bleeder cur-
In this voltage divider, R1 and R2 rent plus the current drawn by the
are voltage-dropping resistors; they stages connected to terminal C. If
drop the voltage from 300 volts to the this current varies, the voltage drop
required voltages of 200 and 100 across R2 and hence the voltage at
volts. R3 is a bleeder used to sta- terminal C will vary. However, the
bilize the voltages at points Band C. bleeder current will remain essen-
With this type of network, terminal tially constant so that if a sizable
D is the ground or common terminal. percentage of the current flowing
Between D and C there is avoltage of through R2 is bleeder current, vari-
100 volts; terminal C is positive with ations in the current drawn by the
respect to terminal D. Between D stages connected to terminal C do
and B there is a voltage of 200volts not cause too much variation in the
and terminal B is positive with re- voltage drop across R2.
spect to te rmina 1D. Finally, between The current flowing through R1 is
terminals D and A there is the full made up of the bleeder current plus
power supply output voltage of 300 the current drawn by the stages con-
volts, and of course terminal A is nected to terminals C and B. Again
positive with respect to terminal D. if the bleeder current through R1
represents a sizable part of the total
A 300 VOLTS current flow through R1, variations
in the current drawn by the stages
connected to terminals C and B do
200 VOLTS not cause too great a variation in
POWER
SUPPLY the voltage drop across R1 so the
OUTPUT voltage at terminal B will remain
100 VOLTS
reasonably constant.
Bleeders are not used in modern
midget radio receivers, but you will
COMMON
OR find them in many of the older sets.
GROUND They are frequently used in TV re-
ceivers, in the low-voltage power
Fig. 27. A voltage-divider network. supplies in transmitting equipment,
and in industrial electronic equip-
The current flowing through R3 is ment.
called the bleeder current. It re- Sometimes one section of atapped
mains fairly constant and is deter- resistor will burn out. Often you can
mined primarily by the sizes of R1, repair the equipment simply by con-
R2 and R3. Usually, the size of R3 necting a resistor having the correct
is chosen so that the bleeder current resistance and a suitable wattage
will be at least as great as the cur- rating across the defective section.
rent drawn by the stages connected Of course, if separate resistors are
to terminals C and B. Choosing a used in the voltage divider you can
value of R3 that will result ina rea- simply replace any defective one. If
sonable bleeder current helps main- you do shunt a burned out section of

36
a tapped resistor in aradio receiver terminal M. Here it will flow from
and find the equipment is noisyafter the reed to contact M, to coil L,
you have made this repair, the de- through coil L back to the positive
fective section may be making con- side of the battery. The current flow-
tact intermittently and creating the ing through the coil creates a mag-
noise. (1 course in this case you netic field. This magnetic field at-
must replace the entire unit either tracts the end of the reed K, pulling
with separate resistors connected the reed over toward L and contact
in series or with a tapped resistor N. When the reed makes contact with
like the original one. terminal N, current flows through
the upper half of the transformer
VIBRATOR-TYPE primary winding. It flows from the
SUPPLIES top of the winding to the center tap,
building up a magnetic field.
The radios installed in automo- At the same instant that the reed
biles for years used a power supply is making its contact with terminal
known as a vibrator type of power N, it will break its contact with ter-
supply. A schematic diagram of this minal M so that the electromagnet
type of power supply is shown in Fig. will no longer be energized and the
28. The heart of this type of power field about it will collapse. The reed
supply is the vibrator, which is used is made of a spring type material so
to change the dc from the automo- that it springs back until it makes
bile storage battery to a pulsating contact with both terminal M and
current in the primary winding of the terminal O. At the instant contact is
power transformer. made with terminal 0, current flows
The vibrator consists of an elec- through the lower half of the primary
tromagnet L, and areed (R-K) placed winding of the transformer, flowing
between two sets of contacts. In the from the bottom of the winding to-
circuit shown in Fig. 28, when the wards the center tap. The current
switch is turned to the ON position, is flowing through the primary wind-
current will flow from the negative ing in the opposite direction to the
terminal of the battery through the direction in which it was flowing
switch and through the reed towards through the upper half of the trans-

N R

I1g. 28. st ibrator circuit.

37
former winding. Thus we have afield ceiver. In the power supply shown
built up in one direction and then in in Fig. 29, the choke L and the ca-
the opposite direction. At the same pacitor C are called hash suppres-
time the fact that the reed makes sors. This rf interference or noise
contact with terminal M will once is called hash; the choke andthe ca-
again complete the circuit through pacitor are put in the power supply
the electromagnet so the reed will in order to keep as much as possible
swing over to the magnet again, of this hash or noise out of the power
making contact with terminal N. As supply output. Capacitor C acts like
you can see this action causes the a short circuit to these radio fre-
reed to vibrate back and forth be- quency pulses, and choke L acts like
tween terminals N and O. Thus we a very high impedance to them. Thus
have a field built up in the primary L and C form a voltage-divider net-
first in one direction and then in the work, with most of the voltage ap-
opposite direction. Building up this pearing across the high impedance
field, collapsing it, and then building L and little or no voltage across the
up a reverse field and collapsing it, low impedance C.
means that we have a continually Vibrator-type power supplies
changing magnetic field cutting the were used in almost all automobile
secondary of the transformer. By receivers in automobiles using 6-
putting a large enough number of volt ignition systems. However, in
turns on the secondary, we can ob- newer cars, a 12-volt ignition sys-
tain whatever voltage we may re- tem is used. The first receivers
quire for the operation of the re- made for these cars also used vibra-
ceiver. tor type supplies, but tube manufac-
A complete vibrator-type power turers designed special tubes that
supply is shown in Fig. 29. Notice will operate with plate and screen
that the secondary of the vibrator voltages as low as 12 volts. These
transformer is center tapped and 12-volt tubes were used in automo-
that a full-wave rectifier is used. bile receivers for a few years, but
The capacitor C2 is called a buffer they too were replaced by transis-
capacitor. This is a high voltage tors. Since transistors operate from
paper capacitor that is used to keep low voltages, the vibrator type of
sharp noise pulses out of the power power supply is no longer needed.
supply. The size is usually quite These supplies were not only costly,
critical and if it is necessary to but in addition they were one of the
replace the buffer capacitor in a most troublesome sections of the
receiver using this type of power automobile receiver.
supply, you should use a capacitor
having the same capacity as the SUMMARY
original. The power supplies we have shown
In a vibrator-type power supply in this section of this lesson are
there is considerable sparking as typical of the various types of power
the reed vibrates back and forth. supplies you are likely to encounter
This sets up a radio-frequency type as an electronics technician. You
of interference which could get will find many variations of these
through the rectifier and cause con- circuits, but these are the basic cir-
siderable interference in the re- cuits. Spend some time studying

38
r-

L3

J.
6+

--1 é
—

SWITCH 4 FUSE
A HOT
A GROUND
•••

Fig. 29. A complete vibrator pov,er supply.

these circuits so you will know what SELF-TEST
they look like. QUESTIONS
In servicing these power supplies,
keep in mind that the values of the (q) Draw a schematic diagram of a
various components used are gener- typical ac-dc power supply
ally not extremely critical. Manu- found in a five-tube radio.
facturers usually use as smalla fil- (r) In the circuit shown in Fig. 22,
ter capacitor as they can in acircuit. why is the 12AT6 tube placed
It is more economical to use asmall at the B- end of the string?
capacitor than to use a large one. (s) If in an ac-dc receiver in which
Therefore, if you have an ac-dc re- the heaters of the tubes are
ceiver that uses a 20-40 mfd, 150- connected in series and none of
volt capacitor and you find it neces- the tubes lights what would you
sary to replace the filter capacitor, suspect the cause of the trouble
there is no reason why you could not to be?
use a 30-50 mfd, 150-volt capacitor (t) Why are the filter capacitors
in its place. Some variation of part used in the power supply shown
values can be made without affecting in Fig. 23 smaller in capacity
the performance of the equipment. than the filter capacitors used
It is also possible to use capaci- in the power supply shown in
tors having a higher voltage rating Fig. 22?
than those used originally. This will (u) What is the purpose of R3 in
simply provide an additional margin Fig. 24?
of safety. You may find that you can- (v) What is the purpose of R4 in
not do this in large transmitter Fig. 24?
power supplies because there isn't (w) What type of voltage-doubler
room to mount a capacitor with a circuit is used in the power sup-
higher voltage rating, but usually in ply shown in Fig. 24?
radio, TV, and most small pieces of (x) What purpose does the transis-
industrial electronic equipment tor Q2 serve in the power sup-
there is enough room to put in aca- ply shown in Fig. 26?
pacitor of slightly larger physical (y) What is the purpose of the diode
size than the original. D3 in Fig. 26?

40
 ANSWERS TO voltage across the load. This
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS circuit requires a rather ex-
pensive power transformer.
(a) There will be 60 current pulses (f) The advantage of the bridge
per second through the load. rectifier circuit is that there
(b) The disadvantage of the half- is a saving in the power trans-
wave rectifier circuit is that former cost over that of a
current flows through the rec- transformer that has a tapped
tifier during one half-cycle and high-voltage secondary wind-
not during the other half-cycle. ing; also, the circuit is capable
As a result, the output is some- of good voltage regulation.
what difficult to filter and (g) The voltage-doubler circuit
smooth out to pure dc. shown in Fig. 9 is a full-wave
(c) The diode D1 in the circuit voltage doubler. That is, there
shown in Fig. 6is used to charge will be 120 current pulses per
the capacitor C1during one half second in the output of the volt-
of each cycle. Capacitor C1 is age doubling capacitor network
charged so that during the next consisting of Cl and C2. The
half-cycle the voltage across it circuit shown in Fig. 6is ahalf-
will be in series with the line wave voltage-doubler circuit
voltage. This will place a volt- and there will be only 60 cur-
age equal to twice the line volt- rent pulses through the load in
age across the load and diode this circuit. It will be somewhat
D2. Since diode D2 has a very easier to filter and smooth the
low resistance when it is con- output voltage in the circuit
ducting, the voltage across the shown in Fig. 9than it will be
load is twice what it would be in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.
without the combination of Cl (h) A full-wave doubler circuit re-
and D1 in the circuit:hence,the quires a less expensive power
circuit is called a voltage- transformer for a given load
doubler circuit. voltage than the bridge rectifier
(d) The circuit is called afull-wave circuit requires .Also, the volt-
rectifier circuit because acur- age-doubler circuit requires
rent pulse flows through the only two rectifiers whereas the
load during each half-cycle. In bridge-rectifier circuit re-
other words, if the rectifier quires four rectifiers. The dis-
circuit is operating from a 60- advantage of the full-wave volt-
cycle power line there will be age-doubler circuit is that it
120 current pulses through the does not have as good voltage
load (one for each half-cycle). regulation as the bridge-recti-
(e) The disadvantage of this circuit fier circuit.
is that the high voltage winding (I) The capacitor in asimple filter
on the power transformer must circuit such as shown in Fig.11
be center-tapped. This means may charge up to a value equal
that the high-voltage winding on to the peak value of the ac input
the transformer must have voltage. In the case of a power
twice the number of turns re- supply operating from a 120-
quired to get the desired output volt line this is equal to ap-

41
 proximately 1.4 times 120 damaged by ahigh peak current.
volts. The peak current through the
rectifier tube is much lower
(J) A simple capacitor-type filter
may be used in applications with a choke-input filter than it
where the current drain is low. is with a capacitor-input filter.
With a low current drain the (o) A choke-input filter will pro-
capacitor discharges very little vide better regulation than a
between cycles se that the volt- capacitor-input filter. This
age across the capacitor, and means that the voltage across
hence the voltage across the the load will vary less with
load, remains essentially con- widely varying currents when
stant. the filter is achoke-input filter
than it will when the filter is a
(k) The R-C pi-type filter is capa-
ble of better hum elimination capacitor-input filter.
than a simple capacitor-type (P) A swinging choke is a choke
filter. This type of filter is whose inductance changes as
particularly desirable where the current changes. As the
the current drain is high enough current builds up the choke
to discharge the capacitor ap- tends to saturate so that its in-
preciably between charging cy- ductance goes down. This tends
cles in a simple capacitor-type to reduce the reactance of the
filter. choke and hence helps provide
(1) The disadvantage of the R-C better voltage regulation.
pi-type filter is that there is (q) See Fig. 22. If you cannot draw
considerable voltage drop this diagram from memory,
across the filter resistor. This copy it from the book. Simply
problem can be overcome by drawing the diagram will help
using a filter choke such as in you to become familiar with the
the L-C type filter shown in circuit and remember it in the
Fig. 15. A filter choke will offer future.
a high opposition to any ac and (r) The 12AT6 tube is the first
thus effectively reduce the ac, audio stage. It is placed at the
while at the same time offering B- end of the heater string in
a low resistance to the passage order to keep hum pick-up in
of de through it. the tube as low as possible. Any
(m) R1 in the power supply shown in hum picked up by this tube will
Fig. 17 is used to limit the cur- be amplified by the entire audio
rent through the silicon recti- system.
fier when the power supply is (s) The chances are that the heater
first turned on. Without this re- of one of the tubes is open.
sistance in the circuit, the (t) The power supply shown in Fig.
charging current through the 23 uses a full-wave rectifier.
diode to charge Cl may be so Therefore there will be 120
high that the rectifier may be pulses per second tocharge the
destroyed. filter capacitors. The power
(n) To limit the peak current supply shown in Fig. 22 is a
through the tubes. A mercury half-wave power supply and
vapor rectifier tube is easily there will be only 60 pulses per

42
 second to charge the filter ca- for the rectifiers and hence R4,
pacitor; therefore, larger ca- along with the hot resistance of
pacitors are needed to elimi- the thermistor, limits the cur-
nate hum. rent through the diode recti-
(u) R3 in Fig. 24 is a thermistor. fiers to a safe value.
A thermistor has a high cold A half-wave voltage doubler.
resistance, but the resistance Q2 is in series with the B sup-
decreases as the thermistor ply voltage. It operates essen-
heats up. The thermistor is tially as avariable resistor and
used in this power supply to is used to regulate the power
protect the diode rectifiers supply output voltage and keep
from high current surges when it at essentially a constant
the power supply is first turned value.
on. The diode D3 is the zener diode.
(v) R4 is a fixed resistor that is It provides a reference voltage
used to protect the diodes in the so that the voltage variations
event the equipment is turned on the emitter of QI will be
off and then turned back on al- greater than the voltage varia-
most immediately. Under these tions on the base. Thus ,changes
conditions the resistance of the in output voltage affect the for-
thermistor will be too low to ward bias of the transistor and
provide the required protection hence the conduction through it.

43
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B201.
Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However,don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What advantage does a silicon rectifier have over a vacuum-tube rec-

tifier?

2. Draw the schematic symbol for a silicon rectifier,and indicate by an

arrow the direction in which the current will flow through it.

3. How many pulses per second will you get at the output of a full-wave
rectifier that is operated from a 60-cycle power line?

4. What is the purpose of Cl and D1 in the circuit shown in Fig. 6?

5. (a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 6, how many current pulses will there
be through the load (60-cycle power line)?
(b) In the circuit shown in Fig. 9,how many current pulses will there
be through the load (60-cycle power line)?

6. In the circuits shown in Fig.11,what part supplies current to the load

when the rectifier is not conducting?

7. Explain the following things in connection with the L-C circuit shown
in Fig. 15:
(a) The action of the choke when ac flows through it.
(b) The action of the choke when dc flows through it.
(c) The action of the capacitor when ac flows through it.
(d) The action of the capacitor when dc flows through it.

8. What type of filter network has better voltage regulation -- the ca-
pacitor input or the choke input?

9. If you are servicing afive-tube table model radio that uses a universal
ac-dc power supply and you see that two of the tubes are not lighting,
where would you look for trouble?

10. How does an increase in output voltage affect Ql and Q2 in the regu-
lated power supply shown in Fig. 26?
 HOW TO START STUDYING
For some people, starting to study is just as hard
as getting up in the morning. An alarm clock will
work in both cases, so try setting the alarm for a
definite study-starting time each day. Start studying
promptly and definitely, without sharpening pencils,
trimming fingernails or wasting time in other ways.

Beginning is for many people the hardest part of

any job they tackle. So formidable does each task
appear before starting that they waste the day in
dilly-dallying, in day-dreaming, and in wishing they
didn't have to do it. The next day and the next after
that are the same story. Indecision brings its own
delays, making it harder and harder to buckle down
to work.

Are you in earnest? Then seize this very minute;

begin what you can do or dream you can. Boldness
in starting a new lesson is a great moral aid to
mastery of that lesson; only begin, and your mind
grows alert, eager to keep on working. Begin, and
surprisingly soon you will be finished.

.-e2,-5-,----
r

..,
 rÀ Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
Belli' Continuing Education School 139-LT-214
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
0
vedl ¡it'e
gi* ee lee :
r_ujej
t L^iOP_Lri
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

qtrli W=1 rrif

WI — *er] B201
 POWER SUPPLIES
FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
B201
 STUDY SCHEDULE NO. 1

D 1. Introduction Pages 1-2

The basic purpose of a power supply is discussed.

D 2. Rectifier Circuits Pages 3-12

You learn about half-wave, full-wave, and bridge-type
rectifier circuits using both vacuum-tube and selenium
rectifiers.

D 3. Filter Circuits Pages 13-25

In this section we take up capacitor filters, R-C filters,
L-C filters, and choke input filters, and learn what
factors affect the output voltage of a filter network.

D 4. Typical Power Supplies Pages 26-37

You study ac-dc supplies, full-wave power supplies,
and high-voltage supplies.

D 5. Answer Lesson Questions.

D 6. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1968 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASH. D.C. 20016

JDL5M369 1969 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 \ D POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

One of the most important sec- be considerably higher than those

tions in electronic equipment is the of a power supply in a similar tube-
power supply. It is the section that operated device. All power supplies
furnishes the operating voltages and have basically the same function,
currents required by the various regardless of the parts and circuitry
stages. If the power supply is not used to make them; the power supply
operating properly, the equipment must supply the operating voltages
can't do the job it 's supposed to do. and currents required by the vari-
In your career as an electronics ous stages in the equipment.
technician, you will encounter many You have already studied the basic
different types of power supplies.In components used in power supplies.
equipment using tubes you will find In this lesson you will learn more
power supplies that must supply the about these components and how they
heater voltage for the various tubes are used together in this particular
and, in addition, a dc supply voltage application. You will be introduced
that is often considerably higher than to some new circuits and will learn
the power line voltage. enough about power supplies to en-
On the other hand, the power sup- able you to understand the purpose
ply in transistorized equipment will for which each part in a power sup-
be quite different from that used in ply is used. Once you know why the
tube-operated equipment. Most various parts are used and under-
power supplies in transistorized stand what each one is supposed to
equipment will have to reduce the do, you should be able to service
voltage to some value less than the any power supply defect you en-
line voltage. counter.
However, the current require- We will first take up the different
ments of the power supply ina tran- rectifier circuits used in modern
sistorized piece of equipment may power supplies. The power supplied

1
by power companies for home and electronic equipment may not re-
industrial use is ac power, whereas quire the same operating voltage. It
the tubes and transistors used in is more economical to use a single
electronic equipment require de op- power supply and a voltage divider
erating voltages. Therefore, in a than to use a separate power supply
power supply designed to operate for each voltage needed.
from a power line, we must have The power supplies in modern
some means of changing the ac to electronic equipment use solid state
dc. The device used to do this is rectifiers in most low-voltage appli-
called a rectifier. cations. Vacuum tubes are seldom
Once the ac is changed to de by a used today as rectifiers in such de-
rectifier, we have what is called a vices as radio or television re-
pulsating de at the output of the recti- ceivers or in other modern equip-
fier. This is actually de with ac ment. However, there are still mil-
superimposed on it. A power supply lions of radios and television re-
must therefore have some means of ceivers in use today that do use
filtering or smoothing the pulsating vacuum-tube rectifiers. Therefore,
dc to get pure de. This is done by you will probably have to work on
means of a filter network, which this type of power supply as aserv-
separates the ac and de components ice technician even though it is ob-
of the pulsating dc at the rectifier solete as far as its use in new equip-
output so that only the dc appears at ment is concerned and you still
the output of the filter network. should know how this type of recti-
Many power supplies also have fier works. For this reason, we will
some type of voltage-divider net- cover not only the new rectifier cir-
work. Such a network is designed to cuits using solid state rectifiers ,but
provide several different operating also a number of the older fre-
voltages from one power supply.All quently-used rectifier circuits using
the tubes or transistors ma piece of vacuum tubes.

2
 Rectifier Circuits
Any device that will pass current years ago the selenium rectifier be-
in one direction but not in the other gan to replace the vacuum tube as
direction can be used as arectifier. the rectifier in entertainment-type
You have already seen one example equipment.
of this type of device: the vacuum A typical selenium rectifier is
tube. In a vacuum tube, as long as shown in Fig. 1. A selenium recti-
the voltage applied to the plate is fier is made up of a series of se-
positive with respect to the voltage lenium discs with a coating of se-
applied to the cathode, the current lenium oxide on the surface of one.
will flow from the cathode to the side of each disc.Electrons can flow
plate of the tube. However, if the from the selenium to the selenium
voltage applied to the plate is nega- oxide quite readily, but they cannot
tive with respect to the voltage ap- readily flow in the other direction,
plied to the cathode, there will be from the selenium oxide to the se-
no current flow through the tube be- lenium. Thus, a selenium rectifier
cause current cannot normally flow permits current to flow through it in
through the tube from the plate to the one direction, but offers a high re-
cathode. Thus, a two-element or sistance to current flow through it
diode tube was used for many years in the opposite direction.
as the rectifier in the power supply This type of rectifier is often
of radio and television receivers. called a dry-disc rectifier: "dry "to
The diode tube is entirely satis- distinguish it from earlier rectifiers
factory as a rectifier, but it does that used a wet chemical solution,
have one big disadvantage. In order "disc" because it is made up of discs.
to handle the currents required in The square plates that are visible
large radio receivers or in tele- in Fig. 1are cooling fins. The discs
vision receivers arectifier tube with used are usually round and are
a rather heavy cathode or filament
is required. Considerable power
must be applied to the heater toheat
the large cathode or filament ,
there-
by bringing it to the temperature re-
quired for it to emit an abundant sup-
ply of electrons. Not only does this
increase the power consumed by the
equipment; also, a substantial
amount of heat is given off by the
diode and this, in turn, heats up
other parts in the equipment. This
often contributes to a shortened life
of the other parts.
As we mentioned, diode vacuum
tubes were used for many years as
the rectifiers in radio and television Fig. 1. A typical selenium rectifier de-
receivers. However, a number of signed for use in electronic equipment.

3
placed between the cooling fins, fier, and at the same time it has a
which are necessary because the higher reverse resistance (in other
rectifier does have some resistance words it will permit a smaller cur-
and the current flowing through this rent to flow through it in the reverse
resistance produces heat which must direction than a selenium rectifier).
be dissipated. Two typical silicon rectifiers are
The advantage of the selenium shown in Fig. 2. The rectifier at the
rectifier over the diode tube is that top is called a top-hat rectifier be-
the selenium rectifier does not have cause of its shape. A rectifier of
a cathode that must be heated, and this type and size is capable of hand-
hence the power required to heat the ling currents several times those
cathode is saved. In addition, the required in a color TV receiver.
total heat dissipated into the equip- We have shown a photograph of the
ment from the selenium rectifier is two rectifiers with adime in between
somewhat lower than from a tube them so you can get an idea of the
capable of handling the same cur- relative size of the two units. The
rent. lower rectifier is capable of hand-
Both the vacuum tube rectifier and ling currents of two or three am-
the selenium rectifier have been re- peres.
placed in modern radio and televi- In addition to their small size and
sion receivers by the silicon recti- high current-handling capabilities,
fier. The silicon rectifier, like the silicon rectifiers have another big
selenium rectifier, does not require advantage over selenium and vacuum
any heater power; in addition, a tube rectifiers due to modern
silicon rectifier is much smaller manufacturing techniques: they are
than a selenium rectifier. It has a relatively inexpensive to manufac-
much lower forward resistance; that ture. Furthermore, unless they are
is, it offers far less opposition to overloaded, their life is almost in-
current flow through it in the forward definite.
direction than does aselenium recti- Now, let's see how the various
types of rectifiers are used in pcder
supply circuits.

HALF -WAVE RECTIFIERS

You already know that the power

supplied by most power companies
is ac power and that the voltage sup-
plied has a waveform that is called
a sine wave. A typical single cycle
is shown in Fig. 3A. A rectifier cir-
cuit using a diode tube is shown in
Fig. 3B. Let 's assume that the wave-
form shown at A represents the volt-
age at terminal A of Fig. 3 with re-
Fig. 2. Two typical silicon rectifiers with spect to the voltage at terminal B.
a dime between them to show their rela- This means that for the first half-
tive size. cycle (that is, the voltage waveform

4
 o other half. As a result, the rectifier
is called a half-wave rectifier. If
we operate this type of rectifier from
a 60-cycle power line, we will get
60 current pulses through the recti-
fier during one half-cycle and 60 in-
tervals during which there is no
current flow through the rectifier.
Fig. 3. How current flows in a half-wave Another half-wave rectifier is
rectifier circuit for one ac cycle. We have shown in Fig. 4. Here we have shown
omitted the rectifier heater to simplify the a solid-state rectifier in place of the
diagram. tube. This could be either aselenium
rectifier or a silicon rectifier --the
from point 1to point 3), the plate of same symbol is used for both types.
the tube will be positive. When the Notice the schematic symbol used
plate of the tube is positive, it will for the rectifier. Als onotice that the
attract electrons from the cathode; arrows indicate that the direction of
therefore, current can flow through current flow through the circuit is
the tube. opposite to the direction in which the
Thus during the first half-cycle, arrow points in the schematic
as the plate voltage starts at point symbol. The reason for this is that
1 and builds up to point 2, the cur- in the early days of electricity,
rent through the tube will increase scientists thought that current
from point 1 to point 2 as shown in flowed from positive to negative.
Fig. 3C. As the voltage decreases Therefore, this symbol was designed
during the first half-cycle from point to show the direction in which cur-
2 to point 3, the current through the rent flowed. But it was discovered
tube will decrease as shown from later that current flow was actually
point 2 to point 3 in Fig. 3C. When electron flow and that it flowed from
the voltage in Fig. 3A reaches point negative to positive, a direction op-
3 there will be zero potential be- posite from that in which the early
tween points A and B in the rectifier scientists thought it flowed .Although
circuit and current will stop flowing. we know current flow is from nega-
During the next half-cycle termi- tive to positive , we still use the same
nal A will be negative with respect symbol; it has never been changed
to terminal B. This means that the so that the arrow is actually pointing
plate of the tube will be negative; in the direction opposite to the di-
hence no current can flow through rection of electron flow.
the tube. Therefore, the current will
be zero (as shown in the waveform 2

in Fig. 3C) as the voltage swings

from point 3 to point 5.
The rectifier circuit shown in Fig.
3 conducts when the plate of the tube
is positive. Since this occurs during
one half the time of each cycle then
the rectifier conducts during one Fig. 4. A half-wave selenium rectifier
half of the cycle but not during the circuit.

5
 In a power supply of this type junction, which will repel electrons
using a selenium rectifier, with ter- and prevent them from crossing the
minal A positive with respect to junction. At the same time there will
terminal B, the selenium rectifier be a positive voltage, applied on the
will offer only a low resistance to N side of the junction, which will
the flow of current through it ;
there- prevent any holes from the P side
fore, current flows in the circuit crossing the junction. In other
from B through the load and through words, there will be a reverse bias
the rectifier and back toterminalA. placed across the junction; hence
During the next half-cycle , when ter- the carriers cannot cross the junc-
minal A is negative with respect to tion and there will be no current flow
terminal B, the selenium rectifier through the circuit.
will offer a very high opposition to Of the three types of half-wave
the flow at current through it so that rectifiers, the silicon-type rectifier
there will be little or no current flow is the most widely used in modern
through the load (as shown in Fig. equipment because of its small size,
4C). low cost and very low forward volt-
We mentioned that the schematic age drop.
symbol for the rectifier in Fig. 4 Sometimes, in order to operate a
also represents a silicon rectifier. piece of electronic equipment, a
If a silicon rectifier is used, the higher voltage is required than can
rectifier will simply consist of aPN be obtained directly from the power
junction. The P-type material will line. Under these circumstances a
be on the side represented by the step-up transformer may be used
arrow and the N-type material by to step up the voltage as shown in
the flat line. With a PN junction Fig. 5. The secondary-to-primary
rectifier in the circuit when termi- turns-ratio is simply adjusted to
nal A is positive and terminal B is provide the required voltage step-
negative, we will have a positive up. A half-wave rectifier is then
voltage applied to the P side of the used as shown to rectify the ac and
junction and a negative voltage ap- change it to pulsating dc. The oper-
plied to the N side of the junction. ation of the half-wave rectifier is
The negative voltage will repel elec- exactly the same in the circuit as
trons from the N side of the junction
across the junction into the P-type
A
material. Electrons will be attracted
through the P-type material by the
positive potential applied to it. In
other words, there will be aforward
bias placed across the junction and
current can readily flow through the
rectifier because the carriers can
cross the junction.
During the next half-cycle when
the polarity reverses, terminal A Fig. 5. A half-wave rectifier circuit using
will be negative and terminal B posi- a power transformer to produce an output
tive. Thus there will be a negative voltage greater than the power line volt-
voltage, applied to the P side of the age.

6
it was in the preceding circuits; how-
Cj D2
ever, the rectifier will have to have
a higher voltage rating to make up
for the fact that it is being used in
a higher voltage circuit.
The disadvantage of the circuit
shown in Fig. 5 is that power trans-
formers are comparatively expen-
sive. By means of the circuit shown
in Fig. 6 a voltage approximately
twice the voltage obtainable from Fig. 6. A lialf-oave voltage-doubler cir-
the half-wave rectifier circuits cuit.
shown in Figs. 3 and 4 can be ob-
tained. This circuit can be operated positive with respect to terminal B.
directly from the power line and is This means that terminal B is nega-
known as a voltage-doubler circuit. tive. Electrons flow from terminal
The operation of this circuit is B through the load and through D2.
quite simple. During one half-cycle They are attracted by apositive volt-
terminal A will be negative with re- age which is equal to the voltage
spect to terminal B. During this across Cl plus the line voltage. Thus
half-cycle electrons flow from A the peak voltage that can be de-
Into the side of the capacitor Cl veloped across the load will be equal
marked with the minus sign. The to twice the peak line voltage.
electrons flowing into this side of You might wonder whythe current
the capacitor force electrons out of flows through only one rectifier dur-
the other side leaving a positive ing each half-cycle. During the first
charge on this side of Cl. The elec- half-cycle, when terminal A is nega-
trons leaving the positive side of Cl tive with respect to terminal B, the
flow through the rectifier Dl, back electrons flowing through Dl and
to side B of the power line which is charging Cl cannot flow through D2
positive and which will attract elec- because the diode is connected in
trons. Thus, during this half-cycle, such a way as to prevent current
when terminal A is negative with flow through them in that direction.
respect to terminal B, capacitor Cl Similarly, during the next half-
is charged with the polarity shown. cycle, when terminal B is negative
The peak charge on Cl will be equal and terminal A is positive, current
to the peak value of the ac input volt- cannot flow through Dl because it
age. would have to flow through it in the
During the next half-cycle, when reverse direction. Current can flow
terminal A is positive with respect through the diodes only inthedirec-
to terminal B, we have a situation tion shown and it will flow through
where the voltage between terminals Dl during one half-cycle and through
A and B is effectively placed in D2 during the other half-cycle.
series with the voltage charging ca- This type of power supply is known
pacitor Cl. These series-connected as a half-wave doubler circuit. It is
voltages will cause a current toflow called a voltage-doubler circuit be-
through the load and through D2. cause the voltage across the load is
During this half-cycle terminal A is effectively double the line voltage.

7
It is called a half-wave circuit be- The tube has two plates and asingle
cause there is a current pulse to the filament which is used with both
load during only one half of each plates. In operation, this tube acts
cycle. The half-wave voltage-dou- as two separate diode tubes.
bler circuit is widely used in modern The power transformer used in
radio and television receivers. It's the rectifier circuit has three wind-
a very important circuit and you ings. The primary winding is the
should be sure you understand how winding that connects to the power
it works before leaving it. line. A low-voltage winding is used
When a half-wave rectifier is used to provide the current required to
in the power supply, the current will heat the filament of the rectifier
flow through the rectifier in aseries tube. It serves no other purpose as
of pulses. With a 60-cycle power far as the operation of the rectifier
supply line, there will be 60 pulses circuit is concerned. This winding
per second: one pulse during each is often referred to as the filament
positive-half cycle and nothing dur- winding.
ing each negative-half cycle. The The high-voltage winding on the
net result is that you will have cur- transformer is the winding that will
rent flowing through the rectifier for supply the pulsating current to the
no more than half the time.This re- load resistor. Notice that this wind-
sults in a pulsating dc output from ing has a center tap. In operation,
the rectifier that is rather difficult one half of the windingfirst supplies
to smooth out to the pure dc required the current and then, during the next
in most equipment to operate the half-cycle, the other half of the wind-
tubes and/or transistors. A some- ing supplies current to the load.
what better arrangement is the full- We can see how this rectifier cir-
wave rectifier that passes current cuit works if we consider one half-
during both halves of the ac voltage cycle during which terminal 1 of the
cycles. high-voltage secondary is positive.
This means that terminal 2 will be
FULL -WAVE RECTIFIERS negative with respect to terminal 1
A typical full-wave rectifier cir- and terminal 3 will be even more
cuit is shown in Fig. 7. Notice that negative. Electrons will leave the
the tube used is a twin diode tube. center tap, terminal 2, and flow
through ground to the load resistor.
They will flow through the load re-
sistor to the filament of the recti-
fier tube and then be attracted to
the plate connected toterminal lbe-
cause this plate has a positive volt-
age applied to it. No electrons will
flow to the other plate because this
plate is negative with respect to
both terminals 1and 2.
During the next half-cycle, the
polarity of the secondary voltage
Fig. 7. A full-wave rectifier circuit using will reverse. At this time terminal
a single rectifier tube with two plates. 3 will be positive, terminal 2 nega-

8
tive with respect to it, and terminal
1 even more negative. During this
half-cycle electrons will leave ter-
minal 2 and flow through ground to
the load, through the load and to the
filament of the rectifier tube, and
then to the plate connected to ter-
minal 3 because this plate now has
the positive voltage applied to it. No
electrons will flow to terminal lbe-
cause terminal 1 is negative with Fig. 8. .‘ bridge-rectifier circuit.
respect to both terminals 2 and 3. because twice as manyturns are re-
Notice that with the full-wave rec- quired on the secondary to get the
tifier circuit we get a current pulse required voltage.
through the load resistor during each A circuit that gets around the re-
half-cycle. This means that for a quirement of a center-tapped sec-
60-cycle power line we will get 120 ondary is shown in Fig. 8. This is
pulses of current through the load. called a bridge-rectifier circuit; it
Since there is current flowing is also often called a full-wave
through the load during each half- bridge-rectifier circuit because
cycle, this type of rectifier produces current flows to the load during each
an output that is much easier to fil- half-cycle.
ter to a smooth de than the output A quick look at the circuit im-
from a half-wave rectifier. mediately shows us that four rec-
Either selenium rectifiers or sili- tifiers are required in a circuit of
con rectifiers can be substituted in this type. At one time this was a
this type of circuit in place of the disadvantage because of the cost of
rectifier tube. This type of circuit rectifiers, but silicon rectifiers are
was widely used in older television comparatively inexpensive today and
receivers along with vacuum tubes. it is usually more economicalto use
Modern TV receivers use silicon the extra two silicon rectifiers and
rectifiers and frequently use bridge- avoid the center tap on the secondary
rectifier circuits or voltage-doubler winding of the power transformer.
circuits in place of this circuit. The power transformer shown in
Fig. 8 would be far more economi-
BRIDGE-RECTIFIER cal to manufacture than the one
CIRCUITS shown in Fig. 7.
One of the disadvantages of the The operation of the bridge rec-
full-wave rectifier circuit shown in tifier is comparatively simple. When
Fig. 7 is that it requires a trans- terminal A is positive and terminal
former with a center-tapped sec- B is negative, current will flow from
ondary. The total voltage across the terminal B through the rectifier
entire secondary winding is actually marked 2 on the diagram and then
twice the voltage between the center through the load to the junction of
tap and either end of the secondary rectifiers 3 and 4. It will then flow
winding. This type of transformer is through rectifier 4 back to terminal
more expensive to manufacture than A on the transformer. During the
a transformer without a center tap next half-cycle, when terminal A is

9
negative and terminal B is positive, required instead of the four required
current will flow fromterminal A on in the bridge-rectifier circuit.
the transformer through the recti- The operation of the full-wave
fier marked 1 on the diagram and voltage-doubler circuit is quite sim-
then through the load back to the ple. During one half-cycle terminal
junction of rectifiers 3 and 4. This A of the power transformer second-
time the current will flow through ary will be negative and terminal B
rectifier 3 back to terminal B of the will be positive. During this half-
power transformer. cycle current flows from terminal
Notice that during each half-cycle A through diode D2 to the capacitor
current flows through two of the rec- C2 charging the capacitor as shown.
tifiers. During one half-cycle it will Electrons flow into the negative side
flow through rectifiers 2 and 4 and of the capacitor and out the positive
during the other half-cycle it will side back to terminal B of the power
flow through rectifiers 1and 3.Also transformer. During the next half-
notice that current flows during both cycle, terminal B of the power trans-
half-cycles; therefore, this bridge former secondary will be negative
rectifier is a full-wave rectifier. and terminal A will be positive. Dur-
Bridge rectifiers have been used ing this half-cycle electrons leave
in television receivers where com- terminal B of the power transformer
paratively high operating voltages and flow into capacitor C1. They flow
and high currents are required.The into the side of the capacitor marked
bridge circuit eliminates the need with the minus sign and force elec-
for the center tap on the power trans- trons out of the plus side.Electrons
former secondary winding and thus leaving the plus side flow through
reduces the cost of the transformer. diode DI back to terminal A of the
The voltage regulation (the ratio of power transformer, which is posi-
the full-load voltage to the no-load tive.
voltage) obtainable with this type of The capacitors C1and C2 are con-
power supply is as good as the regu- nected in series and they supply the
lation that can be obtained from the voltage to the load. The capacitors
full-wave rectifier circuit shown in are charged by the current flowing
Fig. 7.
A DI
FULL-WAVE
VOLTAGE DOUBLERS
A full-wave voltage-doubler cir-
cuit is shown in Fig. 9. One advan- LOAD
tage of this type of circuit is that
we get the same load voltage as you
have in a circuit like the bridge rec-
tifier shown in Fig. 8, although only
half as many turns are required on
the secondary of the power trans-
former. This will result ilia savings
in the cost of the power transformer.
Another advantage of this type of cir-
cuit is that only two rectifiers are Fig. 9. .‘ full-wave voltage doubler.

10
through the diodes, and since there can be obtained from this type of
is a charging pulse each half-cycle power supply. You will find the power
we will get 12 0charging pulses from supply widely used both in mono-
a 60-cycle power line. Since there chrome and color television receiv-
is a charging pulse during each half- ers. Be sure you understand how it
cycle, the circuit is afull-wave rec- operates because you will run into
tifier. The actual voltage that will it frequently.
be available across Cl and C2 in In comparing this power supply
series will depend upon the power with the half-wave doubler circuit
transformer secondary resistance, shown in Fig. 6, we immediately see
the resistance of the diodes when that the full-wave doubler circuit is
they are conducting, the size of the best suited to equipment where a
two capacitors, and the size of the power transformer is used. The
load. As the resistance of the load half-wave voltage-doubler circuit is
increases, the current that will flow widely used in equipment where no
through the load decreases, and the power transformer is used.
charge on each capacitor becomes
closer to the peak value of the ac
SUMMARY
voltage between terminals A and B. The rectifier circuits that we have
Notice that in the diagram we have discussed in this section of the les-
shown the direction of current flow son are extremely important. As you
through the load. The load current is know, the power supplied by the
supplied entirely by the charged ca- power companies is alternating cur-
pacitors Cl and C2. As the capaci- rent and the tubes and transistors
tors supply current to the load, elec- in electronic equipment require di-
trons leave the negative plate of C2 rect current for their operation.
and flow through the load in the di- Therefore, equipment designed to
rection shown. These electrons flow operate from the power line must
into the positive side of Cl forcing use some type of rectifier to convert
electrons out of the negative side the alternating current to direct cur-
into the positive side of C2. Thus rent. One of the circuits shown in
the current flow through the load this section of the lesson is likely
tends to reduce the charge across the to be found in any type of electronic
capacitors. Of course, during each equipment you will service.
half-cycle one of the diodes conducts The half-wave rectifier circuit
to build the charge across one of the shown in Fig. 5 is perhaps the most
capacitors up towards the peak value widely used. All table model radio
of the line voltage. receivers use this type of rectifier
While this type of rectifier circuit circuit without a power transformer
offers some advantages over the cir- so that the receiver can operate di-
cuits shown in Figs. 7and 8, it does rectly from the power line .The half-
not have as good voltage regulation wave voltage-doubler circuit shown
as they have. However, by using In Fig. 6 is widely used intelevision
capacitors of large capacity for Cl receivers where operating voltages
and C2, and with modern silicon higher than those that can be ob-
rectifiers that have avery low re- tained directly from the power line
sistance when they are conducting, are needed. In some of the older
reasonably good voltage regulation radio receivers and many older tele -

11
vision receivers a full-wave recti- garding rectifier circuits, why not
fier circuit such as shown in Fig. 7 try to draw the circuits yourself ?It
will be found. This type of circuit would be worthwhile, and you don't
was used almost exclusively in tele- have to draw them from memory --
vision receivers before the develop- copying them first from the book will
ment of low-cost selenium and sili- help you to remember what they look
con rectifiers. like. Eventually, you'll be able to
The bridge-rectifier circuit draw them from memory and recog-
shown in Fig. 8 is used in many tele- nize various circuits on the sche-
vision receivers, particularly large matic diagram of any radio or TV
television receivers where fairly receiver or piece of electronic
high voltages and high currents are equipment you may encounter.
required. This type of circuit is also After reviewing this section, do
used in some transistorized equip- the following self-test questions.
ment where lower than line voltages
are required. In this instance, in-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
stead of being a step-up trans- (a) In a half-wave rectifier circuit
former, the transformer will be a such as the circuit in Fig. 5,
step-down transformer that steps how many current pulses per
the line voltage down to a low value. second will there be through
The bridge-rectifier circuit is then the load when the power line
used so that good voltage regulation frequency is 60 pulses per sec-
can be obtained and so that at the ond?
same time a comparatively large What is the disadvantage of a
current can be taken from the power half-wave rectifier circuit?
supply. (e) What is the purpose of the diode
The full-wave voltage-doubler marked D1 in the half-wave
circuit has been used in many tele- voltage-doubler circuit shown
vision receivers -- in those which in Fig. 6?
use power transformers where volt- (d) Why is the circuit shown in Fig.
ages higher than the line voltage are 7 called a full-wave rectifier
required -- yet at the same time, circuit?
the transformer serves primarily (e) What is the disadvantage of the
as an isolation transformer. In other full-wave rectifier circuit
words, the secondary voltage is ap- shown in Fig. 7?
proximately equal to the primary (f) What are the advantages of the
voltage. The higher voltage required bridge-rectifier circuit shown
is obtained by the voltage-doubling in Fig. 8?
action. The output from the full-wave (g) What advantage does the volt-
doubler circuit is somewhat easier age-doubler circuit shown in
to filter or smooth out than the out- Fig. 9 have over the voltage-
put from the half-wave doubler cir- doubler circuit shown in Fig.
cuit, because with the former we 6?
have 120 pulses per second through (h) What are the advantages and
the load and with the latter we have disadvantages of the full-wave
only 60 pulses per second. voltage doubler over the
Before leaving this section re- bridge-rectifier circuit?

12
 Filter Circuits
The output from the rectifiers we In the bridge rectifier shown in
discussed in the preceding section Fig. 8two rectifiers act as switches
is not pure dc. Instead, it is pulsat- and close to connect the load across
ing dc: "direct" because it flows in the transformer secondary during
only one direction, "pulsating" be- one half-cycle; then during the next
cause it is varying in amplitude half-cycle the other two switches
rather than flowing steadily. A close, giving the effect of turning
pulsating dc voltage is avoltage that the load around so that the current
does not change polarity, but does flows through it in the same direc-
change in amplitude. The voltage at tion and the voltage applied across
the output of a half-wave rectifier the load has the same polarity. The
will be zero during one half of each output from a full-wave rectifier
cycle and swing in a positive direc- circuit will produce avoltage across
tion during the other half of each the load that looks like Fig. 10B.
cycle. As you can see from the wave-
Looking at the half-wave circuits forms shown in Fig. 10, the output
shown in Fig. 3 and 4, you can con- taken directly from the rectifier is
sider the rectifier more or less as not a pure dc. There is a voltage,
a switch. During one half-cycle the but the voltage drops to zero, builds
switch is closed so that the load is up to the maximum value, and drops
connected directly across the power to zero again. In the half-wave cir-
line, and during the other half-cycle cuit it remains at zero for a half-
the switch is open so that no voltage cycle and then builds up again in a
is applied to the load. The voltage positive direction. In the full-wave
across the load in a half-wave rec- rectifier circuit- the voltage builds
tifier circuit looks like Fig. 10A. up across the load during each half-
The first half-cycle represents the cycle. In either case, this pulsating
cycle when the switch is closed and voltage will cause a pulsating cur-
the load is connected directly across rent through the load which is en-
the power line, and the second half- tirely unsuitable for use in elec-
cycle represents the cycle when the tronic equipment. Fortunately, there
switch is open and there is no volt- are convenient methods that can be
age applied across the load. We have used to filter or smooth this voltage
shown what the voltage across the to a pure dc voltage.
load will look like for four cycles in
Fig. 10A.
In a full-wave rectifier circuit
such as shown in Fig. 7, you have
two switches. During one half-cycle
one switch closes and connects the
load across one half of the power
transformer secondary; then ,during
the next half-cycle, the other switch
closes and connects the load across
the other half of the transformer Fig. 10. Output voltage from half-wave
secondary. and full-wave rectifier.

13
 The pulsating de voltage at the is sometimes used in circuits where
output of the rectifier is actually a the current drained or taken from
dc voltage with an ac voltage, called the power supply is low. If the rec-
a ripple voltage or a hum voltage, tifier must supply high current to
superimposed on it. The circuits the circuit, this type of filter is gen-
used to get rid of this ripple or hum erally unsatisfactory because there
voltage are called filter circuits. will be too much ripple or hum pres-
There are a number of different ent across the load. In other words,
types of filter circuits found in elec- the simple filter is simplynot capa-
tronic equipment; in this section we ble of eliminating all the ac or ripple
will cover some of the circuits more voltage present at the output of the
commonly used. rectifier.
Both circuits shown in Fig. 11
THE SIMPLE
work in the same way. Current flows
CAPACITOR CIRCUIT through the rectifier during one half-
One of the simplest filters is the cycle, as in the half-wave rectifier
single capacitor filter shown in Fig. circuits we studied previously. When
11. In Fig. 11A we have shown a terminal A is positive, electrons
rectifier circuit using a tube and in will flow from terminal B through
Fig. 11B a rectifier circuit using a the load and through the rectifier
silicon rectifier. Notice that the cir- back to terminal A .At the same time,
cuits are practically identical --we electrons will flow into the negative
simply changed the rectifying de- side of the capacitor and out the
vices in the two circuits. positive side and through the tube
The simple capacitor-type filter or silicon rectifier back toterminal
A. The capacitor eventually will be
charged to a value almost equal to
the peak line voltage. This will hap-
pen when the ac line voltage reaches
its peak value with terminal A at its
L peak positive voltage with respect to
terminal B.
Now, if the load on the rectifier
circuit is light (that is, if the load
A resistor is a high resistance that
draws very little current), as the
ac input voltage between terminal
A and B drops, capacitor C will be-
— gin to supply the current required
A• by the load. Electrons will start to
c I+ leave the negative side of the capaci-
RL. tor and flow through the load resis-
tor back to the positive side of the
capacitor. They will continue doing
13• 1
this as the ac voltage drops to zero
B and remains at zero during the next
half-cycle and starts to build up
Fig. il.
11. A simple capacitor-type filter. again in the positive direction. The

14
capacitor will continue to supply
current to the load as long as the
voltage across the capacitor is
greater than the ac input voltage. 15

Eventually, the input voltage will

reach a value greater than the ca-
pacitor voltage; then we '11 get acur-
rent flow into the capacitor and 0 2 5
6
9
10
13
through the rectifier to recharge the 1
capacitor. t ,
In Fig. 12 we have shown the ac
input voltage. Notice that during the Fig. 12. Voltage ‘vaveshapes for asimple
first half-cycle between points land capacitor filter. (A) Input voltage; (B)
2 in Fig. 12A the ac voltage is in- output voltage.
creasing in a positive direction.
Let's assume that terminal A in Fig. There are several important
11 is becoming positive with respect points you should notice in the cir-
to terminal B. This explanation ap- cuits shown in Fig. 11. Notice that
plies to both of the two circuits the current does not flow during an
shown. During this first half-cycle entire half-cycle, but flows only
the capacitor is charging and follows when the line voltage exceeds the
a curve as shown from point 1 to voltage across the capacitor. This
point 2 in Fig. 12B. Now, as the ac may be for a very short interval if
cycle drops from point 2 to point 3 a load is ahigh resistance and draws
on curve A in Fig. 12, the voltage very little current, or it may be for
drops faster than the capacitor dis- a sizable portion of a half-cycle if
charges. During the interval from the current is a low resistance and
point 2 to point 5 and almost to point draws a high current from the power
6, as shown in Fig. 12A, the capaci- supply. However, since the current
tor discharges very little. The dis- flows through the rectifier in pulses,
charge is shown on the curve from then the current pulse through the
point 2 over to the number 5on curve rectifier must be many times the
B. At this point the ac input voltage average dc current flowing through
exceeds the capacitor volta.ge,sothe the load. This is because the pulse
capacitor is recharged again. or current that flows through the
In circuits where the drain or rectifier during the interval in which
load current is low, the capacitor the rectifier is conducting must sup-
will discharge very little between ply enough current to the capacitor
current pulses that recharge it so to charge the capacitor and makeup
that the voltage acrossthe capacitor for the current it is going to supply
and hence the voltage across the load for the remainder of the cycle.
remain almost constant. Of course, When the rectifier is not conduc-
as the requirements of the load in- ting it is because the voltage across
crease, the capacitor willdischarge it is what we call a reverse voltage.
more so that there will be more of a In other words, it has a polarity op-
voltage drop across the capacitor posite from that which the rectifier
and across the load than in circuits needs to conduct. In the case of the
where current drain is low. vacuum tube circuit this means that

15
the plate of the tube is negative with As we mentioned previously, the
respect to the cathode; in the case simple capacitor-type filter shown
of the silicon rectifier, that there in Fig. 11 is usable only where a
is a reverse bias across the junc- small current is required by the
tion. load. If the current required is
One of the important character- small, the output capacitor can be
istics of a rectifier is the maximum made large enough so that it dis-
peak reverse voltage that can be charges very little between pulses.
placed across the rectifier before it If the current required by the load
breaks down. In the circuit shown in is high, on the other hand, then the
Fig. 11 the capacitor will be charged capacitor will discharge appreciably
as shown and the charge can equal between charging pulses, resulting
the peak line voltage. During the in a varying voltage applied to the
next half-cycle, when the polarity load. This is essentially the same
of the input voltage reverses, ter- as applying dc mixed with ac to the
minal A will be negative and termi- load. Additional filtering is required
nal B will be positive. When this in applications of this type in order
voltage reaches its peak, the peak to eliminate ac so that we will have
reverse voltage across the rectifier pure de across the load.
will be equal to twice the peak line
voltage. The rectifier must be able AN R-C FILTER
to withstand this voltage without
breaking down. This important char- An improved filter, which is often
acteristic, by which rectifiers are called a pi filter because it looks
rated, is usually referred to as like the Greek letter pi (Tr), is shown
"PRV" (peak reverse voltage), al- in Fig. 13. You will notice that this
though it may also be called "PIV" filter consists of two capacitors ,Cl
(peak inverse voltage). The two are and C2, and a filter resistor, Rl.
simply the maximum reverse or in- The operation of the half-wave
verse voltages that can be applied rectifier and capacitor Cl, which is
across the rectifier without its called the input filter capacitor, is
breaking down. In circuits such as the same as in the simple capacitor
those shown in Fig. 11, the PIV filter shown in Fig.11.The rectifier
should be considerably higher than tube passes current pulses to charge
twice the peak line voltage in order capacitor Cl with the polarity indi-
to allow a reasonable safety factor. cated on the diagram. However, if the

Fig. 1:3. An R-C pi-type filter.

16
load resistance R L is low enough to

I,
draw appreciable current from the
supply, then the voltage across Cl r
will discharge appreciably during PULSATING
DC O HIGH Rc 2 Ri
HIGH
DC
the portion of the cycle when the INPUT VOLTAGE

rectifier tube is not conducting.

Thus, we have dc with an ac super-
imposed on it across Cl.
Now, to see the action of R1 and
C2, let us first consider how the ca-
pacitor C2 reacts to ac and to dc.
Remember that a capacitor is a de- HIGH AC }I
VOLTAGE
vice that will not pass dc -- it can
LOW
be charged so that a de voltage will X, Rt. AC
- VOLTAGE
exist across it, but applying de to
the plates of the capacitor will not
cause a current to flow through it.
Although electrons cannot cross
through the dielectric of a capaci- Fig. 14. Equivalent circuits showing the
tor, however, applying ac to the di- reaction of an R-C filter to de at A, and
electric of a capacitor yields the to ac at II.
effect of a current flowing through
it. This is due to the fact that elec- capacitor is really perfect because
trons will flow first into one plate there will always be a small dc cur-
and then into the other as the po- rent (called a leakage current). In
larity of the ac voltage reverses. other words, the capacitor offers a
You will remember from your very high resistance to dc, so we
study of capacitors that a capacitor have shown it as resistor Re2 .MOSt
offers what is called capacitive re- of the de voltage applied to the input
actance (or opposition) to the flow of this filter network will appear
of ac through it. The exact react- across the capacitor, and there will
ance that any capacitor will offer be very little de dropped across the
to the flow of ac through it is given resistor Rl. The exact drop across
by the formula: this resistor will depend upon the
1 size of the resistor and the current
Xc = drawn by the load.
6.28 xf
Now look at Fig. 14B which shows
You can see from this formula the reaction of the circuit to an ac
that the larger the value of the ca- voltage. The capacitor has a very
pacitor, the lower the capacitive re- low reactance to ac, so most of the
actance will be to an ac voltage of ac voltage will be dropped across
a particular frequency. In Fig. 14A R1, because the resistance of R1 is
we have shown how the filter con- much higher than the reactance (X)
sisting of R1 and C2 reacts to de; of C2. R1 and C2 act as a voltage
in Fig. 14B, we have shown how it divider network with most of the ac
reacts to ac. being dropped across R1 because
As you know, a "perfect" capaci- its resistance is much higher than
tor will not pass de -- although no the reactance of C2.

17
 There is another way of looking if R1 were not on the circuit. Be-
at this type of power supply which cause Cl charges to a higher volt-
may help you see exactly what is age than C2, and while discharging
happening in the circuit. Refer back tends to charge C2, the voltage
to Fig. 13; the explanation applies across C2 is more nearly constant
to the circuit using the vacuum tube than the voltage across Cl.
rectifier shown at A and to the one
using the silicon rectifier shown at AN L-C FILTER
B.
When terminal A is positive with The disadvantage of the resistor-
respect to terminal B, the diode will capacitor type of filter shown in Fig.
conduct and current can flow through 13 soon becomes apparent if you con-
the diode and through the load.Dur- sider the size of the resistor and
ing this part of the cycle electrons capacitor needed to obtain effective
will flow into the plates of Cl and filtering and also the effect that the
C2 marked with a minus sign. At high value of resistance in the cir-
the same time electrons will flow cuit has on the dc voltage present.
out of the other plate of both ca- Consider Fig. 13 again for amin-
pacitors. Electrons leaving the posi- ute. Suppose that the ac component
tive side of Cl will flow directly of the pulsating dc across Cl is 10
through the diode being attracted by volts and that the maximum ac com-
the positive voltage at terminal A. ponent that can be applied to the load
Because the resistance of the recti- is only 1 volt. This means that the
fier is low, Cl can charge up to a filter network consisting of R1 and
value almost equal to the peak ac C2 must produce a 9-to-i voltage
voltage. However, the electrons division. In other words, of the 10
leaving the positive side of C2 must volts ac appearing across Cl we
flow through the filter resistor Rl. must drop 9 volts across R1 and 1
Thus, capacitor C2 cannot charge to volt across C2. This means that the
as high a voltage as capacitor Cl. resistance of R1 must be about 9 or
When the ac input voltage drops 10 times the reactance of C2.
so that the diode no longer conducts, A 25-rxifd capacitor (which is
capacitors C2 and Cl begin supply- fairly large, particularly if it must
ing the power required by the load. be built to withstand high voltages),
However, capacitor Cl is charged has a reactance of about 100 ohms
to a higher voltage than capacitor at a frequency of 60 cycles. If we
C2. Hence, capacitor Cl begins sup- used such a capacitor for C2, then
plying power to the load and also the resistance of R1 would have to
tries to charge capacitor C2. Since be 10 times its reactance, or about
electrons flowing from the negative 1000 ohms. If the current drawn by
side of Cl to the positive side must the load is 100 milliamperes, then
flow through filter resistor R1, the the voltage drop across R1 due tothe
attempt of these electrons to charge load current flowing through it will
C2 and flow through the load resis- be 1000 ohms times .lamp (100 ma),
tor will be somewhat restricted by or 100 volts. This means that we will
Rl. The net effect is that the resis- be losing 100 volts of our dc voltage
tor R1 prevents C2 from charging across Rl. Furthermore, the power
to as high a peak voltage as it would being wasted by this resistor will be

18
 Li Lj

Fig. 15..%n L-C filter.

equal to the voltage across it times time the only opposition that the
the current flowing through it, which choke will offer to the flow of de
is 100 X .1, or 10 watts.You can see through it is due to the resistance of
that we have an appreciable voltage the wire used to wind the coil. By
drop and a sizable amount of power using a large size wire, this resist-
wasted by this resistor. ance can be kept quite low. The choke
In some cases the current drawn may have adc resistance of 100 ohms
through the filter resistor is not so or less and at the same time have a
high that the voltage drop across the reactance of several thousand ohms
resistor cannot be tolerated. Thus to the 60-cycle ac applied to it.
you will see this type of filter used The reaction of the L-C filter to
in equipment when the current taken dc is shown in Fig. 16A, and the re-
from the power supply is moderate. action to ac is shown in Fig. 16B.
In equipment when the current drawn In 16A we see that as far as the de
is high, a different type of filter is is concerned, the choke acts as a
used. Such a filter is shown in Fig.
LOW R
15. Notice that this circuit is iden-
tical to Fig. 13, except that we have
substituted an iron-core choke for
HIGH
Rl. The action of this filter network RL DC
VOLTAGE
is quite similar to that of the filter
network shown in Fig.13.Again,ca-
pacitor Cl is charged by the recti-
fier and because there is no resist-
ance in the circuit other than the HIGH R
rectifier resistance, it charges to a
1-{ HIGH
X AC
fairly high value. Just as before,
VOLTAGE LOW
however, the voltage across it will LOW AC
be pulsating (the equivalent of de
with ac superimposed on it).
o VOLTAGE

Now consider the reaction of the

choke to ac and de.Youwill remem-
ber that a choke has inductance,and Fig. 16. Equivalent circuit showing the
an inductance offers reactance to reaction of an L-C filter to de at A, and
the flow of ac through it.At the same to ac at B.

19
low resistance while the capacitor charged will not be as high as the
acts as avery high resistance. Thus , voltage to which Cl is charged be-
we have practically all of our dc volt- cause of the opposition of the choke.
age appearing across the capacitor When the ac input voltage drops
and very little of it being lost across below the voltage to which Cl is
the choke. However, as shown in charged, the rectifier will no longer
16B, the choke acts as ahigh resist- conduct and no current can flow
ance to the ac while the capacitor through it. Now Cl and C2 and choke
acts as a low resistance. Thus, most Li must supply the current needed
of the ac voltage will appear across by the load. C2 does this by attempt-
the choke and very little of it will ing to discharge. Cl also tries to
appear across the capacitor. discharge to charge C2 and to supply
There is another way of looking part of the current required by the
at the action of the L-C filter. We load. At the same time there is a
can consider the charging of the ca- magnetic field built up in the choke
pacitors and the opposition offered Li which does not collapse instantly
by the choke more or less in the but instead tries to keep current
same way as we considered the flowing in the direction it was flow-
action of the R-C filter in Fig. 13. ing when the rectifier was conduct-
During the first half-cycle, when ing. It too helps to maintain the cur-
terminal A of either rectifier cir- rent flow through the load RL. Thus
cuit is positive and terminal B is In this type of filter we have energy
negative, the rectifier will conduct. stored in three places: the capaci-
Electrons will flow from terminal tors Cl and C2 (as we did inthe cir-
B into the sides of Cland C2 marked cuit in Fig. 13), and in the magnetic
with a minus sign. These electrons field of choke Ll.
will force electrons out of the posi- In the circuits shown in Fig. 15,
tive side of Cl and they will flow the rectifier tube in Fig. 15A offers
through the rectifier with little or a certain amount of resistance to the
no opposition. However, the elec- flow of current through it. In addi-
trons leaving the positive side of tion, the rectifier tube has acathode
C2 will encounter opposition in the which must be heated by a heater.
choke. This is because atthe instant It takes some time for the cathode
when the electrons first try to get to come up to operating temperature ;
through the choke there is no mag- when a tube first starts conducting,
netic field built up in the choke.You the cathode is below normal opera-
will remember that a choke is ade- ting temperature, and the tube offers
vice that opposes any change in cur- a higher resistance to the flow of
rent flowing through it. Therefore, current through it than it does when
the choke tries to keepthe electrons the tube reaches its full operating
leaving the positive side of C2 from temperature. Thus when the power
flowing through it. Eventually this supply is first turned on and the tube
opposition offered by the choke is reaches a temperature at which the
overcome, a magnetic field is built cathode begins toemit electrons ,the
up in the choke, and some of the tube offers considerable resistance
electrons can flow through the choke to the flow of current through it. This
and capacitor C2 will be charged. limits the charging current through
However, the voltage to which C2 is the tube that charges the input filter

20
capacitor Cl. In a matter of a few to a reasonable value. As the current
seconds capacitor Cl is chargedand flowing to the thermistor heats the
from then on the current that must thermistor and its resistance goes
flow through the tube is within the down, the charge across capacitor
tube 's capabilities. Cl will build up slowly so that the
In the circuit shown in Fig. 15B, diode current never reaches an ex-
however, the silicon rectifier does cessively high value. By the time
not have a cathode which must be the capacitor is fully charged, the
heated -- as soon as the power is thermistor temperature will have
turned on the rectifier begins to con- increased to a point where the re-
duct to charge the input capacitor sistance of the thermistor has
Cl. If you turn the equipment on at dropped to a low value so that the
the peak of the ac cycle there will thermistor has very little effect on
be a very high voltage immediately the overall operation of the circuit.
impressed across Cl and a very
high current will flow through the L
rectifier. As a matter of fact, the R
current might be so high that it could
burn out the rectifier. Even if the
power is turned on when the ac volt-
age is at zero, a high current will
flow through the diode to charge Cl
as the voltage rises to a peak value
with terminal A positive with respect
to terminal B. If Cl is large enough,
this could burn out the rectifier. Fig. 17. Power supply with series-limiting
This problem of excessively high resistor.
charging current can be overcome
with the circuit shown in Fig. 17. If you have to service a power
Here a resistor is connected in supply of this type (where aresistor
series with the silicon rectifier to or a thermistor is used in the cir-
limit the current flow. In some cuit in series with a silicon recti-
equipment, this resistor is a fairly fier) and you find that the resistor
low resistance, fixed-value resis- or thermistor is opened, do not
tor. In other applications, the re- simply short the resistor or ther-
sistor may be athermistor. You will mistor out of the circuit. If you do
remember that a thermistor is are- the chances are that the diode will
sistor with a negative temperature burn out either the first time that
coefficient. This means that the re- you turn the equipment on or shortly
sistance of the thermistor decreases thereafter.
as its temperature increases. The rectifier tubes used in low
With a thermistor for the resis- power equipment such as radio and
tor R1 shown in the circuit in Fig. television receivers are high vacu-
17, the thermistor will offer afairly um rectifier tubes. However, in
high resistance to current flow when transmitters and in industrial appli-
the equipment is first turned on. This cations where high voltages are in-
will limit the charging current that volved you will often run into mer-
flows through the diode to charge Cl cury-vapor rectifier tubes. Tubes

21
of this type cannot be subjected to age divider network for the ac, so
high peak currents through them that most of the ac is dropped across
without damaging the tube. A mer- the filter choke and very little of it
cury-vapor rectifier tube in the cir- appears across the load.
cuit such as shown in Fig. 15A lasts A more elaborate filter network is
only a short time. We can keep the the two-section filter shown in Fig.
peak current through the tube down 19. Again, it is a choke-input filter
to a safe value by using a somewhat because the first element in the fil-
different filter circuit known as a ter network is a choke. This type of
choke-input filter. filter network is frequently used in
power supplies of radio and TV
CHORE-INPUT FILTERS
transmitters and of industrial elec-
The filter circuits shown in Figs. tronic equipment where mercury-
15 and 17 are called capacitor-input vapor rectifier tubes are used.
filters because the rectifier is con- The choke-input filter has several
nected directly to the input filter ca- advantages over the capacitor-input
pacitor. A choke-input filter such as filter, even though the voltage ob-
those frequently used with a mer- tained at the output of a choke-input
cury-vapor rectifier tube is shown filter is not quite as high as it is at
in Fig. 18. Here, the rectifier tube the output of equivalent capacitor-
is connected to a filter choke rather input filters. In other words, if you
than a capacitor. Power supplies of feed the same pulsating de into a
this type will be found in radio and choke-input filter you will not obtain
television transmitters and in indus- as high an output voltage for agiven
trial applications where compara- load as you can with a capacitor-
tively high voltages are encountered. input filter. However, this type of
It is easy to see how this type of filter has better voltage regulation
filter works when we remember that than a capacitor-input filter. The
the pulsating dc at the output of the voltage regulation of a power supply
rectifier tube is actually de with ac is the ratio of the full-load voltage
superimposed on it. The choke offers to the no-load voltage. With achoke-
little or no opposition to the flow of input filter there is not as great a
dc through it. On the other hand,the variation between the no-load and the
choke «fers a high reactance to the full-load voltages as there is in the
flow of ac through it and at the same capacitor-input filter.
time the capacitor offers a low re- Another big advantage of the
actance to the ac across it. Thus the choke-input filter is that the peak
choke and the capacitor forma volt- current passed by the rectifier tube
is held to a reasonable value. In a
choke-input filter, the choke offers
o
considerable reactance to any
change in current flow through it.
Thus, when the rectifier tube tries
C1 > RL
to conduct current heavily to charge
Cl in Fig. 19, the input-filter choke
Li offers considerable reactance or
o
-
opposition to the change in current
Fig. 18. A choke-input filter. flow through it. It tends to smooth

22
 The input filter choke, which is Li
in Fig. 19, is often aswingingchoke.
A swinging choke is designed so that
it saturates rather easily and thus
its inductance will vary appreciably
as the current through the choke
changes. When the current through
the choke becomes high, the induc-
Fig. 19. A two-section choke-input filter. tance and hence the inductive re-
actance of the choke decrease, but
out the pulses of current through the when the current through the choke
rectifier tube. The current pulse is low, the inductance and hence the
flowing through the rectifier tube inductive reactance increase. Thus
flows for a slightly longer time than we have in effect a variable react-
it would flow with an equivalent ca- ance between the rectifier tube and
pacitor-input type of filter, and the the input-filter capacitor; this vari-
peak amplitude of the current flow- able reactance helps to improve
ing through the rectifier tube is not voltage regulation at the power sup-
as high as it would be with the ca- ply output. This type of choke is
pacitor input filter. This is a big particularly useful in circuits where
advantage in a power supply using the load current goes through wide
mercury-vapor rectifier tubes, be- variations. If the load current goes
cause they can easily be destroyed down, the reactance of the choke in-
by excessively high current pulses creases. The increased reactance
through them. limits the charging action of the rec-
The filter network shown in Fig. tifier tube and keeps the output volt-
19 is quite effective in eliminating age from rising appreciably. On the
hum. Consider what would happen other hand, if the load current in-
if the output of the rectifier had an creases, the reactance of the choke
ac voltage of 100 volts superimposed decreases, allowing the rectifier to
on the dc. If the two sections of the charge Cl to a higher value so the
filter network are designed so that capacitor can supply the increased
each choke has a reactance about 10 current demand.
times as high as the reactance of the
FACTORS AFFECTING
capacitors, each section will have
THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE
approximately a 10-to-1 ripple volt-
age division; thus if there are 100 In any filter network containing a
volts ac at the output of the rectifier, filter choke or a filter resistor, the
Li and Cl will divide this voltage so dc current flowing through the load
that there will be only 10 volts ap- must also flow through the filter
pearing across Cl. Now L2 and C2 choke or filter resistor. Thus,there
act as a voltage divider networkand will be a voltage drop across this
divide this 10 volts further, so that choke or resistor; the exact value
the voltage across C2 would be only of the voltage drop will depend upon
1 volt. Thus, the two-section filter the dc resistance and the current
has reduced the ac hum or ripple flowing. We already pointed out that
voltage at the rectifier output from if a 1000-ohm filter resistor is used
100 volts to 1volt. in the circuit and the current that is

23
flowing is 100 milliamperes, the Of course, it is difficult to say
voltage drop across the filter resis- whether a filter capacitor is large
tor will be 100 volts. On the other
or small. Whether or not it is large
hand, if a filter choke having a de
for the particular circuit depends
l'sistance of 100 ohms is used, a upon how much current is being
current of 100 milliamperes will drawn from the circuit. If the cur-
produce a voltage drop of only 10 rent drain is low, then a capacitor
volts across it. of 10 or 20-mfd will usually be suffi-
If the current drawn by the load cient to keep the power supply output
changes, the output voltage at the voltage at or near the peak value of
output of the filter network will the ac voltage applied to the rectifier
change. You can see why this is so-- tube. However, if the current drain
the current must flow through the from the power supply is large, then
filter resistor or filter choke. If the the voltage across the power supply
current flowing through the choke or output will be considerably less than
resistor changes, the voltage drop the peak ac value if the capacitors
across it will change, and hence the used are 10-mfd or 20-mfd capaci-
voltage at the output of the power tors.
supply will have some tendency to To give you some idea of how the
change. size of the input filter capacitor af-
The output voltage is also affected fects the output voltage, we have
by the size of the filter capacitors shown a graph in Fig. 20. The graph
used. If the filter capacitors used are is for a full-wave rectifier. It shows
small, then the rectifier is unable how the output voltage varies with
to keep them completely charged; if different load currents for both 4-
the filter capacitors are large, once mfd and 8-mfd capacitors. We have
the rectifier gets them charged, they shown this for three separate input
will stay charged to a voltage near voltages. Notice that in each case
the peak ac voltage being applied to when the current drain is low, the
the rectifier tube. output voltage is substantially above
550
10 0
the rms input voltage applied to the
»4s rectifier. Remember, of course , that
er
w 500 e the peak va lue of a300-volt rms volt-
4
age is actually 1.4 times 300 volts.
Jsc
450
C. Fig. 21 shows a comparison be-
40.e *P4,
tween a choke-input and capacitor-
ce.
D 400
input type of filter. Notice that with
0 Joo
1s.
4
6 yr a capacitor input the output voltage
"547-
1
e 4fr at low loads is substantially higher
u' 350
-J
o than it is for achoke input. However,
as the load is increased, the output
o 300 1
o Po voltage from a capacitor-input type
of filter drops rapidly. The output
250 0
40 BO 120 160 200 240 voltage from the choke-input type
DC LOAD CURRENT IN MA
filter also drops as the load is in-
Fig. 20. how the size of the input ca- creased, but it does not drop nearly
pacitor of a filter affects the output volt- as rapidly as it does with a capaci-
age for different values of load current. tor-input type of filter.

24
 4 NFL/ CAPACITOR INPUT TO FILTER rectifier. The same filter circuits
CHOKE INPUT TO FILTER ••• M.

700 are also used with full-wave recti-

fiers.
ta
I._ 600 Study the circuits shown in this
1.r
section. You should be familiar with
47x-
0 500 each of these circuits. You might
try drawing these circuits several
a400 - SOO times to get familiar with the cir-
›- cuit arrangement. Copy them from
u) 300
the book the first few times you try
0 drawing them and then try to repro-
..... 2?0
C) 200
duce the circuit from memory. This
o
will help you remember what the cir-
cuits look like, and if you can re-
100
50 100 150 200 250 300
member what they look like, the
DC LOAD CURRENT IN MA
chances are that you'll be able to
remember how they work.
Fig. 21. How the output voltage of a fil-
ter network varies for different values of
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
load currents and input voltages. The
solid curves are for a capacitor-input
(i) To what value may the input
filter; the dashed curves for achoke-input
filter capacitor charge in a
lute r.
simple capacitor filter such as
shown in Fig. 11?
SUMMARY ) In what type of application may
a simple capacitor-type filter
In this section we have covered (such as shown in Fig. 11) be
some of the more important types used?
of filter networks you are likely to (k) What advantage does an R-C
encounter in your career as an elec- pi-type filter (such as shown
tronics technician. You have seen in Fig.13)have over the simple
that these networks vary from com- capacitor-type filter shown in
paratively simple filters consisting Fig. 11?
only of a capacitor up to networks (1) What is the disadvantage of the
containing two chokes and two filter R-C pi-type filter, and how
capacitors. can this disadvantage be over-
Simpler types of filter networks come?
can be used where the current drain (m) What is the purpose of the re-
is low and where the filtering does sistor R1 in the power supply
not have to be very good. The more shown in Fig. 17?
elaborate filters are used in power (n) Why are choke-input filters
supplies having a high current drain used with mercury-vapor rec-
and in cases where good filtering is tifier tubes?
required to supply pure de at the (o) What advantage does a choke-
power supply output. input filter have over a ca-
The circuits in this section of the pacitor-input filter ?
lesson are shown with a half-wave (p) What is a swinging choke?

25
 Typical Power Supplies
The two main sections of the power tice that the heaters of the various
supply are the rectifier and the filter tubes are connected in series and
section. Now that we have discussed that they are operated on ac. In this
both these sections, let's examine type of power supply youwill always
some typical power supplies and see find that the heater of the rectifier
what they look like. First we 'il look tube, in this case a 35W4 tube, is
at some power supplies using tube- connected directly to one side of the
type rectifiers which might be found power line. The heater of this par-
in equipment using vacuum tubes. ticular tube is tapped, and a pilot
Remember that in these circuits the light is connected in parallel with
rectifier operates in the same way one part of the heater. The pilot
as a selenium or silicon rectifier light will light when the set is turned
would operate. Insofar as the recti- on. The tube is designed to be op-
fication action is concerned, it erated with the pilot light connected
makes little difference whether in parallel with part of the heater,
a tube, a selenium rectifier, or a so if in servicing a receiver using
silicon rectifier is used. In the cir- a tube with apilot light tap you should
cuits where tubes are used, we will find that the pilot light is burned out,
in some cases show how the tube it is a good idea to replace itto keep
heaters are connected. After look- the heater current in the rectifier
ing at a few tube circuits we will tube within its rated value.
look at some typical power supplies Next to the 35W4 rectifier tube in
using silicon rectifiers and then at the heater circuit (or heater string,
a more complex regulated supply. as it is usually called) you will al-
ways find the high-voltage power
UNIVERSAL AC-DC
output tube. By a high-voltage tube
POWER SUPPLIES
we mean a tube that requires a high
The universal ac-dc power supply heater voltage. In the diagram we
is so called because it can be op- have shown, the tube is a 50B5 tube.
erated from either an ac or a de As the 50 suggests, a heater voltage
power line. When these power sup- of 50 volts is required to operate
plies were first used in radio re- the tube.
ceivers, manufacturers played this 5H
feature up, but actually this type 35W4 B+

of power supply is used to keep costs , .

30 50
at a minimum. MFD _ MFD _
B-
The circuit of an ac-dc power sup-
ply for a 5-tube radio receiver is
shown in Fig. 22. This supply not
only supplies the de voltages re-
115-120
quired by the plates and screens of VOLTS 5085 I2BA6 I2BE6 I2AT6
AC/DC
the tubes in the receiver but also
contains the heater supply for the
SWITCH
heaters of the various tubes. First,
let us look at the heater supply. No- Fig. 22. A typical ac-dc power supply.

26
 Next to the output tube you will of a capacitor-input filter; the input
usually find the i -f tube. In this dia- filter capacitor is the 30-mfd ca-
gram, the i -f tube is a 12BA6 tube. pacitor, and the output filter capaci-
It is a tube with a 12.6-volt heater. tor is the 50-mfd capacitor. Usually
Next to the i -f tube you will find these two capacitors are in a single
the converter tube. The 12BE6 tube container that has only three leads
is a converter tube designed so that brought out from it. Since the nega-
the single tube performs two tasks: tive leads are both connected to B-,
one part of the tube is the oscillator a common negative lead and two
and the other part is the mixer. separate positive leads are usually
The last tube in the heater string used. The capacitor is usually a
is always the first audiotube.Inthis tubular type of capacitor with apaper
circuit it is a 12AT6 tube. This tube cover impregnated with wax. The ca-
is placed at the end of the heater pacitor is mounted on the receiver
string nearest B- to keep hum at a chassis by means of a mounting
minimum, because hum picked up in strap, or in areceiver with aprinted
the first audio tube willbe amplified circuit board, the leads are soldered
by the entire audio system and could directly to the circuit board. Often
be objectionable. The 12AT6 tube is this is the only kind of mechanical
a dual-diode-triode tube: it has two mounting used.
diodes and a triode inside the same Capacitors in this type of receiver
glass envelope. As the 12 preceding are usually rated at 150 volts. The
the type designation suggests, the normal output voltage of this type of
tube requires a heater voltage of power supply under load is usually
about 12 volts--to be exact, 12.6 somewhere between 90 and 105 volts.
volts. Not all universal ac-dc power sup-
Now if we examine the rectifier plies use a filter choke. In the cir-
circuit you will see that the plate is cuit shown in Fig. 22, the plates and
connected to a center tap on the rec- screens of all of the tubes are op-
tifier heater. This means that the B erated from the B+ output of this
supply current flowing through the power supply. However, sometimes
plate of the tube must flow either you will find a filter resistor used
through part of the rectifier heater in the power supply in place of the
or through the pilot light backto one filter choke. When this is done, the
side of the power line. The purpose plate of the output tube is usually
of connecting the plate this way is to connected directly to the cathode of
provide some protection lathe event the rectifier tube so that the current
of a short in the receiver.lf there is drawn by the output tube plate will
a short in the receiver,the rectifier not flow through the filter resistor.
tube will begin passing excessive This tube usually draws more cur-
current. If this current becomes too rent than all the other tubes in the
high, the pilot light and half the rec- receiver combined.
tifier heater will burn out, opening The output tube is normally abeam
the circuit and protecting the re- tube or a pentode tube, and the plate
ceiver and the house wiring. current depends very little on plate
The rest of the power supply is voltage. Therefore if there is some
similar to the circuit you studied hum voltage applied to the plate of
already. The filter network consists the tube, it usually does not cause

27
any plate current variation and hence long as all the tubes warm up at the
is not heard as hum in the output same rate, their resistances change
from the loudspeaker. The screen at the same rate. In this way, ahigh
voltage for the output tube and the voltage across any of the tubes is
plate and screen voltages for the re- avoided.
maining tubes are obtained at the Before leaving our study of this
output of the power supply where the type of power supply, it is worth-
additional filtering obtained from the while to consider what will happen
filter resistor and the output filter if a tube such as the 12BA6 tube in
capacitor will reduce the ripple from Fig. 22 develops acathode-to-heater
the rectifier to a low value. shortage. The cathode will usually
In some of the later table-model be connected either to B- directly
radio receivers only four tubes are or to B- through a low-value resis-
used; a selenium rectifier or asili- tor; this will effectively short out
con rectifier is used in place of a the heaters of the 12BE6 and 12AT6
rectifier tube because either of these tubes and, as a result, these tubes
has a considerably longer life. In re- will not light.
ceivers of this type, tubes with If you're called upon to service
higher heater voltage requirements a receiver of this type and you find
are often used, so that the sum of the that one or more of the tubes is not
heater voltages required by the four heating, lookfor acathode-to-heater
tubes adds up to about 120 volts. If short in either the tube which doesn't
the heater voltage required by the light that is highest up on the string,
tubes is less than the line voltage, a or the tube preceding it. If none of
voltage-dropping resistor can be the tubes lights this is an indication,
placed in series with the heaters to since the tubes are connected in
use up the leftover voltage. This will series, that the series string is open
cause the total voltage drop across -- chances are that the heater of one
the series-dropping resistor and the of the tubes has burned out.
tubes to be equal to the line voltage,
thus allowing each of the tubes to
A TYPICAL FULL-WAVE
have its required heater voltage.
Cf course, in any heater string POWER SUPPLY
where tube heaters are connected in
series, all the tubes must have the Fig. 23 illustrates atypical power
same heater current rating. Tubes supply using a power transformer
designed for this type of service and full-wave rectifier. This type is
have what is called a controlled found in many radio and TV re-
warm-up. This means that the tube ceivers and transmitting equipment,
heaters are made so that they all as well as in the equipment used in
reach operating temperature at the industrial electronics.
same time. This prevents one tube Notice that the power transformer
from warming up too quickly and has a primary winding to which the
from having too high avoltage across 115-volt ac power line is connected;
its heater. a high-voltage secondary with its
The voltage across the tube heater center tap grounded, and the two end
will depend upon its resistance, leads connected to the plates of the
which changes with temperature.As rectifier tube; and the two filament

28
 ger—

5H heater voltage ratings of 6.3 volts.

The filament winding must be capa-
ble of supplying the heater current
required by all of the tubes. The
tubes may require different heater
o
currents since they are connected
o in parallel. You can determine the
FILAMENT "2 total current the winding must sup-
ply by looking up the heater current
required by the individual tubes in a
Fig. 23. A typical power supply using a
tube manual and addin gthe se figures
transformer and full-wave rectifier.
together.
Again, the filter network used in
windings. One filament winding is this power supply is acapacitor-in-
used to supply the heater voltage put type. Notice that the capacitors
required by the rectifier tube, and have alower capacity than those used
one filament winding is used to sup- in the circuit shown in Fig. 22. It is
ply the heater voltage for all the not as necessary to use large capaci-
other tubes in the set. tors in a full-wave rectifier type of
In this power supply we have shown power supply as it is in a half-wave
a 5U4G rectifier tube, which re- rectifier to obtain the same amount
quires a heater voltage of 5volts and of filtering. Cf course, in some
a heater current of 3 amps. Thus power supplies in which it is essen-
the rectifier filament winding on the tial to keep the hum voltage very low,
transformer must be capable of sup- you will find larger filter capacitors.
plying 5 volts at a current of 3 am- You may also find a two-section fil-
peres. ter using an additional choke and a
The winding marked filament third filter capacitor.
number two is used to supply the In a power supply such as the one
heater voltage required by all the shown in Fig. 23, the twocapacitors
other tubes in the set. You will no- will probably be mounted in asingle
tice that this winding is called the container. If a cardboard tubular
filament winding, not the heater type is used, one common negative
winding. This is a carry-over from lead and two separate positive leads
the old days of radio when most of will be brought out of the container.
the tubes were filament-type tubes The same color leads will probably
and few had a separate cathode and be used for the two positive sections
heater. since they both have the same ca-
In an electronic device using this pacity. In some pieces of equipment
type of power supply, the heaters of a metal can-type capacitor might
the tubes (with the exception of the be used -- with this type the can is
rectifier tube) are connected in usually the negative terminal.
parallel. Since the tubes are con- Mounting the capacitor on the metal
nected in parallel, you will find that chassis automatically makes the
all of the tubes are designed to op- connection between the negat ive ter-
erate from the same heater voltage. minal and the chassis. The positive
In most cases equipment using this leads are brought out of two sepa-
type of power supply has tubes with rate terminals.

29
.,

DUAL-VOLTAGE rent also flows through the ther-

POWER SUPPLIES mistor R3 through R4 and into the
negative plate of capacitor C3. Elec-
A diagram of a typical dual-volt- trons flow out of the positive plate
age power supply is shown in Fig. through the diode D2 back to termi-
24. This diagram is actually quite nal B of the power line. When ter-
similar to the diagram of circuits minal A of the power line is positive
used in amodern color-TV receiver. and terminal B is negative the volt-
Notice that a voltage that is nega- age will be placed in series with the
tive with respect to ground is de- voltage built up across C3, so that
veloped by the diode D1 and its as- capacitor C4 is charged to a value
sociated circuitry. Diodes D2 and approaching twice the peak line volt-
D3 are used in a half-wave voltage age through diode D3. This provides
doubler circuit. an output voltage which is positive
In this circuit when terminal A is with respect to ground and approxi-
negative with respect to terminal B, mately equal to twice the ac line
current flows from A through Rland voltage.
Dl to charge capacitor Cl.A simple The thermistor R3 is put in the
pi-type R-C filter is used in this circuit to prevent high current
section of the power supply because surges through the silicon diodes D2
the current requirements are low and D3 when the equipment is first
and there will be very little voltage turned on. R4 is used in the circuit
drop across R2. At the same time to provide further protection. If the
with the two capacitors, small value equipment is turned on and operating
capacitors can be used and adequate for some time, the resistance of the
filtering obtained. thermistor will drop to a low value.
When terminal A is negative ,cur- If the equipment is turned off for a

R1 R2

•••••
+
•

• Li
- D3 +
I
+
3 C3 +1 ree-\I+5
C •
120V.
AC D2 -1C4 I

e •
-
B ••••
1•1

Fig. 24. A typical dual-voltage power supply.

30
 PLATE
TRANS.
' I< SWINGING SMOOTHING
E
0 CHOKE CHOKE
0
0 1 .==.
0
0 1000V
816 —rolln-7 --roljtr\—.---

_.)
T
4 MFD
MD
MO

1
E
D
FILAMENT
TRANS.

Fig. 25. A typical transmitter power supply.

few seconds and then turned back HIGH-VOLTAGE

on, the charging current through the POWER SUPPLIES
diodes could be quite high and dam-
age them. R4 is put in the circuit; Another power supply is shown in
its value does not change and it Fig. 25. This is the type of power
limits the current through the diodes supply you will find in transmitting
to prevent their damage under this equipment or in other equipment
circumstance. where high operating voltages are
The power supply shown in Fig. required. Notice that in this power
24 is typical of the power supply you supply, full-wave rectification is
are likely to run into in both mono- used. Also notice that it has two
chrome and color television re- separate rectifier tubes. Separate
ceivers. A voltage-divider network rectifier tubes rather than a single
may be used across the output of tube with two plates are used in high-
either supply to provide different voltage supplies because the volt-
value voltages. This power supply is ages are so high that they would
comparatively inexpensive; it elimi- simply arc across inside the tube.
nates the need of a power trans- The type 816 tubes shown in this
former and with modern silicon supply are mercury-vapor tubes de-
diodes is comparatively trouble- signed for use in power supplies
free. where the operating voltages are not

31
too high and where the current re- transmitting equipment because its
quirements are not too great. They primary purpose is to smooth out the
are often used in power supplies ripple and also to distinguish it from
where the ac input voltage to the the swinging choke used at the input
rectifier is between 1000 and 2000 of the filter network. A smoothing
volts, and the current drain does not choke is designed to keep its induc-
exceed 250 ma. As far as the trans- tance as nearly constant as possible,
mitting-type power supplies are whereas a swinging choke is de-
concerned, an output voltage of 1000 signed so that its inductance will
volts across each half of the sec- vary as the current through it varies.
ondary of the high-voltage trans- Notice that the filter capacitors
former is not considered high. used in this power supply are 4-infd
The high-voltage transformer capacitors. Each of these capacitors
found in this type of power supply is is usually mounted in its own sepa-
frequently called a plate trans- rate container. Occasionally you will
former because it is used to supply find two small high-voltage capaci-
the high voltage required to operate tors in the same container, but this
the plates of the various tubes inthe is not common practice. Also notice
transmitter. The rectifier tubes are that the capacitors have a much
operated from a separate filament smaller capacity than those in the
transformer. In apower supply using two power supplies we discussed
type 816 tubes, the filament voltage previously. These capacitors are
required by these tubes is 2.5 volts oil-filled capacitors and it is quite
and the current required is 2 amps. costly to make this type of capacitor
Therefore, this filament trans- with a large capacity. Cn the other
former must be capable of supplying hand, capacitors used in circuits like
a total of 4 amps at a voltage of 2.5 those in Fig. 22, Fig. 23, and Fig.
volts. The filament transformer 24 are electrolytic capacitors and
must have good insulation between very large capacities can be obtained
the secondary winding, the trans- at a very moderate cost.
former core, and the primary wind- Effective filtering is obtained with
ing; otherwise the high voltage will the smaller-size capacitors in this
arc through the insulation either to supply, because two filter chokes are
the primary winding or tothe trans- used. The inductance and hence the
former core. inductive reactance of these chokes
At the input of the power supply are usually somewhat higher than
filter network is a swinging choke. that of filter chokes used in lower
This is common practice in trans- voltage equipment. The choice of
mitter power supplies because it using either large chokes or large
improves the voltage regulation, and filter capacitors is simply one of
also because it affords additional cost. At low voltages it is more eco-
protection for the mercury-vapor nomical to use large capacitors and
rectifier tubes. low-inductance chokes, but at high
The second choke in the power voltages it is more economical to
supply is called a smoothing choke. use high-inductance chokes and low
This is the same type of choke shown capacities. The net result is the
in the power supplies in Figs.22 and same as far as the filtering action
23. It is called a smoothing choke in is concerned. Another component

32
that you will find in transmitting- keep the voltage from climbingtoan
type power supplies is a bleeder. A unsafe value.
bleeder is a resistor connected Another important reason for
across the power supply output. The using the bleeder is that an oil-filled
bleeder serves two purposes: it im- capacitor such as those found in this
proves the voltage regulation and is type of power supply can hold a
also used for safety. charge for a long time. If the two
A bleeder resistor connected 4-mid capacitors used in the supply
across the power supply keeps the were charged up to a voltage of 1000
minimum current at a reasonable volts or more and atechnician serv-
value. If the current drawn by the icing the equipment accidentally
load connected to this power supply touched one of these capacitors, he
were to drop to zero, the two filter could receive a very dangerous
capacitors would be charged up to a shock. Under certain conditions it
value equal to the peak voltage could be fatal. This danger can be
across half of the secondary of the greatly reduced by connecting a
plate transformer. If the trans- bleeder across the power supply so
former had an rms voltage of 1000 that when the equipment is turned
volts across each half of the sec- off the capacitors are discharged
ondary, this would mean that the ca- through the bleeder.
pacitors would charge up to a volt- You may have occasion to work on
age of about 1400 volts. This may high-voltage power supplies at some
be high enough todestroythe capaci- future date. Remember that a
tors. Also, the chokes have adefinite bleeder is connected across the
maximum voltage that can be applied power supply for safety as well as to
to them. If the voltage goes too high, improve the voltage regulation.
the insulation between the choke Therefore if the bleeder in a power
winding and the core may break supply burns out, it should be re-
down. This will destroy the chokes. placed. However, never rely on a
If either of the chokes or capacitors bleeder to discharge high-voltage
shorts, the rectifier tubes will pass filter capacitors. If youhavetowork
such a high current that they maybe on a high-voltage power supply, your
ruined. There is also the danger of first step should be to remove all
burning out the plate transformer. voltages from the supply.Todothis,
Furthermore, if the voltage reaches turn the power supply off; if there
too high a value, the rectifier tubes are fuses in it, remove the fuses so
may arc over internally. A bleeder that no one can accidentally turn it
connected across the power supply on; disconnect it completely from
output can eliminate this danger. the source if you can. Often it is not
With the bleeder across the output, possible or convenient to completely
if the equipment current drops to or disconnect the equipment from the
almost to zero, the bleeder current voltage source but if it is shut off
will continue to flow. If the output and any fuse in the circuit is re-
voltage starts to rise, the bleeder moved, it should be safe. Next, be-
current will increase because the fore you start to work on the supply,
current flowing through any resistor discharge all filter capacitors in the
increases if the voltage across it in- power supply. The capacitors should
creases. The bleeder current will be discharged with aheavy metal rod

33
that has a good insulated handle so Is used in a TV receiver that is de-
that you will not come in contact with signed for operation from the power
the metal rod. Use the metal rod to line and also from a 12-volt dc
short together the terminals of the source. When the power plug is
capacitor to discharge it. Touch the plugged into a 120-volt line and the
grounded terminal of the capacitor switch is turned on, the receiver
first and slide the rod over to touch will operate from the power line.
the other terminal. Do this several When the power plug is disconnected
times to be sure the charge is com- and switch Si is closed,the receiver
pletely removed. After the capaci- can be operated from a 12-volt bat-
tors have been discharged, the power tery.
supply should be safe to work on. The operation of the power supply
Keep this point in mind:high volt- from the power line is comparatively
age capacitors, or for that matter simple. Two diodes, DI and D2, are
any large capacitors, should be dis- used in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
charged before you start to work on When the transformer Ti, which is
a piece of equipment. Many techni- a step-down transformer, has a po-
cians fail to do this. There are some larity such that the end of the sec-
technicians who can tell about the ondary connected to DI is negative,
terrific shock they received when current will flow through the diode
they failed to discharge a filter ca- DI to ground and into the negative
pacitor. There are others that did plate of C3. Electrons flow out of
not survive the experience to tell the positive plate of C3 to the center
about it. tap of the power transformer which
is positive with respect to the end
A TRANSISTOR-REGULATED
connected to Dl. During the next
POWER SUPPLY
half-cycle, when the end of the sec-
A regulated power supply employ- ondary connected to D2 is negative,
ing transistor voltage regulators is current will flow through D2 to
shown in Fig. 26. This power supply ground, into the negative plate of C3,

120 V.

OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Fig. 26. A transistor-regulated power supply.

34
out of the positive plate of C3 and zener D3 remains constant so that
back to the center tap of the sec- the voltage across R2 will reflect
ondary winding on the power trans- the entire output voltage rise. This
former. will reduce the forward bias on Q1
The remainder of the components which, in turn, will reduce the
used for the power supply are used emitter-collector current. The re-
for the purpose of regulating the duction in the emitter-collector cur-
voltage. In other words, the power rent will reduce the voltage drop
supply voltage is maintained con- across R5 which, in turn, will re-
stant at approximately 12 volts re- duce the forward bias on Q2; this
gardless of the load drawn from the has the effect of increasing its re-
supply. The transistor Q2 is a PNP sistance. The increased resistance
transistor that is used as a series tends to keep the output voltage from
voltage regulator. Notice that the increasing.
emitter of this- transistor connects If the output voltage decreases ,the
directly to the positive side of C3. opposite happens. The base voltage
You can consider this transistor as on Q1 falls, as does the emitter volt-
working more or less as a variable age. However, the emitter voltage
resistor: if the output voltage tends falls more than the base voltage, so
to rise, the resistance increases and the forward bias is increased. This
if the voltage tends to fall, the re- increases the emitter-to-collector
sistance decreases. current through Q1 which increases
The effective resistance of Q2 is the forward bias on Q2. This has the
varied by varying the forward bias effect of reducing the resistance on
across the emitter-base junction. Q2 and tends to keep the output volt-
Notice the zener diode D3. This diode age from falling.
is connected in series with R2. The This type of power supply is one
zener has a constant voltage of 6.3 of the more complex power supplies
volts across it. Therefore, the volt- that you are likely to encounter in
age drop across R2 will be equal to electronic equipment. The voltage
the output voltage minus 6.3 volts. regulation is required in order to
This is the emitter voltage applied keep the voltage reasonably constant
to Ql. The base voltage is deter- on the various transistors used on
mined by the voltage division oc- the TV receiver. In most cases,
curring between R4, R3 and R6. R4 such precise voltage regulation is
is adjustable so that the output volt- not required in entertainment-type
age can be adjusted to 12 volts. Under equipment.
these circumstances a certain cur- VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
rent will flow through Q1 and through
R5 and this will set the forward bias We mentioned previously that
on Q2. If the output voltage tends to more than one operating voltage is
rise, the base voltage on Q1 will sometimes needed in the various
rise but by an amount less than the stages of apiece of electronic equip-
emitter voltage. The divider network ment. Rather than use a separate
consisting of R4, R3 and R6 will supply for each voltage needed, the
prevent the base from risingthe full usual procedure is to use a single
amount of the output voltage rise. On supply designed to give the highest
the other hand ,
the voltage across the voltage needed, and then obtain the

35
lower voltages required by means of tain good voltage regulation at ter-
a voltage divider connected across minals C and B.
the power supply output. A typical The current flowing through R2
voltage divider is shown in Fig. 27. will be made up of the bleeder cur-
In this voltage divider, R1 and R2 rent plus the current drawn by the
are voltage-dropping resistors; they stages connected to terminal C. If
drop the voltage from 300 volts to the this current varies, the voltage drop
required voltages of 200 and 100 across R2 and hence the voltage at
volts. R3 is a bleeder used to sta- terminal C will vary. However, the
bilize the voltages at points Band C. bleeder current will remain essen-
With this type of network, terminal tially constant so that if a sizable
D is the ground or common terminal. percentage of the current flowing
Between D and C there is avoltage of through R2 is bleeder current, vari-
100 volts; terminal C is positive with ations in the current drawn by the
respect to terminal D. Between D stages connected to terminal C do
and B there is a voltage of 200volts not cause too much variation in the
and terminal B is positive with re- voltage drop across R2.
spect to terminal D. Finally ,between The current flowing through R1 is
terminals D and A there is the full made up of the bleeder current plus
power supply output voltage of 300 the current drawn by the stages con-
volts, and of course terminal A is nected to terminals C and B. Again
positive with respect to terminal D. if the bleeder current through R1
represents a sizable part of the total
A 300 VOLTS current flow through R1, variations
in the current drawn by the stages
connected to terminals C and B do
200 VOLTS not cause too great a variation in
POWER
SUPPLY the voltage drop across R1 so the
OUTPUT voltage at terminal B will remain
100 VOLTS
reasonably constant.
Bleeders are not used in modern
midget radio receivers, but youwill
COMMON
OR
find them in many of the older sets.
GROUND They are frequently used in TV re-
ceivers, in the low-voltage power
Fig. 27. A voltage-divider network. supplies in transmitting equipment,
and in industrial electronic equip-
The current flowing through R3 is ment.
called the bleeder current. It re- Sometimes one section of atapped
mains fairly constant and is deter- resistor will burn out. Often you can
mined primarily by the sizes of R1, repair the equipment simply by con-
R2 and R3. Usually, the size of R3 necting a resistor havingthe correct
is chosen so that the bleeder current resistance and a suitable wattage
will be at least as great as the cur- rating across the defective section.
rent drawn by the stages connected Of course, if separate resistors are
to terminals C and B. Choosing a used in the voltage divider you can
value of R3 that will result ina rea- simply replace any defective one. If
sonable bleeder current helps main- you do shunt a burned out section of

36
a tapped resistor in aradio receiver terminal M. Here it will flow from
and find the equipment is noisy after the reed to contact M, to coil L,
you have made this repair, the de- through coil L back to the positive
fective section may be making con- side of the battery. The current flow-
tact intermittently and creating the ing through the coil creates a mag-
noise. Of course in this case you netic field. This magnetic field at-
must replace the entire unit either tracts the end of the reed K, pulling
with separate resistors connected the reed over toward L and contact
in series or with a tapped resistor N. When the reed makes contact with
like the original one. terminal N, current flows through
the upper half of the transformer
VIBRATOR-TYPE primary winding. It flows from the
SUPPLIES top of the winding to the center tap,
building up a magnetic field.
The radios installed in automo- At the same instant that the reed
biles for years used a power supply is making its contact with terminal
known as a vibrator type of power N, it will break its contact withter-
supply. A schematic diagram of this minal M so that the electromagnet
type of power supply is shown in Fig. will no longer be energized and the
28. The heart of this type of power field about it will collapse. The reed
supply is the vibrator, which is used is made of a spring type material so
to change the de from the automo- that it springs back until it makes
bile storage battery to a pulsating contact with both terminal M and
current in the primary winding of the terminal O. At the instant contact is
power transformer. made with terminal 0, current flows
The vibrator consists of an elec- through the lower half of the primary
tromagnet L, and areed (R-K) placed winding of the transformer, flowing
between two sets of contacts. In the from the bottom of the winding to-
circuit shown in Fig. 28, when the wards the center tap. The current
switch is turned to the ON position, is flowing through the primary wind-
current will flow from the negative ing in the opposite direction to the
terminal of the battery through the direction in which it was flowing
switch and through the reed towards through the upper half of the trans-

N R

PA

Fig. 28. A vibrator circuit.

37
 former winding. Thus we have afield ceiver. In the power supply shown
built up in one direction and then in in Fig. 29, the choke L and the ca-
the opposite direction. At the same pacitor C are called hash suppres-
time the fact that the reed makes sors. This rf interference or noise
contact with terminal M will once is called hash; the choke and the ca-
again complete the circuit through pacitor are put in the power supply
the electromagnet so the reed will in order to keep as much as possible
swing over to the magnet again, of this hash or noise out of the power
making contact with terminal N. As supply output. Capacitor C acts like
you can see this action causes the a short circuit to these radio fre-
reed to vibrate back and forth be- quency pulses, and choke Lacts like
tween terminals N and O. Thus we a very high impedance to them. Thus
have a field built up in the primary L and C form a voltage-divider net-
first in one direction and then in the work, with most of the voltage ap-
opposite direction. Building up this pearing across the high impedance
field, collapsing it. and then building L and little or no voltage across the
up a reverse field and collapsing it, low impedance C.
means that we have a continually Vibrator-type power supplies
changing magnetic field cutting the were used in almost all automobile
secondary of the transformer. By receivers in automobiles using 6-
putting a large enough number of volt ignition systems. However, in
turns on the secondary, we can ob- newer cars, a 12-volt ignition sys-
tain whatever voltage we may re- tem is used. The first receivers
quire for the operation of the re- made for these cars also used vibra-
ceiver. tor type supplies, but tube manufac-
A complete vibrator-type power turers designed special tubes that
supply is shown in Fig. 29. Notice will operate with plate and screen
that the secondary of the vibrator voltages as low as 12 volts. These
transformer is center tapped and 12-volt tubes were used in automo-
that a full-wave rectifier is used. bile receivers for a few years, but
The capacitor C2 is ca/led a buffer they too were replaced by transis-
capacitor. This is a high voltage tors. Since transistors operate from
paper capacitor that is used to keep low voltages, the vibrator type of
sharp noise pulses out of the power power supply is no longer needed.
supply. The size is usually quite These supplies were not only costly,
critical and if it is necessary to but in addition they were one of the
replace the buffer capacitor in a most troublesome sections of the
receiver using this type of power automobile receiver.
supply, you should use a capacitor
having the same capacity as the SUMMARY
original. The power supplies we have shown
In a vibrator-type power supply in this section of this lesson are
there is considerable sparking as typical of the various types of power
the reed vibrates back and forth. supplies you are likely to encounter
This sets up a radio-frequency type as an electronics technician. You
of interference which could get will find many variations of these
through the rectifier and cause con- circuits, but these are the basic cir-
siderable interference in the re- cuits. Spend some time studying

38
r-

L3

7,

A HOT
A GROUND

Fig. 29. A complete vibrator power supply.

these circuits so you will know what SELF-TEST
they look like. QUESTIONS
In servicing these power supplies,
keep in mind that the values of the (q) Draw a schematic diagram of a
various components used are gener- typical ac-dc power supply
ally not extremely critical. Manu- found in a five-tube radio.
facturers usually use as smalla fil- (r) In the circuit shown in Fig. 22,
ter capacitor as they can in acircuit. why is the 12AT6 tube placed
It is more economical touse asmall at the B- end of the string?
capacitor than to use a large one. (a) If in an ac-dc receiver inwhich
Therefore, if you have an ac-dc re- the heaters of the tubes are
ceiver that uses a 20-40 mfd, 150- connected in series and none of
volt capacitor and you find it neces- the tubes lights what would you
sary to replace the filter capacitor, suspect the cause of the trouble
there is no reason why you could not to be?
use a 30-50 mfd, 150-volt capacitor (t) Why are the filter capacitors
in its place. Some variation of part used in the power supply shown
values can be made without affecting in Fig. 23 smaller in capacity
the performance of the equipment. than the filter capacitors used
It is also possible to use capaci- in the power supply shown in
tors having a higher voltage rating Fig. 22?
than those used originally. This will (u) What is the purpose of R3 in
simply provide an additional margin Fig. 24?
of safety. You may find that you can- (v) What is the purpose of R4 in
not do this in large transmitter Fig. 24?
power supplies because there isn't (w) What type of voltage-doubler
room to mount a capacitor with a circuit is used in the power sup-
higher voltage rating, but usually in ply shown in Fig. 24?
radio, TV, and most small pieces of (x) What purpose does the transis-
industrial electronic equipment tor Q2 serve in the power sup-
there is enough room to put in aca- ply shown in Fig. 26?
pacitor of slightly larger physical (Y) What is the purpose of the diode
size than the original. D3 in Fig. 26?

40
 ANSWERS TO voltage across the load. This
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS circuit requires a rather ex-
pensive power transformer.
(a) There will be 60 current pulses (f) The advantage of the bridge
per second through the load. rectifier circuit is that there
(b) The disadvantage of the half- is a saving in the power trans-
wave rectifier circuit is that former cost over that of a
current flows through the rec- transformer that has a tapped
tifier during one half-cycle and high-voltage secondary wind-
not during the other half-cycle. ing; also, the circuit is capable
As a result, the output is some- of good voltage regulation.
what difficult to filter and (g) The voltage-doubler circuit
smooth out to pure dc. shown in Fig. 9 is a full-wave
(c) The diode D1 in the circuit voltage doubler. That is, there
shown in Fig. 6is used to charge will be 120 current pulses per
the capacitor C1during one half second in the output of the volt-
of each cycle. Capacitor Cl is age doubling capacitor network
charged so that during the next consisting of Cl and C2. The
half-cycle the voltage across it circuit shown in Fig. 6is ahalf-
will be in series with the line wave voltage-doubler circuit
voltage. This will place a volt- and there will be only 60 cur-
age equal to twice the line volt- rent pulses through the load in
age across the load and diode this circuit. It will be somewhat
D2. Since diode D2 has a very easier to filter and smooth the
low resistance when it is con- output voltage in the circuit
ducting, the voltage across the shown in Fig. 9than it will be
load is twice what it would be in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.
without the combination of Cl (h) A full-wave doubler circuit re-
and D1 in the circuit:hence ,the quires a less expensive power
circuit is called a voltage- transformer for a given load
doubler circuit. voltage than the bridge rectifier
(d) The circuit is called afull-wave circuit requires. Also, the volt-
rectifier circuit because acur- age-doubler circuit requires
rent pulse flows through the only two rectifiers whereas the
load during each half-cycle. In bridge-rectifier circuit re-
other words, if the rectifier quires four rectifiers.The dis-
circuit is operating from a 60- advantage of the full-wave volt-
cycle power line there will be age-doubler circuit is that it
120 current pulses through the does not have as good voltage
load (one for each half-cycle). regulation as the bridge-recti-
(e) The disadvantage of this circuit fier circuit.
is that the high voltage winding (I) The capacitor in asimple filter
on the power transformer must circuit such as shown in Fig. 11
be center-tapped. This means may charge up to a value equal
that the high-voltage winding on to the peak value of the ac input
the transformer must have voltage. In the case of a power
twice the number of turns re- supply operating from a 120-
quired to get the desired output volt line this is equal to ap-

41
 proximately 1.4 times 120 damaged by ahigh peak current.
volts. The peak current through the
A simple capacitor-type filter rectifier tube is much lower
may be used in applications with a choke-input filter than it
where the current drain is low. is with a capacitor-input filter.
With a low current drain the (o) A choke-input filter will pro-
capacitor discharges very little vide better regulation than a
between cycles so that the volt- capacitor-input filter. This
age across the capacitor, and means that the voltage across
hence the voltage across the the load will vary less with
load, remains essentially con- widely varying currents when
stant. the filter is achoke-input filter
(k) The R-C pi-type filter is capa- than it will when the filter is a
ble of better hum elimination capacitor-input filter.
than a simple capacitor-type (P) A swinging choke is a choke
filter. This type of filter is whose inductance changes as
particularly desirable where the current changes. As the
the current drain is high enough current builds up the choke
to discharge the capacitor ap- tends to saturate so that its in-
preciably between charging cy- ductance goes down. This tends
cles in a simple capacitor-type to reduce the reactance of the
filter. choke and hence helps provide
(1) The disadvantage of the R-C better voltage regulation.
pi-type filter is that there is (q) See Fig. 22. If you cannot draw
considerable voltage drop this diagram from memory,
across the filter resistor. This copy it from the book. Simply
problem can be overcome by drawing the diagram will help
using a filter choke such as in you to become familiar with the
the L-C type filter shown in circuit and remember it in the
Fig. 15. A filter choke will offer future.
a high opposition to any ac and (r) The 12AT6 tube is the first
thus effectively reduce the ac, audio stage. It is placed at the
while at the same time offering B- end of the heater string in
a low resistance to the passage order to keep hum pick-up in
of de through it. the tube as low as possible.Any
(m) R1 in the power supply shown in hum picked up by this tube will
Fig. 17 is used to limit the cur- be amplified by the entire audio
rent through the silicon recti- system.
fier when the power supply is (s) The chances are that the heater
first turned on. Without this re- of one of the tubes is open.
sistance in the circuit, the (t) The power supply shown in Fig.
charging current through the 23 uses a full-wave rectifier.
diode to charge Cl may be so Therefore there will be 120
high that the rectifier may be pulses per second tocharge the
destroyed. filter capacitors. The power
(n) To limit the peak current supply shown in Fig. 22 is a
through the tubes. A mercury half-wave power supply and
vapor rectifier tube is easily there will be only 60pulses per

42
 second to charge the filter ca- for the rectifiers and hence R4,
pacitor; therefore, larger ca- along with the hot resistance of
pacitors are needed to elimi- the thermistor, limits the cur-
nate hum. rent through the diode recti-
(u) R3 in Fig. 24 is a thermistor. fiers to a safe value.
A thermistor has a high cold (w) A half-wave voltage doubler.
resistance, but the resistance (x) Q2 is in series with the B sup-
decreases as the thermistor ply voltage. It operates essen-
heats up. The thermistor is tially as avariable resistor and
used in this power supply to is used to regulate the power
protect the diode rectifiers supply output voltage and keep
from high current surges when it at essentially a constant
the power supply is first turned value.
on. (Y) The diode D3 is the zener diode.
(v) R4 is a fixed resistor that is It provides a reference voltage
used to protect the diodes in the so that the voltage variations
event the equipment is turned on the emitter of Q1 will be
off and then turned back on al- greater than the voltage varia-
most immediately. Under these tions on the base. Thus ,changes
conditions the resistance of the in output voltage affect the for-
thermistor will be too low to ward bias of the transistor and
provide the required protection hence the conduction through it.

43
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 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B201.
Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However,don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them.Don 't hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What advantage does a silicon rectifierhave overa vacuum-tube rec-

tifier?

2. Draw the schematic symbol for a silicon rectifier,and indicate by an

arrow the direction in which the current will flow through it.

3. How many pulses per second will you get at the output of a full-wave
rectifier that is operated from a 60-cycle power line?

4. What is the purpose of Cl and D1 in the circuit shown in Fig. 6?

5. (a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 6, how many current pulses will there
be through the load (60-cycle power line)?
(b) In the circuit shown in Fig. 9,how many current pulses will there
be through the load (60-cycle power line)?

6. In the circuits shown in Fig.11,what part supplies current to the load

when the rectifier is not conducting?

7. Explain the following things in connection with the L-C circuit shown
in Fig. 15:
(a) The action of the choke when ac flows through it.
(b) The action of the choke when dc flows through it.
(c) The action of the capacitor when ac flows through it.
(d) The action of the capacitor when dc flows through it.

8. What type of filter network has better voltage regulation -- the ca-
pacitor input or the choke input?

9. If you are servicing afive-tube table model radio that uses a universal
ac-dc power supply and you see that two of the tubes are not lighting,
where would you look for trouble?

10. How does an increase in output voltage affect Ql and Q2 in the regu-
lated power supply shown in Fig. 26?
 HOW TO START STUDYING
For some people, starting to study is just as hard
as getting up in the morning. An alarm clock will
work in both cases, so try setting the alarm for a
definite study-starting time each day. Start studying
promptly and definitely, without sharpening pencils,
trimming fingernails or wasting time in other ways.

Beginning is for many people the hardest part of

any job they tackle. So formidable does each task
appear before starting that they waste the day in
dilly-dallying, in day-dreaming, and in wishing they
didn't have to do it. The next day and the next after
that are the same story. Indecision brings its own
delays, making it harder and harder to buckle down
to work.

Are you in earnest? Then seize this very minute;

begin what you can do or dream you can. Boldness
in starting a new lesson is a great moral aid to
mastery of that lesson; only begin, and your mind
grows alert, eager to keep on working. Begin, and
surprisingly soon you will be finished.
e
 hill

e.. ..•
LOW-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE
eagle-lee AND POWER AMPLIFIERS
.;ï
g ri rire
7441
6. 12b..7,1:11 4.

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

LOW-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE
AND
POWER AMPLIFIERS
B202
 STUDY SCHEDULE

El 1. Introduction Pages 1-2

a 2. Resistance-Capacitance
Coupled Voltage Amplifiers Pages 3-16
Here you study typical R-C coupled amplifiers and
learn how they react at low frequencies and at high
frequencies. You also study phase shift and cascade
amplifiers.

n 3. Transformer Coupled
Voltage Amplifiers Pages 17-21
You study transformer coupling in both vacuum-tube
and transistor amplifiers.

D 4. Single -Ended Power Amplifiers Pages 22 -27

Both vacuum-tube and transistor circuits are dis-
cussed.

C1 5. Push -Pull Power Amplifiers Pages 28 -34

You study vacuum-tube and transistor circuits ,
and you
learn how distortion is cancelled.

n 6. Reducing Distortion Pages 35 -44

You learn how inverse feedback is used to reduce dis-
tortion and you study special tube and transistor cir-
cuits in which distortion-producing components have
been eliminated.

n 7. Answer Lesson Questions.

n 8. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1968 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

JDL5M372 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 LOW-FREQUENCY
VOLTAGE AND POWER AMPLIFIERS

In this lesson and the next two,we frequencies. For example, a wide-
will take up the study of amplifiers. band amplifier might have to amplify
For convenience in studying them, signals that have few cycles per sec-
we have divided them according to ond, signals as high as several
the frequencies they are designed to megacycles per second, and all the
handle. frequencies in between these two
You will study low-frequency volt- limits. Wide-band amplifiers of this
age and power amplifiers in this les- type are used to amplify the picture
son. These are the kinds used to am- signals in televis ion receivers. They
plify the sound or audio signal in are also used in many other special
radio and television receivers, and applications.
they are also used in high-fidelity The ability of tubes and transis-
and stereo equipment, in conjunc- tors to amplify signals is essen-
tion with amplifying audio signals tially what makes many of our mod-
that are received by means of aradio ern electronic devices possible.
system from a broadcast station and Therefore, if you understand how
also with audio signals from aphono- these amplifiers work and how they
graph or tape recorder. are put together to perform specific
In your next lesson you will study functions, you will be able to analyze
radio frequency amplifiers. These the operation of many different types
amplifiers are designed to amplify of electronic equipment that you
signals received directly from radio might encounter. Since amplifiers
and television stations as well as are so important it is worthwhile to
signals within the receiving equip- spend as much time as necessary on
ment itself that fall within the radio this lesson and on the next two to be
frequency range. You will study sure that you have acomplete under-
wide-band amplifiers in the third standing of them.
lesson; these are amplifiers that are The low-frequency amplifiers that
designed to amplify a wide range of you will study in this lesson can be

1
divided into two types: voltage am- cerned with amplifiers that are de-
plifiers and power amplifiers. As signed to amplify signals from about
you already know, a voltage ampli- 50 to 100 cycles up to signals of
fier is one that is designed to ampli- about 10,000 or 20,000 cycles. There
fy a weak signal voltage and make are no sharp dividing lines either at
it stronger. For example, the output the low-frequency or high-frequency
voltage from a phonograph pickup in end of the range over which the am-
a record player might be only a few plifiers are supposed to work. Gen-
thousandths of avolt. This audio sig- erally, a low-frequency amplifier is
nal is too weak to do anything with an amplifier that works in the audio
directly so we feed it to a number range (in other words, within the
of voltage amplifiers to build the limits of our hearing). Of course,
amplitude of the voltage up to a these amplifiers will amplify sig-
usable value. We try to perform this nals beyond these frequency limits.
amplification without changing the The amplifier does not simply stop
signal in any way. If we change the amplifying at a frequency above the
signal, we have introduced some- highest frequency it is designed to
thing called distortion because the amplify -- it just doesn't amplify
amplified signal is no longer the higher frequency signals well. The
amplified equivalent of the original same is true of low-frequency sig-
signal. nals. If an amplifier is designed to
Power amplifiers are used to amplify signals from about 100
drive the speaker in radio and TV cycles up, it will also amplify asig-
receivers. The speaker requires a nal having a frequency of 80 cycles,
certain amount of power in order to but the chances are that the 80-cycle
cause the cone in the speaker to vi- signal will not receive as much am-
brate back and forth and set the air plification as the 100-cycle signal
in front and in back of the speaker would.
into motion. The power required to In this lesson you will learn why
perform this function is supplied by the gain of an amplifier falls off as
power amplifiers. The exact amount the frequency of the applied signal
of power required for the speaker falls above or below the frequency
will depend upon the design of the limits of the amplifier. You will also
speaker, its size, efficiency and a see that the frequency limits of the
number of other factors. You will amplifier are more or less arbi-
study amplifiers that have a com- trarily fixed by design engineers.
paratively low power output of per- In our study of low-frequency am-
haps one or two watts and you will plifiers we will begin with voltage
also study high-power amplifiers amplifiers. We will study the re-
that are capable of putting out 50 or sistance-capacitance coupled volt-
more watts of power. age amplifier first because it is the
When we speak of low-frequency most widely used and hence the most
amplifiers, we are generally con- important.

2
Resistance-Capacitance Coupled
Voltage Amplifiers
Resistance-capacitance coupling, fiers, and there is some advantage
usually called R-C coupling or sim- to this type of coupling in transistor
ply resistance coupling, is so named circuits.
because resistors and capacitors
are used to couple the signal from A TYPICAL TUBE CIRCUIT
one stage to another.
This type of coupling is widely Fig. 1 shows two typical resist-
used between voltage amplifiers and ance-capacitance coupled stages. V1
between voltage amplifiers and class is the first stage; the output signal
A power amplifiers in audio work. from this stage is fed to the second
It is preferable to transformer cou- stage (V2) by means of R-C cou-
pling in modern equipment because pling. The R-C coupling components
it is more economical and, in addi- are R2 (which is the plate load re-
tion, usually gives better frequency sistor of V1), C3 (which is the cou-
response. This means it comes pling capacitor) and R3 (which is the
closer than transformer coupling grid resistance for the second stage,
does to amplifying equally all sig- V2).
nals in the audio range. Let's review again the operation
Transformer coupling has not of these amplifier stages and how
been used for many years between the coupling network works. With no
voltage amplifiers using vacuum signal applied to V1, a current will
tubes. However, you may find trans- flow from the cathode of the tube to
former-coupled transistor ampli- the plate because the plate is con-

Fig. I. Typical vacuum tube R-C coupled stage.

3
nected to the positive side of the B supply through R5 so there will be
supply through R2. The cathode is a positive voltage on the plate of V2.
connected to the negative side This will cause electrons to flow
through Ri. Electrons will leave the through R4, producing avoltage drop
negative side of the B supply and across it (having the polarity shown)
flow through R1 to the cathode. In so that the cathode will be positive
flowing through Ri they will set up with respect to ground and the grid
a voltage drop across the resistor negative with respect to cathode. As
having the polarity shown. This volt- before, there will be no current flow
age drop will make the cathode posi- in the grid circuit and therefore no
tive with respect to ground. The grid current flow through R3. This means
of Vi is returned directly to ground there will be no dc voltage drop
through the generator and since across this resistor; consequently,
there is no current flowing in the the grid will be at de ground poten-
grid circuit there will be no voltage tial.
drop across the generator. There- When a signal voltage is applied
fore the grid is at de ground poten- by the generator eg ,the generator
tial. This will make the grid nega- voltage will vary the voltage between
tive with respect to cathode. The the grid and cathode of Vi. The gen-
actual grid-cathode voltage will de- erator connects directly to the grid
pend upon the size of R1 and the of Vi. The other side of the genera-
current flow through R1. The cur- tor connects to the cathode through
rent flow through the tube can be de- Ci. Ci is chosen so that its react-
termined from a tube manual and ance will be very low at the frequency
the required bias for the tube can of the signal to be handled. Thus we
be obtained simply by making R1 have the input signal from the gen-
large enough to produce the bias erator applied directly between the
voltage needed. grid and cathode of Vi.
Electrons reaching the cathode When the polarity of the input sig-
will be emitted by the cathode and nal is such that the grid end of the
flow through the tube to the plate. generator is positive and the other
Then the electrons will flow from end is negative, the voltage applied
the plate through R2 back to the B between grid and cathode by the gen-
supply. In flowing through R2 the erator will subtract from the bias
electrons will produce avoltage drop voltage across Ri. This will make
across this resistor. The value of the grid less negative with respect to
R2 is usually quite high so there will the cathode and will cause the cur-
be asubstantial voltage drop across rent flowing through Vi to increase.
the resistor. Thus, although the plate This increase in current through
will be positive with respect to V1 will result in an increase in the
ground, this positive voltage on the voltage drop across R2. Thus the
plate will be less than the positive voltage on the plate of the tube will
voltage available at the positive ter- become less positive with respect
minal of the B supply. to ground; in other words, the plate
The current flow through V2 fol- voltage will swing in a negative di-
lows a path equivalent to the current rection.
path in Vi. The plate of V2 is re- When the signal applied by the gen-
turned to the positive side of the B erator reverses polarity, the grid

4
will be made more negative and this voltages. Therefore, the voltage de-
will add to the bias voltage applied veloped in the plate circuit of V1 is
between the grid and the cathode of applied directly to the grid of V2
the tube. This will decrease the cur- through the coupling capacitor C3.
rent flowing through the tube, which The capacitor C2 keeps the lower
in turn will decrease the voltage drop end of R2 at signal ground potential.
across R2. Therefore ,the plate volt- Often you will not find this capacitor
age on Vi will swing in a positive in an amplifier; the actual capacitor
direction. is usually the output filter capacitor
Compare what we have in the plate in the power supply. In any case,the
circuit to the voltage applied to the signal voltage developed between the
grid by the generator. When the gen- plate of Vi and ground is coupled to
erator swings the grid positive, the the grid of V2 through the coupling
plate voltage swings negative; when capacitor C3 and to the cathode of
the generator swings the grid nega- V2 through the cathode bypass ca-
tive, the plate voltage swings posi- pacitor C4. Thus the amplified sig-
tive. This means that the amplified nal produced in the plate circuit of
signal voltage developed in the plate Vi is coupled directly between the
circuit of Vi will be 180 0 out-of- grid and cathode of V2.
phase with the input signal voltage
eg. A TYPICAL
The value of the coupling capaci- TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
tor C3 is chosen so that it has a low
reactance within the range of signal Two R-C coupled transistor
frequencies we intend to amplify. As stages are shown in Fig. 2. Notice
a matter of fact, the reactance of the that both transistors are used in the
capacitor is usually so low that for common-emitter circuit and that
all practical purposes it acts like both transistors are PNP transis-
a direct connection for the signal tors.

Q
C3 Q2

Fig. 2. Typical transistor R-C coupled stages.

5
 The coupling components consist emitter is connected to the positive
of R2 (which is the collector load side of the battery. This will pull
for Qi), C3 (the coupling capacitor) electrons from the emitter, creating
and R3 (which is the base-bias re- holes. The holes will be attracted
sistor for Q2). by the negative potential on the base
Notice the capacitor across the across the emitter-base junction,
battery. This is a large capacitor flow through the base and then across
that effectively bypasses the battery the base-collector junction and flow
as far as the signal is concerned, so through the collector, where they
that both the negative and positive will be filled by electrons coming
sides of the battery are at ground from the negative terminal of the
potential in regard to the signal as battery through R2 to the collector.
well. In equipment designed for Thus we have acurrent flow through
power line operation, the battery will R2 which will be governed by the
be replaced by the power supply and number of holes reaching the col-
C2 will be the output filter capacitor. lector of Qi. This current flow
Now let's review the operation of through R2 will result in avoltage
these two stages and see how acou- drop across the resistor sothat the
pling network works. First, before negative potential onthe collector of
any signal is applied, notice that the Qi will be somewhat less than the
base of Qi and Q2 connect to the negative battery potential.
negative side of the battery. The Holes and electrons move in the
emitters of the two transistors con- circuit for Q2 in exactly the same
nect to the positive side of the bat- way. Electrons pulled from the emit-
tery. This will place a forward bias ter of Q2 create holes which flow
across the emitter-base junction of through the transistor to the collec-
the PNP transistor. However, the tor, where they are filled by elec-
full battery voltage is not applied trons flowing through R4.
because there will be some small When a signal voltage is applied
base current. A few of the holes by the signal source eg the effective
crossing the emitter-base junction forward bias across the emitter-
into the base will be filled by elec- base junction of Qi is changed. No-
trons that flow from the negative ter- tice that we have shown a resistor
minal of the battery through Ri into in series with the generator. In the
the base of Qi and from the negative circuit for the vacuum tubes the gen-
terminal of the battery through R3 erator will have some internal re-
into the base of Q2. Electrons flow- sistance, but since there is no cur-
ing through resistors Ri and R3 will rent flow in the input circuit the re-
produce voltage drops across them sistance is of no consequence. How-
having the polarity shown. The val- ever, in a transistor circuit there
ues of Ri and R3 are chosen so that will be current flow in the input cir-
the electrons flowing through them cuit and therefore the resistance
produce a voltage drop almost equal affects the amount of signal actually
to the battery voltage. This will leave reaching the transistor.
a forward bias across the emitter- The capacitor Ci is chosen to have
base junction of only a few tenths of a low reactance at signal frequency.
a volt. Therefore the generator voltage is
Looking at the first stage, the connected to the base of Qi through

6
Rg and C1. The other side of the gen- This is similar to the arrangement
erator connects directly to the emit- used between the vacuum tubes in
ter. Fig. 1, but there is something quite
When the end of the generator that different about the circuit. In the
connects to the base through the re- vacuum tube circuit shown in Fig.
sistor and capacitor swings in a 1, there is no current flow through
positive direction, the forward bias the grid resistor R3 nor is there any
across the emitter-base junction of current flowing between the cathode
Qi will be reduced. This will cause and grid of the tube. R3 is a large
the number of holes crossing the resistor -- its purpose is to take
emitter-base junction and flowing care of any electrons that acciden-
to the collector to decrease. If fewer tally strike the grid of the tube and
holes reach the collector then the provide a path for these electrons
number of electrons flowing through back to ground. In most amplifier
R2 to fill these holes will go down. tubes this current flow through R3
This means that the voltage drop is so small it cannot be measured
across R2 will decrease and the col- and we say for all practical pur-
lector voltage will swing in a nega- poses there is no current flow. This
tive direction (in other words, means that C3 is coupling the signal
closer to the negative battery po- into a very high impedance circuit.
tential). In the circuit shown in Fig. 2, there
When the generator polarity re- is a current flow through R3. How-
verses so that the voltage applied to ever, the current flow through R3
the base by the generator is nega- is small and the value of this re-
tive, it will add to the forward emit- sistor is comparatively large.Also,
ter-base bias and cause the number there is current flowing across the
of holes crossing the emitter-base emitter-base junction. This is the
junction to increase. This means movement of holes across this junc-
that the number of holes reaching tion and since they flow across the
the collector will increase; there- junction with relatively little imped-
fore, the number of electrons flow- ance with the forward bias on the
ing through R2 to fill these holes transistor, we have, in effect, a low
must increase. The increase in cur- resistance circuit between the emit-
rent flow through R2 will cause a ter and base. This is the circuit into
greater voltage drop across this re- which the capacitor C3 must couple
sistor. Thus, the potential at the the signal. C3 must be chosen so it
collector of Qi will be less negative has a low reactance compared to the
-- it will swing in a positive direc- input resistance of Q2. Since the in-
tion. put resistance of Q2 is quite low, the
Notice the similarity between the capacity of C3 must be quite large
transistor stage Qi and the vacuum in order to provide the low react-
tube stage V1.Ln both cases ,the sig- ance coupling needed.
nal is inverted; the amplified output Often in transistor R-C coupled
signal voltage is 180 ° out-of-phase circuits, you will see electrolytic
with the input signal voltage. capacitors used as the coupling ca-
The amplified signal at the collec- pacitor. In a circuit such as the one
tor Qi is coupled to the base of Q2, in Fig. 2 we have indicated the po-
through the coupling capacitor C3. larity with which an electrolytic ca-

7
pacitor should be connected. plify signals of different frequen-
The amplified signal from Qi is cies. For example, if we say that
fed through C3 to the base of the the frequency response of an ampli-
transistor. This causes the forward fier is flat from 100 cycles to 10,000
bias on Q2 to vary, which in turn cycles we mean that signals from
varies the number of holes flowing 100 cycles up to 10,000 cycles will
through the transistor and the elec- receive the same amount of ampli-
tron current flow through R4. fication. If we say that the frequency
Q2 will invert the signal 180 ° just response of an amplifier falls off
like Qi did. Therefore, the signal below 100 cycles and above 10,000
voltage across R4 will be in phase cycles we mean that signals having
with the generator voltage. The sig- a frequency less than 100 cycles and
nal voltage polarity will be inverted signals having a frequency above
180° by the amplifier stage Qi and 10,000 cycles do not receive as much
will be inverted another 180 ° by the amplification as signals between 100
second amplifier Q2 so that the out- cycles and 10,000 cycles receive.
put of the two-stage R-C coupled Amplifiers can be designed to
amplifier will be in phase with the have a very wide frequency re-
input signal voltage. Of course, the sponse -- in other words, they can
same is true of the two-stage vacu- amplify awide range of frequencies.
um tube amplifier circuit. Often, however, it is not advanta-
When we discussed both the vacu- geous to have an amplifier that can
um tube circuits shown in Fig. 1, amplify an extremely wide range of
and the transistor circuit shown in frequencies. For example, there is
Fig. 2, we said that the coupling ca- a limit to how low or to how high an
pacitor must have a low reactance. audio frequency we can hear. There-
However, you know that the react- fore, there is very little point in de-
ance of the capacitor varies with the signing an amplifier that can amplify
frequency. Therefore, the reactance signals many times the frequency of
of these coupling capacitors must the highest frequency we can hear.
vary with the frequency; therefore, Certain economies can be realized
their effectiveness as coupling de- by designing an amplifier that will
vices must also vary as the fre- amplify the desired or required fre-
quency varies. This fact has an effect quency range and very little more.
on the limits of the frequencies which In addition to these economies, the
an amplifier of this type can amplify. design of the amplifier is usually
There are other factors in the circuit simplified if we do not try to extend
which also limit the range of fre- the frequency range it can amplify
quencies these amplifiers can handle too much.
and since these factors appreciably The factor that usually limits the
affect the performance of the ampli- frequency range of an amplifier most
fiers we will investigate them now. is the coupling network used between
the various stages of the amplifier.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE In the circuits shown in Figs. 1and
2 there are a number of factors that
When we talk about the frequency will limit the high-frequency and the
response of an amplifier we mean low-frequency responses of these
the ability of the amplifier to am- amplifiers. Let's look at these fac-

8
 tional capacity added to the circuit
by the wiring in the circuit. These
capacitors are not shown on the dia-
A CI
gram in Fig. 1, but they are present
in the circuit and will affect the op-
e •
eration of the circuit.
C3 At low frequencies, the output ca-
pacity of V1 and the input capacity
of V2 are too small to appreciably
R3
affect the operation of the coupling
network. We have shown the equiva-
lent low-frequency circuit in Fig.
3B. Notice that the only components
shown in this circuit are the plate
resistor R2, the coupling capacitor
C3, and the grid resistor R3.
At some low frequency, the re-
actance of C3 will be equal to the
resistance of R3. As you will re-
member, the capacitive reactance
of C3 increases as the frequency
goes down. Even though the value of
D R3 may be made quite large, if the
frequency of the signal applied to
the circuit is low enough apoint will
eventually be reached where the re-
Fig. 3. Equivalent circuits of coupling actance of C3 will be equal to the re-
network between VI and V2 in Fig. 1. sistance of R3. When this happens,
C3 and R3 act as a voltage divider
tors and examine them in detail. We network so that only part of the volt-
will consider the vacuum-tube cir- age dropped across R2 actually ap-
cuit shown in Fig. 1first. pears across R3 and is fed to the
In Fig. 3A we have shown a com- grid and cathode of V2.
plete equivalent circuit of the cou- By means of a vector diagram,we
pling circuit used between VI. and can see what happens to the voltage
V2. Notice that the plate resistor across R3 when the reactance of C3
R2 is shown in the circuit, as well is equal to the resistance of R3.Re-
as the coupling capacitor C3 and the member that when a voltage is ap-
grid resistor R3. In addftion to these plied to a purely resistive circuit,
components we have also shown a a current will flow which will be in
capacitor marked Co and a second phase with the voltage. On the other
capacitor marked CEN. Co repre- hand, when a voltage is applied to a
sents the output capacity of V1.This purely capacitive circuit, a current
will be made up of the capacity in will flow that leads the voltage by
the tube itself plus wiring capacity 90 ° .When a voltage is applied to a
in the circuit. CIN is the input ca- circuit which has an equal resist-
pacity of V2. This will be the grid- ance and an equal capacitive re-
to-cathode capacity plus any addi- actance, a current will flow in the

9
 IRC to the vectors representing the volt-
age across R3 and C3 we can deter-
mine the amplitude of the voltage
ER3 across R3 and across C3. The per-
pendiculars are shown in Fig. 4. If
we carefully measured the voltage
vector ER3 we would find that it was
ER2
equal to .707 x ER2. Similarly, the
voltage across C3 will be equal to
.707 times the voltage across R2.
E3 Thus, even though the capacitive re-
actance is equal to the resistance,
Fig. 4. Vector diagram of input and output the actual voltage that will appear
voltages at low frequencies. across R3 and be fed to the second
stage will be slightly over 7/10ths
circuit that leads the voltage by 45 ° . the input voltage, where at first we
From this information we can draw might think that the voltage would be
a vector diagram to show how the only half the input voltage.
voltage across R2 is divided across The frequency at which the re-
C3 and R3. actance of the coupling capacitor is
Fig. 4 is a vector representation equal to the resistance of the input
of the voltage division. To draw this resistor of the second stage is called
diagram the first thing we do is draw the half-power point. The reason for
ER 2 ,which represents the voltage this is that the current that will flow
across R2. Next, we draw the cur- through the grid resistor will depend
rent IRC, which represents the cur- upon the voltage applied to it.
rent that will flow through the net- If the voltage at some frequency
work consisting of C3 and R3. We where the capacitive reactance of the
draw this current vector leading capacitor is so small it can be
the voltage across R2 by 45 ° .Now, ignored is 1volt, then withthe same
we know that the voltage across C3 amplitude signal across R2, at the
will lag the current flowing through frequency where the reactance of the
it by 90 ° . Therefore we can draw capacitor is equal to the resistance
the vector E3 lagging the vector of the grid resistor, the voltage
IRc by 90 ° . We also know that the across the resistor will be .707
voltage across R3 will be in phase volts.
with the current flowing through it. In this case, the current that will
This means that the voltage vector flow through the grid resistor will be
ER3 will fall on the vector Iftc. This .707 times what it would be when the
will tell us the direction in which voltage across the resistor was 1
the vector representing the voltage volt. Therefore the power of the sig-
across R3 should point. nal fed to the resistor will be equal
We know that the voltage across to the voltage times the current
C3 plus the voltage across R3 must which will be .707E x .7071 = .5P.
be equal to the voltage across 112. Thus the power fed to the resistor
Therefore, by drawing perpendicu- will be one half the power at frequen-
lars from the end of the vector cies where the coupling capacitor
representing the voltage across R2 can be ignored.

10
 The equivalent diagram of the cou- the resistance of R2 and R3 in paral-
pling circuit at mid-frequencies is lel. At this point the effective plate
shown in Fig. 3C. Here, the react- load resistance on V1 will be re-
ance of the coupling capacitor C3 duced and the output voltage de-
is so small compared to the re- veloped by V1 will also go down.
sistance of R3 that it can be ignored. When the capacitive reactance of
Therefore for all practical purposes the parallel capacity is equal to the
R2 and R3 are connected directly in resistance of R2 and R3 in parallel,
parallel. R3 is usually many times then half of the signal current de-
the resistance of R2 so that it has veloped by Vi will flow through the
very little effect as far as reducing resistance combination and the other
the size of the plate load of V1 is half will flow through the capacitors.
concerned. In the mid-frequency This means that the voltage de-
range the output capacity of Vi and veloped in the output of Vi will be
the input capacity of V2 are too small reduced. By means of the vector dia-
to affect the operation of the circuit gram shown in Fig. 5, we can see
so they can be ignored. In this mid- exactly what happens.
frequency range, essentially all of First, we draw the current vector
the output signal developed by Vi is I which represents the signal cur-
fed to V2 so that the coupling circuit rent from Vi. Then we draw a volt-
operates with maximum efficiency. age vector ER to represent the volt-
At high frequencies the reactance age developed across the parallel
of C3 will be even smaller and can combination of R2 and R3. We draw
therefore be omitted from the cir- this vector in phase with the current
cuit. However, the effects of the out- because we know that the voltage de-
put capacity of Vi and the input ca- veloped across these resistors will
pacity of V2 must be considered. be in phase with the current. Now
They are shown in Fig. 3D, the equiv- we draw a voltage vector that lags
alent circuit for high frequencies. the current by 90 ° . This vector
Notice that once again R2 and R3 represents the voltage developed
are, in effect, in parallel; also Co across the capacitors. Since half the
and CIN are likewise in parallel. current is flowing through the re-
Therefore the circuit acts as if there sistance and half through the capaci-
is one capacitor connected across tance, the two voltages must be
the parallel combination of R2 and equal; therefore, we draw the volt-
R3. age vector EC equal to the voltage
As the frequency of a signal in- vector ER and lagging by 90 ° .Now
creases, you know that the capacitive we perform the vector addition of
reactance decreases. At low and these two voltages as shown in Fig.
middle frequencies the capacitive
reactance of Co and CLN in parallel
is so high that it has no effect on the
performance of the circuit. How-
ever, as the frequency increases,
the capacitive reactance of this
parallel combination goes down. At
some high frequency, the capacitive Fig. 5. Vector diagram of input and output
reactance will eventually be equal to voltages at high frequencies.

11
5. This gives us the total output cuit. The coupling capacitor C3 is
voltage from V1. Again, this voltage shown as before; R3 represents the
will be equal to .707 times the volt- resistance connected in the input
age developed in the mid-frequency circuit of Q2. In parallel with R3 we
range. This is the half-power point have shown another resistor marked
at the high-frequency end of the fre- R. This resistance represents the
quency range. input resistance or the base-emitter
In addition to the amplitude of the resistance of Q2. In parallel with
signal voltage reaching V2 ,dropping this combination we haSe capacitor
off both at high frequencies and at CiN which represents the input ca-
low frequencies, you should also no- pacitance of Q2. At some frequen-
tice that the phase of the voltage is cies all of these parts affect the per-
changed. In the mid-frequency formance of the circuit.
range, the voltage applied to V2 will Fig. 6B illustrates the equivalent
be in phase with the output voltage low-frequency circuit of the coupling
from Vi. However, at the low-fre- network. Here we have represented
quency half-power point, the voltage the output resistance of Qi and R2
fed to V2 will lead the output voltage as a single parallel resistance. Since
from Vi by 45 ° . At the high-fre- these two resistors are always in
quency half-power point, the voltage parallel we will use this representa-
applied to V2 will lag the output volt- tion in all of the equivalent circuits.
age from Vi by 45 ° .In sound or audio Similarly, we have represented R3
amplifiers this phase shift is not
particularly important, but in video
amplifiers and television receivers
this phase shift is important and can A
produce a smear in the picture. You
will learn more about this later, as
well as how this problem is over-
come.
We have a somewhat similar situ-
ation in the transistor amplifier cir-
cuit shown in Fig. 2. However, here
the situation becomes even more • • •
complicated because the transistors
are low-impedance devices whereas • •

tubes are high-impedance devices. R3

R01 > i R
Fig. 6A illustrates the effective > IN

coupling circuit between Qi and Q2

in Fig. 2. First, looking at Fig. 6A • 1 •

you see a resistor marked Ro .This • •

resistance represents the output re- R0, R3/
D

To
sistance of Qi. In parallel with this R2
R IN
we have shown R2, the collector-
r IN
load resistor. We have also shown • •
Co which represents the output ca-
pacitance of Qi plus any distributed Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit of coupling net-
capacitance that may be in the cir- work between QI and Q2 in Fig. 2.

12
and the input resistance of Q2 as a ond stage is so high it will not affect
single resistance. C3 is the coupling the output resistance of the first
capacitor and at low frequencies it stage.
will have a reactance that must be Fig. 6D shows the equivalent high-
considered. frequency circuit. We have shown
Since the input resistance of Q2 the two resistances and capacitances
is actually the parallel combination separately, but actually they could
of R3 and the input resistance to the be lumped together so that we have,
transistor, we see that this resist- in effect, a single resistance and a
ance may be quite low. You already single capacitance. As in the case
know that the input resistance of the of the vacuum-tube circuit, at some
transistor of a commonemitter cir- frequency the capacitive reactance
cuit is not particularly high; there- of the parallel capacity will be equal
fore, this resistance inparallelwith to the resistance of the parallel re-
R3 will result in a comparatively sistors. When this happens, the out-
1crw total resistance. Thus if we put voltage developed by Qi will fall
are to keep the half-power point to .707 of the voltage developed in
at a reasonable frequency, we must the mid-frequency range. The vector
use a large capacity for C3. Ca- representation will be the same as
pacitors many times those required that given in Fig. 5.
for vacuum tube circuits are found We mentioned that the coupling
in coupling networks between tran- capacitor in a transistor circuit
sistor stages. At some frequency the must be larger than in atube circuit
reactance of C3 will be equal to the in order to keep the low-frequency
parallel resistance in the input cir- half-power point at areasonably low
cuit of Q2 and then we will have the frequency. In other words, we have
same voltage division we had in the an additional problem in the tran-
vector circuit shown in Fig. 4. The sistor circuit because of the low in-
amplitude of the voltage reaching the put resistance of the second trans-
transistor Q2 will be .707 of the am- sistor. At the high frequency end we
plitude reaching it in the mid-fre- have a somewhat different situation.
quency range. Since the transistors are already
In Fig. 6C we have shown the effec- low-resistance devices, the value of
tive mid-frequency range circuit. the output and input capacitances can
Here we simply have all of the re- be somewhat larger than in a vac-
sistances in parallel. Notice that uum-tube circuit before they cause
since the input resistance of Q2 is, appreciable difficulty. If they happen
in effect, in parallel with the output to be the same as those in avacuum
resistance of Qi, the input resist- tube circuit, then the high-frequency
ance has an effect on the output re- half-power point in atransistor cir-
sistance into which Qi is working. cuit will be somewhat higher than
This means that in transistor R-C the vacuum-tube circuit because the
coupled amplifiers the input resist- vacuum-tube circuits are high-re-
ance of the second stage can actually sistance circuits and are quickly
affect the output that will be obtained loaded by a capacitive reactance.
from the first stage. This is not true The transistor circuits, on the other
in vacuum-tube coupled circuits be- hand, are low-resistance circuits
cause the input resistance of the sec- and the high-frequency half-power

13
point will not be reached until a then the over-all gain of the first
somewhat higher frequency. two stages is 10 x 10, or 100. The
gain of the first three stages is 100
CASCADE AMPLIFIERS X 10 or 1000, and the gain of all four
stages is 10,000. Thus, in the middle
At the half-power point we say that frequencies where the gain of each
the gain of an amplifier is .707 times stage is 10, the total gain of this
the gain of the amplifier middle fre- system is 10,000.
quency. We also express this quite Now let's assume we are in-
frequently as the percentage and say terested in amplifying signals as low
that the gain is 70.7% of the gain in as 75 cycles and at that frequency,
the middle frequency range. This the gain of the amplifier drops to
drop-off in gain due to the coupling 70.7% of what it is in the middle
network between a single stage is frequency range. Here the gain of
not too troublesome when only one each stage would be 7.07. Now the
network is concerned, but some- gain of the first two stages is 7.07x
times we have a number of ampli- 7.07 = 50. Now notice that the voltage
fiers called cascade amplifiers and gain of the two stages is only half of
here the problem becomes much what it was at the middle frequen-
greater. cies.
Cascade amplifiers are just a The gain of the first three stages
number of amplifiers connected to- will be 50 x 7.07 or alittle over 350,
gether. A diagram of four cascade and the gain of all four stages will
amplifiers is shown in Fig. 7. Here be 7.07 x 7.07 x 7.07 x 7.07 = 2500.
the input signal is fed to amplifier Notice that whereas the gain of each
1, amplified by it and then fed to stage has fallen to 70.7% of the gain
amplifier 2, amplified further and at the middle frequencies, the over-
fed to amplifier 3, where it is am- all gain of the amplifier is only 25%
plified still more, fed to amplifier of what it was at the middle frequen-
4, and amplified again. cies: Thus, you can see that although
We have not shown actual circuits the decrease in gain to 70.7% is not
in this diagram but we have pre- too big aproblem in asingle coupling
sented each stage as a block to sim- network, if we have a number of
plify the diagram. Each of these am- stages used together, this fall-off in
plifiers could be either a vacuum output is cumulative, so that in the
tube amplifier or a transistor am- four stages coupled as in Fig. 7, we
plifier. have a gain of only 25% of the gain
If the gain of each amplifier is 10 we had at the middle frequency. Of
in the middle frequency range of course, this much drop in response
about 100 cycles to 10,000 cycles, could not be tolerated and we would

AMP I AMP 2 AMP 3 AMP 4

00 O0 O0 O0
INPUT OUTPUT
00 O0 O0 O 0

Fig. 7. Block diagram of cascade voltage amplifiers.

14
have to design each stage a little actance to effectively shunt the cir-
better so that within the range of cuit and reduce the signal voltage
frequencies we wanted to amplify, developed across the load resistor
the gain in each stage would remain R2. When this happens, the gain of
almost constant. In the example we the amplifier begins to fall off as it
have given, this problem can be does at low frequencies due to the
overcome by using larger coupling reactance of the coupling capacitor.
capacitors. Because the input resistance of a
transistor amplifier is much lower
SUMMARY than that of a tube amplifier,a much
larger coupling capacitor is re-
Resistance-capacitance coupled quired in the low-frequency region
voltage amplifiers are the most im- in the transistor circuit than is re-
portant type of audio amplifier you quired in a tube circuit.
will encounter. You should be able In the case of the transistor am-
to draw from memory the circuits plifier there was a tendency for the
shown in Fig. 1 and in Fig. 2. You shunting capacity to have a less
will use these circuits over and over serious effect on the gain of the am-
again and the sooner you know ex- plifier than it had in the case of the
actly how the circuits are connected, tube amplifier. This was due to the
the faster you'll reach apoint where fact that the output resistance of the
you'll understand their operation first transistor and the input resist-
completely. ance of the second stage were al-
In the two circuits the first stage ready low; therefore, a much larger
amplifies the input signal voltage. capacitance was required to have the
The amplified signal voltage is de- same loading effect. The input re-
veloped across the load resistor R2. sistance of the second stage in a
This amplified voltage is then fed transistor amplifier had an appre-
through the coupling capacitor C3 to ciable effect on the gain of the first
the following stage. As long as the stage -- this is not true in the case
reactance of C3 is low compared to of a vacuum tube amplifier; the input
the input resistance of the following resistance of the second stage in the
stage all of the signal developed latter type is so high that it will not
across R2 reaches the input circuit have any effect on the value of the
of the following stage. However, at load resistance in the plate circuit
low frequencies the reactance of C3 of the first stage.
becomes appreciable compared to Be sure that you understand re-
the input resistance of the following sistance-capacitance amplifiers
stage and then part of the signal is thoroughly before leaving this im-
lost across C3 so that the entire portant section of the lesson. After
signal does not reach the input of you're sure that you understand the
the following stage. Thus in a low- amplifiers, check yourself by doing
frequency range the gain of the two- the following self-test questions.
stage amplifier begins to fall off.
At some high frequency the output SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
capacitance of the first stage and
the input capacitance of the second (a) What is the purpose of R1 in the
stage begin to have a low enough re- circuit shown in Fig. 1?

15
(b) What is the purpose of C1 in connects the emitter to be nega-
Fig. 1? tive and the end that connects
(e) With respect to the input signal to and through C1 to the base to
voltage, what will the polarity be positive, what happens in the
of the amplified signal voltage transistor?
across R2 be? (g) Why does the input resistance
(d) Is the voltage drop across R1 in of Q2 in Fig. 2 have an effect
Fig. 2 used as the forward bias on the gain of Qi?
on Qi? (h) In the circuits shown in Figs.
(e) In the circuit shown in Fig. 2, do 1 and 2, what part primarily
the holes reaching the collector limits the lower frequency limit
flow through the collector load of the two amplifiers?
resistor R2? (i) In the same circuits, what
(f) When the input signal from the limits the high frequency limit
generator in Fig. 2 has a po- to which the amplifiers can be
larity which causes the end that used?

16
 Transformer-Coupled
Voltage Amplifiers

In the early days of radio, the sistance of the second stage in a

vacuum tubes manufactured were two-stage transistor amplifier has
relatively crude, and you couldn't an effect on the output resistance of
get a great deal of gain from them. the first stage. We pointed out that
Voltage amplifiers with vacuum the low input resistance of the sec-
tubes frequently used transformer ond stage will, in effect, reduce the
coupling between the tubes because load resistance of the first stage,
the gain of the stage could be in- which in turn will reduce the ampli-
creased considerably by using a tude of the output signal from the
step-up transformer. For example, first stage. This problem can be
suppose the tube had a gain of five overcome by using transformer cou-
and you used a step-up transformer pling between the two stages. The
between the tube and the following transformer serves as an imped-
stage, and suppose that the trans- ance-matching device and prevents
former had a turns-ratio of 1to 3; the low input resistance of the sec-
this meant that the transformer ond stage from reducing the load
would step-up the signal voltage fed resistance of the first stage. Today,
to the primary by a factor of 3. transformer coupling is much more
Therefore, the total gain obtained important in transistorized cir-
with the tube and transformer would cuitry than in vacuum circuity, so
be equal to 5 x 3, or 15. we'll spend more time discussing
With modern vacuum tubes it is this type in transistorized circuits.
comparatively easy to obtain a gain However, let's go ahead and look at
of nearly 100 in R-C coupled cir- a transformer-coupled vacuum tube
cuits. Since R-C coupling is much amplifier first.
more economical than transformer
coupling, you will not find trans- VACUUM-TUBE CIRCUITS
former coupling between voltage
amplifier stages in modern equip- Fig. 8 illustrates a typical two-
ment. Therefore, we'll take only a stage vacuum-tube amplifier using
quick look at a vacuum-tube voltage transformer coupling between the
amplifier using transformer cou- stages. The operation of the circuit
pling so you will know what it looks is comparatively simple. Resistor
like, in case you run into it in any R1 provides bias for V1, and C1 is
older equipment you might service, the cathode bypass which provides a
and also because transformer cou- low-impedance bypass around the
pling is still used in some other resistor for the signal. Resistor R2
applications. similarly provides bias for the sec-
In transistor circuits an entirely ond stage, V2, and it is bypassedfor
different situation exists. We have the signal by capacitor C2.
already pointed out that the input re- The input signal voltage causes the

17
 r-

Fig. 8. Fo transformer-eoupled vacuum tubes.

potential between the grid and cath- frequency discrimination in the

ode to vary. This causes the plate transformer can be overcome by
current flowing through V1 to vary. careful design, but this in turn in-
This varying current flows through creases the cost of the transformer.
the primary of T1 and sets up a Because of the disadvantages of the
varying magnetic field which induces transformer and the availability of
a voltage in the secondary of T1. high-gain tubes, this circuit is not
T1 is a step-up transformer so that used in modern equipment.
the voltage across the secondary will
be greater than the voltage across TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
the primary.
The amplified and stepped-up A transistor voltage amplifier
voltage appearing across the sec- using transformer coupling is shown
ondary of T1 is applied between the in Fig. 9. Notice that both transis-
grid and cathode of V2 where it will tors are connected in common-emit-
receive further amplification. ter circuits.
At first glance it might appear From astandpoint of getting maxi-
that the transformer-coupled two- mum gain from a transistor ampli-
stage amplifier has many advantages fier, transformer coupling is actu-
over the R-C coupled amplifier. ally the best arrangement that can
However, as we pointed out before, be used. You will remember that
the step-up feature of the trans- the input impedance of a transistor
former is not needed with high- is quite low. We also pointed out
gain vacuum tubes available to use that when two transistors are cou-
in modern equipment. In addition, pled together by means of resist-
a transformer is much more costly ance-capacity coupling, the low im-
than the two resistors and capacitor pedance of the second transistor
needed for an R-C coupled network. actually loads the first transistor.
Furthermore, most transformers The two transistors are not matched.
are quite frequency-sensitive and By means of a transformer the first
therefore the signal voltage reach- transistor can be matched to the sec-
ing V2 will vary appreciably with ond transistor so that the undesir-
frequency. Some of the problems of able effect of having the input cir-

18
cuit of the second transistor load The resistor R2 is placed in the
the output circuit of the first tran- circuit to prevent thermal runaway.
sistor can be avoided. The trans- You will remember we mentioned
former serves as an impedance- previously that minority carriers
matching device to match the com- crossing the collector-base Junc-
paratively high impedance of the tion may increase the forward bias
first transistor to the low input im- across the emitter-base junction.
pedance of the second transistor. This causes the current flow through
Looking at Fig. 9we see that we the transistor to increase, heating
have a transformer, T1, in the in- the collector-base junction and its
put. This transformer is a step- resistance, thereby causing still
down transformer and matches the more minority carriers to cross the
low input impedance of the first tran- junction and increase the forward
sistor to the preceding circuit. Ci is bias still further. R2 prevents this
a blocking capacitor. It is needed from happening because if the emit-
to keep the transformer secondary ter current increases, the voltage
from shorting out the forward bias across R2 increases, and this volt-
placed across the emitter-base age subtracts from the forward bias
junction. The bias on the junction across the emitter-base junction.
is obtained from the battery by This tends to keep the current
means of a voltage divider network through the transistor constant.
consisting of both R1 and R3. This The signal is applied through the
network will bias the base negative 4 mfd capacitor to the base of the
with respect to the emitter. Notice first transistor and from the other
that the 3K resistor R1 is connected end of the transformer through C3
directly across the input circuit. As to the emitter. This causes the num-
for the signal, it is connected di- ber of holes crossing the emitter-
rectly from the base to the emitter. base junction to vary which in turn
The 4 mid capacitor C3 provides an causes the number of holes reach-
effective signal bypass between the ing the collector to vary. Then the
emitter and ground. negative flow from the negative ter-

P-N-P T3

INPUT

Fig. 9. Transformer-coupled voltage amplifier using transistors.

19
minal of the battery through the pri- 9 will yield far more voltage gain
mary of T2 will vary. The varying than the two-stage R-C coupled am-
current through the primary of the plifier shown in Fig. 2. This might
transformer produces a magnetic at first lead you to believe that trans-
field which induces a voltage in the former coupling should be used in
secondary of the transformer. This all transistor voltage amplifier cir-
in turn produces a varying voltage cuits. However, this is not true be-
between the base and emitter of the cause the transformers needed for
second transistor. the transformer coupling are much
Notice that the primary of T2 is more expensive than the two resis-
marked 20K and the secondary is tors and capacitor needed in R-C
marked 1K. The output impedance coupled circuits. As amatter of fact,
of a transistor in acommon-emitter since transistors themselves are
circuit is about 20K. The input im- relatively inexpensive, it is usually
pedance is about 1K. By means of a more economical to use a three-
step-down transformer these im- stage R-C coupled voltage amplifier
pedances can be matched. You will than it is to use a two-stage trans-
remember that maximum power former-coupled voltage amplifier.
transfer from a generator to the A three-stage R-C coupled ampli-
load occurs when the load impedance fier is capable of giving about the
is matched to the generator imped- same gain as a two-stage trans-
ance. The first transistor acts more former-coupled amplifier. In addi-
or less as a generator and maxi- tion, it is more difficult to get good
mum power is transferred from it frequency response using trans-
to the second transistor when the former coupling than it is using R-C
input impedance of the second tran- coupling. Therefore, in applications
sistor is matched to the output im- in which we are concerned about the
pedance of the first transistor. frequency response and in which we
You might wonder why we are con- are trying to keep the cost down it
cerned about matching impedances is usually advantageous to use a
to get maximum power transfer three-stage R-C coupled amplifier.
when the circuit shown in Fig. 9 is However, in some applications you
supposed to be a voltage amplifier. will find transformer-coupled volt-
Remember, however, that transis- age amplifier circuits.
tors are current-operated devices. If you have to replace atransform-
Therefore by matching impedances er in a transformer-coupled voltage
we can get maximum current vari- amplifier, it's important to use are-
ation in the emitter-base circuit of placement transformer having the
the second transistor. This in turn same turns-ratio as the original
will result in maximum current transformer. The transformer is
variation in the collector circuit. primarily an impedance-matching
The higher the current variation device and if you do not use atrans-
through the load of the second tran- former with the same turns-ratio as
sistor the greater the voltage am- the original, the output impedance of
plification obtained will be. the first transistor will not properly
A two-stage transformer-coupled match the input impedance of the
amplifier such as is shown in Fig. second transistor.

20
 SUMMARY pled amplifiers ,but by using an extra
stage the same gain can be obtained
Since it is uneconomical, trans- from R-C coupled amplifiers.
former coupling between voltage-
amplifier vacuum-tube stages is no SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
longer used. You will find it only
in very old equipment. The trans- Why was transformer coupling
former used between vacuum-tube used between vacuum tubes in
voltage-amplifier stages is usu- the early days of radio?
ally a step-up transformer. Trans- Why are transformer-coupled
former coupling is used in some voltage-amplifier stages using
transistor amplifiers. In this appli- tubes no longer used?
cation, the transformer is a step- Why is it better to use trans-
down transformer and it is primarily former coupling in transistor-
an impedance-matching device. By voltage amplifier stages?
using a transformer in transistor Why is transformer coupling
voltage amplifiers, the high output seldom used between transis-
impedance of the first transistor tor-voltage amplifier stages?
can be matched to the low input im- What must you watch if you have
pedance of the second transistor. to replace a transformer in a
Transistor voltage amplifiers are transformer-coupled transis-
capable of higher gain than R-C cou- tor-voltage amplifier?

21
 Single-Ended
Power Amplifiers
The primary purpose of most low- are probably many more power am-
frequency amplifiers is to build up plifiers using vacuum tubes than
an audio signal to asufficient ampli- transistors. We will go into the
tude to drive the loudspeaker. A vacuum-tube circuit first, and then
loudspeaker must be driven by a into the transistor power amplifiers
power amplifier. The voltage ampli- later.
fiers we have discussed previously
are used to amplify a low-voltage VACUUM-TUBE CIRCUITS
audio signal to a sufficient ampli-
tude to drive a power amplifier, A typical single-ended Class A
which in turn will drive the loud- power amplifier using abeam power
speaker. tube is shown in Fig. 10. Practically
There are a number of different all modern low-frequency power
types of power amplifiers that can amplifiers use beam power tubes.
be used to drive a loudspeaker: the This stage is driven by the amplified
single-ended power amplifier,which signal voltage from the last voltage
is always a Class A power amplifier, amplifier applied to R1 through C1.
and the double-ended power ampli- It produces audio power to drive the
fier, which may be a Class A, Class loudspeaker. Notice that in general
AB or Class B power amplifier. In this circuit is not too different from
this section of the lesson we are that of a voltage amplifier.
going to discuss single-ended power The tubes made for use in power
amplifiers. We will discuss both amplifier stages are designed es-
vacuum-tube power amplifiers and pecially for this type of service.
transistor power amplifiers. These tubes normally draw a much
Today, there are millions of radio higher plate current than the tubes
and television receivers in use with in voltage amplifiers. A typical tube
low-frequency single-ended power used in avoltage amplifier may draw
amplifiers using vacuum tubes. You a plate current somewhere between
can be sure that you will run into about 1 and 10 milliamperes ,where-
this type of amplifier to service. In as tubes designed for use in power
addition, there are many single- amplifiers will usually draw a plate
ended power amplifiers using tran- current of 50 milliamperes or more.
sistors. This type of power ampli- In the circuit shown in Fig. 10,
fier is found in modern automobile R-C coupling is used between the
receivers as well as in many por- preceding voltage amplifier and the
table receivers, in some table model power amplifier. This type of cou-
radios and in some transistorized pling can be used between a Class A
television receivers. It is quite like- power amplifier and the last voltage
ly that in the future there will amplifier because no grid current
be fewer vacuum tube stages around flows. The power amplifier shown in
to service, but at the present there Fig. 10 is designed to operate as a

22
Class A amplifier by the voltage hold the cathode at signal ground po-
developed across the cathode-bias tential, as we mentioned previously,
resistor R2. You will remember that so that the input signal is, in effect,
in a Class A amplifier, sufficient applied directly between the grid and
bias is applied to the tube so that the cathode of the tube.
grid voltage is halfway between zero You will remember that to get
and cut-off voltage. In operation, the maximum power transfer from a
grid should not be driven positive, generator to a load, the load im-
and it should not be driven into the pedance must be matched to the gen-
region where plate current is cut off. erator impedance. In this circuit, the
As long as the grid is not driven tube acts as the generator. However,
positive, there will not be a grid a beam power tube has a very high
current flow. plate impedance. Therefore, it is
Notice that R2 is bypassed by a not practical to try to match the
capacitor, C2. This capacitor is usu- plate impedance of the tube to the
ally an electrolytic capacitor -- in speaker. Instead, manufacturers of
many receivers you will find that the tubes usually specify a load im-
this capacitor is in a common can pedance into which a tube should
along with the filter capacitors used work for best results. The output
in the receiver. It is usually acom- transformer is designed so that the
paratively low-voltage capacitor be- tube will, in effect, see this load
cause the voltage across it (which is impedance. This is accomplished by
equal to the voltage across R2) is not means of a step-down transformer,
too high. An electrolytic capacitor T1, which matches the load imped-
is used because the resistance of R2 ance of the tube to the low imped-
is usually only a few hundred ohms. ance of the speaker voice coil. An-
A large capacitor is required to by- other way of looking at this trans-
pass this resistor -- otherwise, the former is from the speaker end of
reactance of the capacitor becomes the circuit. Most speakers have a
so high at low frequencies that the comparatively low impedance; the
resistor is not bypassed effectively. speakers in most radio and tele-
The purpose of this capacitor is to vision receivers have a voice coil

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of single-ended Class A amplifier using a beam power tube.

23
impedance of 3.2 ohms at afrequency trolytic capacitor as the output filter
of 400 cycles. The output trans- capacitor. This capacitor provides
former is designed to step up this a low impedance path from B+ to
impedance so that the tube sees the ground as far as the audio signal is
load it works into best. Most beam concerned. Therefore, B+ is effec-
power tubes work into a load of tively at ground as far as the signal
somewhere between 2,500 ohms and is concerned. Hence the bypass ca-
10,000 ohms. Therefore, if we look pacitor C3 (which connects from the
at the circuit from the speaker end, plate to the screen of the tube) effec-
the transformer is a step-up trans- tively bypasses the high-frequency
former because it steps up the low signal to ground.
impedance of the speaker to the In some receivers you will find
higher impedance of the tube. If we C3 connected directly between the
look at the circuit from the tube end, plate of the tube and ground. The
on the other hand, the transformer disadvantage of this arrangement is
is a step-down transformer because that C3 must then be capable of
it steps the high impedance of the withstanding the high dc plate volt-
tube down to the low impedance of age applied to the tube. By using the
the speaker. The important thing circuit shown in Fig. 10 and con-
for you to realize is that the primary necting C3 between the plate and
winding of the transformer, which screen of the tube, the only dc volt-
connects to the plate circuit of the age the capacitor must be able to
tube, has far more turns on it than withstand is the voltage drop across
the secondary winding that is con- the primary winding of T1. This volt-
nected to the voice coil of the age is usually nominal (somewhat
speaker. Since the primary winding less than 10 volts) so that C3 does
has more turns than the secondary, not have a high dc potential placed
we usually refer to this as a step- across it.
down transformer. Sometimes you will see a triode
Capacitor C3 is called a plate by- tube used as the power output tube.
pass capacitor. This capacitor is A triode tube has the advantage over
used to prevent oscillation. Actually, a pentode or a beam power tube, in
the capacitor provides alow-imped- that it usually produces less distor-
ance path for high-frequency signals tion. However, the disadvantage of
and it reduces the possibility of a the triode tube is that it requires
high-frequency oscillation in the a very high driving power. The
stage. These high-frequency signals power gain in a triode tube is rela-
in the plate circuit of the tube are tively low compared to that of
shunted to ground through the ca- a beam power or a pentode tube. As
pacitor while low frequency signals a result, triode tubes have in gen-
must flow through the primary of T1. eral disappeared as power ampli-
You might wonder how the high-fre- fiers in favor of beam power and
quency signals are shunted to ground pentode tubes.
through C3, since C3 connects be-
tween the plate and screen of the
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
tube. The screen of the tube connects
directly to B+. The output of the A schematic diagram of a single-
power supply will have alarge elec- ended Class A amplifier using aPNP

24
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of single-ended Class A amplifier using a PP transistor.

transistor is shown in Fig. 11. No- very low and unless a large capaci-
tice that, in many respects, this cir- tor is used, there will be consider-
cuit is similar to the vacuum tube able loss in gain at low frequencies.
circuit shown in Fig. 10. Once again, C3 is a bypass ca-
The circuit we have shown in Fig. pacitor. Its purpose is the same as
11 is a common-emitter circuit and that of the plate bypass capacitor
the output transformer is connected in Fig. 10. It is used to prevent
in the collector circuit. Again, the oscillation in the collector circuit
output transformer is an impedance- and to provide alow-impedance path
matching device. Its purpose is to from the collector to ground for
match the speaker impedance to the high-frequency signals in the collec-
output impedance of the transistor. tor circuit.
Notice that capacitor C2 is an elec- In a Class A stage of this type,
trolytic capacitor. The value of R3 the emitter-base junction is biased
is comparatively low, so in order so that the transistor operates ap-
to hold the emitter at signal ground proximately in the midpoint of its
potential for all signal frequencies, characteristic curve. The bias is
the capacitor must be large. As in adjusted so that the signal does not
the case of a vacuum-tube circuit overcome the emitter-base forward
there will be some low frequency bias at any time and the current flow
where the reactance of this capaci- from the emitter to the collector is
tor becomes appreciable and re- never cut off.
duces the gain of the amplifier at Transistor power amplifiers of
that frequency. this type are quite widely used in
The input coupling capacitor C1 automobile receivers. In most auto-
(in the circuit shown) is an electro- mobiles the negative side of the bat-
lytic capacitor. Again, remember tery is grounded. This means that
that an electrolytic is required in the collector of the transistor is al-
the input of the stage because the most at ground potential. It is at
input resistance of the transistor is ground potential less the voltage

25
 receivers that are operated from the
power line. However, in portable-
type equipment that operates from
a dry cell-type battery, it is more
economical to use push-pull tran-
sistors in Class B circuits.You will
see this later.

SUMMARY

Fig. 12. .% power transistor. Class A power amplifiers are im-

portant because they are used in all
drop across the primary of T1. As types of equipment, especially in
a result, very little insulation is re- radio and television receivers. The
quired between the collector and the power amplifier is a stage that con-
receiver chassis. Power transistors verts the amplified signal to a sig-
resemble the transistor shown in nal with sufficient power to drive a
Fig. 12. They are usually bolted to loudspeaker. It consists of a tube
the chassis to provide aheat sink, or or transistor, the output trans-
a means of getting rid of the heat former, and the loudspeaker. The
dissipated by the transistor. Very loudspeaker is the load; the output
little insulation is required between transformer is designed to match
the transistor case and the chassis the speaker impedance to the output
in a circuit of this type because there impedance of the tube or transistor.
is very little voltage between the You should be sure that you under-
chassis and the collector. In most stand what a Class A power ampli-
power transistors, the collector fier is and what it is supposed to do.
connects directly to the case of the If you go into radio and TV service
transistor; therefore, the circuit work, you will run into an ampli-
provides a simple way of getting rid fier of this type in almost every
of the heat developed in the transis- radio or television set you will re-
tor and at the same time keeps the pair. If you plan to be a technician
insulation requirements between the in a broadcast station you will find
transistor case or collector to a Class A power amplifiers in both
minimum. radio and television equipment. If
Of course, in a circuit of this type you intend to go into industrial elec-
NPN transistors can be used as well tronics, you may be in aplant where
as PNP transistors. For that matter, a public address system is used.
in automobile receivers where the The chances are that you will find
battery voltage is only 12 volts, it Class A amplifiers in this equip-
is comparatively simple to insulate ment. Regardless of what type of
NPN transistor collectors from the electronics work you do, you will
chassis so that there will be no volt- encounter this type of amplifier.
age breakdown, and at the same time
provide adequate heat dissipation SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
from the transistor.
Single-ended transistor amplifiers (o) What is the purpose of a power
are also used in radio and television amplifier in a radio receiver?

26
(P) What type of tube can you ex- reactance of the cathode bypass
pect to find in the power ampli- capacitor be kept to a mini-
fier stage of most modern radio mum?
and television receivers? (s) What is the advantage of using
(q) What is the purpose of the by- a PNP transistor power am-
pass capacitor used in the plate plifier (such as in Fig. 11) in
circuit of power amplifier tube an automobile receiver?
circuits? (t) Are you likely to find a single-
(r) In a circuit such as the one ended or apush-pull power out-
shown in Fig. 10, how can low- put stage in portable receivers
frequency distortion due to the which operate from batteries?

27
 Push-Pull Power Amplifiers
In many applications it is impos- ing through this resistor remains
sible or at least uneconomical to essentially constant. When the input
try to obtain the required power from signal drives the grid of V1 in a
a single-ended stage. In such cases positive direction so that the cur-
a double-ended power amplifier rent flow through this tube in-
called a push-pull amplifier is used. creases, the signal will at the same
A push-pull amplifier is particu- time drive the grid of V2 in a nega-
larly useful because it generates no tive direction so that the current
second-harmonic distortion. Be- through that tube decreases. If the
cause of the circuit arrangement, tubes are operated on the linear
any second-harmonic distortion portion of their characteristic
produced is cancelled within the curves, the increase in plate current
stage itself. Second-harmonic dis- In V1 should be offset by the de-
tortion is asignal having afrequency crease in plate current in V2.
equal to twice the frequency of the C1 and C2 serve as plate bypass
signal to be amplified. Due to the capacitors for the two tubes. These
curve in the characteristic curve of capacitors prevent high-frequency
both tubes and transistors, single- oscillations which might cause the
ended stages produce a certain tubes to draw excessive current and
amount of second-harmonic distor- burn out the primary of the output
tion. However, in push-pull ampli- transformer.
fiers, any second-harmonic distor- Notice that the B+ for the screen
tion that is produced will be can- of the tubes is obtained from the out-
celled in the stage itself. put filter capacitor. The B+ at this
Push-pull stages may use either point will receive maximum filter-
tubes or transistors, and you will ing so that it is essentially pure de.
study both types. Also, push-pull At the same time, the center tap of
stages may be operated as Class A the output transformer, T2, through
amplifiers or as Class B amplifiers. which plate voltage is supplied to the
Often, you will find push-pull pentode two tubes, connects to the input fil-
or beam power stages operated as ter capacitor. The dc voltage at this
Class AB amplifiers. We will study point will be somewhat higher than
and review some of the conditions the voltage at the output filter ca-
of these various types of operations. pacitor due to any voltage drop that
might occur in the filter choke or
CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
filter resistor used in the power
A typical Class A push-pull ampli- supply. In addition, there will be
fier using beam power tubes is shown considerably more hum voltage
in Fig. 13. Transformer T1 can be present at this point. At first, you
a step-up transformer to provide might think that this would cause
additional drive between the grid and hum in the output. However, there
cathode of each tube. Notice that the are two factors which prevent hum
cathode bias resistor R1 is not by- in a circuit of this type. First, any
passed. A bypass capacitor is not hum current would flow through the
necessary because the current flow- two halves of the output transformer

28
INPUT

SPKR.

+-4-
TO OUTPUT TO INPUT
FILTER FILTER
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR

Fig. 13. Class A push-pull beam power tubes.

T2 in opposite directions and hence age on the tubes due to hum, this
tend to cancel. In addition, if there will not cause any appreciable
is some hum voltage on the plates change in plate current. Hence, the
of the two output tubes, remember current flowing through the primary
that in pentodes and in beam power of T2 remains essentially constant,
tubes the plate current depends very and no hum will be fed to the
little on the plate voltage. It is de- speaker.
termined primarily by the grid and A push-pull Class A power ampli-
screen voltages. Therefore, if there fier using NPN transistors is shown
is some variation in the plate volt- In Fig. 14. Notice that ,in many ways,

Ilg. Class A push-pull NPN transistors.

29
the circuit is similar to the vacuum-
tube circuit in Fig. 13. The trans-
former T1 is a step-down trans-
former; you will remember that the
input resistance (or impedance, as
it's more correctly called when re-
ferring to a signal) of transistors
in a common-emitter circuit is quite
low. Thus, T1 serves as a matching
device. Forward bias for the emit-
ter-base junction is obtained by
means of a voltage-divider network
made up of R1 and R3 connected
across the battery.
Resistor R2, connected between Fig. 15. %hen the operating point is on the
the negative side of the battery and lower bend of the tube characteristic
the emitter, is for bias stabilization curve, the plate current pulses i
1 and i
2

purposes. In the event that the cur- will be distorted.

rent through the transistor starts
to increase due to a temperature signed for high-voltage operation
rise in either transistor, the current and equipment using this type of
through R2 will increase and reduce transistor will not require a trans-
the bias to hold the current through former in the power supply.
the transistors essentially constant. Distortion Cancellation.
Capacitors C2 and C3 are bypass We mentioned previously that sec-
capacitors that are used to prevent ond-harmonic distortion generated
high-frequency oscillation in the within a push-pull amplifier is can-
output circuit. In some circuits the celled in the stage. Let's see how
capacitors will be connected as this distortion is produced and how
shown, while in others a single ca- it is cancelled.
pacitor connected directly between First, we'll consider the beam
the two collectors may be used. power circuit shown in Fig. 13. Re-
For simplicity, we have repre- member that the characteristic
sented the power supply in the cir- curve of a tube is not a straight line
cuit as a battery. Of course, in a -- it is curved something like the
portable receiver or in an auto- line shown in Fig. 15. If the tube is
mobile receiver the actual power operated on the bent portion of the
source will be a battery. However, curve shown in Fig. 15, distortion
in equipment designed for use in the will be introduced.
home (where it will be operated from Referring back to Fig. 13, let's
a power line) apower supply will re- consider the input signal across the
place the battery. The power supply primary of T1 as "e" and in Fig. 15
will use a rectifier and a filter cir- consider the signals across the two
cuit similar to those you have al- halves of the secondary as el and
ready studied. It might also have a e2. The plate current flowing through
step-down transformer if the tran- V1 will be referred to as i and the
sistors are of the low-voltage type. plate current flowing through V2 as
However, many transistors are de- 12. Let's look first at the signal el

30
applied to the tube V1 -- this is sented by the dotted line in Fig. 15.
represented in Fig. 15 as the solid Notice also that the plate current 12
line. When el swings in a positive is distorted on the M-O-M alterna-
direction, il increases as shown; tion. However, the plate current
when el swings in a negative direc- alternation of 1 1 that is distorted

tion, then 11 decreases as shown. occurs at the same moment as the

Notice, however, that the wave- portion of 12 that is not distorted,
shape for the plate current is not and vice versa. This is due to the
equal in amplitude on the two sides fact that el and e2 are 180 ° out-of-
of the zero axis -- that is,the alter- phase (when one is going positive,
nation M-N-M is greater than the the other is going negative).
alternation M-O-M. This indicates In a transistor circuit such as is
that the stage has added second har- shown in Fig. 14, essentially the
monics as well as other even har- same thing happens. When the col-
monics to the original fundamental lector current of Qi is increasing,
sine wave. In other words, it has the collector current in Q2 is de-
added distortion (signals that were creasing. Similarly, when the col-
not present in the original signal). lector current in Qi is decreasing,
At the same time, the other tube the collector current in Q2 is in-
is getting the grid signal e2, repre- creasing. Thus, if we have distor-
tion in one-half of the output wave-
form produced by either transistor,
we have exactly the same thing we
',PRODUCES
have in the vacuum-tube stage,
represented graphically in Fig. 15.
Now let's examine the action oc-
curring in T2 when the plate current
of the two tubes (shown in Fig. 13)
or the collector current of the two
',PRODUCES transistors (shown in Fig. 14) flows
through the primary winding. This
is shown in Fig. 16. Although the
currents 11 and i2 are 180 ° out-of-
phase, they now flow in opposite
directions through the two halves of
the primary T2.
If 1
1 produces flux f 1 and 12 pro-

duces flux f2 (as shown in Fig. 16),

AB+CD■ EF le the fact that 12 is flowing through
the transformer in a direction op-
posite from that of ii means that
flux f2 will add to flux fl, as 11 the
two were being produced by asingle
current flowing through the entire
Fig. 16. The even-harmonic distortion can- primary winding. When f1 and f2 (in
cellation occurs because of the manner in Fig. 16) are added, the resultant
which the fluxes add in the output trans- flux (fe)is not distorted.
former. Because the resultant flux f
e is

31
not distorted even though the flux usually what limits the amount of
produced by the individual tubes or power we can get out of the stage
transistors is distorted, apush-pull without excessive distortion. The
amplifier will cancel out all even more power we try to get out of the
harmonics produced within the stage, chances are the more third
stage. In other words, if some sec- harmonic distortion there will be
ond and fourth harmonic distortion produced.
is produced within the stage, it will CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
be cancelled out in the stage because
of the way in which the signals are A Class B push-pull amplifier
recombined in the output trans- using beam power tubes is shown in
former. This applies only to even- Fig. 17. Notice that this circuit is
order harmonics produced within almost identical to the circuit shown
the stage because of a non-linear in Fig. 13. The only difference is
tube or transistor characteristic. A that the bias for the tubes is ob-
push-pun amplifier will not cancel tained from aseparate source rather
even-order harmonics fed to it in than from a cathode bias resistor.
the input, nor will it cancel out odd- In Class B operation the tubes are
order harmonics such as the third biased approximately at cut-off. You
and fifth harmonics generated within cannot have current flow in the cath-
the stage. ode circuit to develop this bias if the
Push-pull amplifiers are not en- tubes are at cut-off and therefore
tirely distortion-free because acer- grid bias for the tubes must be ob-
tain amount of third, fifth and higher tained from another source. It is
odd harmonics will be produced with- usually obtained by placing a resis-
in the stage. These hartnonics are tor in the negative side of the power
not cancelled out by another stage. supply.
Therefore, the amount of third har- In the Class B amplifier with the
monic distortion in the stage is tubes biased to cut-off, when the in-

I
Ti
T2

- C+ + ++
B—
Fig. 17. Class B push-pull beam power tubes.

32
 Fig. 18. Class B push-pull PNP transistors.
put signal swings the V1 grid in a too different from the tube circuit.
positive direction the tube will con- The transistors are used in a com-
duct. At the same time, the grid of mon-emitter circuit. Bias is ob-
V2 will be driven in a negative di- tained by means of a voltage di-
rection so that no current will flow vider consisting of R1 in series with
through V2. During the next half- the parallel combination of R2 and
cycle, the opposite happens; the grid R3. The divider network is con-
of V2 is driven in a positive direc- nected across the battery. When the
tion so that this tube conducts and no input signal drives the base of Qi in
current flows through V1. a negative direction, Qi will conduct
Notice that we have indicated the quite heavily. Holes will cross the
plate and screen going to different emitter-base junction and flow over
voltage sources. As in the circuit to the collector. At the same time as
shown in Fig. 13, the screen is re- the base of Qi is driven in a nega-
turned to the output filter capacitor tive direction, the base of Q2 will
and the plate to the input filter ca- be driven in a positive direction so
pacitor in order to get the higher that the base will be positive with
voltage on the plate. respect to the emitter. Thus there
Class B push-pull amplifiers will be reverse bias across the
using PNP transistors are shown in emitter-base junction of this tran-
Fig. 18. Notice that the circuit is not sistor, and no current will flow

33
through it. During the next half-cycle not driven positive then it is re-
when the signal is reversed, the base ferred to as Class AB1 operation.
of Qi will be driven in apositive di- When the power amplifier is op-
rection so that areverse bias will be erated as a Class AB2 amplifier or
placed across the emitter-base a Class B amplifier where the grids
junction of this transistor and hence of the tube are actually driven posi-
no current will flow through it. The tive, the tubes consume power in the
base of Q2 will be driven in a nega- grid circuit. In an applicationof this
tive direction, increasing the for- type, the input transformer must be
ward bias so that the current flow a step-down transformer in order to
through the transistor is increased. provide the power needed in the grid
The number of holes crossing the circuit. In addition, instead of using
emitter-base junction increases, and a voltage amplifier in the preceding
therefore the number of holes reach- stage, a power amplifier stage is re-
ing the collector will increase. quired. In other words, in a circuit
The resistor R3 in the emitter cir- such as is shown in Fig. 17, the stage
cuit is for bias stabilization pur- driving the push-pull Class B power
poses. This resistor is athermistor. amplifiers would probably be a
If the temperature is high, the re- single-ended Class A power ampli-
sistance of R3 will go down. This fier. The Class A power amplifier
will reduce the forward bias across produces the power required in the
the emitter-base junction of the grid circuit of the two tubes. In Class
transistors and prevent the current A or Class AB1 operation where the
from becoming excessive. grids are not driven positive, the
tubes do not require grid power and
CLASS AB AMPLIFIERS can be driven by a voltage amplifier
Quite frequently, vacuum tubes stage.
are not operated as Class B power
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
amplifiers, but rather as Class AB
power amplifiers. This is particu-
larly true of amplifiers using beam (u) In Fig. 13, why is the cathode
power tubes. You can obtain almost resistor R1 not bypassed?
as much power out of a Class AB (v) In Fig. 13, what purpose do C1
vacuum tube as you can from the and C2 serve?
Class B circuit and the distortion is (w) In Fig. 14, is T1 a step-up or
usually somewhat less with the Class a step-down transformer?
AB operation. You will remember (x) What is one of the primary ad-
that for Class AB operation, bias vantages of a push-pull type of
on the tubes is about halfway be- power amplifier circuit?
tween the bias used for Class A op- (Y) What is the difference between
eration and the bias used for Class the Class A power amplifier in
B operation. If the grids are driven Fig. 13 and the Class B power
positive at any time during the input amplifiers in Fig. 17?
cycle, we refer to the operation as (z) In Fig. 18, how are the transis-
Class AB2 operation. If the grids are tors biased?

34
 Reducing Distortion

Distortion is one of the most seri- fiers do not receive the same amount
ous problems in low-frequency am- of amplification as the middle-fre-
plifiers. There are three kinds of quency signals receive. Similarly, at
distortion with which we must con- some high frequency ,the various ca-
tend: amplitude distortion, fre- pacities in the circuit begin to reduce
quency distortion, and inter-modula- the gain of the amplifier at high fre-
tion distortion. quencies so that high-frequency sig-
Amplitude Distortion. nals do not receive the same amount
Amplitude distortion results from of amplification as middle-fre-
the creation of irregularities in am- quency signals receive. This failure
plifying the signal. For example, to amplify signals at all frequencies
one-half of a sine wave does not re- equally is known as frequency dis-
ceive the same amplification as the tortion.
other half, and harmonic distortion Inter -
Modulation Distortion.
is produced. This means that signals If an amplifier is not operated on
that are multiples of the original the linear portion of its character-
signal frequency are produced. If the istic curve, mixing of two or more
signal has twice the frequency of the signals in the amplifier sometimes
original signal, it is called second occurs. For example, suppose that
harmonic distortion; if the signal is two signals are fed to an amplifier
three times the frequency of the at the same time. This might happen
original signal, it is called a third when an amplifier is amplifying
harmonic distortion, and so on. musical notes of two different fre-
A small amount of distortion of quencies. If the two signal frequen-
this type is hardly noticeable, but cies beat together to produce new
the quality of the amplified signal signals equal to the sum and differ-
usually suffers if you get a certain ence of the original signal frequen-
amount of second harmonic distor- cies, we have what is called inter-
tion plus some third (and higher) modulation distortion. In this case,
harmonic distortion. the two signals have mixed together.
Sometimes, in amplifying a sine Inter-modulation distortion can be
wave, a small pip or irregularity kept to a minimum by operating the
may appear on the sine wave that was amplifier on the linear portion of its
not present in the original signal. characteristic curve and by avoiding
This type of distortion is also called operation of the amplifier at or near
amplitude distortion. its maximum amplification capabili-
Frequency Distortion. ties.
You already know that the gain of There are several methods used to
an amplifier falls off at low frequen- keep distortion to a minimum. One
cies due to the reactance of the cou- of these, of course, is careful de-
pling capacitor used between the sign; another is making sure that
stages of an amplifier. Thus, low- the tube or transistor used in the
frequency signals in some ampli- amplifier is operated as it should

35
be. This, however, is not enough to cuit at A shows a vacuum tube; the
get what we would call good high- circuit at B, a transistor.
fidelity reproduction, although it is Looking first at the vacuum-tube
good enough for most table-model circuit, we see that it is exactly the
radio receivers (where we do not same as the circuit you studied pre-
expect extremely high-quality out- viously, but in this case the bias re-
put) and for television receivers sistor (R2) in the cathode of the cir-
(where we are primarily interested cuit of the tube is not bypassed.
in sound to accompany the picture). The purpose of the cathode bypass
In quality sound-reproducing equip- capacitor is to bypass signals around
ment (high-fidelity or stereo, for the cathode resistor, R2. We pointed
example), on the other hand, steps out previously that all capacitors
must be taken to keep distortion as have a certain reactance, and that at
low as possible. One of the simplest low frequencies this capacitor may
steps in reducing distortion is the not be a good bypass. As a result,
use of inverse feedback. there will be some attenuation of
low-frequency signals. By com-
INVERSE FEEDBACK pletely eliminating the capacitor, we
can eliminate the problem. Now all
Fig. 19 illustrates two simple ex- signals will receive some reduction
amples of inverse feedback. The cir- in amplification because there is a

Fig. 19. Simple inverse feedback circuits.

36
certain amount of feedback in the ing the amplifier has a higher am-
circuit. plitude than at other frequencies.
Let's consider what happens when This signal in the case of the circuit
a signal drives the grid of a tube in at A will cause ahigher cathode cur-
a positive direction. This causes the rent through the tube. Hence the volt-
current flow through the tube to in- age across R2 will be higher than at
crease; hence the voltage drop other frequencies and will tend to re-
across R2 (which has the polarity duce the input signal more than at
shown on the diagram) increases. other frequencies. Similarly, if the
Thus the cathode swings in a posi- signal applied to the base is greater
tive direction. The signal voltage at some particular frequency, it will
developed across R2 is subtracted tend to develop a higher feedback
from the grid voltage. We then have signal across R3. This, in turn,will
a certain amount of feedback; in tend to reduce it more, keeping it
other words, the signal from the out- closer to the amplitude of the other
put circuit is fed back into the input signal frequencies.
circuit. We call this feedback "in- We sometimes call this type of
verse" because the signal subtracts feedback "degeneration". Degener-
from the input signal. ation and inverse feedback are es-
In the transistor circuit shown in sentially the same thing. When the
Fig. 19B, the resistor R3 is put in signal fed from the output circuit
the emitter circuit for temperature back to the input circuit reduces the
stabilization. It is usually bypassed, input signal, we say this is degen-
but the bypass capacitor acts in ex- erative feedback or inverse feed-
actly the same way as the cathode- back. When the signal fed from the
bypass capacitor in the tube circuit. output circuit back to the input cir-
At low frequencies, the capacitor is cuit addsdo or aids the input signal,
not an effective bypass. By elimi- we call it regenerative feedback.
nating the capacitor acertain amount Regenerative feedback is never used
of inverse feedback is introduced to improve the response of an ampli-
into the circuit. When the input sig- fier.
nal drives the base in a positive The example of inverse feedback
direction, the forward bias across shown in Fig. 19 is in both cases con-
the emitter-base junction increases tained within a single stage. Inverse
and the current flow through the feedback can be used over more than
transistor increases. This causes one stage as shown in the example in
the voltage across R3 to increase Fig. 20. Here asignal is fed from the
and the increase in voltage subtracts plate of the output tube back to the
from the positive base voltage, thus cathode of the voltage amplifier tube.
reducing the net base-emitter sig- In the circuit shown in Fig. 20,
nal voltage. when the input signal drives the grid
The feedback signal will be devel- of V1 in a positive direction, a neg-
oped at all signal frequencies and ative-going signal will be developed
will tend to make the gain of the in the plate circuit. This signal is
amplifier more constant over a fed to the grid of V2 through the ca-
wider frequency range. You can see pacitor C3 and this in turn causes a
why this is so if you consider that positive-going signal in the output
at some frequency the signal reach- circuit of V2. The positive-going

37
 1
R5 C4

C3 V2

.1

ER4
INPUT

8+

Fig. 20. Inverse feedback from the plate of the power output tube to the cathode of the
voltage amplifier tube.

signal is fed through C4 and R5back in Fig. 13) is the input transformer.
into the cathode circuit of Vi where Transformers that respond equally
it subtracts from the input signal to a wide range of frequencies are
fed to Vi. The advantage of two-stage difficult and expensive to manufac-
feedback of this type is that it tends to ture. The transformer in this cir-
equalize the gain of the amplifier cuit can be eliminated by means of
over both stages rather than in just a phase inverter stage as shown in
a single stage as in the circuits Fig. 21.
shown in Fig. 19. In this circuit the input signal is
applied between the grid and cathode
PHASE INVERTERS of ViA. It is amplified by this tube
One of the causes of distortion in and the signal phase is inverted. The
push-pull power amplifiers (such as signal is fed through C3 to the grid

V2
C3

R3
R2 B+
—VVVo
-

INPUT

C2 --1
o R4
V1 B

PHASE
IN
• 4.

Fig. 21. A typical circuit using aphase inverter to drive one stage of apush-pull
amplifier.

38
of V2. Meanwhile, the amplified sig- impedance-matching device and
nal is divided by the resistors R5 usually there is more to be gained
and R6. Usually, R5 is considerably by using the input transformer than
larger than R6 so that only a small by attempting to use the phase-in-
part of the amplified signal is taken verter type of stage found in push-
and fed back to the grid of Vig, the pull vacuum-tube amplifiers. There
phase inverter stage. Remember are other things that can be done with
that this signal will be in phase with transistor circuits to get improved
the signal fed to the grid of V2.The results that cannot be done with
signal is amplified by Vig; its phase vacuum-tube circuits. We will look
is inverted and then fed through C4 at these circuits now.
to the grid of V3. Thus V2 and V3 are
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
driven by signals 180 ° out-of-phase.
If the ratio of R5 and R6 are se- A two-transistor amplifier which
lected correctly, the amplified sig- uses a PNP transistor and an NPN

Fig. 22. Two-stage transistor amplifier.

nal fed to the grid of V3 will be equal transistor is shown in Fig. 22. This
to the amplified signal fed to the amplifier makes use of the char-
grid of V2. This type of circuit pro- acteristics of the two different tran-
vides the two signals equal and 180 ° sistors to eliminate the coupling ca-
out-of-phase to drive the push-pull pacitor usually found between ampli-
power amplifier. At the same time, fier stages, and in so doing also
better frequency response can be ob- eliminates distortion due to the ca-
tained with this type of circuit than pacitor.
with the circuit shown in Fig. 13 In the circuit shown, the input im-
using an input transformer. pedance is controlled at high fre-
A circuit similar to the one shown quencies by R5. C1 and C2 have a
in Fig. 21 could be used with tran- low reactance at middle and high
sistor push-pull stages, but here the frequencies, so the total impedance
input transformer is primarily an across the input at high frequencies

39
will be equal to the resistance of R5. sistor which is used in a common-
At low frequencies, R1 varies the emitter circuit.
input impedance. By varying the The two-stage amplifier is de-
setting of R1, the input impedance signed to operate directly from a
(and hence the amplitude of any low- 120-volt power line. Notice that a
frequency input signal) can be half-wave rectifier circuit using a
varied. Thus R1 serves as a bass silicon rectifier is shown. Resistor
or low-frequency tone control. R4 R13 is a series resistor to limit the
is in the input circuit between the charging current through the recti-
input and the volume control. It can fier when the equipment is turned
be bypassed at high frequencies by on. C8 is the input filter capacitor;
the setting of R5. When the sliding C4, the output filter capacitor. R11
contact is up towards C1, C1 pro- is the filter resistor. The supply
vides an effective bypass around R4 voltage applied to the collector of
at high frequencies. When the sliding Q2 is not filtered as well as the
contact is down at the other end, R4 voltage fed to Qi. The voltage fed to
and R5 are essentially in parallel at Q2 does not require the filtering be-
high frequencies, and this tends to cause if there is hum voltage present
reduce the amplitude of the high- with the dc, it does not receive any
frequency signals. Thus, R5 serves amplification. However, any hum
as a high-frequency tone control, voltage on the de applied to Qi will
which is usually called atreble con- be amplified and will result in an
trol. objectionable hum in the output.
R7 is the volume control. Notice Another transistor circuit of in-
that this control has a tap on it, and terest is the one shown in Fig. 23.
that C3 and R6 are connected between This circuit is referred to as a
the tap and ground. This type of cir- complementary-symmetry push-
cuit is referred to as automatic bass pull amplifier. Here an NPN transis-
compensation. When you turn the tor and a PNP transistor are used.
volume control to the low-volume When the input signal drives the base
position, the low-frequency sounds of Qi in apositive direction, the cur-
appear weaker than the high-fre- rent through Qi will decrease be-
quency sounds. The higher-fre- cause this transistor is aPNP tran-
quency signals are attenuated by sistor and the positive voltage ap-
means of C3 and R6, so that there plied to the base of the transistor
is a tendency to equalize the loud- tends to decrease the forward bias
ness of the high-frequency and low- applied to it. At the same time, the
frequency signals. Actually ,the low- positive input signal is fed to the
frequency signals are given greater base of Q2 and this increases the
amplification to compensate for the emitter-base forward bias and
fact that they are less noticeable at causes the current through this tran-
low volume levels. The transistor sistor to increase. This current is
Qi is used in a common collector represented by 12 and flows through
circuit. The input signal is fed to the the output transformer primary in
base through C5. The output is the direction shown. In the next half-
taken across the emitter resistor cycle, when the signal swings nega-
(R 1()) and is fed directly to the tive, this will subtract from the for-
base of Q2. Q2 is a power tran- ward bias across Q2, reducing the

40
 INPUT 4MFD Oi

CI

"IC
OUTPUT

Fig. 23. Complementary symmetry pp-II-pull ¡Amplifier.

current flow through it, and increase transformer until asignal is applied.
the forward bias across the emitter- Then the current will flow through
base of Q 1 ,causing the hole flow the transformer; the direction of
through it to increase. The increase flow will depend upon whether the
in hole flow through the transistor signal is positive-going or negative-
results in an increase in current going. During one half-cycle the cur-
flow i through the primary of the rent will flow through the primary of
output transformer in the direction the output transformer in one direc-
shown. tion and during the other half-cycle
If the transistors shown in Fig. 23 it will flow through the primary of
are balanced and biased essentially the transformer in the opposite di-
so that they are cut off without any rection.
signal flow, there will be no current Notice that this type of circuit
flow through the primary of the eliminates the input transformer,

41
 Fig. 2L Three transistor amplifiers t.here there is no output transformer.

yet we still have a push-pull power ter resistor and transistor in each
amplifier. In a circuit designed for case. The junction of the collector
power line operation, batteries of Q3 and resistor R9 are also at
would not be used and asingle power ground potential. The junction of R6
supply capable of supplying the re- and R7 and the collector of Q3 and
quired positive and negative volt- R9 are connected together at termi-
ages would be used. nal A. The speaker is connected be-
Another transistor circuit of in- tween terminals A and B.
terest is shown in Fig. 24. In this With no signal the transistors are
circuit the need for an output trans- biased essentially at cut-off so that
former has been eliminated. Notice there is little or no current flow
that a negative voltage has been sup- through the transistors or through
plied to the collector of Q2 and a the speaker. When a signal is ap-
positive voltage to the emitter of Q3 plied to the input circuit, it is ampli-
through Rip. The negative voltage fied by Qi and fed to the transformer
has the same value as the positive Ti. For example, suppose that the
voltage with respect to ground. The input signal drives the base of Qi in
resistors R5 plus R6 are equal in a positive direction. Since the tran-
value to resistors R7 and R8 so that sistor is a PNP transistor, this will
the junction of R6 and R7 will be at reduce the forward bias across the
ground potential. Similarly, Rip is emitter-base junction. This means
equal to R9, and Q2 and Q3 are simi- that the number of holes reaching
lar transistors so that there is an the collector will decrease and hence
equal voltage drop across the emit- the current flowing through the pri-

42
mary of T1 will decrease. The two must increase. In flowing through
secondary windings on T1 are phased the speaker in this direction, the
so that when this happens the volt- electrons will develop a voltage so
age applied to the base of Q3 will that terminal A is positive. This
swing in a positive direction and the voltage is fed back to the input of
voltage applied to the base of Q2 Qi and will once again subtract from
will swing in a negative direction. the input voltage.
If Q3 is already biased close to cut- The circuit is interesting in that
off the positive voltage on the base the output transformer has been
will reduce the emitter-base junc- eliminated. The output transformer
tion forward bias still further so that is one of the primary causes of dis-
if there is any current flowing tortion in low-frequency power am-
through this transistor, it will drop plifiers. Usually, there is more dis-
even lower. On the other hand, the tortion developed in the output trans-
negative voltage applied to the base former than in the input trans-
of Q2 will increase the forward bias former, because de current flowing
across the emitter-base junction. through the output transformer will
This will cause the number of holes be much higher than the de current
crossing the junction to increase; flowing through the input trans-
the number of electrons flowing from former. Also, there is more of a
the emitter of Q2 through R9 to ter- tendency to produce core saturation,
minal A and through the speaker to which in turn produces more non-
ground will also increase. linearity in the output transformer
The current flowing through the than in an input transformer.
speaker will develop a voltage drop A circuit of the type shown in Fig.
across it so that the end connected 24 is not possible with vacuum tubes
to terminal A will be negative. This because of the high output impedance
negative signal voltage will be fed encountered in tubes. However,
through C3 and the parallel combi- transistors are comparatively low-
nation or C2 and R4 back to the base impedance devices, which makes
of Qi.,where it will subtract from this type of circuit practical.
the input signal. Thus, this is an in-
verse feedback path. SUMMARY
When the signal swings in the op-
posite direction and drives the base The circuits shown in this section
of Qi in a negative direction the of the lesson are all practical cir-
number of holes crossing the emit- cuits. They are the type of voltage
ter-base junction will increase and and power amplifiers you are likely
hence the electron current through to encounter in radio and television
the primary of T1 will increase. receivers and in high-fidelity and
This will cause the base of Q3 to stereo equipment which you will be
swing in a negative direction. When called upon to service. You should
this happens the number of holes be familiar with the operation of
crossing the emitter-base junction these circuits so that when you come
of Q3 must increase. Therefore the across them you will know how they
number of electrons flowing from work and be able to proceed to the
terminal B through the speaker to cause of the trouble in a logical
terminal A to the collector of Q3 manner.

43
 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS what purpose does R5 serve?
(ah) In the circuit shown in Fig. 22,
(aa) What is distortion? why is there a tap on the vol-
(ab) Name the three types of distor- ume control on R7? What pur-
tion. pose does this tap and the as-
(ac) What is inverse feedback? sociated components serve?
(ad) In the circuit shown in Fig. 19, (ai) In the circuit shown in Fig. 22,
how does omitting the cathode in what type of circuit is Qi
bypass capacitor introduce in- used?
verse feedback? (aj) What is the primary advantage
(ae) In the circuit shown in Fig. 21, of the circuit shown in Fig. 24?
what is the purpose of the phase (alc) In Fig. 24, what purpose does
inverter stage? the circuit serve which con-
(di In Fig. 22, what purpose does nects terminal A through C3 and
R1 serve? the parallel combination of C2
(ag) In the circuit shown in Fig. 22, and R4 back to the base of Q1?

44
 ANSWERS TO vided by the battery. The small
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS current flowing through R1 de-
velops a voltage across this re-
(a) R1 is placed in the cathode cir- sistor having the polarity
cuit of V1 to develop an oper- shown. This voltage subtracts
ating bias for the tube. Current from the battery voltage so that
flowing from B minus through the net forward bias across the
R1 will develop avoltage having emitter-base junction is equal
the polarity shown on the dia- to the battery voltage less the
gram. This makes the cathode voltage drop across R1. Usu-
positive with respect to ground. ally, the forward bias of only a
The grid of V1 connects to few tenths of a volt is required
ground through the generator across the emitter-base junc-
and, since there will be no de tion and R1 is selected so that
current flow through the grid the base current flowing
circuit, there will be no voltage through it will develop a volt-
drop; therefore, the grid will be age drop, and when it is sub-
at de ground potential. This will tracted from the battery volt-
make the cathode positive with age the forward bias will be
respect to the grid. In other only a few tenths of a volt.
words, the grid is negative with (e) No. The holes flow to the col-
respect to the cathode. lector, where they are filled by
(b) C1 is a cathode bypass capaci- electrons. These electrons
tor. Its purpose is to provide a come from the negative termi-
low impedance path for the sig- nal of the battery and flow
nal around the cathode bias re- through R2 to the collector. The
sistor R1. The value of C1 is movement of the holes is con-
selected so that its reactance is tained entirely within the tran-
much lower than the resistance sistor. In the external circuits,
of R1 at the frequency of the sig- all current flow is electron
nals to be amplified. Often, C1 flow.
is an electrolytic capacitor; a (f )The forward bias placed across
large capacitor is required in Qi makes the base negative and
this circuit because the resist- the emitter positive. When the
ance of R1 is usually small and input signal tends to swing the
a large capacitor with alow re- base in a positive direction it
actance is required to bypass reduces the forward bias
it effectively. across the emitter-base Junc-
(c) In Fig. 1, the amplified signal tion. When this happens the
voltage developed across R2 number of holes crossing the
will be 180 ° out-of-phase with junction decreases. When the
the input signal voltage. number of holes crossing the
(d) No. The voltage drop across R1 emitter-base junction goes
has the wrong polarity to pro- down, the number of holes
vide a forward bias across the reaching the collector will go
emitter-base junction of Ql• down. This means that fewer
The forward bias across the electrons will flow through R2
emitter-base junction is pro- to fill the holes reaching the

45
 collector. When the number of input of the second stage. In
electrons flowing through R2 Fig. 1 the output capacity is
decreases, the voltage drop made up of the plate-to-ground
across R2 will go down, so that capacity of V1 plus wiring ca-
the polarity of the collector end pacity and the grid-to-cathode
of R2 will swing in a negative capacity of V2 plus wiring ca-
direction. In other words, the pacity. In Qi the output capacity
negative voltage on the collec- of the transistor plus wiring ca-
tor of Qi will increase. pacity limits the frequency re-
(g) In the circuit shown in Fig. 2, sponse along with the input ca-
the value of C3 is selected so pacity of Q2 plus wiring ca-
that it will have a very low re- pacity in this circuit.
actance over the frequency (j) The early vacuum tubes were
range of the signals to be am- not capable of giving avery high
plified. Therefore, as far as the gain. By means of a step-up
signal is concerned C3 acts as transformer between stages the
a short circuit. In other words, gain obtainable from the stage
the circuit functions as though could be increased by the turns
there is a direct connection ratio of the transformer.
from both ends of R2 to the end (k) The high gain available with
of R3. The input resistance of modern vacuum tubes makes
Q2 is equal to R3 in parallel transformer coupling no longer
with the resistance across the necessary. In addition, R-C
emitter-base junction. The re- coupling is more economical
sistance across the emitter- and yields better frequency re-
base junction is comparatively sponse.
low; therefore, the input resist- 1 ) The transformer serves as an
(
ance of Q2 is low. The signal impedance-matching device. It
voltage developed in the collec- matches the high output imped-
tor circuit of Qi will depend ance of the first stage to the
upon the size of the load re- low input impedance of the sec-
sistor. Thus, even though R2 ond stage. Thus, maximum
may be made large in order to power transfer is possible and
develop a fairly high signal a higher voltage gain can be
voltage, since the input resist- obtained.
ance of the second stage is di- (m) Modern transistors are rela-
rectly in parallel with this re- tively inexpensive. By using a
sistor it will pull the effective three-stage R-C coupled volt,
value of the collector load re- age amplifier you can obtain as
sistance down. As the net re- much gain as with a two-stage
sult, the gain of Qi is affected transformer coupled amplifier.
appreciably by the input resist- The R-C coupled amplifier will
ance of the second stage, Q2. be less expensive and also
The coupling capacitor C3. capable of better frequency re-
The high frequency limit of the sponse.
amplifiers is controlled pri- (n) You must obtain a replacement
marily by the capacity in the transformer having the same
output of the first stage and the turns-ratio as the turns-ratio

46
 of the original transformer. tially constant. Any increase in
(0) The power amplifier in a radio current through V1 is compen-
receiver is designed to supply sated for by an equal decrease
the power required to drive or in current through V2 and vice
operate the loudspeaker from versa.
the signal voltage applied to it. (v) C1 and C2 are plate bypass ca-
(P) A beam power tube or a pen- pacitors. They prevent high-
tode tube. Triode tubes have frequency oscillation.
been used as power amplifiers (w) T1 is astep-down transformer.
but they require considerable A step-down transformer is re-
driving power. Therefore, it is quired to match the low input
not likely you will find a triode impedance of Qi and Q2 to the
tube in modern equipment. high output impedance of the
(q) The bypass capacitor in the driver stage.
plate circuit of a power ampli- (x) In a push-pull power amplifier,
fier is used to bypass the high- even-order harmonics gener-
frequency audio signals and ated within the stage are can-
prevent high-frequency oscil- celled within the stage so that
lation. the distortion is kept quite low.
(r) Low-frequency distortion can (Y) The circuits are practically
be kept to a minimum by using identical except that a higher
a large value capacitor for C2, bias is used in Fig. 17 in order
the cathode bypass capacitor. to bias the tube essentially at
This will reduce the frequency plate current cut-off. In addi-
at which the reactance of the tion, T1 will be a step-down
capacitor becomes large e- transformer in the circuit
nough to stop acting as an shown in Fig. 17, although it
effective bypass. can be a step-up transformer
(s) The collector which is con- in the circuit shown in Fig. 13.
nected to the case of the tran- (z) Forward-bias across the emit-
sistor must dissipate a fair ter-base junctions in the circuit
amount of heat. Since the col- shown in Fig. 18 is provided by
lector is operated at almost the voltage divider consisting
ground potential, very little in- of R1 in series with the parallel
sulation is required between the combination of R2 and R3. This
collector and ground. Thus a will bias the base slightly nega-
good heat contact can be made tive with respect to the emitter.
between the collector and re- (aa) Distortion is the introduction of
ceiver chassis so that the chas- a signal in the output that is not
sis can aid in dissipating the present in the input or the loss
heat from the transistor. of a signal in the output that is
(t) You are more likely to find a present in the input.
push-pull output stage where (ab) Amplitude distortion, fre-
the transistors are operated in quency distortion and inter-
a Class B circuit. modulation distortion.
(u) The cathode bias resistor is (ac) Inverse feedback is a signal fed
not bypassed because the cur- from the output of acircuit back
rent through it remains essen- to the input, with apolarity such

47
 that it subtracts from the input (ag) R5 serves as a high-frequency
signal. With inverse feedback, tone control. It is usually called
the feedback signal reduces the a treble control.
amplitude of the input signal. (ah) The tap on the volume control
(ad) With the cathode bypass ca- along with capacitor C3 and R6
pacitor omitted, the signal cur- form an automatic bass com-
rent flowing through the tube pensation circuit. At low vol-
will develop a voltage across ume levels, low-frequency
R2. Since this voltage has the sounds sound weaker than high-
same polarity as the grid volt- frequency sounds. To balance
age producing it, it reduces the the relative loudness between
net grid-to-cathode voltage. the two, the high-frequency sig-
The voltage thus subtracts from nals are bypassed through C3
the input voltage. and R6 so that the low-fre-
(ae) The phase inverter eliminates quency signals receive greater
the need for an input trans- amplification.
former to the push-pull output (ai) Qi is used in acommon-collec-
stage. It takes part of the sig- tor circuit.
nal fed to V2, one of the output (aj) The elimination of the output
stages, and inverts it so that it transformer.
can be used to drive V3. (ak) This circuit provides inverse
(af) R1 serves as a low-frequency feedback to improve the fre-
tone control. This type of con- quency response of the ampli-
trol is called a base control. fier.

48
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B202.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However,don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. When considering the action of the coupling network at middle fre-

quencies, why can we ignore the coupling capacitor C3 in Figs. 1
and 2?

2. In Fig. 2, what percentage of the signal voltage appearing across R2

will appear across R3 at the low-frequency half-power point?

3. Why is more gain obtained from the two-stage transformer-coupled

voltage amplifier shown in Fig. 9 than from the two-stage voltage
amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 2?

4. If transformer coupling between transistor voltage amplifiers pro-

vides maximum gain, why is R-C coupling more frequently used?

5. What is the difference between a voltage amplifier and a power am-

plifier?

6. In Fig. 14, will the voltage drop across R2 add to or subtract from the
forward bias across the emitter-base junction of Qi and Q2?

7. Why are push-pull Class B power amplifiers preferred over push-pull

Class A power amplifiers or single-ended power amplifiers in tran-
sistor portable receivers?

8. What is the advantage of using inverse feedback in low-frequency volt-

age and power amplifier stages?

9. In the two-stage amplifier shown in Fig. 22, in what type of circuit are
the transistors Qi and Q2 used?

10. What will be the polarity of the voltage at terminal A, in the circuit
in Fig. 24, when the input signal drives the base of Q2 in a positive
direction and the base of Q3 in a negative direction?
CONVERSATIONALLY SPEAKING
Conversation is a give-and-take proposition, and
listening is the "take" part. Talk only when you can
say something of interest. Otherwise, remain silent.
Let your silence be eloquent enough to show that you
derive pleasure from listening--that you consider
the words of your companion far more valuable than
anything you could say. This kind of silence can make
just as many friends as good conversation.
Talk about things which will interest and please
your listeners. Their hobbies, their work, their
children and their homes are all good opening topics
for conversation. Don't talk about yourself, your
troubles or your work, unless asked.
Avoid expressing definite opinions on controver-
sial subjects, for they often lead to unpleasant argu-
ments. Ridicule of another person is likewise taboo
at all times. If you can't say pleasant things about
others, keep quiet. Finally, reserve technical dis-
cussions for technically minded listeners.

4-.e',-,,-.-----
'

.;,
Pj rÀ
imrig
a
Innovation in learning
II by a McGraw-Hill
à aII Continuing Education School 139-LT-215
ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

HOW RADIO-FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIERS WORK

NATIONAL RADIO IN STITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

HOW RADIO-FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIERS WORK
B203
 STUDY SCHEDULE

CI 1. Introduction Pages 1-4

Here we take a look at a basic rf amplifier.

D 2.Practical Facts about

Resonant Circuits Pages 5-15
In this section you review resonant circuits, and learn
why the bandwidth they will pass is important.

El 3. Radio-Frequency
Voltage Amplifiers Pages 15-25
We review the basic arrangement of asuperheterodyne
receiver, then we take up pentode and triode tube rf
amplifiers, transistor rf amplifiers and field-effect
transistor rf amplifiers.

Ei 4. I-F Amplifiers Pages 26 -33

You study tube and transistor i
-f amplifiers for both
radio and TV receivers.

C15. Radio-Frequency
Power Amplifiers Pages 34-42
You learn about both vacuum tube and transistor power
amplifiers.

CI 6. Answer Lesson Questions.

1:17. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1968 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

JDL4M771 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 HOW RADIO-FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIERS WORK

A radio-frequency amplifier is radio and television receivers all

an amplifier designed to amplify contain rf amplifiers. RF amplifiers
signal frequencies above the sound are used in all types of communica-
or audio range. Some radio-fre- tions equipment designed to transmit
quency amplifiers are designed to or receive information by means of
operate at frequencies as low as 20 radio waves ranging from simple
or 30 kilocycles ;you will find ampli- inexpensive portable receivers up
fiers of this type in very low-fre- to the complex radio systems de-
quency communications equipment. signed to keep in touch with satel-
Other radio-frequency amplifiers lites and relay information about
are designed to operate at frequen- the earth or other planets from the
cies of several hundred megacycles. satellite back to earth.
The radio-frequency amplifier found RF amplifiers perform two impor-
in the vhf tuner of atelevision re- tant functions. They amplify weak
ceiver must be able to operate at radio-frequency signals and they
frequencies over 200 megacycles in help select the desired signal while
order to amplify signals from TV rejecting undesired signals.
Channels 11, 12 and 13. As you will The signal transmitted by a radio
see in this lesson, the operation of or television station is compara-
low-frequency radio-frequency am- tively weak by the time it reaches
plifiers is essentially the same as the antenna of the radio or television
those designed to operate in the very receiver. Before the information
high-frequency regions although contained in that signal can be ex-
some of the problems encountered in tracted from it, the strength of the
amplifiers operating at several hun- signal must be built up. Radio and
dred megacycles or more are not television receivers have rf ampli-
encountered in amplifiers operated fiers in them to build up the weak
at low frequencies. signal picked up by the receiving
Radio-frequency amplifiers are antenna.
usually referred to as rf amplifiers. As you probably already know, in
RF amplifiers are found in all types this country there are hundreds of
of electronic equipment. Modern radio stations sending out signals in

1
the standard radio broadcast band;
there are several hundred television
stations sending out television sig-
RF
nals; and in addition there are thou- LOAD
SOURCE
sands of stations used for commer-
cial communications. A radio or
television receiver must be able to
select the one signal you are in-
terested in from all these and reject
the others. The various radio broad-
cast stations in one locality all op-
erate on different frequencies. Your
receiver has rf stages in it that can
be tuned to respond to one frequency
while rejecting signals of other fre-
quencies. Thus, in addition to am-
plifying the weak signals picked up
by your receiving antenna the rf am- Fig. 1. Two basic rf amplifiers are shown
plifier helps to select the one signal above. Notice that they are similar to the
you want and reject the others. low-frequency amplifiers you have already
In modern superheterodyne re- studied.
ceivers you will remember that the
incoming signal is mixed with the go further into the subject let's see
signal generated by a local oscil- what a basic rf amplifier looks like.
lator (in the set) and a new signal
frequency is produced. This fre- A BASIC BF AMPLIFIER
quency is called the intermediate
(i-f) frequency. This i-f is actually Two basic rf amplifiers are shown
an rf frequency and the amplifiers in Fig. 1. In Fig. lA we have shown
designed to amplify it are rf am- a circuit using a vacuum tube. We
plifiers. However, to distinguish be- have not shown the screen-grid or
tween these amplifiers and the ones suppressor-grid connections to the
that amplify the incoming signal be- tube nor have we shown any bias
fore its frequency is changed, they on the tube, because they do not
are usually called i -f amplifiers. enter into our consideration of the
Our discussion in this lesson will basic rf stage. Notice that the rf
cover both the rf amplifiers that source signal is applied between
amplify the signal before the signal the grid, and the cathode of the tube,
frequency is changed and the i -f and that there is a load in the plate
amplifiers that amplify it after the circuit of the tube. The amplified
signal frequency has been changed. rf signal voltage is developed across
Because rf amplifiers are so this load.
widely used in both transmitting and In the circuit shown in Fig. 1B we
receiving equipment, they are con- have shown atransistor using acom-
sidered a basic circuit and all tech- mon emitter circuit. Again, the rf
nicians should be familiar with and signal source is applied between the
understand their operation. Youwill base and the emitter, and the load
run into this type of amplifier re- is placed in the collector circuit of
gardless of what branch of the elec- the transistor. The amplified signal
tronics field you work in. Before we voltage appears across the load.

2
 have another type of rf transformer.
Again, Li and L2 are inductively
coupled together, but in this circuit
both Li and L2 are tuned to reso-
nance. L1 is tuned to resonance by
C1, and L2 is tuned to resonance by
C2. This type of rf transformer is
C2
found in the i-f amplifiers of most
radio receivers and some TV re-
ceivers.
Another load that might be found,
particularly in TV receivers, is
shown in Fig. 2D. In this circuit C1
is a fixed capacitor and L1 a vari-
able inductance. The circuit is tuned
Fig. 2. Four basic loads which might be to resonance by adjusting a slug
found in rf amplifiers. which moves in and out of L1 to
vary the inductance of the coil.This
At first glance it may appear that method of varying the inductance in
these circuits do not differ appre- the circuit rather than the capacity
ciably from the low-frequency am- could also be used in circuits like
plifiers that you have already those shown in Figs. 2A, 2B, and 2C.
studied. However, there is a big Li and Ci form a parallel resonant
difference, and that difference is circuit. The signal appearing across
in the load used in the output circuit this parallel resonant circuit is cou-
of the rf amplifier. RF amplifiers pled to the following stage through
almost always use some type of capacitor C2. In some high-fre-
resonant circuit as the load. quency circuits, Ci in Fig. 2D is
Four basic loads which might be omitted. The output capacity of the
found in rf amplifiers are shown in tube or transistor and the wiring
Fig. 2. In the circuit shown in Fig. capacity in the circuit take the place
2A we have an rf transformer. Coils of Ci.
L1 and L2 are inductively coupled This brief look at the basic rf
together. The primary Li is tuned stage and the loads that you are
to resonance by the capacitor Ci. likely to find in the plate circuit
The parallel resonant circuit thus of this type of stage should immedi-
formed is connected into the plate ately point out to you the impor-
circuit of the rf amplifier. tance of resonant circuits in rf
In Fig. 2B we have another type amplifiers. The operation of an rf
of rf transformer. Here Li and L2 amplifier stage is quite similar in
are again inductively coupled to- many respects to that of the low-
gether. In this circuit, however, the frequency amplifiers that you have
secondary, L2, is tuned to resonance already studied. The big difference
by Ci. Thus, instead of having the is in the use of resonant circuits
resonant circuit in the output cir- in rf amplifiers. Therefore, before
cuit of the rf amplifier we simply going ahead with our study of the
have Li in the output circuit, and rf amplifier let's learn more about
the resonant circuit is in the input resonant circuits.
of the following rf stage. For many years we have used the
In the circuit shown in Fig. 2C we expressions cycles per second, kilo-

3
cycles per second and megacycles breviated MHz and is equal to
per second to describe the frequency 1,000,000 cycles per second or
of repetitive waves. For example, 1megacycle per second. Notice that
a sine wave is a repetitive wave- the term Hertz not only identifies
form; it simply repeats itself over the number of cycles, but also the
and over again. The frequency of time as one second. Thus to properly
the power line voltage, which is a describe the power line frequency
sine wave, is 60 cycles per second. we can say 60 Hz, but if we use
In place of the expression, cycles cycles, we must say 60 cycles per
per second, a new term, the Hertz, second.
is now being used. Hertz was a You'll find the term cycles per
physicist who many years ago second, kilocycles per second and
studied radio wave propagation. No megacycles per second used in all
unit in electricity has been named the older textbooks and magazines.
after him and hence the term Hertz Even some later textbooks still use
was designated as an honor to him these units. However, the general
and also as aunit of frequency meas- trend is toward adopting the new
urement. One Hertz is equal to one terms Hz, KHz, and MHz. Since you
cycle per second. 60 Hertz is equal need to be familiar with both sets
to 60 cycles per second. We usually of units, we will use both in the
abbreviate the word Hertz Hz, thus following lessons. It will be worth-
instead of writing the power-line while to take time now to memorize
frequency as 60 cps we can write it the equivalents.
as 60 Hz.
In addition to the unit Hertz we 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second
have the kilohertz and the mega- (1 cps)
hertz. The kilohertz is abbreviated 1 Kilohertz (KHz) = 1kilocycle per
KHz and is equal to 1000 cycles per second (kc ps)
second or 1 kilocycle per second. 1 Megahertz (MHz) = 1 megacycle
The term megahertz is usually ab- per second (1 mc ps)

4
 Practical Facts about
Resonant Circuits
In an earlier lesson on resonant already know about resonant cir-
circuits you learned that there are cuits. We know that a circuit will be
two types of resonant circuits, at resonance when the inductive re-
series resonant circuits and parallel actance (XL) of the coil is exactly
resonant circuits. In Fig. 3we have cancelled by the capacitive react-
shown these two resonant circuits. ance (Xc) of the capacitor. You know
A series resonant circuit is shown that this will occur for any given coil
in A and a parallel resonant circuit and capacitor at one frequency and
at B. only one frequency. The circuit will
At this time it might be well to be resonant at this one frequency.
point out again that whether acircuit In other words, if we take any coil
is a series resonant circuit or a and connect a capacitor across it,
parallel resonant circuit depends not at some frequency that circuit will
on how the components are con- be resonant because the inductive
nected, but on how the voltage is reactance of the coil will be exactly
applied to the circuit. If the voltage cancelled out by the capacitive re-
is applied in series with the coil actance of the capacitor.
and capacitor, as in Fig. 3A, the The fact that a resonant circuit is
circuit is a series resonant circuit, resonant at only one frequency does
but if it is applied across the coil not mean that it will respond only to
and capacitor in parallel as in Fig. that exact frequency. In fact, it will
3B, then the circuit is a parallel respond to a band of frequencies
resonant circuit. Keep this point in around the resonant frequency. For
mind; you will run into both series example, if we apply a voltage to a
resonant and parallel resonant cir- series resonant circuit and change
cuits in all types of communications the frequency of the voltage source,
equipment. It is not always easy to we will find that at resonance we get
tell whether the circuit is a series a maximum current flow through the
resonant or a parallel resonant cir- resonant circuit. If we increase the
cuit simply by looking at it, but if frequency slightly above the reso-
you consider how the voltage is ap- nant frequency, we will find that the
plied to the circuit, you can usually current drops slightly. If we in-
tell which type it is without too much crease the frequency of the voltage
difficulty. source still more, the current will
Now let us quickly review whatwe drop a little more. If we increase
the frequency still further, the cur-
rent will drop still further. Simi-
larly, if we reduce the frequency
INPUT INPUT
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
below the resonant frequency, we
will find that the current flowing in

o the circuit is slightly less than the

current flowing at resonance. If we
reduce the frequency still more, the
Fig. 3. A series resonant circuit is shown at current will be still less. In other
A; aparallel resonant circuit at B. words, at resonance we get a maxi-

5
mum current flow through the reso- space and carries either the sound
nant circuit and at frequencies either or picture signals being transmitted
above or below the resonant fre- by the broadcast station. However,
quency, the current is somewhat less a radio-frequency carrier itself is
than it is at the resonant frequency. of no value unless we add intelli-
The further we get away from the gence to it. The earliest method of
resonant frequency, the lower the using this carrier signal was by
current will be. interrupting it in a series of dots
Actually, instead of responding to and dashes to send messages by
a single frequency, the resonant cir- code. However, even though this is
cuit will respond to a band of fre- useful in communications work, it
quencies around the resonant fre- is of no value in transmitting radio
quency. How wide a band of frequen- and television programs for enter-
cies it will respond to depends upon tainment purposes.
the Q of the circuit. If the Q of the In order to transmit a radio pro-
resonant circuit is high, any appre- gram, the sound or audio signal must
ciable deviation from the resonant be superimposed on the radio fre-
frequency will cause an appreciable quency carrier. We call this process
change in output. However, if the Q of superimposing the sound signal on
of the resonant circuit is low, there the carrier, modulation.
must be a substantial deviation from In the modulation process certain
the resonant frequency before the additional frequencies other than the
output of the resonant circuit original carrier frequency are pro-
changes appreciably. duced. For example, let us consider
You might at first think that the a radio station broadcasting on a
fact that a resonant circuit will re- carrier frequency of 1000 KHz. If
spond to aband of frequencies rather we modulate this signal with a1000-
than a single frequency is a dis- cycle (1 KHz) signal, we will pro-
advantage. However, this is not the duce two new frequencies in the
case. In fact, if a resonant circuit modulation process. The 1KHz audio
would pass only a single frequency signal when it is used to modulate
or a very narrow band of frequen- the 1000 KHz carrier will produce
cies, then the radio and TV systems two new signals, one equal to the
that we have today would not be sum of the carrier frequency and the
practical. To see why this is so and audio frequency, and asecond signal
to help us get abetter understanding equal to the difference between the
of what a resonant circuit in an rf carrier frequency and the audio fre-
amplifier must do, let's once again quency. In other words, we will pro-
consider the type of signal that is duce a signal of 1001 KHz and asig-
actually transmitted by a radio or nal of 999 KHz. The 1001 KHz signal
television broadcast station. and the 999 KHz signal are called
the sideband signals. The higher of
SIDEBAND FREQUENCIES the two sidebands is called the upper
sideband and the lower of the two is
In a radio or television broadcast called the lower sideband.
station, one section of the transmit- Now, if we wish to be able to re-
ter generates aradio-frequency sig- ceive this modulated signal on a
nal which is known as the carrier or radio receiver, we must be able to
carrier wave. This is the radio- receive not only the original 1000
frequency signal that travels through KHz carrier, but also the two side-

6
band frequencies. The sideband fre- response curve of atypical resonant
quencies are the frequencies that circuit that is resonant at a fre-
actually carry the 1000-cycle audio quency of 1000 KHz. A response
signal superimposed on the carrier. curve is simply a curve that shows
Therefore, if we had aresonant cir- how the circuit responds to signals
cuit in our receiver that would re- at or near the resonant frequency.
spond only to a frequency of 1000 Notice that at the resonant frequency
KHz and no other signal frequen- of 1000 KHz, the circuit peaks; in
cies, we would not be able to pick other words, the output voltage from
up the 999 KHz and the 1001 KHz the circuit is at its maximum value
signal along with the 1000 KHz sig- at a frequency of 1000 KHz. As the
nal, and hence we would not be able frequency is increased or decreased
to receive the modulation on the from the resonant frequency, the
1000 KHz carrier. voltage produced across the circuit
Fortunately resonant circuits begins to go down. Notice, however,
have what is called abandwidth. This that although the circuit is resonant
simply means that the resonant cir- and the voltage is highest at a fre-
cuit will respond to a band of fre- quency of 1000 KHz, there is some
quencies around the resonant fre- voltage developed across it when the
quency and hence we would have no frequency is as low as 900 KHz and
difficulty designing a resonant cir- also when it is as high as 1100 KHz.
cuit that would respond not only to This means that this circuit tuned
the 1000 KHz carrier signal, but to 1000 KHz when used in areceiver,
also to the 999 KHz and the 1001 KHz will pass, to some extent, frequen-
sideband frequencies. cies as low as 900 KHz and as high
As you will see later, the reso- as 1100 KHz. However, the output
nant circuits in radio and television at these frequencies is substantially
receivers must be able to respond to below what it is at 1000 KHz.
frequencies substantially above or Engineers have arbitrarily set a
below the resonant frequency. We standard by which they measure the
will go into this shortly, but first bandwidth of a resonant circuit. To
let's look into what we mean by the
bandwidth of a resonant circuit and
some of the factors that affect the
bandwidth.

BANDWIDTH 20 20
707%

KC KC
As we pointed out in the preceding
section, a resonant circuit will pass
a band of frequencies rather than a
single frequency. However, if we
move away from the resonant fre-
quency the output that will be ob-
tained from the resonant circuit de-
900KC 950KC 1000KC 1050KC 1100KC
creases. In other words, if we are
980KC 1020KC
50 KHz away from the resonant fre-
quency you will not obtain as high an
output from the resonant circuit as Fig. 4. A response curve showing the two
we would at the resonant frequency. 70.7% points. The bandwidth extends 20 ice
In Fig. 4we have shown a voltage on each side of this resonant frequency.

7
determine the bandwidth of acircuit peak at the resonant frequency. This
you find the points at which the out- indicates that the output from the
put voltage falls to 70.7% of what it resonant circuit has been reduced
is at the resonant frequency. As by loading the circuit. However, the
shown in Fig. 4 these points are at bandwidth of the circuit has been in-
980 KHz and 1020 KHz. The differ- creased. Often, it is desirable to
ence in frequency between these two sacrifice output in order to obtain
frequencies is called the bandwidth a wide bandwidth; this is frequently
of the amplifier. In other words, the accomplished by loading the circuit
bandwidth of this amplifier is 40 with a resistance. The lower the
KHz. It will pass frequencies up to value of resistance, the lower the
20 KHz above and down to 20 KHz output and the wider the bandwidth
below the resonant frequency, with of the resonant circuit.
at least 70.7% of the output that will Loading resonant circuits by con-
be obtained at the resonant fre- necting resistors across them re-
quency. duces the Q of the circuit. It is sel-
As in low-frequency amplifiers, dom necessary to do this in radio
the points at which the voltage falls receivers because the required
to 70.7% are called the half-power bandwidth can be obtained by the
points. correct design of the tuned circuit.
Now the question might come up, In fact you do not want too wide a
do all resonant circuits have the bandwidth because you must have
same bandwidth? The answer is no; sufficient selectivity to be able to
the bandwidth depends upon the L-C select the one signal you want from
ratio of the resonant circuit and on among many signals picked up by
the Q of the resonant circuit. You the receiver. The ideal arrangement
will remember that there are many is a circuit with awide enough band-
different combinations of L and C width to pass all the sidebands being
that will resonate at a given fre- transmitted by the station and enough
quency. Different combinations will selectivity to reject all signals be-
have different bandwidths. Further- yond the sideband frequencies. How-
more, the Q of the resonant circuit, ever, you will find that in TV re-
which is determined chiefly by the ceivers the resonant circuits are
inductive reactance of the coil and frequently loaded by connecting re-
the resistance in the resonant cir- sistors across them in order to get
cuit, will have an effect onthe band- the wide bandwidth needed to pass all
width of the circuit. the sidebands that carry the picture
In actual practice the bandwidthof and color detail.
the circuit is sometimes altered by
loading the circuit with resistance.
In Fig. 5A we have shown a typical
parallel resonant circuit. In Fig. 5B
we have shown the circuit loaded with
a resistor. In Fig. 5C curve 1shows
the bandwidth of the resonant circuit
alone and curve 2 shows how the
bandwidth is altered by connecting
the resistance in parallel with the Fig. 5. The response curves at C show the
coil and the capacitor. Notice that effect of loading a parallel resonant circuit
curve 2 does not come to as high a as at B.

8
 COUPLING RESONANT the primary will cut through the
CIRCUITS secondary. There is some maxi-
mum spacing beyond which some of
RF stages are frequently coupled the lines of force produced by the
together by means of rf transform- primary will be lost and will not
ers. A typical example of this type cut the secondary.
of transformer is an i -f trans- An example of the effect of vary-
former. An i -f transformer consists ing the spacing betweenthe two coils
of two resonant circuits as shown in is shown in Fig. 7. If we apply a
Fig. 6A. One resonant circuit is used signal from a variable frequency
as the load in the output circuit of generator to the primary and meas-
one stage and the other resonant cir- ure the output voltage across the
cuit is used as the input in the follow- secondary as the frequency is
ing stage. This double resonant cir- varied, we would obtain data from
cuit helps to improve the selectivity which we could plot curves like those
of the receiver. Selectivity is the shown. Curve 1 shown in Fig. 7A
ability of the receiver to receive the represents a certain spacing be-
desired signal and reject undesired tween the two coils, where the coils
signals. As we pointed out, the re- are pushed quite far apart. As the
ceiver must have enough selectivity coils are pushed closer together the
to reject undesired signals from sta- output across the secondary will in-
tions operating near the frequency of crease until eventually a point is
the desired signal. reached where maximum output is
A photograph showing construc- obtained as shown in curve 2 at B.
tion of an i-f transformer is shown If the coils are pushed still closer
in Fig. 6B. Notice that the two coils together we find that the output at the
are wound on a round cardboard resonant frequency drops some-
form. The coils are not wound on top what, as shown in curve 3 in Fig.
of each other nor are they placed 7C, but rises slightly above and
exactly side by side; you can see slightly below the resonant fre-
that there is some spacing between quency, producing two humps in the
the two coils. However, in spite of response curve with avalley in be-
this spacing, the coils are close tween them. This is often called a
enough so that they are inductively double-hump curve. If we push the
coupled together. coils still closer together, the re-
The exact spacing between the two sponse curve will be still broader.
coils affects the degree of coupling The two peaks have a tendency to
between the two coils. In other move somewhat farther apart and
words, if the spacing is great, not drop in height, and the valley in the
all the lines of force produced by center becomes more pronounced.

Fig. 6. schematic diagram of an i

-f transformer is shown at A; aphoto at B.

9
 The four curves shown in A, B, C,
and D have been superimposed on
a single drawing at E so you can
see the effect of changing the spacing
between the coils.
As the coils are pushed closer to-
gether some point is reached where
the output from the secondary is at
a maximum value. Reducing the
spacing beyond this point results in
the two humps in the curve appear-
ing. At the point where the output is
maximum and just before the humps
in the curve begin to appear, we
have what is called critical coupling.
If the coils are spaced farther apart
than this particular spacing we say
that they are under-coupled, mother
words the coupling is less than criti-
cal coupling. If the coils are pushed
closer together than this spacing, we
say that the circuits are over-cou-
pled, in other words the coupling is
tighter or closer than critical
coupling.
As a technician you will not have
to adjust the spacing between the
primary and secondary coils on an
i-f transformer. They will already
be adjusted for you by the manu-
facturer. The i -f transformers in
a broadcast-band radio receiver are
usually adjusted at, or slightly be-

o yond, the critical coupling point. The

i-f transformers in a communica-
tions receiver are usually adjusted
below the critical coupling point.
The i -f transformers in an FM re-
ceiver or in the FM sound section
of a television receiver are adjusted
somewhat beyond the critical
coupling point.
In the early days of television,
double-tuned i -f transformers were
used in the video (picture) i -f am-
plifier stages. These transformers
were very heavily overcoupled, and
in addition, they were usually loaded
Fig. 7. Response curves showing how coup- by resistors in order to reduce the
ling affects bandwidth and response. Q of the primary and secondary cir-

10
cuits and obtain a very wide band- tioned. In a radio receiver designed
width. to receive radio signals on the
However, modern TV receivers standard broadcast band the re-
usually employ what is called bi- ceiver must be able to pass the car-
filar wound transformers. A trans- rier wave of the broadcast station
former of this type is shown in Fig. plus its sidebands. In the standard
8A. Notice that the secondary wind- broadcast band the sidebands do not
ing is wound directly over top of the extend too far above and below the
primary winding in order to obtain carrier frequency and therefore an
as tight coupling as possible between extremely wide bandpass is not re-
the two windings. Bifilar windings quired.
are usually represented schemati- In communications receivers the
cally by the symbol shown in Fig. primary purpose of the receiver is
8B. The fact that the coils are inter- to be able to receive information.
wound so that the primary turns are Often the station that you are listen-
mixed directly with the secondary ing to may be operating very close
turns is schematically repre- to other more powerful stations.
sented. The advantage of the bifilar Here you want as much selectivity
wound transformer is that the cou- as you can get. Therefore the i -f
pling between the two coils is very coils are set either at or below
tight. A single slug is used to adjust critical coupling in order to get as
the resonant frequency of the cir- much selectivity as possible from
cuit. The two coils are so tightly the transformer. If some of the side-
coupled that they act like one coil. bands of the signal are missing this
The output capacity of the stage will not be too important. In com-
driving the primary circuit is in munications circuits where com-
effect directly in parallel with the munications receivers are used,
input of the second stage. The net you are usually interested in re-
result is that the single slug can be ceiving voice transmission, and the
used to adjust the two circuits to frequency range of the human voice
resonance at the same frequency. is comparatively limited.
Bifilar wound coils are excellent A much wider bandwidth is used in
where a wide frequency band is FM transmitters than in AM trans-
needed. This situation is en- mitters. In FM transmissions, the
countered in the video i -f ampli- amplitude of the signal transmitted
fier of a television receiver as you by the FM station does not vary.
will see later. Instead, the frequency of the signal
There are reasons for using the is varied. It can be varied in the
various types of coupling in each of standard FM broadcast station as
the particular applications men- much as 75 'kilohertz above or 75

Fig. 8. Bifilar wound transformers are used in modern T.V. A is a photo; B is the
schematic symbol.

11
kilohertz below the center frequency ceiver is not wide enoughto pass the
or resting frequency as the carrier video carrier signal, sidebands and
frequency of the FM station is called. the color subcarrier, then the set
The rate at which the signal varies could not reproduce a color picture.
above and below the resting fre- Later in your course when you study
quency is determined by the fre- television in detail you will under-
quency of the audio signal being stand why it is important that the
transmitted. How far above and be- video i -f amplifier of a television
low the resting frequency the signal receiver have such a wide band-
varies is determined by the ampli- width.
tude of the audio signal. A loud sig-
nal can produce sidebands two hun- SERVICING NOTES
dred KHz wide. Therefore the FM
broadcast receiver must be capable We have already pointed out that
of passing all these sideband fre- a high Q resonant circuit not only
quencies, particularly if the FM sta- has better selectivity than a low Q
tion is a high-fidelity station. circuit, but also for a given input
The FM sound system in a tele- has a higher output. Thus if a piece
vision receiver is called narrow of electronic equipment is designed
band FM. Here the maximum de- with high Q resonant circuits, any-
viation above and below the sound thing that lowers the Q of the cir-
carrier frequency is limited to 25 cuits will reduce the gain and the
kilohertz. The rate at which the selectivity of the equipment. The
carrier resting signal is varied chances are that you may not notice
above and below the carrier fre- a change in selectivity, but it is quite
quency is again determined by the likely that you will notice that the
frequency of the signal being trans- gain of the equipment has fallen off
mitted and the amount varied with appreciably.
the amplitude. Even with the devia- There are several things that
tion limited to 25 KHz, sideband fre- might reduce the Q of a resonant
quencies considerably in excess of circuit. Coils can absorb moisture.
25 KHz are easily produced. The Often in damp weather dust or other
sound i -f transformer must pass this particles will settle on the coil and
band of frequencies in aTV receiver adhere to it. Both of these effects
or the sound signals will be dis- will introduce resistance in the cir-
torted. cuit, lowering the Q of the circuit
In a TV receiver the picture sig- and changing both the output and the
nal consists of a carrier plus the selectivity.
modulation information on it. The Sometimes the low Q is due to a
modulation signal may produce side- poorly soldered connection in a
bands up to 4 megahertz wide. resonant circuit. If the connection is
Therefore in ofder to reproduce the not properly soldered, it may work
sidebands the i -f bandwidth on the well for a while and then develop
TV receiver must be comparatively trouble. Poor connections of this
wide. In color TV, a subcarrier type often get through the factory
having a frequency of about 3.5 MHz inspection. Holding a hot soldering
is used. This produces a video i -f iron on suspected connections until
signal that is 3.58 megahertz lower the solder flows freely over the leads
in frequency than the video i -f car- will usually clear up this type of
rier. If the i-f bandwidth of the re- trouble.

12
 You will frequently find in serv- grounded insofar as rf is concerned
icing radio receivers that have been so that the, grid-to-screen capacity
in use for many years, that even is effectively placed between the grid
though you replace defective tubes and ground. The cathode of the tube
so that you have all good tubes in the is usually operated at rf ground po-
set and all operating voltages tential so that the grid-to-cathode
throughout the set are normal, the capacity is placed directly between
gain of the receiver is not all it grid and ground. Thus if the input
should be. When realigning the set of the tube is connected across a
does not clear up the trouble, the resonant circuit, the tube capacities
difficulty is often due to the fact affect the resonant circuit. If an i -f
that the Q of one or more of the amplifier is aligned with one tube in
resonant circuits has fallen off be- a circuit and then a different tube
cause of moisture or dirt absorp- is installed, it is likely that the new
tion. In a situation like this you must tube will not have exactly the same
find the resonant circuit causing the input capacity as the old one. As a
trouble and replace it to restore the result, installing the new tube in the
equipment to its original gain and circuit will slightly detune the reso-
selectivity. nant circuit. Radio receivers de-
Trouble of this type is not often signed for broadcast band reception
found in transistor radios or in TV are usually fairly broad, so the
receivers. As we pointed out, this change in capacity will not be enough
is something that occurs after a to cause trouble. However, if you
receiver has been used for many change two or three tubes in an i -f
years. Most transistor radios are amplifier of a TV receiver the reso-
too new to have developed this kind nant frequency of the various cir-
of trouble. The trouble is not found cuits in the i -f amplifier may be
in TV receivers, because usually altered enough to appreciably alter
the resonant circuits in the tele- the bandwidth of the i -f amplifier so
vision receiver are very heavily that it can no longer pass all the
loaded in order to give the wide sideband frequencies and there will
bandwidth needed to pass the picture be some loss in picture detail. In
signal. transistor equipment you have ca-
Resonant circuits are tuned to pacity between the emitter and the
resonance by adjusting the capacity base and between the base and col-
or the inductance in the circuit so lector which can have the same effect
that the inductive reactance of the on resonant circuits.
coil is exactly equal to and cancels In communications receivers de-
out the capacitive reactance of the signed to provide good selectivity in
capacitor at the resonant frequency. order to separate stations operating
Any further change of either the in- very close together, changing one or
ductance or the capacitance in the more tubes or transistors in one of
circuit will shift the resonant fre- the tuned circuits such as the rf
quency of the circuit. amplifier, mixer, or i -f stages will
Both tubes and transistors have a usually alter the resonant frequency
certain amount of internal capaci- of the particular circuit involved to
tance. For example, in an i -f tube such an extent that the selectivity of
there is capacity between the grid the receiver will suffer. This is
and the cathode and between the grid particularly true of stages designed
and the screen. The screen is to operate at high frequencies.

13
 Disturbing the wiring in a reso- caution, but it is a precaution that
nant circuit designed for operation can keep you out of difficulty in
at a high frequency may change both some critical circuits.
the inductance and capacity in the Much of the material covered in
circuit. Even a straight short piece this section has been a review for
of wire has a certain amount of in- you, but now that you have the im-
ductance. At the comparatively low portant points about resonant cir-
frequencies used for standard radio cuits fresh in your mind you are
broadcasting a straight short piece ready to go ahead with your study
of wire has so little inductance that of rf amplifiers.
it can be ignored. However when you
get up into the higher frequencies SELF TEST QUESTIONS
such as those used for TV and FM
broadcasting, even the smallest (a) What is the basic difference
inductance becomes important. between the circuit used in an
Changing the length of a wire in a rf amplifier and the circuit
critical circuit may have some effect used in an audio amplifier?
on the resonant frequency because (D) What is the basic difference
the inductance in the circuit is between aseries-resonant and
changed. Also moving the position a parallel-resonant circuit?
of a wire in a resonant circuit op- (c) What are sideband frequen-
erating at ahigh frequency and push- cies?
ing it closer to a metal chassis or (d) What do we mean by the band-
moving it further away from the width of a resonant circuit?
metal chassis may change the ca- (e) On what factors does the band-
pacity of the circuit. There is al- width of a resonant circuit de-
ways capacity between the wires in pend?
a resonant circuit and the chassis (f) How can the bandwidth of a
or ground. Moving the wires around given parallel-resonant cir-
in a broadcast-band receiver is not cuit be increased?
likely to cause any trouble, but (g) What do we mean by critical
changing the position of awire in a coupling between two coils?
high-frequency circuit will fre- (h) What do we mean by over-
quently have an appreciable effect coupling?
on the circuit. (i) What happens to a resonant
These points are very important circuit that absorbs moisture,
and are worth remembering when and dust and particles settle
working on resonant circuits found on the coil and adhere to it?
in TV receivers or any other equip- (i) Why should you avoid moving
ment designed for high-frequency any of the wires in the rf sec-
operation. When it is necessary to tion of aTV receiver?
make repairs on components in or
near resonant circuits, it is a good Resonant circuits are extremely
idea to avoid disturbing the parts important in rf amplifiers. If you
and leads as much as possible. If think you may have forgotten some
you have to move a lead to get at of the details you learned about
another part in order to replace it, resonant circuits it would be a good
try to put the lead back in as close idea to spend some time reviewing
as possible to the original position. to be sure you understand and re-
Often this is an unnecessary pre- member the important character-

14
istics of both series and parallel- follow where we'll go into detail
resonant circuits. This will help you about both vacuum tube and tran-
in these sections of the lesson to sistor radio-frequency amplifiers.

Radio-Frequency
Voltage Amplifiers
A block diagram of asuperhetero- cation. The signal is still a radio-
dyne receiver is shown in Fig. 9. frequency signal so strictly speak-
You have seen this block diagram ing the i -f amplifier is a radio-
before. The rf amplifier is the stage frequency amplifier. However, it
connected to the antenna. The weak operates at much lower frequencies
signal from the antenna is fed to the than the rf amplifier that precedes
rf stage where it is amplified and the mixer. From the i -f amplifier
then fed to the mixer. The rf stage the signal is then fed to a second
also has tuned circuits so that it pro- detector where the intelligence on
vides acertain amount of selectivity. the carrier wave is removed and
In other words, it helps select the then it is fed to a low-frequency
desired signal and reject undesired amplifier. In the case of a radio
signals. receiver the signal is then fed to a
The signal from the rf amplifier speaker; in the case of a television
is fed to a mixer-oscillator stage. receiver the sound signal is fed to
In this stage the incoming signal is a speaker and the picture signal is
mixed with a locally generated sig- fed to the picture tube and to vari-
nal and a new signal is produced. ous other circuits you will study
This signal that we are interested later.
in is called the intermediate-fre- The circuit we are going to be
quency signal. It is equal in fre- concerned about in this part of this
quency to the difference between lesson is the rf amplifier used be-
the incoming signal and the oscilla- tween the antenna and the mixer.
tor signal. This intermediate-fre- This stage is omitted in some of the
quency signal, or i -f signal as it is small low-cost radio receivers, but
called, is fed to an i -f amplifier it is invariably found in the better
where it receives further amplifi- receivers and television receivers.

LOW
RF MIXER I
-F 2ND
FREQUENCY
AMP OSCILLATOR AMP DETECTOR
AMP

Fig. 9. Nblock diagram of atypical superheterodyne receiver.

15
The stage is a voltage-amplifier L2 and C1 forms a series-resonant
stage. In later sections of the lesson circuit. The frequency to which this
you will study i -f amplifiers and in circuit is tuned can be altered by
another section rf power-amplifier changing the capacity of C1. This is
stages. done by rotating the dial on the re-
The rf voltage amplifiers used in ceiver, which causes the rotor or
radio and television receivers are moving plates of the tuning capaci-
all Class A amplifiers. Some use tor to move in and out between the
pentode tubes, some use triode stator (stationary) plates of the ca-
tubes, and some use transistors. You pacitor.
will study all three types in this sec- In some receivers instead of using
tion of the lesson. a variable capacitor such as shown
in Fig. 10, a trimmer capacitor is
PENTODE RF AMPLIFIERS used and a powdered iron slug is
used that can be moved in and out
A typical rf amplifier using a of L2. A trimmer capacitor is a
pentode tube is shown in Fig. 10. capacitor that is adjusted by means
This is the type of amplifier that of a screwdriver to adjust the stage
is used between the antenna and the at the high-frequency end of the band
mixer in a communications-type to be covered. The actual change in
superheterodyne receiver, in a few the resonant frequency of the tuned
of the better broadcast-band re- circuit required to tune the receiver
ceivers, and in many FM receivers. across the band is then accomplished
In the circuit shown in Fig. 10, by moving the slug in and out of the
the signal picked up by the antenna coil L2. This type of tuning, which
causes a current to flow through is often called permeability tuning,
L1 which is the primary of the an- is found more frequently in FM re-
tenna transformer T1. L1 and L2 ceivers than in broadcast and com-
are wound on the same form and munications-type receivers.
are inductively coupled together. It makes comparatively little dif-
Thus the magnetic field produced by ference whether the frequency of the
the current flowing through L1 cuts tuned circuit is varied by varying
the turns of L2 and induces a volt- the inductance of the coil or ca-
age in series with it. L2 is tuned to pacity of the capacitor. Either will
resonance by the capacitor C1. Since change the resonant frequency so
the voltage induced in L2 is induced that the rf stage can be tuned to the
in series with it, the combination of frequency of the signal to be ampli-
fied.
We mentioned that L2 and C1 form
a series-resonant circuit. We have
mentioned before that when the volt-
age is induced in the secondary wind-
ing of a transformer, in a circuit of
this type, that the circuit is aseries-
resonant circuit. Fig. 11 is an ex-
ample of what happens.A small volt-
age is induced in each turn of the
coil. These voltages add up to give
Fig. 10. A typical rf amplifier using a pen- you the total voltage induced in L2.
tode tube. It is more or less like a series of

16
 will normally be stepped up and be
much stronger than any other signal.
The varying current flowing
through the tube will flow through
L3, which is the primary winding of
T2. L3 is inductively coupled to L4
and hence a voltage will be induced
in L4. Again L4 and C4 make up a
series-resonant circuit. The combi-
nation of L4 and C4 will be tuned to
the same frequency as L2 and Ci and
hence this resonant circuit will give
the signal a still further build up,
and at the same time help to reject
Fig. 11. Voltage induced in L2 is induced any signals of afrequency other than
in series with the turns of L2. the resonant frequency that happened
to get by L2 and Ci to the grid of
small generators placed in the coil V.
in series with the various turns as Thus we have three things in-
shown in Fig. 11. It is important to creasing the signal voltage. We have
realize that this type of circuit is the resonant voltage step-up in the
always a series-resonant circuit L2 Ci series-resonant combination,
and never a parallel-resonant cir- we have the voltage gain that can be
cuit; it will help you understand obtained from the tube Vi and astill
better what is happening in the cir- further voltage step-up in the reso-
cuit. nant circuit consisting of L4 and C4.
You will remember that one of the Notice that screen grid of the pen-
characteristics of aseries-resonant tode tube is connected to ground
circuit is that there is a high circu- through the capacitor C3. C3 is
lating current in the circuit and that chosen so that at radio frequencies
there will be aresonant voltage step- it has a very low reactance, or in
up across the coil and across the ca- other words it acts like a short cir-
pacitor. Thus we have the weak sig- cuit insofar as radio frequencies are
nal voltage picked up by the antenna concerned. Thus the screen is said
being stepped-up by the resonant to be at rf ground potential. This
circuit. The voltage across the coil simply means that as far as the rf
and across the capacitor in the reso- signal is concerned, the screen grid
nant circuit is then applied between might just as well be connected di-
the grid and cathode of Vi. It is ap- rectly to ground.
plied directly to the grid of the tube The screen grid shields the grid
and to the cathode through the cath- of the tube from the plate so that
ode-bypass capacitor C2. little or no energy can be fed from
The radio-frequency signal ap- the plate of the tube back to the grid
plied between the grid and cathode of the tube. It is important that we
of Vi will cause the plate current avoid feeding any energy from the
flowing through Vi to vary at the plate of the tube back to the grid,
same rate as the incoming signal. otherwise we may have trouble with
Remember that L2 and Ci will reso- the stage going into oscillation.
nate at only one frequency and sig- We mentioned that this type of rf
nals at this particular frequency amplifier may be found in broadcast

17
band receivers, communication re- signal sees no opposition because the
ceivers and FM receivers. The main reactance of C5 is so low. R3 is a
difference between the rf amplifiers comparatively large resistor so
found in these different pieces of there is no signal fed from R3 into
equipment will be in the number of the circuit we have marked ave.
turns on the coils. In an FM re- The purpose of this circuit is to
ceiver that operates in the vicinity enable us to apply avariable nega-
of 100 MHz, the coils L1, L2, L3 tive voltage to the grid of V1. The
and L4 will usually consist of only negative voltage applied to the grid
one or two turns of a rather large of V1 will control the gain of the
diameter wire. In the broadcast tube. The higher the negative volt-
band, the coils will consist of 100 or age, the lower the gain of the tube.
more turns of a comparatively fine The voltage is usually obtained from
wire. In communications receivers the detector circuit and the strength
you will find coils all the way be- of this voltage will depend upon the
tween the coils with 100 or more strength of the signal. This voltage
turns used in broadcast receivers to is referred to as the automatic
the coils with even fewer turns than volume control voltage and is used
those found in FM receivers. The to vary the gain of the stage. If the
exact number of turns on the coil input signal is very strong, the aye
will depend upon the frequency band voltage developed will be high and
the receiver is to cover. will tend to reduce the gain of the
Another pentode rf amplifier is stage. On the other hand, if the signal
shown in Fig. 12. This is identical received is weak, very little aye
to the amplifier shown in Fig. 10 voltage will be developed and the
except the capacitor C5 and resistor stage will operate at close to its
R3 have been added. C5 is a com- maximum gain. You will see in a
paratively large capacitor so that at later lesson how this aye or auto-
the signal frequency its reactance is matic volume control voltage is de-
almost zero. Therefore as far as L2 veloped.
is concerned it is connected directly As a point of interest, ave is the
to B- and to the rotor of C1. The term used in radio receivers. Actu-

TO
C4 NEXT
STAGE

AVC

Fig. 12. A pentode rf amplifier modified for automatic gain control.

18
ally, this is not an automatic volume weak signals. This problem can be
control, but rather it is an automatic overcome by using atriode rf ampli-
gain control. In television, we use fier.
the term automatic gain control, Triode tubes have been especially
abbreviated agc rather than avc. In designed for use as rf amplifiers in
television age is much more suitable vhf tuners of television receivers.
because varying the gain of the rf The vhf tuner in a television re-
amplifier affects both the picture and ceiver covers channels 2 to 13. A
sound signals. typical triode rf amplifier such as
might be found in a television re-
TRIODE RF AMPLIFIERS ceiver is shown in Fig. 13.
In TV receivers the lead-in or
One of the disadvantages of pen- wire used to connect the antenna to
tode rf amplifiers is that they gen- the receiver is usually what is called
erate considerable noise within the a balanced wire or cable. This cable
tube itself. Part of this noise is often has two conductors and neither is at
caused by changes in the division of ground potential. Each is operated
the cathode current between the plate above ground. The resistance or im-
and screen of the tube. Small changes pedance from either wire to ground
occur at random. These changes are is the same. We call this type of line
too small to be detected in most a balanced transmission line.
cases, but they result in noise being The balanced transmission line is
generated within the tube. In the case connected to the antenna terminals
of radio stations operating in the of the receiver. In the circuit shown
broadcast band and FM stations, in Fig. 13 it is fed to T 1. Ti is what
usually the signals are so strong that is called a balun. The purpose of the
they simply override this noise and balun is to match the balanced trans-
it does not cause any trouble. How- mission line to the unbalanced input
ever, in TV receivers the noise may circuit. An unbalanced input circuit
become objectionable and may ap- is a circuit in which one side of the
pear in the picture, particularly on circuit is grounded. T1 serves the

LA

T1

TO

ANT.

Fig. 13. Atriode rf amplifier.

19
purpose of matching the balanced plate of the tube back to the grid
line to the unbalanced input of the through the tube could cause the
receiver. stage to go into oscillation. The sig-
The capacitors Ci, C2 and C3 nal fed from the lower end of L6
along with coils L1 ,L2 and L3 form through C5 to the grid of the tube is
what is called a high-pass filter. A 180 ° out-of-phase with the signal fed
high-pass filter is a filter that through the tube and cancels this
passes signals above a certain fre- signal thereby preventing oscilla-
quency and rejects signals below this tion. You will remember that when
frequency. The lowest vhf TV chan- you studied triode tubes before, we
nel is channel 2. The frequency of pointed out that they would oscillate
this TV channel is 54 to 60 mega- in rf circuits unless they were
hertz. The high-pass filter is de- neutralized. This is a neutralizing
signed to cut out all signals below circuit.
54 megahertz and pass signals above In the early days of radio, triode
54 megahertz. Thus strong signals amplifiers were used in broadcast-
from nearby broadcast stations op- band receivers, but since the pentode
erating the standard broadcast band tube was invented, triode tubes have
are prevented from reaching the rf not been used for this purpose. How-
amplifier and causing interference. ever, you will find triodes in the rf
The combination of L4 and C4 form amplifier of TV receivers where the
a parallel-resonant circuit. This low-noise characteristic of the
circuit is usually a uhf trap and is triode is an advantage over a pen-
designed to prevent interference tode. The circuit in Fig. 13 is typi-
from uhf television signals from cal. You do not have to memorize
reaching the grid of the rf circuit. this circuit. We will go into it in more
L5 and C5 form aseries-resonant detail later when you study TV, but
circuit that is resonant to the fre- at least you should have an idea of
quency of the channel received. C6 the general circuit configuration
is avery large capacitor and insofar and notice that except for the balun
as the resonant circuit is concerned and trap in the input circuit, the
has no effect on the circuit. circuit is not too different from
The signal applied to the grid of the pentode rf amplifier circuit. Of
the tube is amplified and fed to L6. course, as far as the triode ampli-
The combination of L6 and C7 forms fier itself is concerned, the balun,
a parallel-resonant circuit which is the high-pass filter and the uhf trap
resonant to the frequency of the TV could be eliminated and a signal fed
channel. directly to the resonant circuit and
B+ is applied to the plate of the to the grid of the tube. These other
tube through R1. The lower end of components are needed because of
L6 is not at ground potential. It is the circumstances under which the
bypassed through C6. However, C6 amplifier is used.
does not bypass all of the signal, but
TRANSISTOR
part of it is fed back through C5 to
RF AMPLIFIERS
the grid of the tube. The purpose of
feeding this signal back to the grid of A typical transistor rf amplifier
the tube is to make up for any signal such as might be found in a radio
fed from the plate of the tube back receiver is shown in Fig. 14. The
to the grid of the tube through the circuits use an NPN transistor in a
tube itself. The signal fed from the common-emitter circuit.

20
 L3
L4

Vr
MIXER

Fig. 1,1. A transistor rf amplifier.

L1 is a coil wound on a ferrite age divider consisting of R2 and R3.

rod. A ferrite rod is a rod made of R3 is much larger than R2 so that
a powdered iron-type material held the base is made only slightly posi-
together by a suitable binder. The tive with respect to the emitter. R1
coil is wound on this rod to get a is placed in the emitter circuit be-
very high Q. It is tuned to resonance tween the emitter and ground in
by C1 so that the combination of L1 order to stabilize the bias withtem-
and C1 form a series-resonant cir- perature increases.
cuit. The circuit can be tuned to the The signal applied between the
frequency of the desired station. L2 emitter and base of the transistor
is inductively coupled to LI. Since varies the forward bias across the
L2 has fewer turns than L1, there emitter-base junction which causes
will be a current step-up, in other the number of electrons crossing
words the current flowing in L2 the junction and reaching the collec-
will be higher than the current flow- tor to vary. The varying current
ing in L1. This serves two useful flowing through the transistor
purposes; it provides a higher cur- reaches the parallel-resonant cir-
rent for the emitter-base circuit of cuit consisting of L3 and C5. The
the transistor Qi, and prevents the current flows through L3 to the tap
transistor from loadingthe resonant on the coil and then through R4 back
circuit. If it did load the resonant to the positive terminal of the power
circuit excessively it would lower supply.
the Q of the coil and in so doing re- Notice that the coil L3 is tapped.
duce the selectivity of the circuit. The tap on L3 is essentially at sig-
The signal induced in L2 is ap- nal-ground potential. A voltage is
plied to the base of the transistor induced in the lower end of L3 which
and to the emitter through C2. C2 will be 180 ° out-of-phase with the
is selected to have a low reactance voltage at the upper end of L3. The
at the signal frequency. voltage from the lower end of L3 is
The forward bias for the emitter- fed through C4 back to the base of
base junction is provided by the volt- the transistor. This voltage is fed

21
back to neutralize or cancel any In Fig. 15, T1 is a balun and its
voltage that is fed from the collec- purpose once again is to match the
tor of the transistor to the base balanced transmission line from the
through the collector-base capacity. antenna to the unbalanced input of
This will prevent the stage from the rf amplifier.
oscillating. In this circuit the combination of
L4 is inductively coupled to L3, L1 and Ci form a parallel-resonant
and since it has fewer turns than L3 circuit. This circuit is resonant at
we have in effect astep-down trans- approximately 41 MHz. The sound
former. Thus the input of the mixer i-f frequency in the TV receiver is
transistor does not load the reso- 41.25 MHz. The purpose of this cir-
nant circuit in the collector circuit cuit is to prevent any interference
of the rf amplifier. by a nearby station operating on 41
In many ways the transistor rf MHz from getting to the rf stage and
amplifier is similar to the triode on through into the sound circuits of
tube rf amplifier. Both may go into the receiver.
oscillation unless steps are taken The combination of C2 and L2 form
to neutralize the feedback voltage a series-resonant circuit at 45.75
through the device. MHz. The picture i -f frequency in
Transistors are also used as vhf the TV receiver is 45.75 MHz. A
rf amplifiers in TV receivers. A series-resonant circuit offers alow
typical transistor vhf amplifier for resistance to signal frequencies
a television receiver is shown in near 45.75 MHz. Therefore this cir-
Fig. 15. Here you can perhaps see cuit will prevent interference from
more closely the similarity between a nearby station operating on or near
the transistor circuit and the triode the video i-f from getting into the

L5 L
6
tube circuit. picture and causing interference.

R2 TOMIXER
T5
±,
L
4
L
1
TI
C
3L3
CI cio

T.;

_ AGC

Fig. 15. Transistor vhf amplifier.

22
 C3 and L3 form aseries-resonant go into automatic gain control cir-
circuit which is tuned to the fre- cuits in detail later. Using an auto-
quency of the desired TV station. matic gain control circuit to con-
The signal is fed through the ca- trol bias across the emitter-base
pacitor C10 to the base of the tran- junction of the transistor will pro-
sistor. The emitter of the transistor vide much more satisfactory re-
is at signal-ground potential, the sults than applying a fixed forward
resistor R1 in the emitter circuit bias across the junction.
is bypassed by capacitor C6.
The signal voltage fed between the FIELD-EFFECT
base and emitter of the transistor TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
causes the electron current through
the transistor to vary and this causes As you learned earlier, the field-
the current flowing from the collec- effect transistor combines many of
tor of the transistor and through L5 the desirable characteristics of the
to vary. The current from the collec- vacuum tube, along with those of the
tor flows through L5, through R2 transistor. Therefore it is reason-
and on to the +terminal of the power able that the field-effect transistor
supply. would make an excellent rf ampli-
L5 is inductively coupled to L6; fier. Both the junction type and the
therefore a voltage will be induced insulated-gate type can be used as
in L6 . This voltage is fed to the rf amplifiers.
mixer stage which follows the rf Fig. 16 is a diagram showing a
stage. junction-type N channel field-effect
The signal at the lower end of L5, transistor used as an rf amplifier.
that is the opposite end from the In the circuit shown in Fig. 16,
collector, is bypassed to ground the source is connected to the nega-
through C5. However, C5 is not a tive side of the power supply and the
perfect bypass and part of the signal drain to the positive side. A negative
is fed through L4 and Cg back to the bias is applied to the gate through
base of the transistor. This is the L2 and R1 from the age terminal.
neutralizing voltage which makes up The negative bias on the gate sets
for and cancels the signal fed across the current flow through the channel
the collector-base capacity of the from the source to the drain of the
transistor back into the base circuit. transistor.
Without this neutralizing circuit the When a signal is received by the
rf stage would oscillate.
The forward bias for the transis-
tor is applied through the resistor
R3 to the base. This bias circuit
connects back to the automatic gain
control circuit in the television re-
ceiver. The automatic gain control
circuit regulates the gain of the rf
stage automatically. In the case of
a strong signal, the automatic gain
control voltage reduces the gain of
the rf stage, and in the case of a
weak signal, it allows the stage to Fig. 16. An rf amplifier using a junction
operate at maximum gain. You will field-effect transistor.

23
antenna it causes a current to flow tor makes this transistor ideally
through L1. L1 is inductively coupled suited for use as an rf amplifier. In
to L2 and the voltage is induced in operation, it actually resembles
series with the turns of L2. L2 and very closely a pentode tube. While
C1 form a series-resonant circuit the transistor we have shown in Fig.
which is tuned to the frequency of 16 is an N-channel transistor, a P-
the incoming signal. channel transistor can be used just
The induced voltage across L2 is as well. In this case the polarity of
applied between the gate and ground the voltages would be reversed and
in series with the negative bias ap- also a positive voltage would be ap-
plied to the gate. This voltage will plied to the gate in order to reverse
add to or subtract from the gate bias bias the junction and prevent any
depending upon the polarity of the current flow in the gate circuit.
signal voltage. The varying rf volt- There will be some reverse cur-
age will modulate the current flowing rent flow across the junction in a
from the source to the drain, by junction-type field-effect transis-
varying the effective width and hence tor. This will have the effect of
the resistance of the channel. Thus lowering somewhat the input resist-
we have the signal voltage applied ance of the transistor. This can be
to the gate of the transistor causing overcome by the use of an insulated-
substantial variations in the current gate field-effect transistor in acir-
flowing through the transistor. cuit such as shown in Fig. 17. The
The varying signal current from circuit here shows an N channel
the drain of the transistor flows depletion-type insulated-gate field-
through L3. L3 is inductively coupled effect transistor.
to L4 and hence a signal voltage is In the circuit shown, current flows
induced in L4. L4 and C3 form a from the negative side of the power
series-resonant circuit which is supply through R2 to the source of
tuned to resonance at the same fre- the transistor. It flows through the
quency as L2 and Ci. The output from transistor to the drain and then
the resonant circuit consisting of through L3 back to the positive side
L4 and C3 can then be fed to another of the voltage source. The gate is
rf amplifier, to a mixer or to a de- connected to the negative automatic
tector. gain control voltage through L2. The
The high input resistance of the negative voltage applied to the gate
junction-type field-effect transis- will limit the width of the channel

D
G

RF
R1 L4
OUT PUT

T
C4

C3 R2
C2

AG C

Fig. 17. An rf amplifier using an insulated-gate field-effect transistor.

24
and hence control the resistance of ance of the gate. Since the gate is
the channel. actually insulated from the drain
In operation, the rf signal input is source by means of a layer of in-
applied to L1. This may be from an- sulation the input resistance of the
other rf amplifier or directly from gate is extremely high. Pickup from
an antenna. The signal current flow- a nearby power line can induce a
ing through L1 induces a voltage in high enough voltage in the gate to
series with L2. L2 and C1 form a destroy the transistor if the gate
series-resonant circuit. The reso- circuit is open.
nant signal voltage is applied to the
SELF TEST QUESTIONS
gate of the transistor and this volt-
age is applied in series with the (k) What type of amplifiers are
negative age voltage and hence the rf amplifiers found in radio
varies the negative voltage on the and television receivers?
gate at an rf rate. The varying sig- (1) What type of resonant circuit
nal voltage causes the resistance is C1 and L2 in Fig.10?
of the channel to vary and this causes (m) What is the purpose of C3 in
the current flowing from the source the circuit shown in Fig. 10?
through the transistor to the drain (n) What is permeability tuning?
to vary. L3 and C5 form a parallel- (o) What is T1 in the circuit shown
resonant circuit. This high-imped- in Fig. 13, and what purpose
ance circuit develops a high signal does it serve?
voltage due to the varying current (P) Why are triode tubes often
flowing through it. L3 is inductively used as rf amplifiers in tele-
coupled to L4 and the output from vision receivers?
L4 can be fed to another rf ampli- (q) Why does L2, in Fig. 14, have
fier or to a mixer as it would be in fewer turns than L1?
the case of a superheterodyne re- (r) What is the purpose of C4 in
ceiver. the circuit shown in Fig. 14?
As in the case of the preceding (s) In the circuit shown in Fig. 15
circuit, aP-channel transistor could what are the combinations of
be used as well as an N-channel tran- L1 and C1 and L2 and C2 used
sistor. Also the enhancement type of for?
insulated-gate transistors could be (t) Why must anegative voltage be
used. However, it is likely that most applied to the gate of the junc-
rf amplifiers using the insulated-gate tion field-effect transistor
field-effect transistors will be of the shown in Fig. 16?
depletion type N channel transistors. (u) What is the primary advantage
As mentioned previously, one of of the field-effect transistor in
the disadvantages of the insulated- an rf amplifier circuit over the
gate transistor is that they are easily typical NPN or PNP transis-
damaged. Simply removing or in- tor ?
serting the transistor in the circuit (v) Which of the two circuits, the
when the voltages are applied could one shown in Fig. 16 or the one
destroy the transistor due to high shown in Fig. 17 has the least
peak voltages built up in the gate loading effect on the input cir-
circuit due to the very high resist- cuit ?

25
 I-F Amplifiers
From the block diagram of the the frequency of the local oscillator
superheterodyne receiver which we will also be increased so that when
have shown in Fig. 9, we see that the rf and mixer stages are tuned
the signal picked up by the antenna to 1500 KHz, the local oscillator
is amplified by an rf amplifier and will be operating at 1955 KHz. Once
then fed to a combination mixer and again the difference frequency is 455
oscillator stage. In this stage the rf KHz. In other words, as long as we
signal is mixed with a signal from maintain the same difference be-
a local oscillator. The local oscil- tween the incoming signal and the
lator simply generates an rf signal oscillator signal frequencies, the i
-f
which we use to mix with the in- signal frequency produced will be the
coming signal. The signal produced same.
by the local oscillator is always a The advantage of a constant sig-
fixed frequency either above or be- nal frequency for the intermediate
low the frequency of the incoming frequency lies in the fact that we
signal. In most cases the oscillator can des ign an amplifier with ahigher
is operated at a frequency above the gain when it is to be operated at a
frequency of the incoming signal. fixed frequency than we can if we
Mixing the incoming rf signal with have to be able to vary the frequency.
the locally generated signal pro- Also, using a low frequency i
-f gives
duces two new signal frequencies in us some advantages insofar as
the mixer. It produces asignal equal selectivity is concerned. We will go
to the sum of the frequency of the into this in detail later when you
incoming signal plus the frequency study superheterodyne receivers in
of the oscillator and also a signal more detail.
equal to the difference between the In this section of the lesson we are
two frequencies. We use the differ- going to study some typical i -f am-
ence signal as the intermediate fre- plifiers. Remember, even thoughwe
quency signal in a superheterodyne call the amplifiers intermediate fre-
receiver. This signal is referred to quency amplifiers, they are radio-
as the i-f signal. frequency amplifiers because the
Since the frequency relationship signals they amplify are radio-fre-
between the incoming signal and the quency signals. However, they are
local oscillator is maintained con- different from the rf amplifiers you
stant, the i-f signal produced in the studied in the preceding section be-
mixer will always have the same cause they operate at a lower fre-
frequency. In other words, when the quency, and also because once their
receiver is tuned to a signal of one frequency is set, it normally is not
frequency, for example asignal 1000 varied.
KHz, the oscillator might be oper-
ating at 1455 KHz. The difference PENTODE I-F AMPLIFIERS
between these two signal frequen-
cies is 455 KHz and therefore this A typical pentode i
-f amplifier is
will be the i -f signal frequency. If shown in Fig. 18. Notice that we have
we tune the receiver to ahigher fre- resonant circuits both in the input
quency, for example 1500 KHz, then and the output of the stage, and that

26
 Fig. 18. A typical i
-f amplifier using apentode tube.

in many respects it resembles the applied to the grid of Vi, and to the
pentode rf amplifier shown in Fig. cathode through C3. C3, the cathode
10. bypass is chosen so that it has alow
In the circuit shown in Fig. 18, reactance at the signal frequency.
the input signal is obtained from the The i-f signal applied between grid
mixer output. In the output of the and cathode of V1 causes the plate
mixer we will have four signals. One current flowing through the tube to
signal will be equal to the frequency vary and this varying plate current
of the incoming signal, another sig- is fed to the parallel-resonant cir-
nal will be equal to the frequency of cuit consisting of L3 and C5. A high
the local oscillator. In addition, we signal voltage is developed across
have the two new signals produced by the high impedance parallel-reso-
beating the incoming signal with the nant circuit. L3 is inductively
local oscillator signal. We have a coupled to L4 and the combination
signal equal to the sum of the two of L4 and C6 form a series-reso-
and a signal equal to the difference nant circuit which is also tuned to
between the two. Ci and Li form a the i-f frequency. From the output,
parallel-resonant circuit which is the voltage is fed to another i -f
resonant at a frequency equal to the amplifier or to the second detector
difference between the local oscil- which separates the intelligence sig-
lator frequency and the incoming nal on the carrier from the carrier.
signal frequency. Thus, the parallel- As in the rf amplifier the screen
resonant circuit acts as a high im- of the pentode tube is operated at
pedance at the difference signal fre- signal ground potential by means of
quency and acomparatively high sig- a bypass capacitor C4 which has a
nal voltage of this frequency is de- low reactance at signal frequency. A
veloped across it. positive dc voltage is applied to the
Li is inductively coupled to L2. screen of the tube throughthe resis-
This causes a signal voltage to be tor R2. Normally the screen of the
induced in L2. L2 and C2 form a tube will be operated at alower volt-
series resonant circuit, and they age than the plate and R2 is chosen
also are tuned to the difference fre- so that the voltage drop across it,
quency, which from now on we will when subtracted from the plate volt-
call the i-f frequency. In the series- age, will provide the correct screen
resonant circuit we have a resonant voltage for the tube.
voltage step-up, and this voltage is In some circuits the suppressor

27
grid, the grid nearest the plate, is a signal from an instrument called
tied directly to the cathode of the a signal generator into the i
-f ampli-
tube. However, tieing the suppres- fier. The signal generator is set to
sor to ground will often introduce the intermediate frequency and then
a small amount of degeneration in the various resonant circuits are ad-
the stage and improve the stability justed for maximum output from the
of the stage. With modern pentode i-f amplifier. The coupling between
tubes there is such a high voltage the coils is adjusted by the manu-
gain in the stage ,that even though the facturer so that when the various
voltage fed from the plate of the circuits are tuned for maximum out-
tube through the tube, back to the put the required bandpass will be ob-
grid of the tube is very small, it is tained. It is possible to do this in
possible that this voltage might be radio receivers because the band-
high enough to cause oscillation un- width required in radio reception is
less steps are taken to prevent it. comparatively harrow. In television
In some amplifiers you will find receivers, however, the i -f ampli-
that the cathode of the tube is not fier presents special problems and
bypassed. Leaving the cathode un- alignment methods other than peak-
bypassed again introduces some de- ing the transformers or coils at one
generation as it did in the case of frequency must be used.
audio amplifiers and this will tend In the early days of radio, triode
to stabilize the stage and further i-f amplifiers were used, but since
prevent the stage from going into the development of the pentode tube,
oscillation. the triode tube has not been used for
We mentioned earlier that the i -f this purpose. You can get a higher
amplifier is operated at a fixed fre- gain with apentode i-f amplifier than
quency. Once the receiver is set up, with a triode, and in addition the
the resonant frequency of the tuned pentode does not require neutraliza-
circuits is not changed as you tune tion.
from station to station. When the re-
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
ceiver is set up, the various reso-
nant circuits are all adjusted to A typical transistor i
-f amplifier
resonate at the i -f frequency. This is shown in Fig. 19. Notice that this
is usually accomplished by feeding circuit is practically identical to the

T2
T1

L4 OUTPUT

Fig. 19. A typical transistor i

-f amplifier using aPNP transistor.

28
 T2

Fig. 20. Transistor i

-f amplifier using NPN transistor.

circuit of the rf amplifier shown in the previous circuits, R3 is put in the

Fig. 14. circuit for bias stabilization, to pre-
In Fig. 19, Ci and Li form aparal- vent thermal runaway of the tran-
lel-resonant circuit and would be in sistor.
the collector circuit of the mixer Another transistor i -f amplifier
stage. L1 is inductively coupled to is shown in Fig. 20. This amplifier
L2. L2 has fewer turns than L1 so uses an NPN transistor whereas the
that we have a step-down trans- one shown in Fig. 19 uses the PNP
former to match the low input re- transistor. In addition to the differ-
sistance of the transistor circuit to ent transistor types, the method of
the high resistance of the parallel obtaining neutralization is somewhat
circuit. The signal is applied to the different. Notice the resistor in the
base of the transistor and to the emitter circuit, R2. This resistor is
emitter through C2. The i -f signal not bypassed and therefore a signal
current from the collector is fed to voltage will be developed across this
the parallel resonant circuit which resistor. This signal voltage is fed
consists of L3 and C5. L4, which has through C2 into the lower end of the
fewer turns than L3, is inductively coil L2. The center tap of L2 is at
coupled to L3 so that a signal cur- signal ground potential, because C3
rent will be induced in L4. The out- has a low reactance at the signal
put from L4 would probably be con- frequency. The lower end of L2 is
nected to another transistor i -f am- inductively coupled to the upper end
plifier or to a detector stage. As in so that a voltage is induced in the
the rf stage shown earlier, C4 pro- upper end of the coil 180 ° out-of-
vides neutralization and feeds asig- phase with the signal fed to the lower
nal back into the base which is 180 ° end through C2. This voltage is fed
out-of-phase with the signal fed from to the base and will neutralize any
the collector to the base through the signal voltage fed from the collector
transistor. back into the base through the tran-
Forward bias for the transistor is sistor itself.
provided by the voltage divider net- Notice that the collector is con-
work consisting of R1 and R2 .As in nected to a tap on the coil L3. The

29
output resistance of the transistor nals is required in order to repro-
is comparatively low and by feeding duce a TV picture. Some large areas
it to a tap on the coil inthis manner may be reproduced by comparatively
we prevent loading of the parallel low frequency signals, but the fine
resonant circuit made up of L3 and detail in a picture is reproduced by
C4. This prevents loading of the comparatively high-frequency sig-
resonant circuit which in turnwould nals. The video i -f amplifier must be
cause a reduction in the selectivity able to pass the video i -f carrier and
in the circuit. the sidebands which contain the video
Field-effect transistors can also signal. Also, in color TV receivers
be used as i -f amplifiers, but since they must pass an additional signal
they are considerably more ex- called the color subcarrier. This
pensive than the PNP and NPN types signal carries the color information
they have not been widely used in in the picture. In addition, modern
this application. superheterodyne TV receivers must
be capable of passing the sound i -f
VIDEO I-F AMPLIFIERS signal through at least part of the
video i -f amplifier. The sound i -f
Television receivers are super- signal differs from the picture i -f
heterodyne receivers just like radio signal by 4.5 megahertz. Therefore
receivers. However, the rf, mixer the video i -f amplifier must be capa-
and oscillator stages operate at ble of at least passing with some
higher frequencies than regular re- amplification the sound i -f signal
ceivers designed for reception on the which will be 4.5 MHz lower in fre-
standard broadcast band. quency than the video i -f carrier
The i -f amplifier used to amplify frequency.
the picture signals is called a video You'll study video i -f amplifiers
i-f amplifier. A video i -f amplifier later, but here we want you to get
differs from a sound i -f amplifier some general idea of what the cir-
inasmuch as it operates at a much cuit looks like and the problems in-
higher frequency and must have a volved.
much wider bandwidth. This is due A typical video i -f amplifier using
to the fact that awide range of sig- a pentode tube is shown in Fig. 21.
T2

OUTPUT

Fig. 21. A pentode video i

-f amplifier.

30
This is typical of the circuits you age will vary in amplitude depending
will find in the first video i
-f ampli- upon the strength of the signal re-
fier of a color TV receiver or of a ceived. If the signal is very strong,
black and white TV receiver. The a rather high negative voltage will
input signal is fed to the i -f ampli- be fed to the grid of V1. This will
fier from the mixer. It is fed through reduce the gain of the stage and pre-
the capacitor C1 to the primary of vent overloading in following stages.
T1. Ti is the input i -f transformer On the other hand, if the signal is
and the coils are bifilar wound.This weak, the negative voltage fed to the
means that the coupling between the grid of V1 will be quite low so that
coils is extremely tight. The arrow the tube will operate at its maximum
above the two coils indicates that gain.
there is an iron slug inside the coils T2 is another bifilar wound i -f
which can be adjusted totune the two transformer. Again, the primary and
coils to a particular frequency. secondary coils are very tightly
An example of how abifilar wound coupled.
transformer is constructed was You might notice that there is no
shown in Fig. 8. Notice that the two capacitor in the plate circuit of V1.
windings are interlaced to provide In spite of this, we have a parallel-
very tight coupling between the pri- resonant circuit in the plate circuit
mary and secondary windings of the of V1. You might wonder how this is
transformer. so, but remember that there is a
The combination of L1 and C2 form certain capacity in the tube itself.
a parallel-resonant circuit. This There is capacity between the plate
circuit is resonant at a frequency of and cathode and this is in effect
47.25 MHz. This parallel-resonant electrically across the primary of
circuit is referred to as an adjacent T2. This capacity along with the
channel sound trap. When your TV wiring capacity in the circuit is all
receiver is tuned to channel 4, for the capacity we need at the frequen-
example, if you happen to be near cies involved to form a parallel-
enough to pick up a signal from an- resonant circuit along with the pri-
other station operating on channel mary winding of T2 .Video i -f am-
3, the sound signal from the chan- plifiers usually operate in the 40
nel 3 station might get through the MHz region, and at these high fre-
rf and mixer stages and could cause quencies only a small amount of ca-
some interference in the picture. pacity is needed in a resonant cir-
By inserting the parallel-resonant cuit.
circuit in series with the primary of A typical transistor video i-f am-
T 1 , if there is any signal current plifier is shown in Fig. 22. This i -f
from the channel 3 sound flowing in amplifier is the second video i -f
the circuit, almost all will be amplifier taken from a portable TV
dropped across the high impedance receiver. The input signal is re-
of this parallel-resonant circuit. ceived from the first video i -f am-
Very little will be fed from the pri- plifier and coupled from L1 to L2.
mary to the secondary of T1. L2 has fewer turns than L1 in order
The grid of the tube is fed to the to match the transistor input circuit.
automatic gain control circuit C1 is placed in the circuit to pre-
through Ri. The automatic gain con- vent L2 from shorting out the for-
trol will provide a negative voltage ward bias across the emitter-base
for the grid of the tube. This volt- junction of the transistor. The for-

31
 Fig. 22. A transistor video i
-f amplifier.

ward bias is applied to the base order to help get the broad fre-
through R 1. Again, this bias is ob- quency response required of avideo
tained from the age system, and is i-f amplifier.
varied to vary the gain of the tran- L4 is inductively coupled to L3
sistor depending upon the strength and feeds the next video i-f ampli-
of the signal being received. fier.
The coil L3, which is in the col- In aligning a video i
-f amplifier
lector circuit of the transistor, along such as shown in Fig. 22, L1 is not
with the transistor capacity and the tuned to the same frequency as L3.
wiring capacity, form a parallel- By tuning the resonant circuits to
resonant circuit. The arrow of the different frequencies we broaden
coil indicates that the circuit can the response of the amplifier. For
be tuned by means of a slug which example, the resonant circuit in
moves in and out of L3. Notice that which L1 is located may be tuned as
the collector voltage is fed to a shown by curve A in Fig. 23. At the
center tap on the coil. The center same time L3 and its circuit might
tap is held essentially at ground be tuned as shown in curve B. The
potential by the capacitor C4. A volt- overall response produced by the two
age is induced in the lower half of amplifiers may then look like curve
L3 which is 180 ° out-of-phase with
the voltage in the upper half. The
voltage from the lower half is fed
through C3 back into the base circuit
in order to provide neutralization
and to cancel out any signal fed
through the transistor from the col-
lector to the base.
The resistor R3, which is con-
A
nected across L3, is a loading re-
sistor. The purpose of this resistor Fig. 23 Response of curves A and 13 to-
is to load the resonant circuit in gether may give overall response like C.

32
C which has awider bandwidth than why is the collector connected
either curve A or curve B. You will to a tap on L3?
study video i -f amplifiers in detail (an) Where is the neutralization for
later and learn more about how the the transistor in the circuit
various resonant circuits are ad- shown in Fig. 20 obtained?
justed for resonance. (ab) What is the chief difference
between the video i -f ampli-
SELF TEST QUESTIONS fier in a television receiver
and the sound i -f amplifier in
(w) What determines the i -f fre- a radio receiver?
quency in a receiver? (ac) Why is there no capacitor
(x) Why can we usually operate an across the primary winding of
i-f amplifier at higher gain T2 in the circuit shown in Fig.
than an rf amplifier? 21?
(y) Why is the cathode resistor in (ad) What purpose does R3 in
some pentode i -f amplifiers Fig. 22 serve?
left unbypassed? (ae) What purpose does C3 in Fig.
(z) In the circuit shown in Fig. 20, 22 serve?

33
 Radio-Frequency Power
Amplifiers
So far the rf amplifiers we have several respects from those used in
been discussing are the types found voltage amplifiers.
in radio and television receiving A TRIODE
equipment. They are voltage ampli- POWER AMPLIFIER
fiers. They are used to build the
weak signal voltage to a reasonably Although triode tubes are not very
high value before the signal is fed to frequently used as rf voltage ampli-
a detector to extract the intelligence fiers except in the vhf region, they
that has been used to modulate the are quite widely used as power am-
carrier. In radio and television plifiers. Many high-power transmit-
transmitters and in other industrial ters today use triode rf power am-
applications rf power amplifiers are plifiers.
used. RF power amplifiers differ Schematic diagrams of two triode
from voltage amplifiers in anumber rf power amplifiers are shown in
of respects. Not only are the tubes Fig. 24. Since there are several dif-
generally much larger than those ferences between these two circuits
used in voltage amplifiers, but also we'll look at the circuits one at a
the circuit configurations differ in time.

o
8- 8+

Fig. 24. Schematic of two triode power amplifiers.

34
 In the circuit shown in Fig. 24A wement, and the center tap of this re-
have shown a filament-type tube. sistor is grounded. Sometimes in-
This type of tube is frequently found stead of using a tapped resistor of
in transmitting applications because this type, the filament winding of the
a solid tungsten filament or a transformer used to supply the volt-
thoriated tungsten filament will age to heat the tube is center-tapped
stand up better than an oxide-coated and the center tap is grounded.
cathode at the high voltages usually The filament of atransmitting tube
used in transmitting tubes. In the is rather heavy, and as a result can
circuit shown in Fig. 24E we have be operated from ac. The tempera-
shown a cathode-type triode tube so ture of the filament changes so
that you will see the difference be- slowly that there is no heating and
tween the two types. cooling of the filament as the ac volt-
Examining the grid circuit of the age goes through its cycle.
diagram shown in Fig. 24A, you'll With the high bias on the tube,
see that connected between the grid plate current will flow through the
of the tube and ground we have acoil tube in a series of pulses. There
called aradio-frequency choke. This will be a pulse of plate current each
is abbreviated RFC on the diagram. time the input signal drives the grid
Also connected between this choke sufficiently in a positive direction to
and ground we have a resistor R1. overcome the bias. Because the grid
Power amplifiers are normally op- is driven positive, the peak current
erated as class C amplifiers. This reached during each pulse will be
means that the input signal drives high, but because the operating bias
the grid of the tube positive so that on the tube will be substantially be-
electrons flow from the filament of yond cutoff bias, plate current will
the tube to the grid. These electrons flow for less than one half of each
will strike the grid and then flow cycle.
from the grid through the rf choke to In the plate circuit of this stage,
the parallel combination of R1 and we have a parallel resonant circuit.
C2. Some of the electrons will flow Notice that the coil L1 is tapped, and
through R1 to ground, but most of the center tap is connected through
them will charge C2. During the por- another radio-frequency choke (usu-
tion of the cycle when the grid is ally called an rf choke) to B+. The
not drawing current, C2 will dis- B+ voltage applied to the plate of the
charge through R1. The time con- tube is thus applied through the choke
stant of R1 and C2 is selected so that and half of L1. Capacitor C7 is a
C2 does not appreciably discharge variable capacitor called a split
between cycles of grid current. R1 stator capacitor. You will remember
is selected so that the average grid that a variable capacitor has two
current provides the bias required separate plates, one set that is sta-
for the tube. Usually for class C op- tionary, called the stator, and the
eration, this is somewhere between other set that rotates, called the
two and four times cut-off bias volt- rotor. In a split-stator type capaci-
age. tor there are two sets of stator
Notice the bypass capacitors and plates, which are insulated from
the tapped resistor in the filament each other. The rotor consists of
circuit. Each side of the filament is two separate sets of plates, one for
bypassed to ground, and atapped re- each set of stator plates, but the
sistor is connected across the fila- rotor plates are electrically con-

35
nected together. The rotor is op- When a tube is used in acircuit of
erated at signal ground potential by this type where its bias is developed
grounding it through C6 and the sta- by the grid current flowing through
tors are connected to the ends of L1. the grid resistor, we say the tube is
The parallel resonant circuit in self-biased. This type of bias is en-
the plate circuit of the tube is more tirely satisfactory when the stage is
or less shock-excited by the pulses operating properly and when the nor-
of plate current received from the mal signal drive is applied to the
tube. The pulse of the plate current input. However, if a defect develops
sets up circulating currents in the in a preceding stage so that no signal
tank circuit. These pulses from the is applied to the input, the grid of the
tube are more or less smoothed out tube will not be driven positive and
by the tank circuit so that the cur- there will be no current flow. Ca-
rent circulating back and forth in the pacitor C2 will discharge throughRi
resonant circuit is a sine wave. so that the bias applied to the tube
Since the tube used in this circuit will disappear. Once the bias dis-
is a triode tube, there will be energy appears there will be a very high
fed from the plate of the tube back to current flow from the filament to the
the grid circuit. Because a power plate of the tube and unless there is
amplifier develops considerable some safety measure incorporated
power in the plate circuit, there will in the circuit so that the circuitwill
be enough energy fed back into the be opened when the current goes be-
grid circuit to result in oscillation. yond a certain level, the current will
This oscillation is overcome by rise to such ahigh value that the tube
feeding a signal from the tank cir- will be destroyed.
cuit through C5 back into the grid In the circuit shown in Fig. 24B we
circuit of the tube. Notice that the have tuned circuits in the input and
plate of the tube connects to one end output circuits. Coil L1 is induc-
of the tank circuit and C5 connects tively coupled to L2 and its energy
to the other end. The voltage at the fed into L2 .L2 and C1 form aseries
two ends of the tank circuit will be resonant circuit. Here, instead of
of opposite polarity. Therefore, the using self-bias, a fixed bias voltage
signal fed through C5 back into the is applied to the grid circuit of the
grid circuit is of opposite polarity tube. Notice that the negative ter-
to the signal fed from the plate to minal of the C battery or C bias
the grid circuit through the tube supply connects to the coil, and
capacity. C5 is usually an adjustable through the coil to the grid. The
capacitor that can be adjusted to positive terminal of the C supply is
feed exactly the same amount of grounded. Sometimes you'll find the
signal into the grid circuit as is fed bias connections on the diagram
through the tube capacity. C5 is labeled C- and C+ as in Fig. 24B
called a neutralizing capacitor. It is and on other occasions you'll find
used to feed back energy into the grid them labeled bias.
circuit to neutralize or cancel the The resonant circuit in the plate
energy fed back into the grid circuit circuit of this stage is the same as
through the tube. the circuit shown in Fig. 24A. Again,
The output signal is taken from the stage is neutralized by feeding
the tank circuit by inductively energy from the tank circuit through
coupling another coil, marked L2 a capacitor (C3) back into the grid
on the diagram, to L1. circuit of the tube.

36
 In some triode power amplifiers ally possible to design a circuit that
you'll find a combination of fixed does not require neutralization. This
bias and self bias. In this type of is a big advantage if a power ampli-
circuit the two types of bias shown fier is to be used over awide fre-
in Fig. 24 are incorporated into a quency range. In a triode power am-
single circuit. This is done by plifier, if you have occasion to
selecting a value of resistor in the change the frequency at which the
grid circuit somewhat smaller than amplifier is operating, you often
what is needed to develop the full have to readjust the setting of the
bias required by the tube. The re- neutralizing capacitor. However if
mainder of the bias is supplied by a tetrode stage can be operated with-
a separate bias power supply. For out neutralization, this problem is
example, if a tube requires a bias not encountered. Of course, in a
of 100 volts for class C operation, radio broadcast transmitter that is
a resistor might be put in the grid designed to operate on one specific
circuit that would develop 50 volts frequency, neutralizing the triode
bias and then a fixed power supply doesn't present any great problem,
used to provide the other 50 volts. and once it is neutralized you do not
The advantage of this arrangement have to re-neutralize it unless you
is that the bias is somewhat self- change the tube. However, in many
regulating. In other words if the grid communications applications, it is
current increases, the bias will in- necessary to have transmitters that
crease and tend to prevent over- can be operated on a number of dif-
driving the tube. At the same time, ferent frequencies. In such a case,
the fixed bias would also protect the a tetrode tube that does not need
tube if the preceding stage develops neutralization is quite advantageous.
a defect so that the signal drive is The tetrode tubes used in modern
not supplied to the grid of the tube. power amplifiers are beam power
tubes. You will remember that a
TETRODE POWER
beam power tube is a tube made so
AMPLIFIERS
that the cathode emits electrons in
Tetrode power amplifiers have two streams or beams from opposite
two big advantages over the rf triode sides of the cathode. The electrons
power amplifiers. Perhaps the are further focused into a beam by
greater advantage lies in the fact means of beam-forming plates which
that a tetrode has a very high power are connected inside the tube to the
sensitivity. This means that you need cathode of the tube. Although you
only a small input signaltodrive the might actually consider the beam-
tube hard enough to produce arather forming plates as separate ele-
large signal in the output. Thus the ments, the general practice is to
power gain in atetrode rf power am- ignore them when counting the tube
plifier is much greater than in a elements so the tube is considered
triode power amplifier, because a to be a tetrode or four-element tube.
substantial amount of driving power A schematic diagram of a tetrode
is usually required to drive atriode. rf power amplifier is shown in Fig.
The second big advantage of atet- 25. Notice that we have a resonant
rode power amplifier is the fact that circuit in the input. Again, this tube
the screen grid effectively shields circuit uses self bias; the bias
the grid of the tube from the plate. needed to operate the tube in the
With careful circuit design it is usu- Class C amplifier is developed

37
 Fig. 25. A tetrode rf power amplifier.

across the parallel combination of A push-pull tetrode power ampli-

R1 and C2 by the grid current. Again, fier is shown in Fig. 26. Here notice
grid current flows because on the that the circuit configuration is quite
positive half cycle the signal drives similar to the push-pull circuits
the grid positive and electrons are used in audio work with the exception
attracted to the grid. of the resonant circuits used in the
A parallel resonant circuit is used grid and plate circuits of the tube.
in the plate circuit, and the output Notice that split stator tuning ca-
is taken by inductively coupling L4 pacitors have been used in both the
to L3. input and the output circuits. Again,
The screen grid of the tube is op- because the feedback from the plate
erated with apositive voltage applied of the tube to the grid of the tube is
to it. Sometimes this voltage is ob- low due to the shielding effect of the
tained from a separate power supply screen, neutralization is not re-
or from a tap on the main power sup- quired. However, sometimes you
ply. Sometimes a dropping resistor will find tetrode power amplifiers
is connected between the plate sup- using neutralization.
ply and the screen grid of the tube Pentode rf power amplifiers are
in order to drop the screen voltage sometimes used, but they are not
to avalue lower than the plate volt- nearly as common as tetrode power
age. amplifiers. The circuits used for

Fig. 26. A push-pull tetrode rf power amplifier.

38
pentode tubes are similar to those This type of power amplifier is used
used for tetrodes. The suppressor only when the power requirements
grid of the pentode tube is usually are quite low. A Class B power am-
connected to B-. plifier will provide a higher power
gain and better efficiency. Of course,
TRANSISTOR POWER
a Class C power amplifier will pro-
AMPLIFIERS
vide the best efficiency, but the
A few years ago there were rela- harmonic output from a Class C
tively few transistor rf power am- power amplifier will be quite high.
plifiers because the rf power that The tank circuits used with Class C
could be generated by transistors power amplifiers are designed to
was quite limited. However, a great offer a high impedance to the har-
deal of progress has been made in monics and a low impedance to the
transistor design and manufacture fundamental frequency.
and now there are many transistor Biasing Methods.
rf power amplifiers in use. Of For Class A bias on a transistor
course, there are no transistors power amplifier, we must have afor-
available that can develop the very ward bias across the emitter-base
high rf powers that vacuum tubes junction as in the case of transistor
can develop, but low and medium voltage amplifiers. For Class B
power rf transistors are available. bias, the bias across the emitter-
Transistor power amplifiers may base junction of the transistor is
be used in either the common-emit- zero. For Class C bias, we must
ter or common-base circuits. The have a reverse bias across the
common-emitter circuit is more emitter-base junction so that cur-
stable, but at very high frequencies rent will flow through the transistor
the emitter lead inductance may re- only on the peak of the rf cycle. That
strict the power capability of the overcomes the reverse bias and
transistor. In this case the common- drives the emitter-base junction into
base circuit may provide a higher the conduction region. As in the case
power gain, but it will be more un- of vacuum-tube Class C amplifiers,
stable than the common-emitter cir- current will flow through the tran-
cuit. sistor for less than half a cycle.
Transistor rf power amplifiers Two typical circuits for develop-
may be operated as Class A, Class ing Class C bias for a transistor
B or Class C amplifiers. Class A power amplifier are shown in Fig.
amplifiers provide extremely good 27. In the circuit shown in Fig.27A,
linearity but the efficiency is low. the incoming rf signal drives the

INPUT

Fig. 27. Two methods of producing bias for Class C power amplifiers.

39
base of the transistor positive and there will be no current flow through
electrons leave the base and flow the transistor.
through the rf choke and charge the Typical Circuits.
capacitor C with the polarity shown. A typical Class C transistor rf
Some of the electrons flow through power amplifier is shown in Fig.28.
R1 to ground developing a voltage In this circuit the biasing method
drop across this resistor having the shown in Fig. 27B is usedto provide
polarity shown. a reverse bias across the emitter-
During the portion of the rf cycle base junction.
when the transistor is not conduct- The rf signal is fed into the input
ing, C1 discharges throughRi main- and on the positive half of the cycle
taining the reverse bias across the the rf signal overcomes the reverse
emitter-base junction essentially bias across the emitter-base junc-
constant. tion and electrons flow through the
Another method of obtaining Class transistor. The choke in the collec-
C bias is shown in Fig. 2'7B. In this tor circuit completes the de current
circuit, when the input signal drives path through the transistor. The rf
the base positive, current flows signal is fed to the output network
through the resistor R2 to the emit- consisting of C2, C3, L1 and L2.
ter, across the emitter-base junc- C2 is adjusted for resonance and
tion of the transistor, across the C3 is adjusted to obtain the desired
base and the base-collector junction loading.
and then through the rf choke RFC2 When more power is required
back to B+. The electrons flowing from an rf power amplifier than can
through R2 will charge capacitor C1 be obtained from asingle transistor,
with the polarity shown. During the two or more transistors can be used
portion of the cycle when the base either in push-pull or in parallel. In
is not driven positive by the rf sig- push-pull operation transformers
nal, Ci will discharge through R2 must be used for proper input signal
maintaining the emitter positive with phase. This works out quite satis-
respect to ground. Thus the emitter factorily at lower i -f frequencies,
will be positive with respect to the but at very high frequencies it is
base and will have a reverse bias difficult to build transformers which
across the emitter-base junction so provide the required impedance

OUTPUT

INPUT

Fig. 28. A Class C transistor power amplifier.

40
transfer. Therefore parallel opera- the voltage across R2. The voltages
tion of transistors is generally pre- across these two resistors should
ferred at vhf over push-pull opera- be equal; this would indicate each
tion. transistor is picking up half of the
In Fig. 29 we have shown a sche- load.
matic diagram of two transistors
operated in parallel. If additional SELF TEST QUESTIONS
power is required, a third parallel
transistor in an essentially identical
(al) What is the purpose of C5 in
circuit could be added. Fig. 24A ?
Previously we mentioned the ef- (ag) Why is it possible to operate
fect of emitter-lead inductance at the filament of the triode tube
vhf. The effect of this inductance is shown in Fig. 24A from ac
tuned out by the capacitors C3 and power?
C4. (ah) How are the pulses of current
In a circuit of this type, it is de- that flow through a Class C
sirable to have transistors with amplifier stage smoothed into
matched characteristics in order to a sine wave?
insure that each transistor will pick (ai) What are the two big advan-
up half of the load. tages of the tetrode power am-
To check the operation of the tran- plifier over the triode power
sistors to be sure that each is amplifier?
handling half the total current, we (aj) What type of bias is placed
measure the voltage across R1 and across the emitter-base June-
4.

Fig. 29. A high-frequency power amplifier using two transistors in parallel.

41
 tion of a transistor operated shown in Fig. 27A?
as a Class C power amplifier? (al) What purpose do the capaci-
(ak) Across what parts is Class C tors C3 and C4 in the circuit
bias developed in the circuit shown in Fig. 29 serve?

ANSWERS TO SELF TEST QUESTIONS

(a) The basic difference is in the are coupled together beyond

load found in the rf amplifier. the critical coupling point. It
It is usually some type of reso- results in some drop in output
nant circuit. and produces a so-called
(b) The basic difference is how the double-hump response curve.
voltage is applied to the coil (i) The moisture and dust parti-
and capacitor in the resonant cles will introduce resistance
circuit. If the voltage is ap- into the circuit and lower the
plied to the coil and capacitor Q of the circuit. This will tend
in series, it is aseries-reso- to reduce the output from the
nant circuit, but if it is applied resonant circuit and also re-
to the coil and capacitor in duce the selectivity.
parallel, it is aparallel-reso- )At the high frequencies used in
nant circuit. the rf section of a television
(c) Sideband frequencies are fre- receiver, moving awire may
quencies above and below the change the inductance or ca-
carrier frequency produced pacitance in aresonant circuit
when we add the intelligence sufficiently to upset the per-
to be transmitted to the car- formance of that circuit. This
rier frequency. is particularly true of the coils
(d) The bandwidth of a resonant and leads used in conjunction
circuit is the band of frequen- with the high vhf channels in
cies that will be passed or am- a TV tuner. It is even more
plified by the circuit with a true of the parts and leads in
gain equal to at least 70.7% of a uhf tuner.
the gain obtained at the reso- (k) The rf amplifiers in radio and
nant frequency of the circuit. television receivers are Class
(e) On the L-C ratio of the reso- A voltage amplifiers.
nant circuit and on the Q of 1 ) C1 and L2 in Fig. 10 form a
(
the resonant circuit. series-resonant circuit.
(f) By loading the circuit with a (m) C3 is a screen bypass capaci-
suitable resistance. tor. It is chosen so that it has
(g) Critical coupling is the point a low reactance at the signal
at which maximum signal frequencies amplified by the
transfer occurs from one coil stage. Therefore as far as the
to another. This will occur screen is concerned, it is
when all the flux lines pro- essentially connected to
duced by one coil cutthe turns ground at signal frequencies.
of the other coil. This permits the screen to act
(h) When we speak of over-cou- as an effective shield between
pling we mean that the coils the plate and grid of the tube,

42
 to prevent feedback from the (r) C4 is used to feed a small
plate to grid that could cause amount of signal from the out-
oscillation. put back into the base of the
(n) Permeability tuning is atuning transistor. The energy fed
system where the inductance through C4 is 180 ° out-of-
of the coils is varied by moving phase with the signal fed from
a powdered iron slug in and out the collector back to the base
of the coil. The resonant fre- through the transistor itself.
quency of the circuit is varied The signal fed through C4
by varying the inductance of cancels the signal fed in-
the coil rather than by chang- ternally through the tran-
ing the capacity of the tuning sistor. C4 is aneutralizing ca-
capacitor. pacitor and prevents the stage
(o) T 1 is a balun. It is used to from going into oscillation.
match the balanced transmis- (s) L1 and C1 form a parallel-
sion line, which has an im- resonant circuit. They prevent
pedance of 300 ohms, to the undesired signals in the sound
unbalanced input of the rf i-f frequency region from get-
stage, which has an input im- ting to the rf amplifier. C2 and
pedance of 75 ohms. Thus the L2 form a series-resonant
transformer matches a bal- circuit. Since they have a low
anced circuit to an unbalanced impedance they bypass the
circuit, at the same time it signals around 45 MHz. 45.75
matches a 300-ohm circuit to MHz is the picture i-f signal
a 75-ohm circuit. frequency. The trap prevents
(p) Triode tubes generate alower interfering signals from sta-
internal noise than pentode tions operating at or near this
tubes. Low noise level is ex- frequency from reaching the rf
tremely important in the rf amplifier.
stage of TV receivers, par- (t) A negative voltage is applied
ticularly in the reception of the to the gate to prevent electrons
high-band vhf TV channels. from flowing to the gate. This
(q) The combination of L1 and L2 would cause current to flow in
form a transformer because the gate circuit and lower the
L1 is inductively coupled to input resistance of the tran-
L2. L1 along with C1 form a sistor.
series-resonant circuit. A (u) The field-effect transistor has
step-down transformer is a very high input resistance.
used to feed the signal to the Therefore the transistor has
input of the transistor because very little or no loading effect
the transistor has acompara- on the resonant circuit which
tively low input resistance. permits a high degree of
When using astep-down trans- selectivity. In addition, very
former (having fewer turns on high gains are possible with
L2 than on L1), loading of the the field-effect transistor.
resonant circuit can be kept to (v) The circuit shown in Fig. 17.
a minimum. Excessive loading This circuit makes use of an
of the resonant circuit would insulated-gate field-effect
reduce the selectivity of the transistor. There will be no
resonant circuit. current flow in the circuit. In

43
 the circuit shown in Fig. 16 is already enough capacity in
there will be some small re- the tube and in the circuit
verse current which has some wiring to provide the capacity
slight effect on the input re- necessary to form a parallel-
sistance of the transistor. resonant circuit along withthe
The i -f frequency is deter- primary winding of T2 .
(w)
mined by the difference be- (ad) R3 is used to load the parallel-
tween the frequency of the in- resonant circuit consisting of
coming signal and the fre- L3 plus the transistor and dis-
quency of the local oscillator. tributed capacity in the cir-
(x) I-F amplifiers operate at a cuit. The resonant circuit is
fixed frequency and therefore loaded giving wider bandwidth.
the circuit is usually some- (ae) C3 is the neutralizing ca-
what simpler and can be better pacitor. A signalvoltage is fed
shielded than an rf amplifier through it to neutralize the
which must be adjustable over voltage fed through the collec-
a frequency range. tor—to—base capacity of the
(Y) To introduce a small amount transistor.
of degeneration which may (af) C5 is aneutralizingcapacitor.
prevent the stage from going It is used to feed energy from
into oscillation. the plate circuit back into the
(z) The collector is connected to grid circuit to cancel out the
atap to prevent the compara- energy fed from the plate cir-
tively low output resistance cuit to the grid circuit through
of the transistor from loading the interelectrode capacity of
the parallel-resonant circuit the tube.
made up of L3 and C4. (ag) The filament of the transmit-
(aa) Neutralization is obtained by ting tube is quite heavy and
taking a signal from the emit- does very little heating or
ter and feeding it through C2 cooling as the ac current goes
into L2. L2 inverts the signal through its cycle. Operating
so that the signal fed to the the filament on ac does not
base will be out-of-phase with introduce hum into the circuit.
the signal fed back to the base (ah) The tank circuit consisting of
through the collector-to-base the coil and the capacitor in
capacity. The emitter is left the plate circuit of the rf power
unbypassed so that a signal amplifier smooth the current
voltage for neutralization will pulses from the tube into a
be developed across R2. pure sine wave.
(ab) The video i -f amplifier in a (ai) The tetrode tube provides a
television receiver will have higher power gain, and a
a much wider bandwidth than properly designed tetrode am-
the sound i -f amplifier in a plifier usually does not re-
radio receiver. In order to get quire neutralization.
this wider bandwidth, the video (aj) The emitter-base junction of a
i-f amplifier is operated at a transistor Class C power am-
much higher frequency. plifier is reverse biased.
(ac) A capacitor is not necessary (ak) Ri and Ci.
at the high frequencies used (al) They are used to tune out the
in video i-f amplifiers. There emitter lead inductance.

44
 Lesson Questions

Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B203.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible, so they

mail their set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will finish
the next lesson within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time.
Either practice is acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers too
long; you may lose them.Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets
at a time, or you may run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What type of load will be found in the plate circuit of most rf ampli-
fiers?

2. If a 1000-KHz signal is modulated by a 3000-cycle audio signal, what

will the frequencies of the sidebands be?

3. In the circuit shown to the right

what type of resonant circuit is the
circuit marked A; what type is the
resonant circuit marked B?

4. Which type of rf amplifiers are found in radio and TV receivers, volt-

age amplifiers or power amplifiers?

5. Why are triode rf amplifiers frequently used intelevision receivers?

6. What is the purpose of C4 in the circuit shown in Fig. 14?

7. What purpose do L1 and C1 in the circuit shown in Fig. 15 serve?

8. What characteristic of the junction-type field-effect transistor makes

it ideally suited for use as an rf amplifier?

9. Why is the suppressor grid of apentode tube, used as an i

-f amplifier,
often connected to ground rather than the cathode of the tube?

10. How is bias developed for the Class C transistor power amplifier
shown in Fig. 28?
 I

FEAR LEADS TO FAILURE

No matter how hard a person may work for suc-
cess, there is nothing which can help him if he is
always doubting his own ability-if he is always
thinking about failure.

To be ambitious for wealth yet always expecting

to be poor is like trying to get past avicious dog
when afraid of the dog and uncertain of your ability
to make friends with him-in each case, fear of
failure is almost certain to result in failure.Success,
on the other hand, is won most often by those who
believe in winning.

Never doubt for a moment that you are going to

succeed. Look forward to that success with just as
much assurance as you look forward to the dawn of
another day, then work-with all that's in you-for
success.
a
,-
 •

Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-216
ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

WIDE-BAND AMPLIFIERS
B204
 STUDY SCHEDULE
Introduction Pages 1-2
A look at what you will study in this lesson.

E 2. Logarithms and Decibels Pages 3-10

You are introduced to the theory of logarithms, you learn what
we mean by adecibel and learn how the decibel is used.

LI 3. Extending the High-Frequency Response of an Amplifier Pages 11 -24

You learn what factors limit the high-frequency of an amplifier
and what can be done to improve it.

E 4. Extending the Low-Frequency Response of an Amplifier Pages 24 -31

You study the factors affecting the low-frequency response and
how they can be compensated for.

5. Typical Wide-Band Amplifiers Pages 32 -41

Both typical tube and transistor wide-band amplifiers are
discussed.

6. Answer the Lesson Questions.

E 7. Start Studying the Next Lesson.

COPYRIGHT 1969 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

KL5M1273 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 WIDE-BAND AMPLIFIERS

A wide-band amplifier is an amplifier signal more than or less than the phase of
designed to amplify awide range of signal the other signals.
frequencies. The amplifiers you studied in In your earlier lesson on low-frequency
earlier lessons were designed to amplify amplifiers you learned that the response
only a limited range of frequencies. For of aresistance-capacitance coupled ampli-
example, a low-frequency voltage ampli- fier is limited by three things. The low-
fier such as found in a typical radio frequency response is limited by the
receiver or in the sound portion of a reactance of the coupling capacitor. In
television receiver, is designed to amplify amplifiers that use vacuum tubes, when
only frequencies from about 100 Hertz the coupling capacitor has a reactance
up to about 10,000 Hertz. Even in ahigh that is equal to or greater than the
fidelity amplifier or ahigh fidelity radio resistance of the grid resistor in the
receiver, the low-frequency voltage ampli- following stage, the gain of the amplifier
fier is designed to amplify only frequen- begins to drop to such a low level that
cies from about 10 Hertz up to about considerable frequency distortion results.
30,000 Hertz. Amplifiers of this type are You will remember that we have fre-
entirely unsatisfactory for use as video quency distortion in an amplifier when
amplifiers in a television receiver. Here, signals of different frequencies do not
we need a special wide-band amplifier receive the same amount of amplification.
that can amplify all the signals in a TV In transistor amplifiers we have the same
picture from only afew cycles per second problem when the reactance of the cou-
(a few Hertz) all the way up to several pling capacitor becomes equal to or
megacycles per second (several mega- greater than the input resistance of the
hertz). Furthermore, the amplifier must following stage. This input resistance is
be able to amplify all these signals equally equal to the input resistance of the
well and must not shift the phase of any transistor itself (which is usually quite

1
low) in parallel with any resistance con- Another thing we are going to investi-
nected between the base and the emitter. gate in this lesson is the method used to
The high-frequency response is limited describe the performance of an amplifier.
by the shunt capacities in the circuit. At For example, a manufacturer may say
high frequencies the shunt capacities in that an amplifier is flat from 100 Hertz to
the circuit have a low enough reactance 100 KHz. This means that the gain of the
to have an appreciable effect on the gain amplifier is constant from 100 Hertz to
of the amplifier. In avacuum tube ampli- 100 KHz. In other words, if the voltage
fier, the shunt capacities reduce the effec- gain is 100 at 100 Hertz it will be 100 at
tive value of the plate load resistance. In a all frequencies between 100 Hertz and
transistor amplifier they reduce the effec- 100 KHz.
tive collector load resistance. In both An amplifier that is flat from 100
cases the gain of the amplifier drops so Hertz to 100 KHz is quite a good
that it no longer gives satisfactory results. amplifier. Usually it is impossible to
Both the low-frequency and the high- design an amplifier that has exactly the
frequency response are limited by phase same gain over a wide range of frequen-
shift. You will remember that the current cies. The gain may be alittle higher or a
flowing through a capacitor leads the little lower at some frequencies than it is
voltage across it by 90 degrees. Thus, as at others. The exact variation in gain that
the capacitive reactance in the circuit can be tolerated depends largely on what
becomes appreciable, there is an appre- the amplifier is to be used for. Therefore,
ciable phase shift. This means that both manufacturers must have a method of
low-frequency and high-frequency signals describing how much the gain of the
are shifted in phase with reference to amplifier varies. To do this they use a-
middle-frequency signals. In TV receivers unit called the decibel (db). Since the
and in other electronic devices, this phase decibel is such auseful unit and since you
shift can appreciably affect the perform- will encounter it in all branches of elec-
ance of the equipment. tronics, we will learn something about it
In this lesson we are going to learn now before going ahead with our study of
what steps are taken to improve both the wide-band amplifiers. We will then be
low-frequency response and the high- able to use the decibel in describing
frequency response of resistance-coupled amplifier performance so you can see
amplifiers so that they can be used as how it is used by manufacturers, engi-
wide-band amplifiers. neers, and technicians.
 Logarithms and Decibels

The decibel is a logarithmic ratio. In second power; the logarithm of 100 is

other words, it is aratio that is based on simply the power to which 10 must be
logarithms. Therefore, before we can raised to give us 100. Ten must be raised
understand what a decibel is, we must to the second power (10 2)to give us 100.
first learn something about logarithms. Therefore, the logarithm of 100 is 2.
There are two important types of Similarly the logarithm of 1000 is 3, and
logarithms in use today. One is called a the logarithm of 10,000 is 4. The
"common" logarithm and the other a logarithm of 10 is I.
"natural" logarithm. Common logarithms This is not very complicated when a
are based on the number 10. This is the number is an exact power of 10. But let
type of logarithm that we will study and us consider the numbers between 10 and
use now. 100. It is alittle more difficult to see how
a number between 10 and 100 can be
THE THEORY OF LOGARITHMS expressed as apower of 10. Actually, this
is quite difficult to work out mathemati-
The basic idea of logarithms comes cally, but it can be done. Fortunately all
from the fact that any number can be these values have been worked out and
expressed as the "power" of another are available in tables called logarithm or
number. The "power" of anumber is the "log" tables. If you want to know the
product of anumber multiplied by itself logarithm of anumber, you must refer to
agiven number of times. The first power the table. For example, the logarithm of
of a number is the number itself; the the number 2 is .301. This means that if
second power is that number multiplied it were possible to multiply the number
by itself; the third power is that number 10 by itself .301 times, the product
multiplied by itself twice, etc. would be 2. This can be written le ° .
This is easiest to understand by taking The exponent, or power, .301, is called
an example. In the system of common the logarithm.
logarithms, we express all numbers as Now let's take the number 20. The
powers of 10; so we will use 10 as our logarithm of 20 is 1.301. Notice now that
example. The number 10 itself is equal to the logarithm is divided into two parts -
10 to the first power. This can be written one part to the left of the decimal point,
10 1.100 is equal to 10 X 10. This is 10 the other to the right of the decimal
to the second power, and can be written point. The part to the left is called the
10 2.Similarly, 1000 is equal to 10 X 10 "characteristic" and the part to the right
X 10, which is 10 to the third power, and is called the "mantissa".
can be written 10 3.The number 10,000 In the logarithm of a number, the
is 10 to the fourth power. Since 10 X 10 "characteristic," is 1less than the number
X 10 X 10 is equal to 10,000 it can be of figures to the left of the decimal point
written 104 . in the original number. In other words,
Now, as we have said, 100 is 10 to the any number between 10 and 99 would

3
 have a logarithm with acharacteristic of in the characteristic. The log of 21 is
I. The important rule to remember here 1.322 and the log of 210 is 2.322.
is that the characteristic is always one Let's take the number 39 and see how
number smaller than there are whole we would find the logarithm. We know
numbers in the original number. Thus if that the characteristic will be 1, because
the logarithm of a number is exactly it is always equal to I less than the
three, the number itself is exactly 1000 number of figures in the antilog. (The
because 1000 has four places to the left original number is called the antilog.)
of the decimal. Now, to find the mantissa, refer to the
The chart shown in Fig. 1 gives the log tables. First find the number (39) in
characteristics of the numbers you are the N column. Since the number 39 is the
likely to encounter. complete number, follow across to the 0
column. There you will find 5911, which
For numbers from: Characteristic
is the mantissa. Since you already know
1 to 9 0.
that the characteristic is 1, you have the
10 to 99 1. (10 1 )
100 to 999
complete logarithm of 39, that is, 1.5911.
2. (10 2 )
1,000 to 9,999 3. (10 3 )
If the number for which you wanted
10,000 to 99,999 4. (10 4 ) the logarithm had 3 places, you would
100,000 to 999,999 S. (10 5) find the first two in the N column, then
Fig. I. The characteristics of numbers follow across to the column under the
from 1to 999,999. third digit. For example, to find the
logarithm of 399, you would find 39 in
A table of logarithms is shown on the N column, and then follow across to
pages 6 and 7. As you can see, it shows the 9 column, where you would find
only the mantissas. When you are looking 6010 for the mantissa. Since the number
up a logarithm, you must supply the 399 has 3places, you know the character-
characteristic from the information in istic is 2, so the complete logarithm is
Fig. 1. Notice that the table does not list 2.6010.
an infinite number of mantissas because The last column in the log table is
logarithms repeat themselves. For ex- labeled P.P.; this is the "Proportional
ample, the mantissa of alogarithm will be Parts" column. This column is used when
the same for the number 2as it is for the the number has more than three digits.
number 20, or 200 or 2000. The only For example, the log of 399 is 2.6010.
difference in the logarithm will be in the The log of 3990 has the same mantissa,
characteristic. For example, the logarithm .6010, but the characteristic is 3, so the
of the number 2is .301. The logarithm of log is 3.6010. But what about the log of
20 is 1.301 and the logarithm of 200 is the number 3995? It is greater than the
2.301. The logarithm table would simply log of 3990, but less than the log of
give you avalue for the number 2. If the 4000. The proportional parts column is
number is 20 or 200 or 2000, you must used to get the log of 3995. We look in
remember to add the correct character- this column under the heading 5and get
istic in front of the mantissa. Similarly 6. So to the log of 3990, which is 3.6010
the mantissa of the logarithm of 21 we add .0006 and get 3.6016, which is
would be the same as the mantissa of the the log of 3995. The proportional parts
logarithm of 210, the difference would be column only goes up to 5, so if the fourth

4
digit is greater than 5, we add the Now the log of 10 is 1, so this power
proportional parts of two numbers that ratio is equal to 1bel. In other words, a
add up to the fourth digit. For example, power ratio of 100 watts to 10 watts,
to express 3998, we take the log of 3990, which is aratio of 10 to 1, is equivalent
which is 3.6010 and add the proportional to 1bel. Thus apower ratio of 10 watts
parts under 3 and 5 (3 and 6) and get to 1watt or 1000 watts to 100 watts are
3.6019, which is the log of 3998. We both power ratios of 10 to 1so they also
could also take the log of 4000, which is represent achange in power of 1bel.
3.6021 and subtract the value under the 2 The bel proved to be too large aunit to
column and get 3.6019. handle easily, so another unit, one-tenth
the size of the bel was introduced. This
THE DECIBEL unit is called the decibel (abbreviated db).
Thus the commonly used measuring unit
Many years ago engineers working on is the decibel; the prefix deci means
telephone installations introduced aunit one-tenth. A power ratio in decibels is
of power measurement called the bel. defined as:
This unit of measurement was named for
Pl
Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of db = 10 log -
P2
the telephone.
The bel was introduced as a unit of
measurement because engineers and scien- which simply means that the ratio of two
tists discovered that the human ear re- powers expressed in decibels is equal to

sponds to variations in loudness in an ten times the logarithm of the ratio of the
approximately logarithmic manner. two powers.
Therefore, it is convenient to have aunit You will notice that the above relation-
that can be used to express the ratio ship refers to power ratios only. It is
between the power of two signals in a common in electronics work to refer to
voltage ratios, especially when calculating
logarithmic manner. The bel is simply the
logarithm of the ratio of the power of or discussing the gain of amplifiers. When
the ratio between two voltages is calcu-
two signals. For example, if we had a
lated in decibels, we must modify the
signal power of 100 watts and another
decibel equation to take care of the fact
signal power of 10 watts, and we wished
that the power ratios are proportional to
to express the ratio of these two signals in
the squares of voltage ratios since P=E2
bels, we would use the formula:
R. The formula to express voltage ratios
in decibels is:
P,
bels =log
r2 E,
db =20 log -
E2
and substitute 100 watts for P, and 10
watts for P2, and we would get:
It is important to keep in mind that the
100 voltage formula can be used only when
bels = log 10
the resistances in the two circuits being
compared are equal. If we are trying to
bels = log 10 compare voltages developed across resis-

5
 11 0 P. P.
1 2 9 4 5 8 7 8 9
. .
I
i10 0000 0013 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 1 81217-21
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 ;8111519
112 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0960 1004 1038 1072 1106 3 7101417
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 6101316
i14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 16.91215
/S 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 3.181114
18 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 la 81113
I17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2465 2480 2504 2520 28.71012
i 18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2548 2872 2695 2718 2742 2765 2-1 7.912
,19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2.4.7- 911
,
120 3010 3032 3054 3076 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2.4.8.811
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 9345 3365 3385 3404 2 4. 6. 810
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598 2.4.6- 810
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 9747 3766 3784 2-4.1 7-9
I
,24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 (
3892 3909 3927 3945 3962 2.4.5.7.9
40481
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4065 4032 4099 4116 4133 2 3.1 7.9
28 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 8-7-8
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2.1 5. 6. 8
28 4472 4487 4502 4618 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2-3 8.8 8
29 4624 4638 4651 4669 4883 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 1.3.4.6.7
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 1.3.4. 6. 7
91 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 6011 6024 6038 1.3-4.6.7
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 6105 5119 6132 5145 6159 6172 1.3.4-5-7
83 5185 5198 5211 5224 6237 5250 5263 6278 6289 6302 1.1 4-5- 6
34 5316 5328 6340 6353 6366 5378 6391 5403 5416 6428 1.3. 4.1 6
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 6490 5502 6514 6527 6539 6651 1.2- 4-1 6
38 6663 5575 5587 6599 6611 5623 6635 6647 6658 6670 1 2.4. 5. 6
37 5682 5694 5705 6717 6729 6740 6762 5763 6776 6786 12-3- 5.6
98 6798 6809 6821 6832 5843 5855 5868 5877 6888 5899 I. z 3.16
89 5911 6922 6933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 6999 6010 1.2.3.4 6
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6098 6107 6117 1-2- 3.4.5
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 1.2.3.4.8
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 1. 2. 3. 4.6
43 8335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 12. 1 t 6
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 1.2.3-4.5
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6550 6599 6609 6618 1.2.3.4.8
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 1 2.3. 4.8
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 1.2. 3- 4.8
48 6812 6821 6930 6839 6848 6857 6866 6876 6884 6893 1.2.3 4.4
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 8972 8981 1.2.3.4.4
50 6990 6998 7007 7018 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 1.2.3.1 4
61 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1.2. 3. 3.4
62 7160 7168 7177 7135 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 1.2-2 9.4
69 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 1.12.3-4
54 ' 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 1.2.2-8.4
 P.P.
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9
1.2.3 4.5

55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7468 7474 1.2.2.3.4
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 1 2.2.3.4
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 1.2.2.3.4
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1.1.2 3.4
69 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 1.2.3 4

60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7310 7818 7825 7832 7839 7848 1.1.2 3.4
81 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 1 1.23 4
82 7924 7931 7038 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 t 1 2.3.3
83 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055 1 1.2.3.3
64 3062 8069 8075 6082 8089 2096 8102 8109 8116 8122 1.1.2.3.3

65 8129 8138 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 1.1 2 3.3
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 6241 8248-8254 1 1.2.3.3
87 8281 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 1.1 2.13
88 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 1.1.2.3.3
89 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432
_ 8439 8445 1 1 2.3.3

70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8491 8500 8506 1.1.2.2.3
71 8518 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 1.1.2.2.3
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 1.1.2.2.3
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 1.1 2 2 3
74 8092 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745 1.1.2 2.3

75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 1.1.2.2.3
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854'8859 1.1.2.2 3
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 1.1.2.2.3
78 8921 8927 8902 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8905 8971 1.1.2.2.3
78 8376 8982 8987 893 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 1 1 2.2.3

SO 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 1.1.2 2.3
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 0112 9117 9122 9128 9133 1.1.2.2.3
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9176 9180 9186 1.1 2.23
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9233 1.1.2.2.3
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 928e 1.1.2.2.3

95 0394 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 1.1 2 2.3
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 r 1.2.2.3
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 0.1.1.2.2
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9165 9469 9474 0479 9484 9489 0.1.1.2 2
89 9491 9499 9504 9309 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0.1.1.2.2
.p
9H) 0512 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0.1.1.2.2

91 9590 9595 0600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 0.1-1.2.2
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680 o 1.1.2-2
93 9635 9689 9694 9699 0703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 0.1.1.2.2
94 9731 9730 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773 o 1.1.2 2

95 0777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 0.1 1.2.2
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863 o 1 1.2.2
07 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908 0.1 1.2.2
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 o 1.1.2.2
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9096 0 1 1.2.2
tors of unequal value, we must convert the low frequency, will then be .707.
the voltage to the power developed across Thus the change in db is:
the resistors and then use the power
formula. E1
db =20 log
E2
USING THE DECIBEL
and substituting Ifor El and .707 for E2

It so happens that the smallest amount we get:

of change in sound power level that can i
be distinguished by the average human db =20 log
.707
ear is 1decibel on asine wave signal, or 3
db on complex waves such as the average
Now when we divide .707 into 1we get
human voice.
the following:
Because the decibel is such a con-
venient unit for expressing changes in
.7075=
sound level, manufacturers of audio
equipment have for some time used it in
We get rid of the decimal in the division
describing the response of their ampli-
by moving the decimal point in each
fiers. This practice has generally spread
number three places to the right so we
into describing the performance of wide-
have 1000 ÷707, which is:
band amplifiers.
Let us now see two examples of how
the decibel can be used to describe an 1.414
amplifier response. In an earlier lesson we 701771:7—
discussed the so-called half-power points 707
and the .707 voltage points in an ampli- 2930
fier. Remember that when the reactance 2828
of the coupling capacitor used between 1020
two resistance-capacitance stages becomes 707
equal to the resistance in the input of the 3130
following stage, the voltage gain of the 2828
amplifier drops to .707 (70.7%) of what 302
it is at medium frequencies. At the same
time, since the voltage drops to .707, the
current also drops to .707. The power, Thus we can see that 1divided by .707 is
which is the product of E X I, is therefore equal to 1.414, plus aremainder. For our
.707 X .707, which is approximately .5 purposes 1.41 is close enough. Thus we
times what it is at the middle frequencies. have:
Thus we called this point the half-
power point. Now let's use decibels to see
db = 20 log 1.41
how much of achange this represents.
Considering first the change in output
voltage, let's call El,the voltage at the The log of 1.41 is .1492, which we can
middle frequencies, 1; E2, the voltage at call .15, so we have:

8
 db =20 X .15 =3 the amplifier is flat within 3 db from 10
Hertz to 3 megahertz. This means that
Hence the change in db is 3 db. This the voltage gain of the amplifier does not
means that the voltage gain of the ampli- vary by more than 3 db above or below
fier has changed by 3 db. In this case, at the middle-frequency gain of the ampli-
the frequency when the reactance of the fier between the frequencies of 10 Hertz
coupling capacitor is equal to the resist- and 3 MHz. You know that 3 db repre-
ance in the input circuit of the following sents avoltage change of .707, or in other
stage, the voltage output will have words, the gain of the amplifier will not
dropped 3 db from what it is at the vary more than 29.3% (100% -70.7%)
middle-frequency range. from what it is at the middle frequencies.
Now let's see what results we get if we The gain will be at least 70.7% of the
use the power formula. Remember that middle-frequency gain within the fre-
when the voltage drops to .707, the quency range of from 10 Hz to 3MHz.
current also drops to .707, and therefore The manufacturer of a certain power
the power drops to .5. Thus, using the amplifier might claim that the power
formula: output from the amplifier is flat within a
certain number of db from 50 Hertz to
P1 1000 Hertz. This means that the power
db = 10 log output between these frequency limits is
P2
within the specified number of db of the
specified power output.
and substituting 1for P1 and .5 for P2 we
get: One of the advantages of using the
decibel in comparing power ratios is that
db = 10 log it gives apretty good picture of how the
.5 amplifier will sound. For example, if you
have a5-watt amplifier that is capable of
and since 1÷.5 =2, we have: putting out 5watts of audio power in the
middle-frequency range, but only 1watt
at a frequency of 100 Hertz, you would
db = 10 log 2 have a power ratio of 5 to I. This
represents achange of 7db, which would
be very noticeable, even though the
The log of 2 is .301, and 10 times this is actual difference in power output is only
3.01, or for all practical purposes, 3 db. 4 watts. On the other hand, if you had an
Thus, whether we use the power formula amplifier capable of putting out 100
or the voltage formula we get the same watts of audio power at the middle
change in db. frequencies, and dropped to 50 watts at
Manufacturers frequently use decibels 100 Hz, although the change in power is
to express the change in power output actually 50 watts, the power ratio is 2
over a given frequency range in apower and the db change only 3 db. This is a
amplifier or the change in voltage output smaller change in db than the change
in a voltage amplifier. For example, in from 5 watts to 1 watt. This is as it
describing a voltage amplifier, the manu- should be, because you would notice a
facturer might say that the voltage gain of greater change in going from 5watts to 1

9
 meaning of characteristics of this type.
Voltage Ratio DB Power Ratio DB Also an understanding of what adecibel
1 0 1 0 is and how it is used will help you in
1 6.0 2 3.0
evaluating the performance of certain
3 9.6 3 4.8
4 12.0 4 6.0 types of electronic equipment. By com-
5 14.0 5 7.0 paring an amplifier with the manu-
6 15.6 6 7.8 facturer's specifications, you can decide
7 16.8 7 8.4
8 18.0 8 9.0 whether or not the amplifier is per-
9 19.2 9 9.6 forming as well as it is supposed to be
10 20.0 10 10.0
able to.
20 26.0 20 13.0
30 29.6 30 11.8 If you intend to go into communica-
40 32.0 10 16.0 tions or into industry as an electronics
50 34.0 50 17.0
technician you should be able to calculate
60 35.6 60 17.8
70 36.8 70 18.4 both voltage gain and power ratios in
80 18.0 80 19.0 decibels. The Self-Test Questions that
90 39.0 90 1').6 follow will give you an opportunity to try
100 40.0 loo 20.0
1,000 60.0 1,000 30.0
to perform these calculations; you can
10,000 80.0 10,000 10.0 check your answers with those given.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
Fig. 2. Decibel values corresponding to
voltage and power ratios. (a) What is acommon logarithm?
(b) What is the part of the logarithm
to the left of the decimal point
watt than you would in going from 100
called?
watts to 50 watts.
(c) What is the part of the logarithm
The chart shown in Fig. 2 is atable of
to the right of the decimal point
decibel values corresponding to voltage
called?
and power gains. This would give you an
idea of what the voltage ratio or the (d) What is the characteristic of num-
bers from 100 to 999?
power ratio is for certain db values.
Write the logarithm of 7.
The decibel is an important unit in the
electronic field. You should be familiar Write the logarithm of 700.
with what it is and how it is used. If you Write the logarithm of 41.7.
plan on doing radio and TV service work What is the bel?
you do not have to be able to calculate What is the decibel?
either voltage gain or power ratios in If the power output of an ampli-
decibels. However, you should realize fier changes from 222 watts to 37
what the decibel is, and become familiar watts, how many db does this
with its use. As atechnician you will run change represent?
into it time and time again. Manu- (k) If adefect develops in an amplifier
facturers frequently use it in describing and the output voltage drops from
the performance of electronic equipment. 150 volts to 75 volts, what change
You'll be called on to interpret the in decibels does this represent?

10
 Extending the High-Frequency
Response of an Amplifier

A schematic diagram of atypical two- the plate-to-cathode capacity of Vi is in

stage R-C coupled amplifier using vacuum effect connected directly between the
tubes is shown in Fig. 3. The first stage, plate of the tube and ground, or in
V I , uses a triode tube, and the second parallel with R3.
stage, V2,uses a pentode tube. In your There is also another capacity that
study of low-frequency amplifiers, you must be considered in the input circuit of
learned that the high-frequency response V2.This capacity is the grid-to-cathode
of an R-C coupled amplifier is limited by capacity of the tube. This capacity will
shunt capacities in the circuit. You will depend upon the tube structure and also
remember that the first tube, V I ,has a upon the gain of the stage. At high
certain capacity between the plate and frequencies, the coupling capacitor C2
cathode of the tube. This capacity in has such a low reactance that it can be
effect is in parallel with the plate load ignored so that in effect the output
resistor R3.You will remember that as capacity of Vi is connected directly in
far as the signal is concerned, R3 is parallel with the input capacity of V2.
connected between the plate of the tube In addition to the capacities in the
and ground. The end of R3 that connects tubes V1 and V2,there will be acertain
to the positive side of the power supply is amount of stray capacity in the wiring.
at signal ground potential because the For example, the coupling capacitor C2
output filter capacitor in the power sup- will have acertain capacity to ground, the
ply will be so large that at signal frequen- lead connecting C2 to V 1 and V2 will
cies it acts like a short circuit. The also have acertain capacity to ground. All
cathode of the tube is adequately by- this capacity is added to the capacity in
passed by the bypass capacitor C1 so that the output circuit of V 1 and the capacity

Fig. 3. An R-
C coupled amplifier.

11
in the input circuit of V2,and tends to
limit the high-frequency response of the Rp
TO GRID
amplifier.
3-4 OF V2
EFFECT OF SHUNT CAPACITY
In Fig. 4we have shown the equivalent

®
circuits of the coupling network used
between V1 and V2 at middle frequencies
and at high frequencies. The circuit in A
is the equivalent circuit of the coupling
Rp
network at middle frequencies. The re-
sistor R3- 4 represents the resistance of
TO GRID
R 3-4 -,--
OF V2
R3 and R4 in parallel. As far as the signal
is concerned, they are in parallel because
the reactance of C2 iS so low that the
capacitor acts like a short circuit. The
parallel combination of R3 and R4 will
®
be almost equal to the resistance of R3
Fig. 4. Equivalent circuits of coupling
because R4 ,which is the grid resistor of networks between V1 and V2 . "A"
V2,is many times larger than the plate shows the equivalent circuit at middle
resistor R3.Therefore as far as the load in frequencies and "B" the equivalent
the plate circuit of V1 is concerned, it is circuit at high frequencies.
almost entirely controlled by the value of
capacity of VI,the input capacity of V2,
R3. R3 will usually have a resistance
and the distributed capacities in the
somewhere between 10,000 and 100,000
circuit. Notice that C is connected di-
ohms. 114,on the other hand, will be
rectly across R3. 4.
considerably larger than this, usually be-
As the frequency of the signal ampli-
tween .25 and a.5 megohm. The value of
fied by the amplifier increases, the capaci-
R4 is limited by the type of tube used for
tive reactance of C decreases. You will
V2.Some tubes will develop a negative
remember that the capacitive reactance of
bias due to electrons accidentally striking
the capacitor is given by the formula:
the grid if too large aresistance is used in
the grid circuit. Other tubes may have a
small amount of gas present inside of the X c= 6.28 X fX C
tube; these tubes will develop apositive
voltage on the grid if too large a grid From the formula you can see that if
resistor is used. However, in any case, either for C increases, the value of the
even though R4 is in parallel with R3 at capacitive reactance will decrease.
middle audio frequencies, it has very little At some frequency the capacitive re-
effect insofar as reducing the plate load is actance of C will be equal to the resist-
concerned because its resistance is usually ance of the parallel combination of R3-4.
considerably greater than that of R3. You will remember that we pointed out
In Fig. 4B we have shown the equiva- previously that when this happens the
lent circuit of the coupling network at signal reaching the grid of V2 will
high frequencies. The capacity C is used actually be 70.7% of the signal reaching
to represent the sum of the output the grid of V2 at middle audio frequen-

12
cies. You will remember we called this means that the capacitive reactance of the
the half-power point; this is the point at shunt capacity across the parallel combi-
which the signal reaching the grid of V2 is nation of R3 and R4 must be equal to the
3 db lower than the signal reaching the value of the parallel resistors at a fre-
grid of V2 at middle audio frequencies. quency of 100 KHz. You will remember
Now let us see the steps we can take to that R.4 is much larger than R3.There-
increase the frequency at which the signal fore, the value of the combination will be
reaching the grid of V2 drops 3db. almost equal to the value of R3 alone. If
we cut the value of R3 in half, we will in
REDUCING THE SHUNTING EFFECT effect be cutting the value of R3 and R4
in parallel, in half. Then the reactance of
In a practical amplifier that is to be the capacitance will be equal to R3. 4 at

designed to amplify signals of widely twice the original frequency of 100 KHz.
different frequencies, we try to keep the Therefore by simply reducing the plate
response of the amplifier as flat as possi- resistor R3 in the plate circuit of V1,we
ble over the required frequency range. can extend the gain of the amplifier at
This means that we try to design the high frequencies. Of course, what we are
amplifier so that it will give all the signal actually doing is reducing the gain of the
frequencies it must amplify the same amplifier at the low and middle frequen-
amount of amplification. If all the signal cies in order to flatten the response of the
frequencies receive the same amount of amplifier over awider frequency range. In
amplification, we say that the amplifier is spite of the fact that this might seem to
flat over the range of frequencies it must be somewhat of a disadvantage, it is the
amplify. However, in actual practice it is method most widely used to extend the
impossible to get an amplifier that is high-frequency response of an amplifier.
exactly flat over a very wide frequency If in reducing the amplifier gain by
range, so we generally have to be satisfied reducing the plate load resistance, we find
with an amplifier whose gain is flat within that we do not have sufficient gain in the
a few db over the frequency range for amplifier, then we can overcome this
which the amplifier is designed. difficulty simply by adding an additional
To give apractical example of how the stage.
high-frequency response of an amplifier In video amplifiers found in television
can be extended, let us see what we can receivers, where the frequency response
do to extend the frequency response of must be reasonably flat up to afrequency
an amplifier like the one shown in Fig. 3. of several megahertz, the plate load resis-
Suppose that we want to be able to tor R3 may have a resistance of only a
amplify signals up to 200 KHz so that the few thousand ohms. This makes it possi-
gain of the amplifier at 200 KHz is within ble to obtain areasonably flat gain over a
3 db of the gain at the middle frequency. wide frequency range. Suppose for ex-
If in checking the amplifier we find that ample, that the value of R3 is 94,000
the gain drops 3 db at 100 KHz, we can ohms and that the gain of the amplifier
extend the frequency response of the drops 3 db at 100 KHz. By reducing the
amplifier by reducing the size of the plate size of R3 to 47,000 ohms, we can
load resistor R3. extend the 3 db down point to 200 KHz.
If the gain drops 3db at 100 KHz, this If we reduce the value of R3 to 4,700

13
ohms, then we can extend the 3db down higher. We cannot reduce the value of R3
point to 2 MHz. Of course, the gain of much below 4700 ohms or we'll get very
the amplifier will be much lower at low little gain from VI.Therefore, we have to
and middle frequencies with a4700-ohm use another method of extending the
resistor in the plate circuit of V1 than it high-frequency response of the amplifier.
will be with a 47,000-ohm or a94,000- We can do this by high-frequency com-
ohm resistor in the plate circuit. But the pensation.
gain will be essentially flat from a very
low frequency up to approximately 2 HIGH-FREQUENCY COMPENSATION
MHz with the 4.7K resistor in the plate
circuit. Where aflat response over awide A method widely used to improve the
frequency range is required, reducing the response of an amplifier at high frequen-
size of the plate load resistor in order to cies is called compensation. By compensa-
reduce the shunting effect of the shunt tion we mean that we add something to
capacity is the simplest way of obtaining the circuit to compensate for other un-
the wide frequency response. When we desirable effects. As you might guess,
use a very small value of plate load since the capacity and capacitive re-
resistor, it is so small compared to the actance are the causes of difficulty at
resistance of the grid resistor in the high frequencies, to counteract this, we
following stage, that we can forget the add inductance that will introduce induc-
shunting effect of the grid resistor and tive reactance into the circuit.
consider the plate load as equal to the The coils that are added to the circuit
value of the plate load resistor. In the to improve the high-frequency response
next section dealing with high-frequency are called peaking coils. They are so-
compensation we will do this. called because they will peak the response
In the example we have given, we at some frequency above the maximum
found that by reducing the size of R3 to frequency that could be amplified by the
4700 ohms we can extend the 3db down amplifier without these coils. There are
point to 2 MHz. However, in some actually three types of circuits that can
applications we may want to keep the be used. There is acircuit known as shunt
gain essentially flat out to 2 MHz or peaking, one known as series peaking and

Fig. 5. A wide -
band amplifier with shunt -
peaking coil.

14
 I
FROM PLATE _
i
TO GRID
OF VI -- OF V2
R3 1 2

Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit of coupling network between V1 and V2 .

one that is acombination of shunt and over. You will remember that one of the
series peaking. The combination of shunt characteristics of the parallel-resonant cir-
and series peaking is most widely used, cuit is that it acts like ahigh resistance at
but because shunt peaking and series resonance. Therefore instead of the load
peaking alone are somewhat simpler to impedance of VI dropping because of the
understand than the combination, we will shunting effect of the capacity, the load
look at these two types of peaking- impedance actually begins to increase be-
circuits first. cause of the high resistance of the
Shunt Peaking. Fig. 5 is aschematic parallel-resonant circuit. This will cause
diagram showing how shunt peaking can the gain of the amplifier to increase
be added to the R-C coupled amplifier slightly so that higher frequency signals
circuit shown in Fig. 3. Notice that the can be amplified with the same gain as
two circuits are identical except that L1 signals at middle frequencies.
has been added in series with R3 in the At first you might think that the
plate circuit of VI.The equivalent circuit resistance R3 that is in series with the
of the coupling network between V1 and peaking coil, would lower the Q of the
V2 with this peaking coil added is shown parallel-resonant circuit so that the circuit
in Fig. 6. would not be particularly affected. The
Notice that in Fig. 6 we see that the resistance does in fact lower the Q of the
peaking coil and load resistor are in resonant circuit, but this is desirable. The
parallel with the capacity C which repre- purpose of L1 is to keep the gain of the
sents the output capacity of VI,the amplifier flat at higher frequencies. R3
input capacity of V2, and the distributed reduces the resistance of the parallel-
capacity in the circuit. The idea in back resonant circuit and tends to keep the
of the peaking coil is to select avalue of load in the plate circuit of V1 more or
inductance so that a parallel-resonant less constant. If R3 does not lower the Q
circuit is formed at afrequency above the of the resonant circuit sufficiently, then
frequency at which the gain would drop 3 we have asituation where the gain rises as
db without the peaking coil in the circuit. the combination of L1 and C approach
Then, as the frequency of the signal to be resonance. We'll actually have apeak in
amplified approaches the 3 db down the response at resonance, if the coil is
point, without the peaking coil, the not loaded sufficiently, so that the gain in
parallel-resonant circuit begins to take the circuit is much higher at this fre-

15
 watt resistors If there is not sufficient
loading of the resonant circuit to prevent
ringing or over peaking, acomparatively
low-resistance resistor is used. This pro-
vides additional loading on a resonant
circuit. Where the circuit already has
sufficient loading, the coil can be wound
on adummy form which looks like a1/2
watt resistor but actually has no electrical
connection through it. In some cases,
Fig. 7. Peaking coils are wound on 1
/2 watt rather than go to the trouble of getting
resistors. dummy forms on which to wind acoil of
this type, manufacturers will simply wind
quency than it is at lower frequencies. the coil on avery high value resistance.
This is called over compensation, and in The resistance of the resistor is so high
most cases it is undesirable. A small that it has no appreciable loading effect
amount of over compensation, however, on the circuit. A number of typical
is sometimes used in order to produce peaking coils are shown in Fig. 7.
some desirable effects. For example, a Series Peaking. Two circuits using
small amount of over compensation in series peaking are shown in Fig. 8. The
the video amplifier of atelevision receiver series-peaking coil is labeled L1 in both
may tend to make the fine detail in the circuits. Although L1 is placed in a
picture somewhat sharper. However, ex- slightly different position in the two
tensive over compensation will cause ring- circuits, the net electrical effect is the
ing where oscillation will occur in the same. Coil L1 isolates the output capacity
resonant circuit. In atelevision picture, of V1 from the input capacity of V2. At
this would result in fine details being the same time, the value of L1 is selected
repeated. In other words, if there was a so that it will resonate with the input
vertical pole appearing in acertain scene, capacity of V2 at a frequency near or
asecond or third pole might appear in the slightly above the frequency at which the
picture displaced slightly to the right of gain of the amplifier would drop to
the original pole. 703% of the mid-frequency gain without
Peaking coils are often wound on 1/2 compensation.

Fig. 8A. Series-peaked wide-band amplifier.

16
 Fig. 88. Series-peaked wide-band amplifier similar to that shown in Fig. HA.

In Fig. 9we have shown the equivalent sents only afraction of the total capacity
circuit of the coupling network. Fig. 9A made up of the output capacity, plus the
shows the equivalent of the circuit shown input capacity of V2, plus the wiring
in Fig. 8A. Notice that here we have the capacity in the amplifier, the gain of the
capacitor labeled Co .This represents the amplifier will not fall off so rapidly. In
output capacity of VI.This capacity is in other words, we have effectively reduced
parallel with the plate load resistor R3. the capacity that is shunting R3. At the
Since the output capacity of Vi repre- same time, by connecting L1 into the

OUTPUT FROM
PLATE OF V1
c0 3 TO GRID 0
OF V2

ro
OUTPUT FROM
PLATE OF VI TO GRID °
3 ;
OF V2

Fig. 9 .Equivalent circuits of coupling network in Fig. 8.

17
circuit (selecting it so that we will reso- lent circuit for the circuit shown in Fig.
nate it with the input capacity of V2), we 8B. Here the circuit is somewhat different
have formed aseries-resonant circuit con- from the circuit shown at A. In this
sisting of L1 and the input capacity of circuit the load resistor R3 is across Cin
V2. You know that in a series-resonant at the high frequencies instead of across
circuit there will be a resonant voltage the entire series circuit. Again at high
step-up at the resonant frequency. There- frequencies the peaking coil L1 forms a
fore we will have a resonant voltage series resonant circuit with the input
step-up across Cin at the resonant fre- capacity in the grid circuit of V2. The
quency. This means•that although there resonant voltage step-up in the series
may be some tendency for the voltage circuit tends to compensate for the drop
across R3 to drop at this frequency in gain from VI due to the reduced size
(because of the shunting effect of the of the plate load.
output capacity of V1), the resonant In servicing amplifiers where peaking
circuit is able to more than compensate coils are used, sometimes you may sus-
for this drop-off in output from VI,so pect that a peaking coil is open. If you
that the input voltage of V2 may actually check across the peaking coil with an
be higher at high frequencies than the ohmmeter, you should get a resistance
input voltage to V2 at middle frequen- reading of only afew ohms. If you get a
cies. resistance reading of several thousand
It is usually possible to obtain better ohms it indicates that the coil is open and
peaking with a series-peaking coil than that you are reading through the resistor
with a shunt-peaking coil. The input on which the peaking coil is wound.
capacity of V2 is usually much larger Usually when apeaking coil is open, it is
than the output capacity of V1,so that open right at the end of the coil where
splitting the two capacities by means of the coil is connected to the resistor lead.
the peaking coil results in increased out- If you can find the place where the coil
put from V1.At the same time, by using connects to the resistor lead, resolder it
the coil with a high Q, a high resonant and if the connection is poor this should
voltage step-up can be obtained so that clear up the trouble. If on the other hand,
the input signal to V2 will be substan- it doesn't clear up the trouble, sometimes
tially boosted. The resistor R3, which is you can find the wire going from the
across the resonant circuit, loads the resistor lead to the coil and see where it is
circuit to prevent over compensation. In broken. If there isn't enough wire to
some circuits the peaking coil may be stretch over to make aconnection to the
loaded by winding it on a resistor to resistor lead, unwinding one turn of the
reduce the Q of the circuit still further coil will usually enable you to make the
when the value of the plate load resistor connection. Taking a single turn off the
is too high to prevent excessive over coil will not affect its inductance enough
compensation. As you will remember, to upset its performance in the circuit.
over compensation results in excessive Shunt-Series Peaking. The most satis-
increase in amplification at the high factory peaking arrangement is acombi-
frequency to which the circuit is peaked, nation of both shunt and series peaking.
and in most cases this is to be avoided. You'll find this type of peaking is widely
In Fig. 9B we have shown the equiva- used in the video amplifiers of television

18
 Fig. 10. A shunt-series compensated amplifier.

receivers and in other amplifiers where a output capacity of V1 from the input
wide frequency response is required. The capacity of V2. 1.1 forms a series-
schematic diagram of an amplifier using resonant circuit with the input capacity
series-shunt peaking is shown in Fig. 10. of V2.
This is the same basic amplifier circuit By using the series-peaking coil 1.2 in
that we started with in Fig. 3, but the this way, we have less capacity in the
shunt-peaking coil, LI,and the series- plate circuit of VI.This often enables us
peaking coil, L2,trive been added. to increase the size of R3 which will
An equivalent circuit of the coupling increase the gain at low and middle
network is shown in Fig. 11. Notice that frequencies. At the same time, by using
in the previous case where we used shunt the shunt-peaking coil LI,we can in-
peaking alone, the coil L1 forms aparallel crease the gain of the amplifier at the
resonant circuit. However, this time in- higher frequencies where it would nor-
stead of forming a parallel-resonant cir- mally start to fall off. Thus we can
cuit with the entire capacity in the maintain a constant output voltage from
circuit, it forms aparallel-resonant circuit Vi over awider frequency range.
with the output capacity of VI.The The series-peaking coil, LI ,in addition
peaking coil L2 effectively separates the to separating the output capacity of V1
from the input capacity of V2 ,also forms

OUTPUT
a series-resonant circuit with the input

FROM ] F
1.
L2 capacity of V2.Therefore, as the output

R3 CIN TOOF GRID

Li
signal starts to fall off from VI,the

OF V1
Co resonant circuit made up of L and the
PLATE input capacity of V2 takes over, and by
T V2 means of the resonant voltage step-up can
keep the signal fed to the grid of V2
essentially constant.
In circuits using both series and shunt
Fig. 11. Equivalent circuit of coupling
network in Fig. 10. peaking we can select the values of the

19
iNPUT
eR,

4. 12. A series-shunt compensated transistor amplifier.

peaking coils so the resonant circuits sistor, the input capacity of the second
resonate at slightly different frequencies. transistor, and the stray capacity in the
Thus it is possible to make one resonant coupling network coupling the two tran-
circuit take over (usually the parallel- sistors together, limits the high frequency
resonant circuit) when the gain of the response of the amplifier.
amplifier first starts to fall off. At a A typical two-stage series-shunt com-
frequency above the resonant frequency pensated transistor amplifier is shown in
of the parallel-resonant, the series circuit Fig. 12. Notice that we have a shunt-
becomes resonant and compensates for peaking coil, LI,in the collector circuit
the drop in impedance in the plate circuit of Q1. We have a series-peaking coil
of V1 above the resonant frequency of connected between the collector of Q1
the shunt-peaking circuit. Thus by using a and the coupling capacitor C2. The
combination of shunt and series peaking equivalent circuit of the coupling net-
it is usually possible to get more gain work used between Q1 and Q2 at high
from the amplifier over this entire band- frequencies, where the capacity of C2 can
width because we can use alarger value of be ignored, is shown in Fig. 13. Notice
load resistor, and also it is easier to that we have essentially the same circuit
extend the high-frequency response of
the amplifier and maintain the response
essentially flat over a wider frequency
range.

TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS

So far in our discussion we have been

talking about extending the high-
frequency response of tube amplifiers.
Essentially the same problems exist in Fig. 13. The high-frequency equivalent
transistor amplifiers as exist in tube am- of the coupling network used in Fig. 12.
plifiers. The output capacity of one tran-

20
as we had in the series-shunt compensated amplifier begins to drop off appreciably.
vacuum-tube coupling circuit except for Since the collector load resistor is in
the resistors Ro and Ri n.Ro represents effect already low, we cannot lower it
the output resistance of Q1 and Ri n ,the much further. Fortunately, since the load
input resistance of Q2. In the tube resistor is low, it takes a higher shunt
circuit, these resistances were so high capacity to have an appreciable effect at
they could be ignored. However, in tran- high frequencies. Therefore the transistor
sistors, these resistances are low and must coupling network tends to give equal
be considered. response at ahigher frequency even with-
The peaking coil L2 separates the out the peaking coils in the circuit than in
output capacity of Q1 and the associated the case of avacuum-tube network.
capacity of the circuit from the input The output of Q2 may be connected to
capacity of Q2 and its associated stray another amplifier stage, or in atelevision
capacity. L2 is selected to resonate with receiver it might be connected to the
the capacity in the input circuit of Q2 picture tube. Additional peaking will be
and form aseries-resonant circuit in order used in the output circuit of this stage in
to peak the input to Q2 at the frequency order to keep up the high-frequency
desired. At the same time, Li forms a response in this circuit. L3 is a shunt-
parallel-resonant circuit in the collector peaking coil, and L4 aseries-peaking coil
circuit of Q1 and helps keep the output as in the network between Q1 and Q2.

from Q1 up at higher frequencies. We run into an additional problem in

We mentioned earlier that the collector transistor amplifiers at high frequencies
load resistor, R4, is in parallel with the that we do not encounter in vacuum-tube
input resistance of Q2. You will remem- amplifiers. In a common-emitter circuit
ber from your study of low-frequency such as used for Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 12, we
voltage amplifiers, that in a transistor normally have a 180 ° phase shift in each
circuit Q2 has acertain base current. This stage. You will remember that when the
lowers the effective input resistance of input signal fed to Q1 drives the base in a
the second transistor amplifier, and since positive direction, it increases the forward
this is in effect in parallel with R4, it has bias across the emitter-base junction of
the effect of lowering the value of the the NPN transistor. This causes the num-
collector load resistor in the collector ber of electrons crossing the emitter-base
circuit of Q1.Therefore we already have junction to increase and hence the num-
a comparatively low collector load resis- ber of electrons reaching the collector
tor and there is alimit to how far we can will increase. When the number of elec-
reduce this resistor in order to level out trons reaching the collector and flowing
the response of the coupling network through Li and R4 increases, this will
over a wide frequency range. You will cause the voltage drop across R4 to
remember that in the vacuum-tube increase. Therefore the voltage at the
coupling network we were able to drop collector will swing in a negative direc-
the value of the plate load resistor in the tion. Thus with the input signal as shown
first stage and in so doing bring down the in Fig. 14A, the collector voltage swings
low and middle-frequency gain of the in the opposite direction as shown in Fig.
amplifier. At the same time, we extended 14B. We say the two signals are 180 °
the frequency at which the gain of the out-of-phase.

21
 silicon transistor. Therefore consider
what can happen when the time it takes
INPUT SIGNAL the electrons to travel through the base
is considered. If the signal applied to the
base is a low-frequency signal or a
medium-frequency signal, the time it
takes the electrons to cross the base
compared to the time of one cycle is
relatively short. The output signal will be
180 ° out-of-phase with the input signal as
shown in A and Bof Fig. 14. However, at
OUTPUT SIGNAL
high frequencies, the electrons may be
AT LOW AND delayed sufficiently in travelling through
MEDIUM the base of the transistor to cause aphase
FREQUENCIES shift between the output signal voltage at
medium and low frequencies and the
output signal voltage at high frequencies.
As a matter of fact, at some high fre-
quency it will take the electrons so long
to cross the base that instead of the
signals being 180 ° out-of-phase, they will
be in-phase because the electrons are
delayed by one half cycle in travelling
through the base region. When this
OUTPUT SIGNAL
happens, the output voltage in the collec-
AT HIGH tor circuit of Qi will be in-phase with the
FREQUENCIES input voltage applied to the base of Qi •
You will remember that in atransistor
there is acapacity between the collector
and the base. A signal is fed from the
collector of the transistor back to the
Fig. 14. Phase relationships between base through this capacity. When the
input and output signals at low, medium output signal is 180 ° out-of-phase with
and high frequencies in common emitter the input signal, the signal fed back to the
amplifiers.
base through the collector-base capacity,
simply reduces the amplitude of the input
The base of a germanium transistor is signal. This is aform of degeneration; the
usually about one thousandth of an inch output from the transistor would not be
thick. The base of a silicon transistor is as high as it would be without this
about one ten-thousandth of an inch feedback signal. However, at high fre-
thick. It takes the electrons a certain quencies where the output signal may be
length of time to cross the base of the in-phase with the input signal, the signal
transistor. It will take the electrons longer fed from the collector back to the base
to cross the base of the germanium will be in-phase with the input signal.
transistor because it is thicker than the This will reinforce the input signal which

22
in turn produces a higher amplitude second stage along with stray wiring
output signal which in turn builds up the capacity tend to limit the high-frequency
input signal still further. Thus the transis- response of the amplifier.
tor may go into oscillation and the A typical two-stage compensated am-
output signal fed back to the input circuit plifier using junction-type field-effect
will take control of the transistor so that transistors is shown in Fig. 15. Notice the
it begins producing ahigh-frequency sig- similarity between this and a vacuum-
nal without any input. In circuits where tube two-stage amplifier.
there is apossibility of oscillation occur- The peaking coil L1 in the drain circuit
ring, some kind of neutralization must be of Q1 is used to form aparallel-resonant
employed so that a signal that is 180 ° circuit in the drain circuit, to keep the
out-of-phase with the feedback signal, can output from Q1 from falling off at high
be fed back into the base circuit to cancel frequencies. The series-peaking coil 1.2 is
out the signal fed from the collector back used to resonate with the input capacity
to the base through the collector-base of Q2 to form aseries-resonant circuit to
capacitance. keep up the amplitude of the high-
frequency signals fed to the gate of Q2.
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS In the output circuit of Q2 we have
shown series peaking used between the
Both the junction-type and the drain and the following stage.
insulated-gate field-effect transistors can In many amplifiers using field-effect
be used in wide-band amplifiers. The transistors you will find that series peak-
problems in an amplifier using field-effect ing only is used. The one type of peaking
transistors are almost identical to those is frequently all that is required to obtain
encountered in equipment using vacuum the high frequency response required.
tubes. The output capacity of the first The value of the resistor R3, in the drain
stage plus the input capacity of the circuit of Q1,may be reduced in order to

Fig. 15. Compensated amplifier using field -

effect transistors.

23
 increase the frequency at which the ca- resistor in a wide-band amplifier
pacity shunting the output of Q1 begins kept low?
to have an appreciable effect on the (m) Why is there alimit to the size of
impedance of the drain circuit of Q1. grid resistor that can be used in a
You have essentially the same situation as vacuum-tube amplifier?
you had with the resistor in the plate (n) How does 1.1 in the circuit shown
circuit of atube-type amplifier. Reducing in Fig. 5 help improve the high-
the size of the resistor increases the frequency response of the ampli-
frequency at which the reactance of the fier?
output capacitance becomes equal to the (o) How does the, peaking coil L1 in
resistance of the resistor. the circuit shown in Fig. 8 help
One of the big advantages of the improve the high-frequency re-
field-effect transistor is that it has ahigh sponse of the amplifier?
input resistance. Therefore, the input (p) What do we mean by series-shunt
resistance of Q2 has little or no loading peaking?
effect on the output resistance of Q1.In (c) Does capacity shunting have as
fact, as far as the performance of the great an effect on high-frequency
circuit is concerned, it is practically iden- response in transistor amplifiers as
tical to the performance of a two-stage it does in vacuum-tube amplifiers?
vacuum tube amplifier. Field-effect tran- (r) Are there any problems encoun-
sistors are able to combine most of the tered at high frequencies in transis-
advantages of vacuum tubes along with tor amplifiers that are not likely to
most of the advantages of transistors and be encountered in vacuum-tube
should become increasingly important in amplifiers?
the future in electronic equipment. (s) Are the high-frequency problems
encountered in field-effect transis-
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS tors more like those encountered
in vacuum tubes or like those
(I) Why is the value of the plate-load encountered in bipolar transistors?

Extending the Low-Frequency

Response of an Amplifier
You will remember that when we reactance of the coupling capacitor used
studied low-frequency amplifiers we to couple the two stages together in-
pointed out that the output from an creases as the frequency decreases. At
amplifier falls off at low frequencies as some low frequency, the reactance of the
well as at high frequencies. The low- capacitor will become so high that it will
frequency response of an amplifier falls act like a voltage divider along with the
off for several reasons. One reason is the input resistance in the second stage of the

24
amplifier. Thus not all of the amplified diagrams of three R-C coupled amplifiers.
signal produced by the first stage is fed to The circuit shown in A is made up of two
the input of the second stage. vacuum tubes, the one at B has two
In Fig. 16 we have shown schematic transistors and the one at C has two

Fig. 16. Basic R-C coupled amplifiers.

25
field-effect transistors. In each case C2 is quite large and increase the input resis-
the coupling capacitor between the two tance of the second stage. Thus the
stages. The reactance of this capacitor low-frequency limit of the amplifier can
will at some low frequency become equal be extended to quite alow value. This is
to the input resistance in the following particularly true in the case of the in-
stage. When this happens, only 70.7% of sulated-gate field-effect transistor, since
the voltage developed in the output of for all practical purposes there is no gate
the first stage will be fed to the input of current at all in these transistors.
the second stage. At lower frequencies,
the amount of signal developed by the REDUCING THE EFFECT OF THE
first stage that reaches the second stage COUPLING CAPACITOR
will become increasingly smaller.
In the case of the vacuum-tube ampli- The equivalent circuit of the coupling
fier shown in Fig. 16A we can use alarge network used between the two stages in
value of grid resistance, R4, in the input each of the examples shown in Fig. 16
of the second stage. By using as large a can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 17. In
resistance as possible in this circuit, we the case of Fig. 16A, using the two
can reduce to alow value the frequency vacuum tubes, R3 is the plate load
at which the reactance of C2 becomes resistor of V I ,and R4 is the grid resistor
equal to the resistance of R.I.In the case of V2 .In the case of the transistor circuit
of the transistor amplifier shown in Fig. shown in Fig. 16B, R3 is the collector
16B, however, there is not much we can resistor of Q 1 . R4 is the resistor con-
do about increasing the value of the base nected between the base of Q2 and
resistor R4. The transistor itself draws a ground. In the case of the circuit shown
certain base current. Thus the transistor in Fig. 16C where we've used the field-
itself has a low input resistance. There- effect transistors, R3 is the resistor con-
fore, this resistance is always in parallel nected between the drain of Q 1 and B+,
with R. and increasing the value of R4 and R4 is the resistor connected between
will have little effect on increasing the the gate of Q2 and ground.
actual input resistance of Q2 . We get You can readily see from the circuit
around the low input resistance of Q2 by shown in Fig. 17 that the output voltage
using a high capacity electrolytic capaci- developed at the output of the first stage
tor between Q1 and Q2 as the coupling
capacitor. Since transistors are operated
at relatively low voltages we can use a
capacitor with quite ahigh capacity, and I
still keep the physical size of the capaci- El OUTPUT
FROM Ï
R3
tor quite small.
Iftt STAGE t
In the field-effect transistor circuit
shown in Fig. 16C, once again we can Rii £2 INPUT
TO
increase the value of R4, the resistance 2nd STAGE
f
between the gate of Q2 and the source, to 1
as high avalue as possible. Since there is
little or no gate current in afield-effect
Fig. 17. Equivalent circuit of coupling
transistor the value of R,s can be made network at low frequencies.

26
is fed to the series combination of C2 and is just as big a problem. This is particu-
R4. At high frequencies and middle fre- larly true in video amplifiers in television
quencies, the capacitive reactance of C2 is receivers. They must be able to handle
so small compared to the resistance of R4 very low-frequency signals without any
that practically all of the signal developed attenuation or phase shift. A phase shift
at the output of the first stage is fed to will displace the video information in part
the input of the second stage. For all of the picture and cause smearing. There-
practical purposes, C2 simply acts like a fore it is desirable to keep the drop in
short circuit. low-frequency response and the phase
However, at lower frequencies, the shift as low as possible.
reactance of C2 begins to become appre- Obviously one of the simplest ways of
ciable and it cannot be ignored. At some preventing problems of low frequencies is
low frequency, the reactance of C2 will to use alarge value of coupling capacitor.
become equal to the resistance of R4. We do this when we design an amplifier
Since we have equal capacitive reactance to have good low-frequency response.
and resistance in this circuit, we will have However, in most cases, where you are
a current flowing that leads the voltage interested in the low-frequency response
applied by 45 °.Furthermore, since the of an amplifier, you are also interested in
voltage across C2 plus the voltage across the high-frequency response. Large ca-
R4 must be equal to the voltage across pacitors also have a higher capacity to
R3, we have adrop in the voltage across ground. Thus there is alimit to how large
R4. This means that the voltage applied a coupling capacitor you can use to
to the input of the second stage decreases improve the low-frequency response with-
and at the same time we have a phase
shift.
The relationship between the output
voltage of the first stage which we have
labeled El,and the input voltage applied •
•
to the second stage, which we have •
•
labeled E2, can be seen from the vector •
•
diagram of Fig. 18. Notice first, that the •
•
voltage E2 is in-phase with the current I. •
This is as we might expect because in a E
resistance, the voltage and current are
always in-phase. Therefore the voltage E2
leads the voltage El by 45 °.Notice also
that the voltage Ec,which is the voltage
across the capacitor, is equal to the
voltage E2. The vector sum of the voltage
Ec
E2 and E c will be equal to the voltage of

E,.
Not only is the drop in voltage across
R4 important, because this will reduce Fig. 18. Vector diagram of voltages
the amplitude of low-frequency signals, at output of first stage and input of
but in many applications, the phase shift second stage.

27
 C2 2

eR 3
INPUT 2
•
c—; 4 R
e8
1
R5

Fig. 19. A two stage amplifier with low-frequency compensation in the plate circuit of VI.

out running into problems with the high- C2 at low frequencies. In this circuit, the
frequency response. Therefore while we low-frequency compensating network
can improve the low-frequency response, that has been added consists of Rg and
to some extent, by using alarge coupling
C4. Let's see how the addition of these
capacitor, there is alimit as to how far we two components can improve the gain of
can go.
the amplifier at low frequencies.

LOW-FREQUENCY COMPENSATION

OUTPUT INPUT
R3
Regardless of how large a coupling FROM R4
TO
V2
capacitor and of how large aresistance we
are able to put into the input of the •

second stage, the reactance of the capaci-

tor will still increase as the frequency
decreases. In some amplifiers where we
must amplify very low frequencies of
only a few Hertz, with essentially the R3 ""2
same gain that we have in the middle- OUTPUT
FROM
frequency range, we usually have to add VI C4 R4 INPUT
something to the circuit to compensate TO
V21
for the fact that the coupling capacitor
reactance becomes appreciable at these
low frequencies.
In Fig. 19 we have shown how an
additional resistor and capacitor can be
added in the plate circuit of V1 in the Fig. 20. Equivalent circuit of low-fre-
quency compensation network. "A" is
amplifier shown in Fig. 16A, to com-
for middle and high frequencies. "B"
pensate for an increase in the reactance of is for low frequencies.

28
 In Fig. 20A we have shown the equiva- Not only does the compensating net-
lent circuit of the coupling network work compensate for the drop in voltage
between V1 and V2 and the low fre- fed to the input of the second stage, but
quency compensation network at middle it also improves on the phase shift that
and high frequencies. Notice that we have occurs at low frequencies. Let's consider
omitted C2 because in the middle- how this can happen.
frequency range, the reactance of C2 is SO Going back to the equivalent circuit
low that it can be ignored. Also the value shown in Fig. 20A, remember that the
signal current from the vacuum tube
of C4 is selected so that in the middle and
develops the voltage across R3, in other
higher frequencies its reactance is very
words, across the plate load resistance.
low. It is so low that the end of R3 that
This voltage in turn causes acurrent to
connects to the junction of C4 and R8 is
flow across the coupling capacitor C2 and
in effect connected to ground through
the grid resistor R4 developing avoltage
C4. This places R3 and R4 directly in
across R4. Now consider what happens in
parallel. The parallel resistances of these
the equivalent shown in Fig. 20B. The
two resistors is the plate load of VI.
signal current from the tube flows
As we pointed out previously, in most
amplifiers where we are interested in through the plate load consisting of R3
good low-frequency response we are also in series with the parallel combination of
R8 and C4. Since the circuit is acapaci-
interested in good high-frequency re-
sponse. You will remember that we are tive circuit, the voltage developed across
going to use alow value plate-load resis- this circuit will lag the current. Thus we
tor in order to improve the high-fre- have alow frequency signal voltage in the
quency response. Therefore, R3 in Fig. plate circuit of V1 that is lagging the
19 will be alow value resistor. Since at signal current. This lagging signal voltage
the middle frequencies, R3 is in effect in causes acurrent to flow through C2 and
R4. Since the circuit consisting of C2 and
parallel with R4, and R4 will be many
times the value of R3, the plate load is in R4 is capacitive, the current flowing will

effect R3 alone. For all practical purposes lead the voltage. By the proper selection
we could omit R4 in the equivalent of C4 and R8 we can cause the phase
circuit shown in Fig. 20A. shift in this network to equal or compen-
At low frequencies, the reactance of sate for the phase shift in the network
C2 becomes appreciable and it cannot be
consisting of C2 and R4. Therefore the
ignored. At the same time, the reactance current flowing through C2 and R4 will
be in-phase with the signal current sup-
of C4 also becomes appreciable so that it
plied by the tube. This means that the
no longer effectively grounds the one end
signal voltage developed across R4 will
of R3. Therefore, the plate load for V1
then be in-phase with the signal current
becomes the combination of R3 in-series
supplied by the tube at low frequencies.
with the parallel combination of R8 and
Since it is already in-phase with the signal
C4. In other words, the plate load resist-
current at middle and high frequencies we
ance of V1 increases. When the plate load
have compensated for the low-frequency
of the tube increases, the voltage de-
phase shift.
veloped in the plate circuit will increase
Low-frequency compensation can also
and this compensates for the loss in
be used in circuits where transistors or
voltage across the coupling capacitor C2.

29
 o

Fig. 21. Low-frequency compensation is shown in atransistor amplifier at A, and in a

field-effect transistor amplifier in H.

field-effect transistors have been em- cuits is exactly the same as in the case of
ployed. In the circuit shown in Fig. 21A,
the low-frequency compensating circuit
we have shown low-frequency compensa- in the vacuum-tube amplifier and is
tion in the collector circuit of Q1.Notice equally effective.
that once again we have added the resis-
tor R8 in series with the collector-load LOW-FREQUENCY DEGENERATION
resistor R3 and the additional capacitor Going back to the amplifiers shown in
C4 in the collector circuit. Low-fre- Fig. 16, in addition to the coupling
quency compensation is not as effective capacitor C2, the bypass capacitors C1
in transistor amplifiers as in vacuum-tube and C3 may cause a drop in the low-
amplifiers. frequency response. Considering first the
In the diagram shown in Fig. 21 B, we vacuum-tube amplifier shown in Fig.
have added low-frequency compensation 16A, C1 is the cathode bypass for VI.
to the amplifier using field-effect transis- The purpose is to maintain the cathode
tors. The additional resistor R8 is added voltage on V1 constant. At medium and
in the drain circuit of Q1 along with the high-frequencies it acts as abypass capaci-
additional capacitor C4. The operation of tor so that the signal current in effect
these low-frequency compensating cir- flows through it and R2 is effectively

30
bypassed. Therefore the voltage across R2 sponse of the stage. By using large elec-
remains constant. However, at low fre- trolytic capacitors the effect can be kept
quencies, the reactance of C1 increases. at aminimum so that the response of the
As a result, part of the signal current amplifier may be satisfactory down to a
flows through R2. This causes a signal frequency of only a very few cycles per
voltage to appear at the cathode that is second. Also the bypass capacitor may be
in-phase with the voltage applied to the omitted, as in the case of the tube
grid of the tube. This reduces the grid-to- amplifier, introducing a degenerative
cathode signal voltage so that the output effect at all frequencies so as to level off
from the stage goes down. This effect can the response of the amplifier.
be kept at a minimum by using a large
capacitor, usually an electrolytic capaci- SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
tor, to provide effective bypassing at low
frequencies. Another method of elimi- (t) What part is the primary cause of
nating this problem is to eliminate the poor low-frequency response in a
bypass capacitor altogether. This will two-stage amplifier?
reduce the gain of the stage at medium (u) In addition to adrop in gain at low
frequencies as well as high frequencies, frequencies, what other problem is
but the degenerative effect of the un- frequently encountered?
bypassed cathode is constant at all fre- (v) What method is used to improve
quencies. Thus the gain of the stage is the low-frequency response of
reduced an equal amount at all frequen- amplifiers?
cies rather than at low frequencies only. Is low-frequency compensation
Exactly the same situation exists in the equally effective in vacuum-tube
case of the emitter bypass capacitor C1 in and transistor-amplifier circuits?
the transistor amplifier circuit shown in (x) Is low-frequency compensation
Fig. 16B, and the source bypass capacitor effective in improving the low-
C1 in the field-effect transistor circuit frequency response in an amplifier
shown in Fig. 16C. These capacitors using field-effect transistors?
become degenerative at low frequencies (Y) What do we mean by cathode
and will reduce the low-frequency re- degeneration?

31
 Typical Wide-Band Amplifiers

in this section of the lesson we will quency compensation is needed primarily

look at afew typical wide-band amplifiers because the reactance of the coupling
such as you might encounter in electronic capacitor between stages increases as the
equipment. We will also discuss printed frequency goes down. This problem can
circuit wiring since the trend today in be overcome by the use of direct cou-
modern electronic equipment is to use pling; in this type of coupling, the capaci-
printed circuit wiring. This type of wiring tor is omitted entirely and hence any
is particularly advantageous in wide-band problems created by it are avoided. We
amplifiers because the stray capacities in will look at direct-coupled amplifiers so
the circuit can be kept constant from one you will be familiar with this type of
amplifier to another, and therefore it is circuit.
quite easy to manufacture amplifiers with There is no doubt that television re-
almost identical characteristics. ceivers make more use of wide-band
In transistorized equipment, as we amplifiers than any other electronic
mentioned previously, it is not quite as equipment. This is simply due to the fact
easy to compensate for high-frequency that there are so many television receivers
losses as it is in vacuum-tube amplifiers. manufactured every year. Therefore we'll
Therefore we will look at some circuits start our study of typical wide-band
found only in transistorized equipment amplifiers with a look at atypical video
that get around some of these disadvan- amplifier which is awide-band amplifier.
tages.
In the preceding section of the lesson A TYPICAL VIDEO AMPLIFIER
we discussed low-frequency compensa-
tion. As you will remember, low-fre- In Fig. 22 we have shown the sche-
L1

ig. 22. A typical wide-band amplifier.

32
matic diagram of a typical wide-band Electrons flow from ground through the
amplifier such as might be used for video cathode resistor to the cathode of the
amplification in a television receiver. tube, and in so doing develop a voltage
Notice that to improve the high-fre- across the bias resistor having apolarity
quency response of the amplifier both such that the cathode end is positive. The
series and shunt peaking have been used. electrolytic capacitors must be connected
Notice that across the series-peaking coil with this polarity.
Li,we have a shunt resistor. This is to In some wide-band amplifiers, electro-
reduce the Q of the coil and prevent lytic cathode bypass capacitors may be
oscillation, and at the same time broaden shunted by small paper capacitors or
the response of the series-resonant circuit. ceramic capacitors. You might find a
L2 is a shunt-peaking coil and is used bypass cathode capacitor with acapacity
to form a parallel-resonant circuit to of about 100 mfd shunted by a.001 mfd
increase the value of the plate load at ceramic capacitor. This is often done
high frequencies. because electrolytic capacitors are some-
Low-frequency compensation is pro- times rather poor bypass capacitors at
vided by C4 and R6 connected in the high frequencies. Therefore at low fre-
plate circuit of V I .This is similar to the quencies the electrolytic capacitor acts as
low-frequency compensating network the bypass capacitor, but at high frequen-
shown earlier. We have shown electrolytic cies where the electrolytic becomes a
capacitors in the cathode circuits of both rather inefficient bypass, the ceramic
stages as the cathode bypass capacitors. capacitor has a low enough reactance to
You can tell from the schematic when an bypass the cathode resistor effectively.
electrolytic capacitor is used because the
polarity of the capacitor is usually indi- TRANSISTOR WIDE-BAND
cated. Notice that the polarity signs AMPLIFIERS
indicate that the positive side of the
capacitor is connected to the cathode of A transistor video amplifier using PNP
the tube and the other side to ground. transistors is shown in Fig. 23. L1 is the

L1

—me..--
Re

a
Fig. 23. A transistor wide -
band amplifier.

33
series-peaking coil, and it is loaded by R8 In the case of the equivalent coupling
to reduce the Q of the coil and broaden circuit for the low-frequency response
the response of the circuit. 1,2 is the shown in Fig. 17, in atransistor amplifier
shunt-peaking coil. R3 and R4 are actually shunted by other
The coupling capacitor C1 is an elec- resistors that should be considered. R3 is
trolytic capacitor; alarge value of capaci- shunted by a resistance which is the
tor is used to provide the required low- output resistance of Q1, and R4 is
frequency response. Notice that the emit- shunted by aresistance which is the input
ter resistors R3 and R2 are not bypassed. resistance of Q2.The output resistance of
In order to prevent low-frequency de- atransistor in acommon-emitter circuit is
generation due to the reactance of bypass probably around 20,000 ohms whereas
capacitors across the emitter resistors, the the input resistance of acommon-emitter
capacitors are simply omitted. As we circuit is quite low, usually in the vicinity
mentioned previously this introduces de- of afew hundred ohms at the most.
generation at all frequencies but tends to The frequency response of transistor
flatten the gain of the amplifier. amplifiers can frequently be improved by
Feedback Circuits. Transistor ampli- means of feedback circuits. Feedback, of
fiers do not lend themselves to improving course, must be degenerative feedback
frequency response by means of peaking and it operates on the principle that as
coils nearly as well as do vacuum-tube the output signal from the amplifier
amplifiers. The same is true of improving increases, the amount of feedback must
the low-frequency response; increasing increase. This in turn will tend to reduce
the size of the base resistor of the the overall gain of the amplifier more at a
second stage in a transistor amplifier frequency where the output is higher
actually has little effect on the input than it would at another frequency where
resistance of the stage. The base current the output signal is low, and hence the
of the transistor primarily determines the feedback signal is low.
input resistance. In Fig. 24 we have shown the sche-

Fig. 24. Improving the frequency response by means of feedback.

34
 Fig. 23. A second feedback circuit.

matic diagram of a circuit that could be current flowing through Q2 decreases.

used to improve the frequency response When this happens the voltage drop
of a two-stage transistor amplifier. The across the emitter resistor R9 will de-
circuit is quite similar to the transistor crease. The voltage across R10 is held
amplifier shown previously except that essentially constant by Cs.The decrease
the feedback network consists of C4 and in signal voltage across R9 is actually a
R5.This provides negative feedback back negative signal. This negative signal is fed
from the emitter of Q2 back to the base through C4 and R5 back into the base of
of Qi. Q1 and subtracts from the original posi-
Consider what happens as a signal tive signal.
passes through the amplifier. When the In this circuit, as the gain tends to rise
signal applied to the base of Q1 swings in at middle frequencies, the amount of
a positive direction, the forward bias signal fed back from the emitter of Q2 to
across the emitter-base junction of Q1 the base of Q1 increases thus tending to
will be increased. This will cause the reduce the overall gain of the amplifier.
current through the transistor to increase On the other hand, if the signal starts to
and hence the voltage drop across R3 will fall off at the high frequencies or at the
increase. As the voltage drop across R3 low frequencies, any amount of feedback
increases, the signal voltage at the collec- will also go down so that the overall gain
tor of Q1 will swing in anegative direc- of the two-stage amplifier will tend to
tion. Thus for a positive input signal we increase.
have an amplified negative signal in the Another example of feedback which is
used to improve the frequency response
output of Q1.
The negative signal from Q1 is fed to of a transistor is shown in Fig. 25. Here
the base of Q2 through the coupling the signal feedback is taken from the
capacitor C3.The negative-going signal collector of the second transistor Q2 and
reduces the forward bias across the fed through a resistor-capacitor network
emitter-base junction of Q2 .Thus the back into the emitter of the first transis-

35
tor Q 1.To see how this feedback circuit fall off, then the amount of feedback
works, let's follow the signal phases voltage goes down so that the gain of the
through the amplifier. amplifier tends to increase and thus level
When asignal drives the base of Q 1 in a off the overall frequency response of the
positive direction, current through the amplifier.
transistor increases causing avoltage drop
across the collector-load resistor R3 to DIRECT-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS
increase. When this voltage drop in-
creases, the net voltage between the All of the problems introduced by the
collector of Q 1 and ground swings in a coupling capacitor used between two
negative direction. Thus in the common- stages can be eliminated by using direct-
emitter circuit, we always have the situa- coupled amplifiers. In the case of a
tion of a 180 ° phase shift between the vacuum-tube amplifier, the sole purpose
input and output signals. Now the of the coupling capacitor between the
negative-going signal is fed from C3 to the two stages is to keep the positive voltage
base of Q 2 and this causes the current applied to the plate of the tube off the
through Q 2 to decrease. When the current grid of the following tube. We do this so
through Q 2 decreases, the voltage drop the grid can be operated at dc ground
across R9 decreases causing the collector potential and the cathode at a small
of Q2 to swing in a positive direction. positive voltage. In this way bias can be
Once again we have the 180 ° phase shift obtained for the tube. However, there is
in the common-emitter circuit so that we no reason why we cannot let the grid
have a positive-going signal produced in operate at afairly high positive potential
the collector circuit of Q2 • and simply operate the cathode at astill
This positive signal is then fed through higher positive voltage. This will mean
C4 and R6 into the emitter circuit of Q 1 . that the cathode will be positive with
The resistors R6 and R5 actually act as a respect to the grid, or in other words, the
voltage-divider network so that the por- grid will be negative with respect to the
tion of the signal developed across R5 cathode.
will be fed into the emitter circuit of Q 1. A circuit where this is done is shown in
Thus when the signal applied to the base Fig. 26. This type of amplifier is called a
of Q 1 swings in a positive direction we direct-coupled amplifier. Notice that
also have the emitter of Q 1 swinging in a there is no coupling capacitor used be-
positive direction due to the feedback tween V 1 and V 2 .The circuit of V1 is
signal. This reduces the net base-to- more or less conventional, but the circuit
emitter signal voltage so that the increase of V 2 is somewhat different from the
in current through Q 1 will not be as great amplifiers you have seen previously. No-
as it would be without the feedback. tice that the grid of V2 is connected
As in the case of the previous ampli- directly to the plate of V I .It is obvious
fier, when the output from Q 2 begins to that with this type of connection we
increase, the amplitude of the feedback don't have to worry about an increase in
signal will also increase and this in turn coupling capacitor reactance at low fre-
tends to reduce the gain of the amplifier quencies, because there is no coupling
to keep the output constant. On the capacitor. However, the plate of V 1 must
other hand, if the output of Q 2 begins to have a positive voltage applied to it, and

36
 OUTPUT

Fig. 26. A direct-coupled %aeuum-tube amplifier.

therefore the grid of V2 will have a to the cathode. Needless to say, when this
positive voltage applied to it. By means of happens, V2 starts drawing ahigher than
avoltage divider consisting of R4 and R5, normal current. Fortunately, when the
we have obtained a positive voltage for tube starts drawing ahigher than normal
the cathode of V2,which is slightly current, the voltage drop across R4 in-
higher than the positive voltage applied to creases and this tends to compensate for
the grid of V2.C2 keeps the cathode of the increase in grid voltage to some
V2 at signal ground potential. Thus we extent. In some direct-coupled amplifiers
have the signal applied directly between you will find that the plate-load resistor
the cathode and grid of V2.C2 can be R3 is returned to alower voltage than the
made very large so its reactance is negligi- plate-load resistor R6. This makes it
ble even at very low frequencies. Even if possible to use alower value resistor for
its reactance does start to rise, the value R. and thus tends to give better high-
of R4 is usually somewhat higher than frequency response. You will remember
the cathode resistor of a conventional that one of the first steps we did in order
R-C coupled stage. Thus the capacitor to get good high-frequency response from
does not have to bypass such alow value an amplifier was reduce the value of the
resistor and more effective bypassing can plate-load resistor. This doesn't actually
be obtained. bring up the response but it does reduce
One disadvantage of this type of ampli- the middle and lower frequencies so that
fier is that aging of one tube appreciably we get a constant gain over a wider
affects the operation of the other. For frequency range.
example, if the emission of V1 drops, the
plate current drawn by this tube will TRANSISTOR DIRECT-COUPLED
drop. This means that the voltage drop AMPLIFIERS
across R3 will decrease, and therefore the
plate voltage on V1 will increase. This Transistors lend themselves very well
increase in voltage might be enough to to direct coupling. An example of several
swing the grid of V2 positive with respect transistors used in adirect-coupled circuit

37
 INPUT OUTPUT

i
t

Fig. 27. Transistor direct-coupled stages.

is shown in Fig. 27. The resistors R1 and like Q1 and Q2.Of course, the varying
R2 provide a forward bias across the signal fed to the base of Q3 will cause the
emitter-base junction of the NPN transis- voltage across R7 to vary.
tor Q1.Forward bias across the emitter- The combination of transistors Qi and
base junction of Q2 is provided by R5 Q2 is called adifferential amplifier. This
and R6 . type of amplifier is widely used in inte-
To see how the amplifier works, let's grated circuits that are used in some
consider what happens when an input television receivers. The purpose of using
signal is applied between the base of Qi the emitter follower after Q2 is to reduce
and ground. When the signal swings the the dc voltage level. If we simply fed the
base of Q1 in apositive direction, current base of a second differential amplifier
through Q1 will increase. This causes the pair from the collector of Q2,the base of
voltage drop across R3 to increase. The the following transistor would be at a
increased voltage drop across R3 increases higher potential than the base of Qi
the emitter voltage on Q2 thus reducing Thus for each two-stage differential am-
the forward bias across the emitter-base plifier we went through, the voltage
junction of Q2. Hence the current would be gradually increasing. However,
through this transistor goes down, and by using an emitter follower, the dc
the voltage drop across R4 will decrease. voltage across the emitter-resistor R7 is
Therefore the collector of Q2 will swing quite low so that we can get back down
in apositive direction. to a low base voltage such as we had on
The collector of Q2 is connected di- Q1 originally. By using atwo-stage differ-
rectly to the base of Q3 which is used in ential amplifier followed it by an emitter
an emitter-follower circuit. The dc volt- follower we can cascade groups of these
age developed across R7 is relatively low, stages any number of times to get the
so the output can be fed directly to the gain we need, while the operating voltage
base of another amplifier configuration requirements are quite low.

38
 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS desired to make the connections between
the various parts on the board. The parts
One of the most common problems needed are then mounted on the other
encountered in the early days of tele- side of the board and connected to the
vision, and when manufacturers first copper wiring by inserting the part leads
began to build wide-band amplifiers for through holes that have been drilled or
other uses, was getting consistent results. punched in the board. The leads to the
In building awide-band amplifier, stray various parts are then soldered to the
capacities have an appreciable effect on copper wiring.
the high-frequency response of the ampli- The advantage of an etched circuit
fier. One amplifier might have good fre- board, of course, is that all parts fall into
quency response up to 5 MHz and the exactly the same place, the wiring falls in
next one built by the manufacturer, with exactly the same place and hence dis-
the same parts and tubes, might have as tributed and stray capacities remain
good aresponse to only 4 MHz (or less). essentially constant from one board to
Often this is due simply to parts being the next. Thus assuming we hold the
put in slightly different positions and parts tolerances to areasonable value, we
wires that were routed slightly different can expect the frequency-response and
by the person who assembled the equip- gain of one amplifier to be essentially the
ment. same as the next one we manufacture.
Problems of this type have been almost In Fig. 28 we have shown aphotograph
completely eliminated by the use of of the circuit board containing the video
printed circuit boards in the assembly of amplifier of the Conar Model 600 Color
wide-band amplifiers. In the printed cir- Television Receiver. Notice that the tubes
cuit board the wiring is actually on a and parts are all mounted on one side of
phenolic or glass epoxy-type base. The the circuit board and the wiring which
wiring consists of copper strips that are interconnects all these components is in
glued to the base. the form of copper on the other side of
In manufacturing a printed circuit the board. The use of the printed circuit
board the manufacturer starts off with a board ensures that video amplifiers of the
board that may have been made out of a various sets will have essentially the same
phenolic material that is 1/16th of an frequency response.
inch thick. This material has athin sheet One of the disadvantages of circuit
of copper firmly glued to one side. The boards is that they sometimes develop
basic boards are available in sheets that cracks. This may be due to rough han-
are 4' wide by 8' long. The manufacturer dling of the equipment in which they are
cuts the desired size board from sheets of used. Sometimes the crack is so thin that
this type. In manufacturing the board for you can't see it; sometimes we refer to
use in wide-band amplifiers, the wiring on this as ahairline crack. The crack in the
the board is etched. To do this we simply circuitry may cause the equipment° to
draw the circuit and then transfer it perform intermittently.
photographically to the copper circuit Hairline cracks are quite difficult to
board. The board is then placed in an locate, but they usually can be located by
etching solution and the undesired copper putting alittle pressure on the board in
is etched away leaving only the copper various spots. You can do this with some

39
 o ®
Fig. 28. Video amplifier on an etched circuit board. This type of wiring is referred to
as printed wiring.

insulated tool; you will find that as you Printed circuit boards have added
push in a certain spot the intermittent much insofar as obtaining consistent per-
can be made to occur. Look for ahairline formance from wide-band amplifiers is
break in the copper wiring somewhere concerned. They are not particularly dif-
near this point. If you cannot find it, ficult to work on as long as you make
simply flow solder over the copper con- repairs quickly and avoid applying ex-
ductors in the area where you think the cessive heat or force to the board. Some
break is located and then try flexing the servicemen do not like to work on
board again and see if the trouble is printed circuit boards because it is some-
eliminated. The solder will usually bridge what more difficult to trace out the
right across the crack and eliminate the circuit than with the older style of hand
intermittent. wiring, but with alittle practice you can
Sometimes in repairing equipment in learn to do this. Since most modern radio
which a printed circuit board is used and TV receivers use printed circuitry it is
you'll accidentally pull the copper loose important that you learn to work with
from the board. The copper is only glued this type of equipment.
to the board and can be easily knocked
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
off by applying too much heat when you
are replacing apart. In this case, you can (z) What system is frequently used in
effect arepair simply by taking apiece of transistor amplifiers to improve
wire and soldering the wire in place to the overall frequency response of
complete the circuit between the two the amplifier?
points from which the copper has been (aa) How can you repair a "hairline"
accidentally removed. Use ashort direct crack in a printed circuit board?
piece of wire so you do not upset the (ab) How can you repair a printed
performance of the board. circuit board in which apiece of

40
 the copper has been accidentally LOOKING AHEAD
removed?
(ac) What is the advantage of using an
emitter follower after a differ- You can look forward to servicing
ential amplifier such as shown in many amplifiers in your career as an
Fig. 27? electronics technician. You will find am-
(ad) In the direct-coupled amplifier plifiers used in all types of electronic
shown in Fig. 26, how is the high equipment. Wide-band amplifiers will be
positive voltage on the grid of V2 found in many different applications.
overcome? Make sure that you understand wide-band
(ae) What type of high-frequency com- amplifiers before leaving this lesson and
pensation is used in the circuit going on to the next. A small amount of
shown in Fig. 23? additional time spent on this lesson may
(al) What components form the low- save you a great deal of time later when
frequency compensating network you start working on equipment of this
in the amplifier shown in Fig. 22? type.

41
Answers to Self-Test Questions

(a) A common logarithm is anumber another. It is expressed by the

which tells us the power to which formula:
10 must be raised in order to
equal agiven number.
Pi
(b) The characteristic. db = 10 log --
P2
(c) The mantissa.
(d) Two. The characteristic will be
one less than the number of digits (j) 7.782 db. To find the change in
db we let P, equal 222 watts and
in the number. Since all numbers
P2 equal 37 watts. Now we sub-
between 100 and 999 have three
digits, the characteristic will be 2. stitute these values in the decibel
(e) The logarithm of 7is .8451. The power formula and we get:
characteristic is 0, so it is simply
omitted. 222
db = 10 log -
(f) The logarithm of 700 is 2.8451. 37
The mantissa is the same as for
the logarithm of 7 or for the dividing 37 into 222 gives us 6so
logarithm of 70 for that matter. the change in db equals
The characteristic, which is 2,
indicates that the number is db = 10 log 6= 10 X .7782 =7.782
somewhere between 100 and
999. (k) 6 db. To find the answer we use
(g) The logarithm of 41.7 is 1.6201. the voltage formula:
We find this logarithm by lo-
cating 41 in the N column of the E,
log table and then moving over to db =20 log -
E2
the column under 7where we see
that the mantissa is .6201. 41 has
and we substitute 150 volts for
two digits in it so we know that
E, and 75 volts for E2 so that we
the characteristic must be 1and
have:
therefore the complete logarithm
is 1.6201. 150
db = 20 log-
(h) The bel is a power ratio. It is 75
equal to the logarithm of the
ratio of one power to another = 20 log 2
power.
= 20 X .301
(i) The decibel is one tenth of abel. = 6.0 db
A decibel is apower ratio and it
is equal to ten times the loga- (1) To increase the frequency at
rithm of one power divided by which the reactance of the shunt

42
 capacities becomes equal to the stage reduces the effective value
resistance of the plate-load resis- of the collector-load resistor in
tor. the first amplifier stage. There-
(m) If we use too large agrid resistor fore it takes a larger shunt ca-
in a vacuum-tube amplifier, elec- pacity to produce a capacitive
trons accidentally striking the reactance equal to the resistance
grid and flowing through the re- of the emitter load. As a result,
sistor may build up an appreci- the response of atransistor ampli-
able bias in the grid of the tube. fier frequently starts to fall off at
Another possibility is that the a somewhat higher frequency
tube may have asmall amount of than the response of a vacuum-
gas. The gas molecules striking tube amplitier.
the grid will cause a current to (r) Yes, the time that it takes the
flow through the grid resistor electrons to cross the base of a
that will place apositive bias on transistor may become equal to
the grid of the tube. If we use too the period of one half cycle at
large a grid resistor this positive some high frequency. When this
bias may be high enough to cause happens, instead of getting a
an excessive current to flow 180° phase shift in the common-
through the tube and destroy the emitter transistor circuit, we get a
tube. 360 ° phase shift so that the signal
(n) At high frequencies L1 resonates in the emitter circuit will be
with the capacity in the circuit in-phase with the signal in the
and hence tends to increase the base circuit. This will cause posi-
value of the plate load of VI. tive feedback through the transis-
Thus the effect of the shunting tor and cause the transistor to go
capacity is reduced. into self oscillation.
(o) LI is a series-peaking coil. It (s) More like those encountered in
separates the shunt capacity in vacuum tubes. Because of the
the output of VI from the shunt high input and output resistances
capacity in the input of V2. It of the field-effect transistor, the
forms a series-resonant circuit field-effect transistor resembles a
with the capacity in the input of vacuum tube more closely in per-
V2 and hence builds up the volt- formance than it does a transis-
age applied to the grid of V2 at tor. Thus series and shunt peak-
high frequencies. ing are quite effective in im-
(p) By series-shunt peaking we mean proving the high-frequency re-
a combination of shunt peaking sponse of an amplifier using
such as shown in Fig. 5and series field-effect transistors.
peaking such as shown in Fig. 8. (t) The reactance of the coupling
A series-shunt compensated am- capacitor used between the two
plifier is shown in Fig. 10. stages becomes too high.
(q) No. The low output resistance of (u) Phase shift.
the first stage along with the low (v) Low-frequency compensation.
input resistance of the second This usually consists of adding a

43
 resistance and a capacitance in overall gain of the amplifier. On
the output circuit of the first the other hand, if the output
stage. By selecting the correct tends to fall off, the feedback
value of resistance and capaci- signal decreases, allowing the am-
tance, both the gain and the plifier gain to increase.
phase shift can be improved. (aa) By applying a small amount of
(w) No, it is more effective in pressure to the circuit board you
vacuum-tube circuits, but can be can frequently isolate the area in
used to some extent in transistor which the crack exists. Then by
circuits. flowing solder over the copper in
(x) Yes. Field-effect transistors have that area you can frequently
characteristics similar to vacuum bridge the gap.
tubes and low-frequency compen- (ab) You can bridge the copper by
sation is equally effective in the means of apiece of hookup wire.
two. The two ends of the hookup wire
(y) By cathode degeneration we are are simply soldered in place so
referring to the reactance of the that the wire takes the place of
cathode bypass capacitor be- the copper that has been acci-
coming so high that the capacitor dentally removed.
is no longer an effective bypass. (ac) It reduces the dc voltage level in
This occurs at very low frequen- the circuit so that the next differ-
cies and causes poor low- ential amplifier pair can be op-
frequency response. It can be erated at the same dc potential as
overcome by omitting the cath- the first. This keeps the power
ode bypass capacitor so that the supply requirements quite
degeneration becomes constant at modest.
all frequencies. This levels off the (ad) The bias network consisting of
gain of the amplifier. R4 and R5 places the cathode of
(z) Negative feedback. In atwo-stage VI at a higher positive potential
amplifier, a signal is taken from than the grid. Thus even though
the second stage and fed back to the grid is positive with respect to
the first stage to detract from the ground, it is still negative with
original signal applied to the first respect to the cathode.
stage. Thus if the output signal of (ac) Both series and shunt peaking are
an amplifier tends to increase, the used.
feedback increases reducing the (a0 R6 and C4•

44
 Lesson Questions
Be sure to number your Answer Sheet B204.

Place your Student Number on every Answer Sheet.

Most students want to know their grade as soon as possible so they mail their
set of answers immediately. Others, knowing they will ftnish the next lesson
within a few days, send in two sets of answers at a time. Either practice is
acceptable to us. However, don't hold your answers too long; you may lose
them. Don't hold answers to send in more than two sets at atime, or you may
run out of lessons before new ones can reach you.

1. What is the logarithm of 2000?

2. Suppose the power output from power amplifier A is increased from 100 to
200 watts, and the power output from power amplifier Bis increased from
1to 5watts. Which change is the larger change in decibels?

3. Why can the coupling capacitor used between two resistance-capacitance

coupled stages be ignored at the middle and high frequencies?

4. What limits the high-frequency response of an R-C coupled amplifier?

5. What effect does reducing the size of the plate load resistor in an amplifier
to extend the high-frequency response have on the gain at the middle and
low frequencies?

6. Name the two types of peaking used to extend the high-frequency response
of an amplifier.

7. Why can we not increase the size of the base resistor R4 in atransistor
amplifier such as shown in Fig. 16B to improve the low-frequency response
of the two stage amplifier?

8. Why is an electrolytic capacitor used as acathode bypass or an emitter

bypass sometimes shunted by apaper or aceramic capacitor?

9. What method can be used other than peaking coils and low-frequency
compensation to improve the frequency response of an amplifier?

10. In the direct coupled transistor amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 27, what
primary purpose does Q3 serve?

45
 REVERE OUR LAWS

Let every American, every lover of liberty, every well-wisher to his

posterity swear by the blood of the Revolution never to violate in the
least particular the laws of the country -Let every man remember that
to violate the laws is to trample on the blood of his father, and to tear
the charter of his own and his children's liberty.

Let reverence for the laws be breathed by every American mother to

the lisping babe that prattles on her lap; let it be taught in schools, in
seminaries, and in colleges; let it be written in primers, spelling books
and in almanacs; let it be preached from the pulpit, proclaimed in
legislative halls and enforced in courts of justice. And in short, let it
become the political religion of the nation; and let the old and the
young, the rich and the poor, the grave and the gay of all sexes and
tongues and colors and conditions, sacrifice unceasingly upon its altars.
a
 •

Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-LT-217
 ity- -47 RADIO RULES AND
REGULATIONS
ibledelk-"‘
Wr REFERENCE TEXT C111X
RADIO RULES AND REGULATIONS
REFERENCE TEXT C111X
 STUDY SCHEDULE

Ell 1. Introduction Pages 1-3

The general organization of the Rules and Regulations of the FCC are
discussed here.

CI 2. Licensing Requirements Pages 4-14

Requirements for operator and station licenses for commercial and
amateur services are given in this section.

III 3. Citizens Radio Service Pages 15-23

Operator and station requirements are set out in detail. Restrictions as to
use, and relationship with other services are stressed.

[11 4. Operational Requirements Pages 24-37

Such things as technical operation, operating schedules, logs, secrecy
requirements, inspections, and license renewals for commercial and
amateur services are covered.

111 5. Classification of Radio Emissions Pages 38-39

The classification of radio emissions for commercial services is given in a
convenient table form at the end of the book so that you will have it
handy for reference.

COPYRIGHT 1969 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

KL4M373 1974 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 RADIO RULES AND REGULATIONS

All forms of rf radiation are subject to Your main problem in dealing with these
the control of the Federal Communica- extensive regulations will be to find what
tions Commission (FCC). Control of rf you want to know in them. This book
radiation is necessary in order to keep will give you a good idea of where to
radio transmissions from interfering with look.
one another, and in order to insure that
the various groups that use rf energy will
ORGANIZATION OF THE RULES
have sufficient frequencies available to
AND REGULATIONS OF THE FCC
them to carry on their functions.
For instance, the military must have
special frequencies reserved so that it can The various topics covered by the rules
carry out vital communications and other and regulations of the FCC are issued in
functions. In order to make sure that separate parts. These parts have been
these frequencies are not interfered with, gathered together in ten (10) separate
all those who use rf energy are licensed, volumes for publication. The contents of
and also, the various types of equipment these ten volumes are as follows:
they use are assigned frequencies that will
not interfere with other essential services.
The different uses that are made of rf Volume 1
energy are referred to as "services." Thus,
we have "Amateur Service," Television Part 0-- Commission Organization.
Service, "FM Service," and so on. Part 1-- Practice and Procedure.
The usual procedure is to license both Part 13 — Commercial Radio Oper-
the station and the operator. The li- ators.
censing regulations for equipment are Part 17 -- Construction, Marking, and
designed to insure that the equipment Lighting of Antenna Structures.
will do the job for which it is designed Part 19 — Employee Responsibilities
without interfering with other services. and Conduct.
The licensing of operators helps make
sure that the users of radio transmitters
are familiar with the regulations relating Volume 2
to their use, and that they will be able to
use them properly for their intended Part 2 -- Frequency Allocations and
purpose. Radio Treaty Matters; General Rules
The object of this book is to tell you and Regulations.
where you can find the information that Part 5 -- Experimental Radio Services
is necessary to obtain these licenses and (other than Broadcast).
what the licenses permit you to do. Most Part 15 -- Radio Frequency Devices.
of this information is contained in the Part 18 -- Industrial, Scientific, and
Rules and Regulations issued by the FCC. Medical Equipment.

1
Volume 3 Volume 9

Part 73 -- Radio Broadcast Services. Part 34 —Uniform System of Accounts

Part 74 —Experimental, Auxiliary, and for Radiotelegraph Carriers.
Other Program Distributional Services. Part 35 -Uniform System of Accounts
for Wire-Telegraph and Ocean-Cable
Volume 4 Carriers.

Volume 10
Part 81 -- Stations on Land in the
Maritime Services. Part 41 -- Telegraph and Telephone
Part 83 — Stations on Shipboard in the Franks.
Maritime Services. Part 42 -- Preservation of Records of
Part 85 — Public Fixed Stations and Communication Common Carriers.
Stations of the Maritime Services in Part 43 -- Reports of Communication
Alaska. Common Carriers and Certain Affili-
ates.
Volume 5 Part 51 — Occupational Classification
and Compensation of Employees of
Part 87 -- Aviation Services. Telephone Companies.
Part 89 —Public Safety Radio Services. Part 52 -- Classification of Wire-
Part 91 —Industrial Radio Services. Telegraph Employees.
Part 93 — Land Transportation Radio Part 61 —Tariffs.
Services. Part 62 — Application to Hold Inter-
locking Directorates.
Volume 6 Part 63 — Extension of Lines and
Discontinuance of Service by Carriers.
Part 95 -- Citizens Radio Service. Part 64 -- Miscellaneous Rules Relating
Part 97 -- Amateur Radio Service. to Common Carriers.
Part 99 -- Disaster Communications Part 66 -- Applications Relating to
Service. Consolidation, Acquisition, or Control
of Telephone Companies.
Volume 7 Part 67 -- Jurisdictional Separations.

Part 21 — Domestic Public Radio Serv- You can see that the first seven vol-
ices (other than Maritime Mobile). umes contain the information you are
Part 23 — International Fixed Public most likely to need. In fact, you will
Radiocommunication Services. usually find that the material is grouped
Part 25 —Satellite Communications. in these volumes in such away that you
will not need to get all of the first seven
Volume 8 volumes in order to cover a particular
field. You should find it a good invest-
Part 31 -- Uniform System of Accounts ment in both time and money to buy and
for Class A and Class B Telephone study the Rules and Regulations that
Companies. apply to the particular field you are
Part 33 -- Uniform System of Accounts working in.
for Class C Telephone Companies. Copies of these volumes are not on sale

2
by the FCC. To buy acopy, you should tions, the corrections for that volume are
write to the Superintendent of Docu- sent to you, as issued, as part of the price
ments, Government Printing Office, of the volume. This arrangement helps
Washington, D. C. 20402. insure that the outstanding volumes will
When you buy a copy of the regula- all be complete and up to date.

3
 Licensing Requirements
As mentioned earlier, usually both the applicable to the operation of the various
station and the operator of atransmitting classes of broadcast stations.
5. Radiotelegraph operating practice. Radio
radio station must be licensed. Since the
operating procedures and practices gen-
main object of the licensing requirements
erally followed or required in communi-
is to make sure that radio transmissions cating by means of radiotelegraph stations
are carefully controlled, there is no need primarily other than in the maritime
for licensing radio receivers. In this sec- mobile services of public correspondence.
6. Advanced radiotelegraph. Technical, legal
tion, we will discuss the requirements for
and other matters applicable to the oper-
both operator and station licenses. These ation of all classes of radiotelegraph sta-
licenses can be thought of as being of tions, including operating procedures and
either one of two types: commercial or practices in the maritime mobile services
amateur. of public correspondence, and associated
matters such as radio-navigational aids,
message traffic routing and accounting,
COMMERCIAL OPERATOR etc.
LICENSES 7. Aircraft radiotelegraph. Basic theory and
practice in the operation of radio com-
Several different classes of operator munication and radio-navigational sys-
tems in general use on aircraft.
licenses are issued to those who work in
8. Ship radar techniques. Specialized theory
the commercial radio services. All but one and practice applicable to the proper
of these licenses require the applicant to installation, servicing and maintenance of
pass awritten examination. ship radar equipment in general use for
marine navigational purposes.
Examination Elements. The written
9. Basic Broadcast. Basic regulatory matters
examination for a particular class of applicable to the operation of standard
commercial operator's license consists of commercial FM, and noncommercial
one or more of the following parts, called educational FM broadcast stations.
Elements, that are described in Section
13.21 of the Rules of the FCC. Classes of Licenses. The different
classes of operators' licenses, and the
The elements are as follows: examinations they require are set forth in
Section 13.22 as follows:
1. Basic Law. Provisions of laws, treaties and
regulations with which every operator
(a) Radiotelephone Second Class Oper-
should be familiar.
2. Basic operating practice. Radio operating
ator License:
1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken
procedures and practices generally fol-
messages in English.
lowed or required it communicating by
2. Written examination elements: 1, 2, and 3.
means of radiotelephone stations.
3. Basic radiotelephone. Technical, legal and (b) Radiotelephone First Class Operator
other matters applicable to the operation License:
of radiotelephone stations other than 1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken
broadcast. messages in English.
4. Advanced radiotelephone. Advanced tech- 2. Written examination elements: 1, 2, 3, and
nical, legal and other matters particularly 4.

4
(c) Radiotelegraph Second Class Oper- in English or in some other language in
general use that can be readily translated
ator License:
into English; is familiar with the provisions
1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken
of treaties, laws, and rules and regulations
messages in English.
governing the authority granted under the
2. Transmitting and receiving code test of
requested permit and understands that it is
twenty (20) words per minute plain lan-
his responsibility to keep currently familiar
guage and sixteen (16) code groups per
with all such provisions.
minute.
3. Written examination elements: 1, 2, 5, and
6. Section 13.45 provides that in com-
(d) Temporary limited radiotelegraph puting the number of code groups in a
Second Class Operator License: code test, "Each five characters shall be
1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken counted as one word or code group.
messages in English.
Punctuation marks or figures count as
2. Transmitting and receiving code test of
twenty (20) words per minute plain lan-
two characters."
guage and sixteen (16) code groups per Additional requirements also apply to
minute. applicants for Radiotelegraph First Class
(e) Radiotelegraph First Class Operator Operator Licenses. They must be at least
License: 21 years old at the time the license is
1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken issued, and have at least 1year's service as
messages in English.
aradiotelegraph operator.
2. Transmitting and receiving code test of
twenty-five (25) words per minute plain Examination Procedures. All written
language and twenty (20) code groups per examinations must be handwritten in ink,
minute. but diagrams may be in pencil. It takes a
3. Written examination elements: 1, 2, 5, and grade of 75% to pass. Each element must
6.
be passed separately, and an applicant
(f) Radiotelephone Third Class Operator
who fails any element may not be re-
Permit:
examined on that element for aperiod of
1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken
messages in English.
2 months. However, if you pass some
2. Written examination elements: 1and 2. elements and fail others, you do not need
(g) Radiotelegraph Third Class Operator to be re-examined except on the elements
Permit: you fail. Also, if you hold one class of
1. Ability to transmit and receive spoken license, and wish to qualify for another
messages in English. class, you need to pass only the addi-
2. Transmitting and receiving code test of
tional elements that are contained in the
twenty (20) words per minute plain lan-
guage and sixteen (16) code groups per
requirements for the new licenses.
minute. Your NRI course contains nearly all of
3. Written examination elements: 1, 2, and 5. the technical information that you will
(h) Restricted Radiotelephone Operator need in order to answer the questions on
Permit: the FCC examinations. However, it is
No oral or written examination is required frequently helpful to use an examination
for this permit. In lieu thereof, applicants study guide, which is put out by the FCC.
will be required to certify in writing to a
This study guide has the information
declaration which states that the applicant
covered by the elements of the examina-
has need for the requested permit; can
receive and transmit spoken messages in tion organized into the general headings
English; can keep at least arough written log covered. You can buy a copy of this

5
study guide, which is called, "Study to the Engineer in Charge at that office to
Guide and Reference Material for Com- find out when the examination of the
mercial Radio Operator Examinations," type you are interested in is to be given.
from the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, COMMERCIAL STATION LICENSES
D. C. 20402.
A restricted radiotelephone operator's Obtaining astation license for an AM,
permit is usually issued for life, but other FM, or TV broadcast station is a long
commercial operator's licenses run for 5 drawn-out affair. The procedure is set up
years. Most other licenses may be re- to enable the applicants to "satisfy the
newed within the last year of their term if Commission that they are legally, techni-
the holder has completed sufficient serv- cally, and financially qualified, and that
ice as a radio operator using the license. operation of the proposed station would
This arrangement makes it unnecessary be in the public interest."
for full-time operators who are actively Part 1 of the Commission's Rules
engaged in communications to be re- contains the steps of the licensing pro-
examined every five years. In fact, first- cedure, and Part 73 contains the technical
and second-class licenses can often be standards the station must be able to
renewed even without the service require- meet, and much other information that is
ment. needed in applying for alicense.
You can see that the qualifications for For instance, the TV channel assign-
an operator's license cover much more ments by states and communities are
than simply the ability to operate radio contained in Part 73, so you can tell by
equipment. Much of the licensing require- referring to this part what channels are
ments have to do with the ability to assigned to your community.
understand the operation of rf trans- One of the first things you must do in
mitters well enough to be able to service applying for abroadcast AM, FM, or TV
them. For instance, in order to be per- license is to determine what frequencies,
mitted to service marine radar equipment, if any, are available for assignment to
the holder of the first- or second-class your particular area. This may be much
operator's license must also pass awritten more difficult than it sounds. Frequently
examination on Element 8, and have his it requires the services of a competent
license specially endorsed to show that he engineer. Another step in the procedure,
is qualified to service this type of equip- which can be highly technical, is the
ment. selection of a proper site for the trans-
Place of Examination. Operator ex- mitter.
aminations are held at the district offices Construction Permits. The first formal
and sub-offices of the Federal Communi- step in dealing with the Commission
cations Commission. These offices are comes when applying for aconstruction
located in cities all over the country. permit. This application is made on a
Table 1shows the location of the various form that calls for information about the
offices. The time of the examinations is citizenship and character of the applicant,
not the same at the various offices. his financial, technical and other qualifi-
Therefore, if you wish to take an exami- cations, as well as details about the
nation at an office near your home, write transmitting equipment to be used, an-

6
DIST. DIST.
NO. LOCATION NO. LOCATION

1 1600 Customhouse 11 U. S. Courthouse

India and State Streets 312 N. Spring St.
Boston, Massachusetts 02109 Los Angeles, California 90012

2 748 Federal Building 12 323A Courthouse

641 Washington Street 555 Battery Street
New York, New York 10014 San Francisco, California 94111

3 1005 New U. S. Customhouse 13 314 Multnomah Bldg.

2nd & Chestnut Streets 319 S. W. Pine Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106 Portland, Oregon 97204

4 819 Federal Bldg. 14 8012 Federal Office Building

31 Hopkins Plaza 909 First Avenue
Baltimore, Maryland 21201 Seattle, Washington 98104

5 Military Circle 15 504 New Customhouse

870 North Military Hwy. 19th St. bet. Calif. & Stout Sts.
Norfolk, Virginia 23502 Denver, Colorado 80202

6 1602 Gas Light Tower 16 691 Federal Building

235 Peachtree St., N. E. 4th and Robert Streets
Atlanta, Georgia 30303 St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

7 919 Federal Building 17 1703 Federal Building

51 S. W. First Avenue 601 East 12th Street
Miami, Florida 33130 Kansas City, Missouri 64106

8 829 Federal Building South 18 1872 U. S. Courthouse

600 South Street 219 South Dearborn Street
New Orleans, Louisiana 70130 Chicago, Illinois 60604

9 5636 Federal Building 19 1054 Federal Building

515 Rusk Avenue Washington Blvd. & LaFayette St.
Houston, Texas 77002 Detroit, Michigan 48226

10 707 Thomas Building 20 328 Federal Office Building

1314 Wood Street 121 Ellicott Street
Dallas, Texas 75202 Buffalo, New york 14203

Table I. Mailing addresses for field engineering offices of the FCC are listed here and
on the back of this page.

7
DIST. DIST.
NO. LOCATION NO. LOCATION

21 502 Federal Building 23 54 U. S. Post Office Building

P. O. Box 1021 4th Ave. between F& G Sts.
Honolulu, Hawaii 96808 Anchorage, Alaska 99501

22 322 Federal Building 24 Room 216

P. O. Box 2987 1919 M. Street, N. W.
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00903 Washington, D. C. 20554

SUB-OFFICES

DIST. DIST.
NO. LOCATION NO. LOCATION

6S 238 Post Office Building 9B 239 Federal Building

York & Bull Streets 300 Willow Street
Savannah, Georgia 31402 Beaumont, Texas 77701

7T 738 Federal Building 11SD Fox Theatre Building

500 Zack Street 1245 Seventh Avenue
Tampa, Florida 33602 San Diego, California 92101

8M 439 U. S. Courthouse 11SP 300 South Ferry

113 St. Joseph St. Terminal Island
Mobile, Alabama 36602 San Pedro, California 90731

SAMPLE ADDRESS

Engineer in Charge, FCC

238 Post Office Building
York & Bull Streets
Savannah, Georgia 31402

8
tenna and studio locations, and the type Type-Accepted and Type-Approved
of broadcasting to be undertaken. Infor- Lists. You can see from even this brief
mation must also be supplied that will description that licensing a radio trans-
show what interference problems, if any, mitting station can be quite complicated.
will be caused by the proposed station, For some services, matters are simpli-
and how and to what extent these prob- fied considerably by the use of equip-
lems are to be solved. ment on lists put out by the FCC called
The procedures followed in processing "type-accepted" and "type-approved"
the construction permit application in- lists. "Type-approved" means that the
clude provisions for hearings, if necessary, engineers of the FCC have tested amodel
for protesting of the granting of the of the equipment to make sure it will
permit by other interested parties, and perform properly. "Type-accepted"
for appealing any ruling. means that the equipment has been
Sometimes, of course, more than one checked out by private engineers em-
applicant will be trying to obtain alicense ployed by the manufacturer, who then
for a station in agiven area. Also, other submit a request for type acceptance to
stations on the same frequency in differ- the FCC. Either kind of approval by FCC
ent areas may protest the granting of a has the same effect.
permit if they feel that there is apossi- These lists are kept at each field office
bility of interference from the new sta- of the FCC, and by the manufacturers of
tion. Such parties would be possible the type-accepted and type-approved
sources of objection to the granting of a equipment. Selecting equipment from
construction permit. these lists greatly simplifies the problem
Once aconstruction permit is granted, of satisfying the requirements for asuit-
the construction of the station must able transmitter. This is another of several
begin promptly, and finish within aspeci- technical problems to be solved in obtain-
fied time fixed by the Commission. After ing abroadcast station license.
the station is completed, the builder
conducts equipment tests, submits the AMATEUR OPERATOR LICENSES
station to an inspection by the Engineer
in Charge of the radio district in which he Obtaining an amateur operator's li-
is located, and applies to the Commission cense is covered in Volume VI of the
for alicense. Rules and Regulations. Let's look at some
The application for a license must of the requirements.
"show compliance with the terms and Examination Elements. Examinations
conditions of the construction permit." for amateur operator's licenses are also
When the license application is made, the broken down into elements. These ele-
usual procedure is to request authority ments are set forth in Section 97.21 of
for "program tests." This authority per- the Rules as follows:
mits the applicant to commence broad-
cast operations while his application for a Examinations for amateur operator privileges
will comprise one or more of the following
license is being processed. Of course,
examination elements.
broadcasting cannot be started until the
authority for "program tests" is actually (a) Element 1(A): Beginner's code test at five
given by the Commission. (5) words per minute;(b) Element 1(B):

9
 General code test at thirteen (13) words Examination Procedures. Section
per minute; 97.29 describes the manner of conducting
(e) Element 1(C): Expert's code test at twenty examinations:
(20) words per minute;
(d) Element 2: Basic law comprising rules and The examination for Amateur Extra, Ad-
(a)
regulations essential to beginners' oper- vanced, and General Classes of amateur
ation, including sufficient elementary operator licenses will be conducted by an
radio theory for the understanding of authorized Commission employee or repre-
those rules; sentative at locations and at times speci-
(e) Element 3: General amateur practice and fied by the Commission.
regulations involving radio operation and Unless otherwise prescribed by the Com-
(b)
apparatus and provisions of treaties, stat- mission, an examination for the Condi-
utes, and rules affecting amateur stations tional, Technician, or Novice Class license
and operators; will be conducted and supervised by a
(0 Element 4(A): Intermediate amateur prac- volunteer examiner selected by the appli-
tice involving intermediate level radio cant. A volunteer examiner shall be at least
theory and operation as applicable to 21 years of age and shall be the holder of
modern amateur techniques, including, but an Extra, Advanced, or General Class
not limited to, radiotelephony and radio- Amateur Radio operator license, or shall
telegraphy; hold aCommercial radiotelegraph operator
(g) Element 4(11); Advanced amateur practice license issued by the Commission, or shall
involving advanced radio theory and oper- be employed in the service of the United
ation as applicable to modern amateur
States as the operator of a manually
techniques, including, but not limited to, operated radiotelegraph station.
radiotelephony, radiotelegraphy, and
transmissions of energy for measurements
and observations applied to propagation, The section continues with details
for the radio control of remote objects and about supervision, written portion of the
for similar experimental purposes.
examination, and administration of ex-
aminations by the Commission.
Classes of Licenses. Sections 97.9 and Section 97.27 states that: The exami-
97.23 set out the examination require-
nations for Conditional Class will be
ments for the various classes of licenses. available only under one or more of the
All applicants must be U. S. citizens.
following conditions:
There is no age restriction.
Applicants for original licenses will be re- If the applicant's actual residence and
(a)
quired to pass the following examination ele- proposed amateur station location are
ments: more than 175 miles airline distance from
(a) Amateur Extra Class: Elements 1(C), 3, the nearest location at which examinations
4(A), and 4(B); are conducted by an authorized Commis-
(b) Advanced Class: Elements 1(11), 3, and sion employee or representative at inter-
4(A); vals of not more than 6 months for
(c) General Class and Conditional Class: Ele- amateur operator license.
ments 1(11) and 3; If the applicant is shown by physician's
(b)
(d) Technician Class: Elements 1(A) and 3. certificate to be unable to appear for
(e) Novice Class: Elements 1(A) and 2. examination because of protracted dis-
ability.
In addition, applicants for Amateur (c) If the applicant is shown by certificate of
the commanding officer to be in the armed
Extra Class licenses must have held an
forces of the United States at an Army,
amateur license other than a Novice or Navy, Air Force, or Coast Guard Station
Technician for aperiod of two years. and, for that reason, to be unable to

10
 appear for examination at the time and higher class amateur operators license
place designated by the Commission. within 30 days, except that this limitation
(d) If the applicant demonstrates by sufficient shall not apply to an examination for an
evidence that his temporary residence is Advanced or General Class license follow-
for a continuous period of at least 12 ing an examination conducted by avolun-
months outside the continental limits of teer examiner for a Novice, Technician, or
the United States, its territories or posses- Conditional Class license.
sions, irrespective of other provisions of
this section.
Volunteer Examiners. Some of the
examinations are not conducted by Com-
Code Tests. Section 97.29 describes
mission employees, but by volunteer ex-
the Code Test Procedure:
aminers. Holders of licenses obtained
under a volunteer examiner may be re-
The code test required of an applicant for an
amateur radio operator license, in accordance quired to submit to an examination con-
with the provisions of §§97.21 and 97.23 shall ducted by an employee of the Commis-
determine the applicant's ability to transmit by sion, as set forth in Section 97.35.
hand key (straight key or, if supplied by the
applicant, any other type of hand-operated key
such as asemi-automatic or electronic key), and The Commission may require a licensee
holding a Novice, Technician, or Condi-
to receive by ear, in plain language, messages in
tional Class of operator license to appear
the International Morse Code at not less than
the prescribed speed, free from omission or for a Commission-supervised license ex-
amination at a location designated by the
other error for acontinuous period of at least 1
Commission. If the licensee fails to appear
minute during a test period of 5 minutes
for this examination when directed to do
counting five characters to the word, each
numeral or punctuation mark counting as two so, or fails to pass such examination, the
Novice, Technician, or Conditional Class
characters.
operator license previously issued shall be
subject to cancellation, and upon cancella-
Grading of Examinations. Passing the tion, a new license will not be issued for
code test for aparticular class of exami- the same class operator license as that
nation is amust. Section 97.31 provides: cancelled.

(a) Code tests for sending and receiving are

graded separately. Failure to pass the A holder of a Conditional Class License,
required code test for either sending or obtained on the basis of an examination
receiving will terminate the examination. under the provisions of 97.29(b), is not
(b) Seventy-four percent (74%) is the passing required to be re-examined when changing
grade for written examinations. For the residence and station location to within
purpose of grading, each element required regular examination area, nor when a new
in qualifying for aparticular license will be examination location is established within
considered as a separate examination. AU 175 miles airline distance from such licen-
written examinations will be graded only see's residence and station location.
by Commission personnel.

Another distinction that is made be-

Eligibility for Re-examination. Section tween amateur examinations conducted
97.33 says: by a Commission employee and those
that are not, is in the matter of examina-
An applicant who fails examination for an
amateur operator license may not take
tion credit. Provisions of Section 97.25
another examination for the same or a state that credit is not given toward a

11
higher grade of license for elements that individual, not alicensed amateur operator
(other than an alien or a representative of
are passed during an examination con-
an alien or of a foreign government), who
ducted by avolunteer examiner: is in charge of a proposed amateur station
for recreation under military auspices
(a) An applicant for ahigher class of amateur
(only of the Armed Forces of the United
operator license who holds avalid amateur
States) which is to be located in approved
operator license issued upon the basis of public quarters but not operated by the
an examination by the Commission will be United States Government.
required to pass only those elements of the
higher class examination that were not
included in the examination for the ama-
Location of Station. The license is not
teur license held when such application limited to one location or type of equip-
was filed. However, credit will not be ment. Section 97.43 sets forth the condi-
allowed for licenses issued on the basis of tions for a more extensive installation
an examination given under the provisions
along with those for asingle location:
of § 97.29(b).
(b) An applicant for any class of amateur
(a) Every amateur station shall have a fixed
operator license, except the Extra Class,
transmitter location. Only one fixed trans-
will be given credit for the telegraph code
mitter location will be authorized and will
element if within five years prior to the
be designated on the license for each
receipt of his application by the Commis-
amateur station, except that when remote
sion he held a commercial radiotelegraph
control is authorized, the location of the
operator license or permit issued by the
remote control position as well as the
Federal Communications Commission.
location of the remotely controlled trans-
(c) An applicant for Amateur Extra Class mitter shall be considered as fixed trans-
operator license will be given credit for
mitter locations and will be so designated
examination elements 1(C), 4(A), and 4(B)
on the station license. Unless remote con-
if he so requests and submits evidence of
trol of the transmitting apparatus is
having held a valid amateur radio station
authorized, such apparatus shall be oper-
or operator license issued by any agency of
ated only by aduly licensed amateur radio
the U. S. Government during or prior to
operator present at the location of such
April 1917, and qualifies for or currently
appara tus.
holds a valid amateur operator license of
(b) Authority for operation of an amateur
the General or Advanced Class.
station with the licensed operator on duty
(d) No examination credit, except as herein
at aspecific remote control point in lieu of
provided, shall be allowed on the basis of
the remote transmitter location may be
holding or having held any amateur or
granted upon filing an application for an
commercial operator license.
individual station license on FCC Form
610, or on FCC Form 610.6 for an
amateur club or military recreation
AMATEUR STATION LICENSES
station.

The granting of an amateur station NOTE: These conditions, six paragraphs

license is much less complicated than the (1) through (6) are not listed herein. The
granting of a commercial station license. form should be obtained and the sub-
For instance, Section 97.37 provides: section studied when authorization by
the Commission is desired.
A license for an amateur station will be
issued in response to proper application (c) An amateur transmitter may be operated
therefor to a licensed amateur operator from a remote control point in lieu of the
at a designated fixed location. An amateur remote transmitter location without
station license may also be issued to an special authorization by the Commission

12
 when there is direct mechanical control or landing and takeoff area of each heliport
direct control by wired connections of the listed in the Airport Directory or operated
transmitter from a point located in the by aFederal military agency.
same or closely adjoining building or struc- (3) Any construction or alteration on an
ture provided there is full compliance with airport listed in the Airport Directory of
the conditions set forth in paragraphs (b) the Airman's Information Manual
(1) through (6) of this section. (§17.7(c) of this chapter).
(b) A notification to the Federal Aviation
Antenna Systems. The antenna system Administration is not required for any of
the following construction or alteration:
that is used with an amateur transmitter (1) Any object that would be shielded by
must be within the limitations of the existing structures of a permanent and
Rules and Regulations. Section 97.45 substantial character or by natural terrain
provides: or topographic features of equal or greater
height, and would be located in the con-
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this gested area of acity, town, or settlement
section, an antenna for a station in the where it is evident beyond all reasonable
Amateur Radio Service which exceeds the doubt that the structure so shielded will
following height limitations may not be not adversely affect safety in air navi-
erected or used unless notice has been filed gation. Applicants claiming such exemp-
with both the FAA on FAA Form 7460-1 tion shall submit a statement with their
application to the Commission explaining
and with the Commission on Form 714 or
the basis in detail for their finding
on the license application form, and prior
(§17.14(a) of this chapter).
approval by the Commission has been
obtained for: 2) Any antenna structure of 20 feet or less in
(
(1) Any construction or alteration of more height except one that would increase the
than 200 feet in height above ground level height of another antenna structure
at its site (§17.7(a) of this chapter). (§17.14(b) of this chapter).
(2) Any construction or alteration of greater (c) Further details as to whether an aero-
height than an imaginary surface extending nautical study and/or obstruction marking
outward and upward at one one of the and lighting may be required, and specifi-
following slopes (§17.7(b) of this cations for obstruction marking and
chapter): lighting when required, may be obtained
100 to 1 for a horizontal distance of from Part 17 of this chapter, "Con-
20,000 feet from the nearest point of the struction, Marking, and Lighting of
nearest runway of each airport with at Antenna Structures." Information re-
least one runway more than 3,200 feet in garding the inspection and maintenance of
length, excluding heliports and seaplane antenna structures requiring obstruction
bases without specified boundaries, if that marking and lighting is also contained in
airport is either listed in the Airport Part 17 of this chapter.
Directory of the current Airman's Infor-
mation Manual or is operated by aFederal "Part 17 of this chapter" refers to Part
military agency.
17 of the Rules and Regulations. This
50 to 1for ahorizontal distance of 10,000
feet from the nearest point of the nearest
part describes the limitations placed on
runway of each airport with its longest antenna structures, and the provisions
runway no more than 3,200 feet in length, that must be made for lighting them.
excluding heliports and seaplane bases Transmitter Output. In the amateur
without specified boundaries, if that air- service, transmitter output must also meet
port is either listed in the Airport Direc-
standards of performance set down by
tory or is operated by a Federal military
agency.
the FCC. These output standards are
(iii) 25 to 1 for ahorizontal distance of 5,000 spelled out in Section 97.73 of the
feet from the nearest point of the nearest regulations:

13
Spurious radiation from an amateur sta- monies and subharmonics), spurious
tion being operated with a carrier fre- modulation products, key clicks and other
quency below 144 megacycles shall be transient effects, and parasitic oscillations.
reduced or eliminated in accordance with When using amplitude modulation on fre-
good engineering practice. This spurious quencies below 144 megacycles, simultane-
radiation shall not be of sufficient inten- ous frequency modulation is not permitted
sity to cause interference in receiving and when using frequency modulation on
equipment of good engineering design in- frequencies below 144 megacycles simul-
cluding adequate selectivity characteristics, taneous amplitude modulation is not per-
which is tuned to a frequency or frequen- mitted. The frequency of the emitted
cies outside the frequency band of emis- carrier wave shall be as constant as the
sion normally required for the type of state of the art permits.
emission being employed by the amateur
station. In the case of A3 emission (ampli-
tude-modulated telephony — see Table III License Terms. The periods of operator
at the end of this book) the amateur and station licenses are set forth in
transmitter shall not be modulated to the section 97.59:
extent that interfering spurious radiation
occurs, and in no case shall the emitted (a) An amateur operator license is valid for a
carrier wave be amplitude-modulated in period of 5 years from the date of issu-
excess of 100 percent. Means shall be ance, except the Novice Class which is
employed to insure that the transmitter is valid for aperiod of 2years.
not modulated in excess of its modulation (b) An amateur station license is valid for a
capability for proper technical operation. period of 5 years from the date of issu-
For the purposes of this section, aspurious ance, except that an amateur station
radiation is any radiation from atransmit- license issued to a Novice Class amateur
ter which is outside the frequency band of operator licensee is valid for a period of 2
emission normal for the type of transmis- years from the date of issuance.
sion employed, including any component (c) All amateur station licenses, regardless of
whose frequency is an integral multiple or when issued, will expire on the same date
submultiple of the carrier frequency (har- as the licensee's amateur operator license.

14
 Citizens Radio Service
Licensing requirements tor the Citizens ...to provide for private short-distance radio-
communications service for the business or
Radio Service are quite simple. There is
personal activities of licensees, for radio
no operator's license required for the signaling, for the control of remote objects
normal use of Citizens Radio equipment. or devices by means of radio; all to the
However, a station license must be ob- extent that these uses are not specifically
tained, and acommercial radio operator's prohibited in this part. They also provide
for procedures whereby manufacturers of
license of the proper grade is also re:
radio equipment to be used or operated in
quired for manually operated telegraphy. the Citizens Radio Service may obtain
A commercial license is also necessary for type acceptance and/or type approval of
anyone making any adjustments to a such equipment as may be appropriate.

Citizens Radio transmitter during installa- Classes of Stations. Licenses are

tion, testing, or servicing which may granted in the four classes shown in Table
cause the transmitter to operate off fre- II. Besides the limitations of the four
quency or in some other manner that classes shown in Table II, each class of
would violate the rules of the FCC. For transmitter is limited as to the type of
this reason, many manufacturers make emission. Section 95.47 of the Rules sets
the frequency-determining components out the types of emission that may be
of their sets "tamper-proof." A tamper- used:
proof transmitter is one that operates on
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this
the correct frequency if it operates at all. section, Class A stations in this service will
Sealed chasses with the frequency- normally be authorized to transmit radio-
determining components mounted in telephony only. However, the use of tone
them, and crystal-controlled oscillators signals or signaling devices solely to actu-
ate receiver circuits, such as tone operated
are two techniques that are used to make
squelch or selective calling circuits, the
Citizens Radio transmitters tamper-proof. primary function of which is to establish
Station licenses for Citizens Radio or establish and maintain voice communi-
Service are issued by the FCC at Washing- cations, is permitted. The use of tone
ton, D. C. 20554. Nearly all such licenses signals solely to attract attention is pro-
hibited.
are issued by mail. The forms for these
(b) Class B stations in this service are author-
station licenses are frequently supplied by
ized to use amplitude or frequency modu-
the manufacturer with the equipment lation, or on-off umnodulated carrier, and
itself, with much of the technical descrip- may be used for radiotelephony, to con-
tion of the equipment already filled out. trol remote objects or devices by means of
This simple licensing procedure can be radio, or to remotely actuate devices
which are used as a means of attracting
used because the manufacturers have
attention.
their products type-accepted or type- (c) Class C stations in this service are author-
approved before they are marketed. ized to use amplitude tone modulation or
Convenient licensing, and a certain on-off unmodulated carrier only, for the
amount of misunderstanding over the control of remote objects or devices by
radio or for the remote actuation of
purpose of Citizens Radio have led to
devices which are used solely as ameans of
some misuse of this type of equipment. attracting attention. The transmission of
The Rules describe the purpose of this any form of telegraphy, telephony or
service in Section 95.1 as follows: record communications by a Class C sta-

15
Cl,‘S 1SU FREQUENCY RANCE (MHz) POWER (Max. Watts Input)

462.550 -462.725
% Voice 467.550 -467.725 60

11 Voice and Control 462.525 -467.475 5

26.995 -27.225 5
L Control 27.255 30
72.08 -75.64 1

26.965 -27.225
11 ‘°ice
27.255 5

Table II. Classes of Citizens Radio stations, frequencies, and power limitations. *
*There is no provision here for random communications in the amateur bands. We will
discuss this subject in more detail alittle later on.

tion is prohibited. Telemetering, except types of emission, see Table Ill at the end
for the transmission of simple, short dura- of this text):
tion signals indicating the presence or
absence of a condition or the occurrence (a) Each authorization issued to a Class A
of an event, is also prohibited. citizens radio station will show, as aprefix
(d) Class D stations in this service are author- to the classification of the authorized
ized to use amplitude voice modulation, emission, afigure specifying the maximum
including single sideband and/or reduced bandwidth to be occupied by the emission.
or suppressed carrier, for radiotelephone (b) All operation of a Class B citizens radio
communications only. However, the use of station (including tolerance and bandwidth
tone signals or signaling devices solely to occupied by the emission) shall be con-
actuate receiver circuits, such as tone fined to the frequency band
operated squelch or selective calling cir- 462.525-467.475 MHz.
cuits, the primary function of which is to (c) (1) Except as provided in subparagraph (2)
establish or establish and maintain voice of this paragraph and except in the case of
communications, is permitted. The use of Class B citizens radio stations operating
tone signals solely to attract attention or only on the frequency 465.00 MHz (see
for the control of remote objects or §95.41(b)), the maximum authorized
devices is prohibited. bandwidth of the emission of any station
(e) Other types of emission not described in employing amplitude modulation (Type
paragraph (a) of this section may be A2 or A3 emission) shall be 8kHz and the
authorized for Class A citizens radio sta- maximum authorized bandwidth of the
tions upon ashowing of need therefor. An emission of any station employing fre-
application requesting such authorization quency or phase modulation (Type F2 or
shall fully describe the emission desired, F3 emission) shall be 40 kHz. The use of
shall indicate the bandwidth required for Type F2 or F3 emission in the frequency
satisfactory communication, and shall band 26.96-27.28 MHz is not authorized.
state the purpose for which such emission (2) Effective November 1, 1967, the maxi-
is required. For information regarding the mum authorized bandwidth of Class A
classification of emissions and the calcula- stations employing frequency or phase
tion of bandwidth, reference should be modulation (Type F2 or F3 emission) will
made to Part 2of this chapter. be 20 kHz. Class A stations authorized
before November 1, 1967 may continue to
EMISSION LIMITATIONS operate with maximum 40 kHz bandwidth
until November 1, 1971.
Section 95.49 shows the other limita-
(d) The mean power of emission shall be
tions that apply to the emissions of the attenuated below the mean output power
different classes of Citizens Radio trans- of the transmitter in accordance with the
mitters (for the meaning of the different following schedule:

16
(1) On any frequency removed from the as- ±15 kHz and the simultaneous amplitude
signed frequency by more than 50 percent modulation and frequency or phase mod-
up to and including 100 percent of the ulation of a transmitter is not authorized.
authorized bandwidth: At least 25 deci- (c) Effective June 1, 1968, the maximum
bels; frequency deviation for Class A stations
(2) On any frequency removed from the as- employing F2 or F3 emission is ±5 kHz:
signed frequency by more than 100 per- Provided, That stations authorized prior to
cent up to and including 250 percent of November 1, 1967, located 100 miles or
the authorized bandwidth: At least 35 more from the center of urbanized areas of
decibels; 200,000 or more population may continue
to operate with afrequency deviation of ±
3) On any frequency removed from the as-
(
signed frequency by more than 250 per- 15 kHz until November 1, 1971.
cent of the authorized bandwidth, at least (d) Class A stations authorized on or after
the amounts indicated in the following November 1, 1967, shall be provided with
table: a device which automatically will prevent
modulation in excess of that specified in
this subpart which may be caused by
Maximum authorized power Attenuation
greater than normal audio level. Class A
input to final radio frequen- ((lb)
stations authorized before November 1,
cy stage: 1967, will be required to comply with the
provisions of this paragraph by November
Over 3 watts 50 1, 1971: Provided, however, That the
3 watts or less 140
requirements of this paragraph shall not
apply to transmitters authorized to oper-
ate as mobile stations with a maximum
In the case of Class B stations having a
plate power input to the final radio fre-
maximum power input to the final radio
quency stage of 3watts or less.
frequency stage of 3watts or less, any emission
(e) Each transmitter of aClass A station which
appearing on any frequency within a band
allocated to industrial, scientific, and medical is equipped with a modulation limiter in
equipment under the provisions of Part 2 of accordance with the provisions of para-
this chapter shall be attenuated at least 30 db. graph (d) of this section shall also be
equipped with an audio low-pass filter.
(e) When an unauthorized emission results in This audio low-pass filter shall be installed
harmful interference, the Commission between the modulation limiter and the
modulated stage and, at audio frequencies
may, in its discretion, require appropriate
between 3 kHz and 20 kHz, shall have an
technical changes in equipment to alleviate
attentuation greater than the attenuation
the interference.
at 1kHz by at least:

Modulation Requirements. The modu- 60 logic) (fa) decibels

lation of Citizens-Band transmitters is
also limited as set out in Section 95.51: where "f" is the audio frequency in kHz.
At audio frequencies above 20 kHz, the
(a) When the radio frequency carrier of a attenuation shall be at least 50 decibels
station in this service is amplitude modu- greater than the attenuation at 1kHz.
lated, such modulation shall not exceed
100 percent on positive or negative peaks. OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
(b) Except as provided in paragraph (c) of this
section and except in the case of Class B The operating requirements set out in
citizens radio stations operating only on
subpart D of Part 95 of the Rules reflect
the frequency 465.00 MHz (see
some of the misunderstandings that have
§95.41(10), the frequency deviation of
any frequency modulated transmitter cropped up about the use of Citizens
operated in this service shall not exceed Radio equipment.

17
 (3) For the transmission of communications •
§95.83 Prohibited Uses.
containing obscene, indecent, or profane
words, language, or meaning.
(a) A Citizens radio station shall not be used:
(4) To carry communications for hire,
(1) For engaging in radio communications as a
whether the remuneration or benefit re-
hobby or diversion, i.e., operating the
radio station as an activity in and of itself. ceived is direct or indirect.
(5) To communicate with stations authorized
or operated under the provisions of other
NOTE: The following are typical, but not
parts of this chapter, with unlicensed
all inclusive, examples of the types of
communications evidencing a use of stations, or with U. S. Government or
Citizens radio as a hobby or diversion foreign stations, except for communica-
which are prohibited under this rule: tions pursuant to §§95.85(b) and 95.121
and, in the case of Class A stations, for
"You want to give me your handle and I'll communications with U. S. Government
ship you out a card the first thing in the stations in those cases which require
morning:" or "Give me your 10-20 so Ican ship cooperation or coordination of activities.
you some wallpaper." (Communications to (6) For any communication not directed to
other licensees for the purpose of exchanging specific stations or persons, except for: (i)
so-called "QSL" cards.) Emergency and civil defense communica-
"I'm just checking to see who is on the air." tions as provided in §§95.85(b) and
"Just calling to see if you can hear me. I'm at 95.121, respectively, (ii) test transmissions
Main and Broadway." pursuant to §95.93, and (iii) communica-
"Just heard your call sign and thought I'd tions from a mobile unit to other units or
like to get acquainted:" or "Just passing stations for the sole purpose of requesting
through and heard your call sign so Ithought routing directions, assistance to disabled
I'd give you ashout." vehicles or vessels, information concerning
"Just sitting here copying the mail and the availability of food or lodging, or any
thought I'd give you acall to see how you were other assistance necessary to a licensee in
doing." (Referring to an intent to communicate transit.
based solely on hearing another person engaged (7) To convey program material for retrans-
in the use of his radio.) mission, live or delayed, on a broadcast
"My 10-20 is Main and Broad Streets. facility.
Thought I'd call sole= see how well this new
rig is getting out." NOTE: A Class A, Class B, or Class D
"Got a new mike on this rig and thought I'd station may be used in connection with
give you a call to find out how my modulation the administrative, engineering, or mainte-
is. " nance activities of abroadcasting station; a
"Just thought Iwould give you ashout and Class A, Class B, or Class C station may be
let you know I am still around. Thanks for used for control functions by radio which
coming back." do not involve the transmission of program
"Clear with Venezuela. Just thought I'd let material; and a Class A, Class B, or Class D
you know Iwas copying you up here." station may be used in the gathering of
"Thought I'd give you ashout and see if you news items or preparation of programs:
knew where the unmodulated carrier was Provided, That the actual or recorded
coming from." transmissions of the Citizens radio station
"Just thought I'd give you acall to find out are not broadcast at any time in whole or
how the skip is coming in over at your in pari
location."
"Go ahead breaker. What kind of a rig are (8) To interfere maliciously with the com-
you using? Come back with your 10-20." munications of another station.
9) For the direct transmission of any material
(
(2) For any purpose, or in connection with to the public through public address sys-
any activity, which is contrary to Federal, tems or similar means.
State, or local law. (10) To transmit superfluous communications,

18
 i.e., any transmissions not necessary to §95.85 Emergency Use.
communications which are permissible. (a) All Citizens radio stations shall give pri-
(11) For the transmission of music, whistling, ority to the emergency communications of
sound effects, or any material for amuse- other stations which involve the immediate
ment or entertainment purposes, or solely safety of life of individuals or the immedi-
to attract attention. ate protection of property.
(12) To transmit the word "MAYDAY" or Any station in this service may be utilized
(b)
other international distress signals, except during an emergency involving the immedi-
when a ship, aircraft, or other vehide is ate safety of life or the immediate protec-
threatened by gave and imminent danger tion of property for the transmission of
and requests immediate assistance. emergency communications. When so
(13) For transmitting communications to sta- used, certain provisions in this part con-
tions of other licensees which relate to the cerning use of frequencies (§95.41(d));
technical performance, capabilities, or test- prohibited uses (§95.83(a)(5) and (6));
ing of any transmitter or other radio operation by or on behalf of persons other
equipment, including transmissions con- than the licensee (§95.87); and duration
cerning the signal strength or frequency of transmissions (§95.91(a) and (b)) shall
stability of a transmitter, except as neces- not apply. However, any emergency use
sary to establish or maintain the specific that necessitate taking advantage of these
communication. exceptions to usual requirements shall be
(14) For relaying messages or transmitting com- subject to the following conditions:
munications for a person other than the (1) As soon as possible after the beginning of
licensee or members of his immediate such emergency use, notice shall be sent to
family, except: (i) Communications trans- the Commission in Washington, D.C., and
mitted pursuant to §§95.85(b), to the Engineer in Charge of the radio
95.87(b)(7), and 95.121; and, (ii) upon district in which the station is located,
specific prior Commission approval, com- stating the nature of the emergency and
munications between citizens radio sta- the use to which the station is being put.
tions at fixed locations where public tele- (2) The emergency use of the station shall be
phone service is not provided. discontinued as soon as possible, and the
(15) For advertising or soliciting the sale of any Commission in Washington, D.C., and the
goods or services. Engineer in Charge, shall be notified im-
(16) For transmitting messages in other than mediately when such special use of the
plain language. Abbreviations, including station is terminated. If the emergency use
nationally or internationally recognized is of less than 24-hour duration, a single
operating signals, may be used only if alist notice containing all of the required infor-
of all such abbreviations and their meaning mation will serve to comply with the
is kept in the station records and made notice requirements of this paragraph.
available to any Commission representative
3) Discontinuance of such special use of the
(
on demand. authorized facilities.
(b) A Class D station may not be used to
(c) If the emergency use under paragraph (b)
communicate with, or attempt to com- of this section extends over aperiod of 12
municate with, any unit of the same or hours or more, notice shall be sent to the
another station over a distance of more Commission in Washington, D.C., as soon
than 150 miles. as it is evident that the emergency has or
(c) A licensee of aCitizens radio station who will exceed 12 hours. The notice should
is engaged in the business of selling include the identity of the stations partici-
Citizens radio transmitting equipment shall pating, the nature of the emergency, and
not allow acustomer to operate under his the use made of the stations. A single
station license. In addition, all communica- notice covering all participating stations
tions by the licensee for the purpose of may be submitted.
demonstrating such equipment shall
consist only of brief messages addressed to §95.87 Operation by, or on behalf of,
other units of the same station. persons other than the licensee.

19
 Transmitters authorized in this service stations, or with units of other Class A
(a)
must be under the control of the licensee stations if the communications transmitted
at all times. A licensee shall not transfer, are otherwise permissible. The use of these
assign, or dispose of, in any manner, private radiocommunication facilities shall
directly or indirectly, the operating be conducted pursuant to a written con-
authority under this station license, and tract which shall provide that contribu-
shall be responsible for the proper oper- tions to capital and operating expense shall
ation of all units of the station. be made on anonprofit cost-sharing basis,
Citizens radio stations may be operated the cost to be divided on an equitable basis
only by the following persons, except as among all parties to the agreement.
provided in paragraph (c) of this section: Records which show the cost of service
The licensee; and its nonprofit, cost-sharing basis shall
Members of the licensee's immediate be maintained by the licensee. In any case,
family living in the same household; however, licensee must show a separate
The partners, if the licensee is a partner- and independent need for the particular
ship, provided the communications relate units proposed to be shared to fulfill his
to the business of the partnership; own communications requirements.
The members, if the licensee is an unincor- (iii) Other cases where there is aneed for other
porated association, provided the com- persons to operate a unit of licensee's
munications relate to the business of the radio station. Requests for authority may
association; be made either at the time of filing of the
Employees of the licensee only while application for station license or thereafter
acting within the scope of their employ- by letter. In either case, the licensee must
ment show the nature of the proposed use and
Any person under the control or super- that it relates to an activity of the licensee,
vision of the licensee when the station is how he proposes to maintain control over
used solely for the control of remote the transmitters at all times, and why it is
objects or devices, other than devices used not appropriate for such other person to
only as a means of attracting attention; obtain a station license in his own name.
and The authority, if granted, may be specific
Other persons, upon specific prior ap- with respect to the names of persons who
proval of the commission shown on or are permitted to operate, or may authorize
attached to the station license, under the operation by unnamed persons for specific
following circumstances: purposes. This authority may be revoked
Licensee is a corporation and proposes to by the Commission in its discretion, at any
provide private radiocommunication facili-
time.
ties for the transmission of messages or
(c) An individual who was formerly acitizen
signals by on or behalf of its parent
radio station licensee shall not be per-
corporation, another subsidiary of the
mitted to operate any citizens radio sta-
parent corporation, or its own subsidiary.
tion of the same class licensed to another
Any remuneration or compensation re-
person until such time as he again has been
ceived by the licensee for the use of the
issued a valid radio station license of that
radiocommunication facilities shall be
class, when his license has been:
governed by acontract entered into by the
(1) Revoked by the Commission.
parties concerned and the total of the
(2) Surrendered for cancellation after the in-
compensation shall not exceed the cost of
stitution of revocation proceedings by the
providing the facilities. Records which
Commission.
show the cost of service and its nonprofit
(3) Surrendered for cancellation after anotice
or cost-sharing basis shall be maintained by
of apparent liability to forfeiture has been
the licensee.
served by the Commission.
Licensee proposes the shared or coopera-
tive use of a Class A station with one or §95.91 Duration of Transmissions.
more other licensees in this service for the (a) All communications or signals, regardless
purpose of communicating on a regular of their nature, shall be restricted to the
basis with units of their respective Class A minimum practicable transmission time.

20
 The radiation of energy shall be limited to craft in flight by means of interrupted
transmissions modulated or keyed for tone modulation of its carrier, a citizens
actual permissible communications, tests radio station may transmit a continuous
or control signals. Continuous or uninter- carrier without being simultaneously
rupted transmissions from asingle station modulated if the presence or absence of
or between a number of communicating the carrier also performs a control func-
stations is prohibited except for communi- tion. An exception to the limitations
cations involving the immediate safety of contained in this paragraph may be author-
life or property. ized upon a satisfactory showing that a
Communications between or among Class continuous control signal is required to
(b)
D stations shall not exceed 5 consecutive perform acontrol function which is neces-
minutes. At the conclusion of this 5- sary to insure the safety of life and
minute period, or upon termination of the property.
exchange if less than 5minutes, the station
transmitting and the stations participating §95.93 Tests and Adjustments.
in the exchange shall remain silent for a
period of at least 5 minutes and monitor All tests or adjustments of citizens radio
the frequency or frequencies involved be- transmitting equipment involving an ex-
fore any further transmissions are made. ternal connection to the radio frequency
However, for the limited purpose of
output circuit shall be made using a
acknowledging receipt of a call, such a
nonradiating dummy antenna. However, a
station or stations may answer a calling
brief test signal either with or without
station and request that it stand by for the
modulation, as appropriate, may be trans-
duration of the silent period. The time
mitted when it is necessary to adjust a
limitations contained in this paragraph
transmitter to an antenna for anew station
may not be avoided by changing the installation or for an existing installation
operating frequency of the station and
involving achange of antenna or change of
shall apply to all transmissions of an transmitters, or when necessary for the
operator who, under other provisions of
detection, measurement, and suppression
this part, may operate aunit of more than
of harmonic or other spurious radiation.
one citizens radio station. Test transmissions using a radiating an-
(c) The transmission of audible tone signals or
tenna shall not exceed a total of 1minute
a sequence of tone signals for the oper-
during any 5-minute period, shall not
ation of the tone operated squelch or interfere with communications already in
selective calling circuits in accordance with progress on the operating frequency, and
§95.47 shall not exceed a total of 15 shall be properly identified as required by
seconds duration. Continuous transmission §95.95, but may otherwise be unmodu-
of a subaudible tone for this purpose is
lated as appropriate.
permitted. For the purposes of this sec-
tion, any tone or combination of tones
having no frequency above 150 Hertz shall §95.95 Station Identification.
be considered subaudible.
(a) The call sign of a citizens radio station
(d) The transmission of permissible control
shall consist of three letters followed by
signals shall be limited to the minimum
four digits.
practicable time necessary to accomplish
the desired control or actuation of remote (b) Each transmission of the station call sign
objects or devices. The continuous radia- shall be made in the English language by
each unit, shall be complete, and each
tion of energy for periods exceeding 3
letter and digit shall be separately and
minutes duration for the purpose of trans-
mission of control signals shall be limited distinctly transmitted. Only standard
to control functions requiring at least one phonetic alphabets, nationally or inter
nationally recognized, may be used in lieu
or more changes during each minute of
such transmission. However, while it is of pronunciation of letters for voice trans-
actually being used to control model air- mission of call signs. A unit designator or

21
 special identification may be used in addi- Clearing: "KZZ 0001 unit I, clear sith
tion to the station call sign but not as a unit 3" and "KZZ 0001 unit 3. dear itli
substitute therefor. unit 1."
(c) Except as provided in paragraph (d) of this I
nter stat ion communications:
section, all transmissions from each unit of Calling: "KZZ 0001 calling KZZ 0002," or
a citizens radio station shall be identified "KZZ 0001 calling KZZ 0002 unit 3" (if
by the transmission of its assigned call sign appropriate).
at the beginning and end of each transmis- Response: "KZZ 0002 to KZZ 0001,
sion or series of transmissions directed to over."
or exchanged w;th a unit of the same Clearing: "KZZ 0001 clear with KZZ
station or units of other stations. Each 0002," and "KZZ 0002 clear with KZZ
required identification shall include not 0001."
only the call sign of the station unit
transmitting, but also the call sign of the (d) Unless specifically required by the station
station or stations with which the trans- authorization, the transmission of a
mitting unit is communicating, or attempt- citizens radio station need not be identi-
ing to communicate. In the case of com- fied when the station (1) is a Class A
munications between units of the same station which automatically retransmits
station (intrastation), after identifying the information received by radio from
itself by its assigned call sign, the trans- another station which is properly identi-
mitting unit may identify the other units fied or (2) is not being used for telephony
by unit designators. For communications emission.
between units of different stations (inter- (e) In lieu of complying with the requirements
station), the complete sign of all stations of paragraph (c) of this section, Class A
involved must be transmitted. If the call base stations, fixed stations, and mobile
sign of the station being called is not units when communicating with base sta-
known, the name or trade name may be tions may identify as follows:
used, but when contact has been made the (
1) Base stations and fixed stations of aClass
called station shall thereafter be identified A radio system shall transmit their call
by its call sign. Examples of proper identi- signs at the end of each transmission or
fication procedure are set forth at the end exchange of transmissions, or once each
of this paragraph. Where transmissions or 15-minute period of a continuous ex-
exchanges of transmissions ot greater change of communications.
length are permitted by this part, the (2) A mobile unit of a Class A station com-
identification shall also be transmitted at municating with abase station of aClass A
least every 15 minutes. Each transmission radio system on the same frequency shall
or exchange of transmissions conducted on transmit once during each exchange of
different frequencies shall be fully and transmissions any unit identifier which is
separately identified in accordance with on file in the station records of such base
the foregoing on each frequency used. station.
(3) A mobile unit of Class A stations coma-
EXAMPLES OF PROPER municating with abase station of aClass A
IDENTIFICATION radio system on adifferent frequency shall
transmit its call sign at the end of each
Intrastation communications: transmission or exchange of transmissions,
(I) Calling: "KZZ 0001 base, calling unit 2." or once each 15-minute period of a con-
Response: "KZZ 0001 unit 2, to base, tinuous exchange of communications.
over."
Clearing: "KZZ 0001 base, clear with unit §95.105 Current copy of rules required.
2" and "KZZ 0001 unit 2, clear with
base." Each licensee in this service shall maintain
(2) Calling: "KZZ 0001 unit 1, calling unit 3." as a part of his station records a current
Response: "KKZ 0001 unit 3, to unit 1, copy of Part 95, Citizens Radio Service, of
over." this chapter.
 We have gone into the details of requirements as you will see in the next
Citizens Radio operating requirements section. The Citizens Radio Ser% ice has
because of misunderstandings about this less demanding requirements than other
type of radio service and misuse of it. radio services but they are important
Each radio service has its own operating nonetheless.

23
 Operational Requirements
The operational requirements of radio appropriate notation shall be made in the
stations fall into two types -- the techni- opera ling log.
(c) (1) Operating power is determined by the
cal operation, whereby the required tech-
indirect method of applying an appropri-
nical standards are maintained, and the
ate factor to the plate input power, in
actual operation, or use, of the trans- accordance with the following formula:
mitter.
Operating power = p E xi
pX F

TECHNICAL OPERATION Where:

E = Plate voltage of the final radio stage
1 = Total plate current of the final radio
The Technical operation requirements stage
of the different classes of radio stations F =Efficiency factor

are set out in the Rules and Regulations. 2 ) The value of F applicable to each mode of
(
operation shall be entered in the operating
As an example of the kind of technical
log for each day of operation, with a
operation that is required, we can take notation as to its derivation. This factor
the regulations that apply to standard AM shall be established by one of the methods
broadcasting stations. described in paragraph (d) of this section,
Determination of Operating Power. which are listed in order of preference.
The product of the plate current and plate
Section 73.51 tells how operating power
voltage, or alternatively, the computed
is determined: operating power, shall be entered in the
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this operating log under an appropriate heading
section, the operating power shall be deter- for each log entry of plate current and
mined by the direct method, i.e., as the plate voltage.
product of the antenna resistance at the (d) (1) If the transmitter and the power
operating frequency (see §73.54) and the utilized during the period of indirect
square of the antenna current at this power determination are the same as have
frequency, measured at the point where been authorized and utilized for any
the antenna resistance has been deter- period of regular operation, the factor F
mined. shall be the ratio of such authorized power
The operating power shall be determined to the corresponding plate input power of
(b)
on a temporary basis by the indirect the transmitter for regular conditions of
method described in paragraphs (c) and (d) operation, computed with values of plate
of this section, in the following circum- voltage and plate current obtained from
stances: (1) In an emergency, where the the operating logs of the station for the
authorized antenna system has been dam- last week of regular operation. llowever, if
aged by causes beyond the control of the the station has been regularly authorized
licensee or permittee (see §73.45), or (2) for operation with directional antenna,
pending completion of authorized changes and temporary authority has been granted
in the antenna system, or (3) if changes for nondirectional operation with regularly
occur in the antenna system or its environ- authorized power, during the period that
ment which affect or appear likely to power is being determined indirectly, an
affect the value of antenna resistance or adjusted factor F shall be employed, which
(4) if the antenna current meter becomes is derived by dividing the factor, as deter-
defective (see §73.58). Prior authorization mined above, by a constant (0.925 for
for determination of power by the indirect authorized powers of 5 kw, or less; 0.95
method is not required. However, an for powers above 5kw.).

24
(2) If a station has not been previously in power within the above limitations, sta-
regular operation with the power autho- tions employing directional antenna sys-
rized for the period of indirect power tems shall maintain the ratio of the
determination, if a new transmitter has antenna currents in the elements of the
been installed, or if, for any other reason, system within 5 percent of that specified
the determination of the factor F by the by the terms of the license or other
method described in paragraph (d) (1) of instrument of authorization.
this section is impracticable:
The factor F shall be obtained from the How Antenna Resistance and Reac-
(i)
transmitter manufacturer's letter or test tance Is Determined. Section 73.54 pre-
report retained in the station's files, if such scribes these measurement standards, pro-
a letter or test report specifies a unique cedures and record keeping:
value of F for the power level and fre-
quency utilized; or (a) The resistance of an omnidirectional series
fed antenna shall be measured at the base
(ii) By reference to the following table:
of the antenna, without intervening cou-
Factor Method of Max. rated Class of pling networks or components. For a
IF I modulation carrier power amplifier shunt-excited antenna, the antenna resis-
tance shall be measured at the point when
0.70 Plate 0.25-1.0 kw
the radiofrequency energy is fed to the
.80 Plate 5 kw. & over
slant wire or other feed wire circuit with-
.35 Low level .... 0.25 kw. & over B
.65 Low level .... 0.25 kw. & over BC 1 out intervening networks or components.
.35 Grid 0.25 kw & over (b) The resistance and reactance of a direc-
tional antenna shall be measured at the
1All
linear amplifier operation where effi- point of common radiofrequency input to
ciency approaches that of Class C operation. the directional antenna system. The fol-
lowing conditions shall obtain:
(3) When the factor F is obtained from the (1) The antenna shall be finally adjusted for
table, this value shall be used even though the required radiation pattern.
the operating power may be less than the (2) The reactance at the operating frequency
maximum rated carrier power of the trans- and at the point of measurement shall be
mitter. adjusted to zero, or as near thereto as
practicable.
Maintenance of Operating Power. Sec- (c) (1) The resistance of an antenna shall be
tion 73.52 tells within what limits the determined by the following procedure: A
operating power is to be maintained: series of discrete measurements shall be
made over aband of frequencies extending
(a) The operating power of each station shall from approximately 25 kHz below the
be maintained as near as practicable to the operating frequency to approximately 25
licensed power and shall not exceed the kHz above that frequency, at intervals of
limits of 5 percent above and 10 percent approximately 5kHz. The measured values
below the licensed power, except that in shall be plotted on a linear graph, with
an emergency when due to causes beyond frequency as the abscissa and resistance as
the ordinate. A smooth curve shall be
control of the licensee it becomes impossi-
ble to operate with full licensed power, the drawn through the plotted values. The
station may be operated with reduced resistance value corresponding to the point
power for a period not to exceed 10 days, of intersection of the curye and the ordi-
provided the Commission and the Engineer nate representing the operating frequency
in Charge of the radio district in which the of the station shall be the resistance of the
station is located shall be notified immedi- antenna.
ately after the emergency develops and (2) For a directional antenna, the reactance of
also upon the resumption, of licensed the antenna shall be determined by a
power. procedure similar to that described in
(b) In addition to maintaining the operating subparagraph (1) of this paragraph.

25
(d) The license of a station with adirectional Section 73.56 describes the requirements
antenna, and authorized power of 5 kilo- for modulation monitors:
watts or less shall specify an antenna
resistance 92.5 percent of that determined
at the point of common input; for a (a) Each station shall have in operation, either
station with directional antenna and at the transmitter or at the place the
authorized power exceeding 5 kilowatts transmitter is controlled, a modulation
the license shall specify an antenna resis- monitor of a type approved by the Com-
tance 95 percent of that determined at the mission.
point of common input.
(e) Applications for authority to determine NOTE: Approved modulation monitors
power by the direct method shall specify are included on the Commission's "Radio
the antenna or common point resistance, Equipment List, Part B, Aural Broadcast
and shall include the following supporting Equipment." Copies of this list are avail-
information. able for inspection at the Commission's
(1) Description of measurement method. office in Washington, D. C. and at each of
(2) A schematic diagram showing clearly all its field offices.
components of coupling circuits, the point
of resistance measurement, location of (b) In the event that the modulation monitor
antenna ammeter, connections to and becomes defective the station may be
characteristics of all tower lighting isola- operated without the monitor pending its
tion circuits, static drains, and any other repair or replacement for a period not in
fixtures, sample lines, etc., connected to or excess of 60 days without further author-
supported by the antenna, including other ity of the Commission: Provided, That:
antennas and associated circuits. (1) Appropriate entries shall be made in the
maintenance log of the station showing the
3) Make and type of each calibrated instru-
(
ment employed, manufacturer's rated date and time the monitor was removed
accuracy, together with the date of last from and restored to service.
calibration of the instrument, the accuracy (2) The Engineer in Charge of the radio
of the calibration, and the identity of the district in which the station is located shall
person or firm making the calibration. be notified both immediately after the
(4) A tabulation of all measured data. monitor is found to be defective and
(5) Graph(s) plotted from this data. immediately after the repaired or replace-
(6) The qualifications of the engineer(s) ment monitor has been installed and is
making the measurements. functioning properly.
(3) The degree of modulation of the station
Modulation Requirements. Section shall be monitored with a cathode ray
oscilloscope or other acceptable means.
73.55 sets the modulation percentage
(c) If conditions beyond the control of the
requirements:
licensee prevent the restoration of the
monitor to service within the above
The percentage of modulation shall be allowed period, informal request in accord-
maintained as high as possible consistent ance with § 1.549 of this chapter may be
with good quality of transmission and filed with the Engineer in Charge of the
good broadcast practice. In no case is it to radio district in which the station is
exceed 100 percent on negative peaks of operating for such additional time as may
frequent recurrence. Generally, it should be required to complete repairs of the
not be less than 85 percent on peaks of defective instrument.
frequent recurrence; but where necessary (d) Each station operated by remote control
to avoid objectionable loudness modu- shall continuously, except when other
lation may be reduced to whatever level is readings are being taken, monitor percent
necessary, even if the resulting modulation of modulation or shall be equipped with
is substantially less than 85 percent on an automatic device to limit percent of
peaks of frequent recurrence. modulation on negative peaks to 100.

26
 Indicating Instruments. Section 73.58 the regular meter, provided other meters
are maintained at same value previously
describes the indicating instruments that
employed.
are required: If conditions beyond the control of the
(c)
licensee prevent the restoration of the
(a) Each standard broadcast station shall be
meter to service within the above allowed
equipped with indicating instruments
period, informal request in accordance
which conform with the specifications set
with § 1.549 of this chapter may be filed
forth in § 73.39 for measuring the dc
with the Engineer in Charge of the radio
plate circuit current and voltage of the last
district in which the station is located for
radio frequency amplified stage; the radio
such additional time as may be required to
frequency base current of each antenna
complete repairs of the defective instru-
element; and, for stations employing direc-
ment.
tional antenna systems, the radio he-
(d) Remote antenna ammeters and remote
quency current at the point of common
common point meters are not required;
input to the directional antenna.
therefore, authority to operate without
(b) In the event that any one of these indi-
them is not necessary. However, if a
cating instruments becomes defective
remote antenna ammeter or common
when no substitute which conforms with
point meter is employed and becomes
the required specifications is available, the
defective, the antenna base currents may
station may be operated without the de-
be read and logged once daily for each
fective instrument pending its repair or
mode of operation, pending the return to
replacement for a period not in excess of
service of the regular remote meter.
60 days without further authority of the
Commission: Provided, That:
Frequency Requirements. Section
1) Appropriate
( entries shall be made in the
maintenance log of the station showing the 73.59 sets out the frequency tolerance:
date and time the meter was removed from
The operating frequency of each station
and restored to service.
shall be maintained within 20 Hz of the
(2) The Engineer in Charge of the radio
assigned frequency.
district in which the station is located shall
be notified both immediately after the §73.60 describes the frequency monitor
instrument is found to be defective and requirements:
immediately after the repaired or replace-
ment instrument has been installed and is (a) The licensee of each station shall have in
functioning properly. operation, either at the transmitter or at
(3) If the defective instrument is the antenna the place where the transmitter is con-
current meter of a nondirectional station trolled, a frequency monitor of a type
which does not employ a remote antenna approved by the Commission which shall
ammeter, or if the defective instrument is be independent of the frequency control
the common point meter of a station of the transmitter.
which employs adirectional antenna, and
does not employ aremote common point
NOTE: Approved frequency monitors are
meter, the operating power shall be deter-
included on the Commission's "Radio
mined by the indirect method in accord-
Equipment List, Part B, Aural Broadcast
ance with § 73.51 (c) and (d) during the
Equipment". Copies of this list are avail-
entire time the station is operated without
the antenna current meter or common able for inspection at the Commission's
point meter. However, if aremote antenna office in Washington, D. C. and at each of

ammeter or aremote common point meter its field offices.

is employed and the antenna current meter
or common point meter becomes defec- (b) In the event that the frequency monitor
tive, the remote meter may be used in becomes defective the station may be
determining operating power by the direct operated without the monitor pending its
method pending the return to service of repair or replacement for a period not in

27
 excess of 60 days without further author- quired to maintain an operating schedule
ity of the Commission: Provided, That: of not less than two-thirds of the total
(1) Appropriate entries shall be made in the hours they are authorized to operate be-
maintenance log of the station showing the tween 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., local standard
date and time the monitor was removed time, and two-thirds of the total hours
from and restored to service. they are authorized to operate between 6
(2) The Engineer in Charge of the radio p.m. and midnight, local standard time, on
district in which the station is located shall each day of the week except Sunday:
be notified both immediately after the Provided, however, That stations author-
monitor is found to be defective and ized for daytime operation only need
immediately after the repaired or replace- comply only with the minimum require-
ment monitor has been installed and is ment for operation between 6 a.m. and 6
functioning properly. p.m.
3 ) The
( frequency of the station shall be (b) In the event that causes beyond a li-
measured by an external source at least censee's control make it impossible to
once each 7 days and the result entered in adhere to the operating schedule in para-
the maintenance log. graph (a) of this section or to continue
(c) If conditions beyond the control of the operating, the station may limit or dis-
licensee prevent the restoration of the continue operation for a period of not
monitor to service within the above more than 10 days, without further
allowed period, informal request in accord- authority of the Commission. However,
ance with § 1.549 of this chapter may be the Commission and the Engineer in
filed with the Engineer in Charge of the Charge of the radio district in which the
radio district in which the station is station is located shall be immediately
located for such additional time as may be notified in writing if the station is unable
required to complete repairs of the defec- to maintain the minimum operating sche-
tive instrument. dule and shall be subsequently notified
when the station resumes regular oper-
You can see from these quotations ation.
from the Rules that nearly every aspect
of the technical operation requirements The "experimental period" in broad-
for radio stations and equipment is casting is the time from 12 midnight to
closely regulated. These Rules help to local sunrise (nighttime is the period from
insure that the many radio services and local sunset to 12 midnight). Section
classes of stations will be able to perform 73.72 provides for the control of oper-
their functions without interfering with ation of standard broadcast stations
one another. during this period:

OPERATING SCHEDULES The licensee of each standard broadcast

station shall operate or refrain from oper-
ating its station during the experimental
In addition to the equipment require-
period as directed by the Commission in
ments in the operation of a radio trans- order to facilitate frequency measurement
mitter, the operating or broadcasting or for the determination of interference.
schedule is also closely regulated by the
FCC Rules. Section 73.73 provides for operation
Section 73.71 describes the minimum of stations pursuant to the schedule of
operating schedule for AM (standard operation specified by the FCC license.
broadcast) stations:
If the license of a station specifies the
(a) AH standard broadcast stations are re- hours of operation, the schedule so sped-

28
 fled shall be adhered to except as provided cueing of automatic equipment may be
in §§ 73.71 and 73.72. entered on the logs. Such additional infor-
mation, so entered, shall not be subject to
the restrictions and limitations in the
LOGS
Commission's rules on the making of
corrections and changes in logs.
Much of the information about the
Section 73.115 provides for retaining
operation of radio stations must be set
down in the station logs. There are three the logs as records:
separate logs: (1) Program log; (2) Oper-
Logs of standard broadcast stations shall
ating log; and (3) Maintenance log.
be retained by the licensee or permittee
Section 73.111 covers the general require- for aperiod of 2years: Provided, however,
ments relating to logs for standard broad- That logs involving communications inci-
cast stations. Similar provisions apply to dent to a disaster or which include com-
munications incident to or involved in an
other commercial radio stations:
investigation by the Commission and con-
cerning which the licensee or permittee has
(a) The licensee or permittee of each standard
been notified, shall be retained by the
broadcast station shall maintain program,
licensee or permittee until he is specifically
operating and maintenance logs as set
authorized in writing by the Commission
forth in §§ 73.112, 73.113, and 73.114.
to destroy them: Provided, further, That
Each log shall be kept by the station
logs incident to or involved in any claim or
employee or employees (or contract oper-
complaint of which the licensee or per-
ator) competent to do so, having actual
mittee has notice shall be retained by the
knowledge of the .facts required, who in
licensee or permittee until such claim or
the case of program and operating logs
complaint has been fully satisfied or until
shall sign the appropriate log when starting
the same has been barred by statute
duty, and again when going off duty.
limiting the time for the filing of suits
(b) The logs shall be kept in an orderly and
upon such claims.
legible manner, in suitable form, and in
such detail that the data required for the
Section 73.116 sets forth the rules
particular class of station concerned is
readily available. Key letters or abbrevia- about making the logs and records avail-
tions may be used if proper meaning or able:
explanation is contained elsewhere in the The following shall be made available upon
log. Each sheet shall be numbered and request by an authorized representative of
dated. Time entries shall be either in local the Commission:
standard or daylight saving time and shall (a) Program, operating and maintenance logs.
be indicated accordingly. (b) Equipment performance measurements re-
(c) No log or preprinted log or schedule which quired by §73.47.
becomes a log, or portion thereof, shall be (c) Copy of most recent antenna resistance or
erased, obliterated, or willfully destroyed common-point impedance measurements
within the period of retention provided by submitted to the Commission.
the provisions of this part. Any necessary (d) Copy of most recent field intensity
correction shall be made only pursuant to
measurements to establish performance of
§§ 73.112, 73.113, and 73.114, and only
directional antennas required by § 73.151.
by striking out the erroneous portion, or
by making acorrective explanation on the
log or attachment to it as provided in SECRECY REQUIREMENTS
those sections.
(d) Entries shall be made in the logs as
Most radio stations engaged in handling
required by §§ 73.112, 73.113, and
73.114. Additional information such as communications traffic are obliged to
that needed for billing purposes or for the observe strict secrecy with regard to the

29
content of the messages they handle. For made or imposed by an international radio
instance, stations in the shipboard mari- or wire communications treaty or conven-
tion, or regulations annexed thereto, to
time service are governed by Section
which the United States is or may here-
83.174 of the Rules, which provide: after become aparty, shall, in addition to
any other penalties provided by law, be
The master or the person responsible, as punished, upon conviction thereof, by a
well as all persons who may have knowl- fine of not more than $500 for each and
edge of the text or even of the existence of every day during which such offense
the radio communications transmitted or «CM.
received by a station on board ship or of
any information whatever obtained by
means of the radiocommunication service
Section 605 of the Communications
of such station, shall be under the obliga- Act provides:
tion of observing and insuring the secrecy
of communications to the extent required No person receiving or assisting in re-
by the Communications Act and the Inter- ceiving, or transmitting, or assisting in
national Radio Regulations. transmitting, any interstate or foreign
communications by wire or radio shall
Section 501 of the Communications divulge or publish the existence, contents,
Act provides: substance, purport, effect, or meaning
thereof, except through authorized
Any person who willfully and knowingly channels of transmission or reception, to
does or causes or suffers to be done any any person other than the addressee, his
act, matter, or thing, in this Act prohibited agent, or attorney, or to a person em-
or declared to be unlawful, or who will- ployed or authorized to forward such
fully or knowingly omits or fails to do any communication to its destination, or to
act, matter, or thing in this Act required to proper accounting or distributing officers
be done, or willfully and knowingly causes of the various communicating centers over
or suffers such omission or failure, shall, which the communication may be passed,
upon conviction, thereof, be punished for or to the master of aship under whom he
such offense, for which no penalty (other is serving, or in response to a subpoena
than a forfeiture) is provided in this Act, issued by a court of competent juris-
by a fine of not more than $10,000 or by diction, or on demand of other lawful
imprisonment for a term not exceeding authority; and no person not being author-
one year, or both; except that any person, ized by the sender shall intercept any
having been once convicted of an offense communication and divulge or publish the
punishable under this section, who is existence, contents, substance, purport,
subsequently convicted of violating any effect, or meaning of such intercepted
provision of this Act punishable under this communication to any person; and no
section, shall be punished by a fine of not person not being entitled thereto shall
receive or assist in receiving any interstate
more than $10,000 or by imprisonment
for a term not exceeding two years, or or foreign communication by wire or radio
both. and use the same or any information
therein contained for his own benefit or
for the benefit of another not entitled
Section 502 of the Communications thereto; and no person having received
Act provides: such intercepted communication or having
become acquainted with the contents,
Any person who willfully and knowingly substance, purport, effect, or meaning of
violates any rule, regulation, restriction, or the same or any part thereof, knowing that
condition made or imposed by the Com- such information was so obtained, shall
mission under authority of this Act, or any divulge or publish the existence, contents,
rule, regulation, restriction, or condition substance, purport, effect, or meaning of

30
 the same or any part thereof, or use the Distress, alarm, urgent, and safety
same or any information therein contained signals are described as follows:
for his own benefit or for the benefit or
another not entitled thereto: Provided, §83.234 Distress Signals.
That this section shall not apply to the
receiving, divulging, publishing, or utilizing (a) The international radiotelegraph distress
the contents of any radio communication signal consists of the group "three dots,
broadcast, or transmitted by amateurs or three dashes, three dots" (. ..---...),
others for the use of the general public, or symbolized herein by SOS, transmitted as
relating to ships in distress. a single signal in which the dashes are
slightly prolonged so as to be distinguished
clearly from the dots.
ORDER OF PRIORITY
6 ) The international radiotelephone distress
(
signal consists of the word MAYDAY,
Messages handled in the communica- pronounced as French expression
tions services all have places in the order "m'aider".

of priority. The details of this order are (e) These distress signals indicate that amobile
station is threatened by grave and im-
slightly different for the different minent danger and requests inunediate
services. However, the general order of assistance.
priority can be seen from the regulations
that apply to radiotelegraph communica- §83 .245 Radiotelegraph and radio-
tions in the maritime mobile service. This telephone alarm signals.
priority is set forth in Section 83.177(a):
(a) The international radiotelegraph alarm
The order of priority of radiotelegraph signal consists of a series of twelve dashes
(a)
sent in one minute, the duration of each
communications in the maritime mobile
service of any frequency used for this dash being four seconds and the duration
service shall be as follows: of the interval between consecutive dashes

(1) Distress calls (including the international one second. The purposes of this special
signal is the actuation of automatic devices
distress signal for radiotelegraphy), the
giving the alarm to attract the attention of
international radiotelegraph alarm signal,
the operator when there is no listening
the international radiotelephone alarm sig-
watch on the distress frequency.
nal, distress messages, and distress traffic.
(b) The international radiotelephone alarm sig-
(2) Communications preceded by the inter-
nal consists of two substantially sinusoidal
national radiotelegraph urgency signal.
audio frequency tones transmitted alter-
(3) Communications preceded by the inter-
nately. One tone shall have afrequency of
national radiotelegraph safety signal.
(4) Communications relative to radio di- 2200 cycles per second and the other a
rection-fir ding bearings. frequency of 1300 cycles per second, the
duration of each tone being 250 milli-
5 ) Communications relative to the navigation
(
and safe movement of aircraft. seconds. When generated by automatic
means, the radiotelephone alarm signal
6) Communications relative to the navigation,
(
movements, and needs of ships; including shall be transmitted continuously for a
weather observation messages destined for period of at least 30 seconds, but not
an official meteorological service. exceeding one minute; when generated by
other means, the signal shall be trans-
7) Government communications for which
(
priority right has been claimed. mitted as continuously as practicable over
8 ) Service communications relating
( to the a period of approximately one minute.
working of the radiocommunication The purpose of this special signal is to
service or to communications previously attract the attention of the person on
transmitted. watch or to actuate automatic devices
All other communications. giving the alarm.
(9)

31
§83.247 Urgency signals. stance, the Rules provide even with re-
spect to Citizens Radio stations, in
(a) The urgency signal indicates that the
Section 95.103:
calling station has avery urgent message to
transmit concerning the safety of a ship, All stations and records of stations in the
aircraft, or other vehicle, or the safety of a Citizens Radio Service shall be made avail-
person. The urgency signal shall be sent able for inspection upon the request of an
only on the authority of the master or authorized representative of the Com-
person responsible for the mobile station. mission made to the licensee or to his
(b) In radiotelegraphy, the urgency signal con- representative (see § 1.6 of this chapter).
sists of three repetitions of the group Unless otherwise stated in this part, all
XXX, sent with the individual letters of required station records shall be main-
each group, and the successive groups tained for aperiod of at least 1year.
clearly separated from each other. It shall
be transmitted before the call.
Similar provisions apply to broadcast
(c) In radiotelephony, the urgency signal con-
sists of the word PAN, spoken three times stations in Section 73.97:
and transmitted before the call.
The licensee of any radio station shall
(d) The urgency signal shall have priority over
make the station available for inspection
all other communications, except distress.
by representatives of the Commission at
All mobile and land stations which hear it
any reasonable hour.
shall take care not to interfere with the
transmission of the message which follows
The possibility of an inspection makes
the urgency signal.
it particularly important to keep both the
log books and the station equipment in
§83.249 Safety signals.
good shape at all times. Many points
(a) The safety signal indicates that the station
covered by the Rules but not mentioned
is about to transmit a message concerning in this brief text may be checked on a
the safety of navigation or giving impor- station inspection. For this reason, it is
tant meteorological warnings. especially important to get acopy of the
(b) In radiotelegraphy, the safety signal con-
rules that apply to the particular service
sists of three repetitions of the group TTT,
sent with the individual letters of each you are engaged in to make sure that the
group, and the successive groups clearly station is operated according to these
separated from each other. It shall be sent rules at all times. For example, posting of
before the call. operator and station licenses may seem
(c) In radiotelephony, the safety signal con- like an incidental thing of little impor-
sists of the word SECURITY, spoken three
times and transmitted before the call.
tance, but the Rules specifically provide
(d) The safety signal and call shall be sent on in Section 73.92 that this shall be done.
one of the international distress fre-
quencies (500 kHz radiotelegraph; 2182 (a) The station license and any other instru-
kHz radiotelephone), or on the national ment of station authorization shall be
distress frequency (156.80 MHz radio- posted in a conspicuous place and in such
telephone). However, stations which can- manner that all terms are visible, at the
not transmit on a distress frequency may place the licensee considers to be the
use any other available frequency on principal control point of the transmitter.
which attention might be attracted. At all other control points listed on the
station authorization, a photocopy of the
INSPECTIONS
station license and other instruments of
All stations licensed by the FCC are station authorization shall be posted.
subject to station inspection. For in- (b) The original operator license, or FCC

32
 Form 759, of each station operator shall which the station is located within three (3)
be posted at the place where he is on duty days after the contract is signed.
as an operator. (d) A station using a non-directional antenna,
during periods of operation with autho-
rized power in excess of 10 kilowatts, may
It is also important for the operator employ first class radiotelephone operators,
requirements set out in Section 73.93 to second class operators, or operators with
be met at all times: the third class permit endorsed for
broadcast station operation for routine
operation of the transmitting system if the
(a) One or more operators holding a radio
station has in full-time employment at least
operator license or permit of a grade
one first class radiotelephone operator and
specified in this section shall be in actual
complies with the provisions of paragraphs
charge of the transmitting system, and shall
be on duty either at the transmitter (f) and (g) of this section.
location or at the remote control point. If (e) A station using a directional antenna
operation by remote control has not been system, which is required by the station
authorization to maintain the ratios of the
authorized, the transmitter, required moni-
tors and other required metering equip- currents in the elements of the system
ment shall be readily accessible, clearly within a tolerance which is less than 5
visible, and located sufficiently close to the percent or the relative phases of those
operator at the normal operating position currents within a tolerance which is less
that deviations from normal indications of than 3 degrees shall, without exception,
required instruments can be observed employ first class radiotelephone operators
readily. If operation by remote control is who shall be on duty and in actual charge
authorized, the required controls and of the transmitting system as specified in
instruments shall be readily accessible, paragraph (a) of this section during hours
clearly visible, and located sufficiently of operation with a directional radiation
close to the operator at the normal pattern. A station whose authorization
operating position that deviations from does not specifically require therein the
normal indications of required instruments maintenance of phase and current rela-
can be observed readily. tionships within closer tolerances than
(b) With the exception set forth in paragraph above specified shall employ first class
(f) of this section, adjustments of the radiotelephone operators for routine opera-
tion of the transmitting system during
transmitting system and inspection, main-
periods of directional operation, Provided
tenance, and required equipment per-
formance measurements and required field however, That holders of second class
licenses or third class permits endorsed for
strength measurements shall be performed
broadcast station operation, may be em-
only by a first class radiotelephone
ployed for routine operation of the
operator.
transmitting system if the following condi-
(c) A station using a non-directional antenna
and with authorized power of 10 kilowatts tions are met:
(1) The station must have in full-time employ-
or less shall have at least one first class
radiotelephone operator, readily available ment at least one first class radiotelephone
operator.
at all times, either in full time employment,
(2) The station shall be equipped with a
or, in the alternative, the licensee may
type-approved phase (antenna) monitor fed
contract in writing for the services on a
part-time basis of one or more such by a sampling system installed and
maintained pursuant to accepted standards
operators. Signed contracts with part-time
operators shall be kept in the files of the of good engineering practice.
station and shall be made available for (3) At least once each day, 5 days each week,
inspection upon request by an authorized unless required more frequently by the
representative of the Commission. A signed terms of the station authorization, or rules
copy of contracts shall be forwarded to the governing operation by remote control (see
Engineer in Charge of the radio district in Sections 73 r. 71 :)(6) and 73.113(a)(4)) a

33
 first class radiotelephone operator shall levels of the transmitter within prescribed
record the following observations in the limits;
station maintenance log for each direc- (4) Those necessary to effect routine changes
tional radiation pattern used: (i) Common in operating power which are required by
point current. (ii) Antenna base currents. the station authorization;
(iii) Sample loop currents or remote (5) Those necessary to change between non-
antenna base currents and phase monitor directional and directional or between
indications. (iv) Antenna base current differing radiation patterns, provided that
ratios, and remote antenna or sample loop such changes require only activation of
current ratios, and the deviations in these switches and do not involve the manual
ratios, in percent, from the licensed values. tuning of the transmitter final amplifier or
A station authorized to use the same antenna phasor equipment. The switching
directional radiation pattern during all equipment shall be so arranged that the
hours of operation shall record these failure of any relay in the directional
observations with successive readings not antenna system to activate properly will
less than 12 hours apart. cause the emissions of the station to
(4) A partial proof of performance shall be terminate.
made once each calendar year, with (g) It is the responsibility of the station
intervals between successive proofs not to licensee to insure that each operator is fully
exceed fourteen (14) months. The report instructed in the performance of all the
of such proof measurements shall be above adjustments, as well as in other
prepared and filed as specified in paragraph required duties, such as reading meters and
(b) of Section 73.47. making log entries. Printed step-by-step
(5) Field strength measurements shall be made instructions for those adjustments which
at the monitoring points specified in the the lesser grade operator is permitted to
station authorization at least once each 30 make, and a tabulation or chart of upper
days unless more frequent measurements and lower limiting values of parameters
are required by such authorization. The required to be observed and logged, shall be
results of these measurements shall be posted at the operating position. The
entered in the station maintenance log. The emissions of the station shall be terminated
licensee shall have readily available, and in immediately whenever the transmitting
proper working condition, field strength system is observed operating beyond the
measuring equipment to perform these posted parameters, or in any other manner
measu rements. inconsistent with the rules or the station
Subject to the conditions set forth in authorization, and the above adjustments
paragraphs (c), (d), and (e) of this section, are ineffective in correcting the condition
the routine operation of the transmitting of improper operation, and a first class
system may be performed by an operator radiotelephone operator is not present.
holding asecond class license or third class (h) When lesser grade operators are used, in
permit endorsed for broadcast station accordance with paragraphs (d) or (e) of
operation. Unless, however, performed this section, for any period of operation
under the immediate and personal super- using authorized power in excess of 10
vision of an operator holding a first class kilowatts, or using a directional radiation
radiotelephone license, an operator holding pattern, the station licensee shall designate
a second class license or third class permit one first class radiotelephone operator in
endorsed for broadcast station operation, full-time employment as the chief operator
may make adjustments only of external who, together with the licensee, shall be
controls as follows: responsible for the technical operation of
(1) Those necessary to turn the transmitter on the station. The station licensee shall notify
and off; the Engineer in Charge of the radio district
(2) Those necessary to compensate for voltage in which the station is located of the name
fluctuations in the primary power supply; and license number of the designated chief
(3) Those necessary to maintain modulation operator. Such notification shall be by

34
 letter within three (3) days of such initiate corrective action. The review of
designation. A copy of the notification each day's operating log shall be made
shall be posted with the chief operator's within 24 hours, except that, if the chief
license. operator is not on duty during a given 24
hour period, the logs must be reviewed
(1) An operator designated as chief operator
for one station may not be so designated within two hours after his next appearance
concurrently at any other standard broad- for duty. In any case, the time before
cast station. review shall not exceed 72 hours.
(2) The station licensee shall vest such (i) The operator on duty at the transmitter or
authority in, and afford such facilities to remote control point, may, at the discre-
the chief operator as may be necessary to tion of the licensee and the chief operator,
insure that the chief operator's priman if any, be employed for other duties or for
responsibility for the proper technical the operation of another radio station or
operation of the station may be discharged stations in accordance with the class of
efficiently. operator's license which he holds and the
rules and regulations governing such other
(3) At such times as a regularly designated
chief operator is unavailable or unable to station Provided, however, That such
act as chief operator (e.g., vacations, other duties shall not interfere with the
sickness), the station licensee shall desig- proper operation of the standard broadcast
nate another first class radiotelephone transmitting system and keeping of re-
operator as acting chief operator on a quired logs.
temporary basis. Within three days of the (.) At all standard broadcast stations, a
date such action is taken, the Engineer in complete inspection of the transmitting
Charge of the radio district in which the system and required monitoring equipment
station is located shall be notified by the in use, shall be made by an operator
licensee by letter of the name and license holding a first class radiotelephone license
number of the acting chief operator, and at least once each day, 5 days each week,
shall be notified by letter, again within with an interval of no less than 12 hours
three days of the date when the regularly between successive inspections. This inspec-
designated chief operator returns to duty. tion shall include such tests, adjustments,
(4) The designated chief operator may serve as and repairs as may be necessary to insure
a routine duty transmitter operator at any operation in conformance with the provi-
station only to the extent that it does not sions of this subpart and the current station
interfere with the efficient discharge of his authorizat ion.
responsibilities as listed below. (i) The
inspection and maintenance of the trans-
mitting system including the antenna
VIOLATION NOTICES
system and required monitoring equip-
ment. (ii) The accuracy and completeness
of entries in the maintenance log. (iii) The Special provisions are made by the
supervison and instruction of all other FCC for monitoring radio stations. These
station operators in the performance of monitoring, or listening, posts can tell if a
their technical duties. (iv) A reveiw of radio transmitter is operating properly.
completed operating logs to determine
If there is some defect in the operation
whether technical operation of the station
has been in accordance with the rules and
of aradio station that violates the Rules
terms of the station authorization. After and Regulations of the FCC, anote of the
review, the chief operator shall sign the log violation is sent to the holder of the
and indicate the date of such review. If the station license. The provisions of Section
review of the operating logs indicates
83.601 apply to stations on land in the
technical operation of the station is in
violation of the rules or the terms of the maritime service. However, similar pro-
station authorization, he shall promptly visions apply to the other services as well:

35
 Any person receiving official notice of a apply to the renewal and replacement
violation of the terms of the Communica-
requirements for commercial radio oper-
tions Act, any legislative act, Executive
order, treaty to which the United States is
ators. You can get the corresponding
a party, terrris of a station or operator requirements for other kinds of licenses
license, or the rules and regulations of the by referring to the volume of the FCC
Fed eral Communications Commission, Rules that covers that particular service.
shall, within 10 days from such receipt,
Higher Class License. Section 13.26
send a written answer, in duplicate, to the
describes the canceling of alicense by the
office of the Commission originating the
official notice. If an answer cannot be issuance of a higher class license, as
sent, or an acknowledgement made within follows:
such 10-day period by reason of illness or
If the holder of a license qualifies for a
other unavoidable circumstances, acknowl-
higher class in the same group, the license
edgement and answer shall be made at the
held will be canceled upon the issuance of
earliest practicable date with asatisfactory
the new license. Similarly, if the holder of
explanation of the delay. The answer to
a restricted operator permit qualifies for a
each notice shall be complete in itself and
first- or second-class operator license of
shall not be abbreviated by references to
the corresponding type, the permit held
other communications or answers to other
will be canceled upon issuance of the new
notices. The answer shall contain a full
license.
explanation of the incident involved and
shall set forth the action taken to prevent
a continuation or recurrence thereof. If Renewals. Rules regarding renewals are
the notice relates to lack of attention to, set forth in Section 13.28 as follows:
or improper operation of the station, or to
A restricted radiotelephone operator per-
log or watch discrepancies, the answer
mit normally is issued for the lifetime of
shall give the name and license number of
the holder and need not be renewed. A
the licensed operator on duty.
temporary limited radiotelegraph second-
class operator license is not renewable. A
Be sure you know the requirements for license of any other class may be renewed
answering violation notices that apply to without examination provided that the
the particular service that you are in. service record on the reverse side of the
license (see §§ 13.91 to 13.94) shows at
Failure to respond properly to anotice of
least two years of satisfactory service in
violation can result in license suspension. the aggregate during the license term and
while actually employed as a radio oper-
LICENSE RENEWALS ator under that license. If this two-year
renewal service requirement is not ful-
filled, but the service record shows at least
Of course, the normal thing to do with
one year of satisfactory service in the
either astation or an operator's license is aggregate during the last three years of the
to have it renewed when it expires. You license term and while actually employed
should know the license renewal require- as a radio operator under that license, the
license may be renewed upon the suc-
ments for whatever license you hold. For
cessful completion of a renewal examina-
example, the Novice amateur license is
tion, which may be taken at any time
not renewable. Therefore, if you wish to during the final year of the license term or
continue operating after your Novice during aone-year period of grace after the
license expires, you must make provisions date of expiration of the license sought to
for obtaining a higher class of amateur be renewed. The renewal examination will
consist of the highest numbered examina-
license.
tion element normally required for anew
The fcllowing are the provisions that
license of the class southt to be renewed,

36
 plus the code test (if any) required for the authorization is of the diploma form,
such new license. If the renewal examina- the application should be submitted to the
tion is not successfully completed before office where it was issued. If the authoriza-
expiration of the aforementioned one-year tion is of the card form (Restricted Radio-
period of grace, the license will not be telephone Operator Permit) it should be
renewed on any basis. submitted to the Federal Communications
NOTE: By order dated and effective April Commission, Gettysburg, Pa., 17325.
4, 1951, the Commission temporarily
waived the requirement of prior service as Section 13.72 provides:
a radio operator or examination for re-
When aduplicate or replacement operator
newal in the case of any applicant for
license or permit has been requested, or
renewal of his commercial radio operator
request has been made for renewal upon
license. This order is applicable to com-
service or for an endorsement or averifica-
mercial radio operator licenses which ex-
tion card, the operator shall exhibit in lieu
pired after June 30, 1950 until further
of the original document asigned copy of
order of the Commission.
the application which has been submitted
by him.
Duplicates. A license that has been lost
or destroyed can be replaced as described
Verification Cards. A verification card
in Section 13.71.
may be obtained as set forth in Section
(a) An operator whose license or permit has 13.73:
been lost, mutilated, or destroyed shall
The holder of an operator license or
immediately notify the Commission. If the
authorization is of the diploma form, a permit of the diploma form (as distin-
properly executed application for dupli- guished from such document of the card
form) may, by filing aproperly executed
cate should be submitted to the office of
issue. If the authorization is of the card application accompanied by his license or
permit, obtain a verification card (Form
form (Restricted Radiotelephone Operator
Permit), a properly executed application 758-F). This card may be carried on the
for replacement should be submitted to person of the operator in lieu of the
the Federal Communications Commission, original license or permit when operating
any station at which posting of an oper-
Gettysburg, Pa., 17325. In either case the
ator license is not required: Provided, That
application shall embody a statement of
the license is readily accessible within a
the circumstances involved in the loss,
reasonable time for inspection upon de-
mutilation, or destruction of the license or
mand by an authorized Government repre-
permit. If the authorization has been lost,
sentative.
the applicant must state that reasonable
search has been made for it, and, further, Record of Service and Maintenance
that in the event it be found, either the
Duties. Section 13.75 provides the fol-
original or the duplicate (or replacement)
will be returned for cancellation. If the
lowing:
authorization is of the diploma form, the In every case where astation log or service
applicant should also submit documentary and maintenance records are required to
evidence of the service that has been be kept, and where service or maintenance
obtained under the original authorization, duties are performed which may affect the
or a statement embodying that informa- proper operation of astation, the responsi-
tion. ble operator shall sign and date an entry in
(b) The holder of any license or permit whose the log of the station concerned, or in the
name is legally changed may make applica- station maintenance records if no log is
tion for a replacement document to indi- required, giving:
cate the new legal name by submitting a (a) Pertinent details of all service and mainte-
properly executed application accom- nance work performed by him or under his
panied by the license or permit affected. If supervision;

37
(b) His name and address; and may, in the event documentary evidence
(c) The class, serial number and expiration cannot be produced, submit to any office
date of his license: of the Commission astatement under oath
Provided, That the responsible operator accompanied by the license to be en-
shall not be subject to requirements of dorsed, embodying the following:
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section in (a) Names of ships at which employed;
relation to a station, or stations of one (b) Call letters of station
licensee at asingle location, at which he is
(e) Types of emission used;
regularly employed as an operator on afull (d) Type of service performed as follows:
time basis and at which his license is (1) Manual radiotelegraph operation only; and
properly posted. (2) Transmitter control only; or
(3) Combination of (1) and (2) running con-
Service Record Endorsement. The fol- currently;
lowing requirements are set forth in (e) Whether service was satisfactory or unsatis-
Sections 13.91 - 13.94 regarding the factory;
endorsement of the service record on an (f) Period of employment
operator's license. (g) Name of master, employer, licensee, or his
duly authorized agent.
A station licensee, or his duly authorized
agent, or the master of a vessel acting as SUMMARY
the agent of a licensee, shall endorse the
service record appearing on said operator
This text gives you a general idea of
license, showing the call letters and types
of emission of the station operated, the the kind of material found in the Rules
nature and period of employment, and and Regulations. You should become
quality of performance of duty. thoroughly familiar with those that apply
lf the operator has operated more than to your particular service.
three stations in the aviation service, the The Rules and Regulations contain
service may be shown by giving the name
most of the information you will need to
of the aviation chain or company in lieu of
listing the call letters of the several sta-
know about the licensing and operating
tions. requirements for radio stations and oper-
Credit will be allowed only for satisfactory ators. These Rules and Regulations are
service obtained under conditions that made to put into effect the provisions of
required the employment of licensed oper- the Federal Communications Act, as
ators, or when obtained at United States amended. Therefore, both the Rules and
Government stations.
the Communications Act often contain
The holder of a radiotelegraph first- or provisions that relate to the same subject.
second-class operator license, or atempo-
Consequently, it is useful to have acopy
rary limited radiotelegraph second-class
operator license desiring an endorsement
of this Act of Congress as well as the
to be placed thereon attesting to an Rules that apply to your particular serv-
aggregate of at least 6months' satisfactory ice. The Act has been printed separately,
service as a qualified operator on avessel and can also be ordered from the Superin-
of the United States or an applicant for a tendent of Documents, Government
temporary limited radiotelegraph second— Printing Office, Washington, D. C.,
class operator license under §13.5(d)(3)
20402.

38
TYPE OF
MODULATION TYPE OF TRANSMISSION SYMBOL
OF MAIN
CARRIER

With no modulation AO
Telegraphy without the use of a modulating audio
frequency (by on-off keying) A1
Telegraphy by the on-off keying of an amplitude
modulating audio frequency, or audio frequencies,
or by the on-off keying of the modulated emission
(special case: an unkeyed emission amplitude
modulated). A2
Telephony
Double sideband A3
Amplitude Single sideband, reduced carrier A3A
Single sideband, suppressed carrier A3J
Two independent sidebands A3B
Facsimile (with modulation of main carrier either
directly or by afrequency modulated subcarrier). A4
Facsimile -single sideband, reduced carrier A4A
Television -vestigial sideband A5C
Multichannel voice-frequency telegraphy -single side-
band, reduced carrier A7A
Cases not covered by the above, e.g., acombination
of telephony and telegraphy -two independent
sidebands A9B

Telegraphy by frequency shift keying without the use

of a modulating audio frequency: one of two
frequencies being emitted at any instant Fl
Telegraphy by the on-off keying of a frequency
modulating audio frequency or by the on-off
Frequency keying of afrequency modulated emission (special
(or Phase) case: an unkeyed emission, frequency modulated) F2
Telephony F3
Facsimile by direct frequency modulation of the
carrier F4
Television F5
Four-frequency diplex telegraphy F6
Cases not covered by the above, in which the main
carrier is frequency modulated. F9

39
TYPE OF
MODULATION TYPE OF TRANSMISSION SYMBOL
OF MAIN
CARRIER

A pulsed carrier without any modulation intended to

carry information (e.g., radar) PO
Telegraphy by the on-off keying of apulsed carrier
without the use of amodulating audio frequency P1D
Telegraphy by the on-off keying of a modulating
audio frequency or audio frequencies, or by the
on-off keying of amodulated pulse carrier (special
case: an unkeyed modulated pulsed carrier).
Audio frequency or audio frequencies modulating
Pulsed the amplitude of the pulses. P2D
Audio frequency or audio frequencies modulating
the width (or duration) of the pulses. P2E
Audio frequency or audio frequencies modulating
the phase (or position) of the pulses. P2 F
Telephony
Amplitude modulated pulses P3D
Width (or duration) modulated pulses P3E
Phase (or position) modulated pulses P3F
Code modulated pulses (after sampling and quan-
tization) P3G
Cases not covered by the above in which the main
carrier is pulse modulated P9

Table HI. Classification of Typical Emissions.

40
is
 GOOD RESOLUTIONS

When you make a good resolution, put it into effect at

once. To postpone it is deadly. Anything that can be done
next month or next year can be done now -- or at least astart
can be made toward it.

Millions of people dream about doing fine, worthwhile

things. But only a few hundred people ever get around to
actually doing these things.

The few hundred may not be as smart as the others —may

not be as talented, as capable, or as well educated. But they act
and achieve concrete results while the plans and good
resolutions of the millions fade into nothing.

Remember this when you make plans -- when you make

good resolutions. Put your plans and resolutions into effect at ii
once. Get started!
 \

40
Pre Innovation in learning

itni 1
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-RT-311
RADIO • TELEVISION COMMUNICATIONS
11§
111§1

!it

‘
*.•
1
 MATH PROBLEMS

CXMX

-I
 STUDY SCHEDULE NO. CXMX

E 1. Introduction Page 1
This lesson is divided into two sections. The first
section includes examination-type questions and the
second section gives the solutions.

2. Questions Pages 2-8

Typical industry examination questions are given
in this section.

III 3. Answers Pages 8-28

This section gives a detailed solution of each
problem.

COPYRIGHT 1961 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASH., D.C. 20016

CPC1 M768 1968 EDITION Printed in U. S. A.

 This is the final lesson in your haste and repent in leisure.
NRI course. No new concepts are The lesson is divided into two
introduced here. Instead, it is in- parts. In the first part you will
tended as aconvenient review cover- find 117 examination-type questions,
ing all types of questions you are generally arranged in an order of
likely to encounter in taking the FCC progressive difficulty.
exam, which involve the use of math- When you have finished aproblem,
ematics. Using the various required the correctness of your work can be
formulas will not only serve to re- verified by turning to the corres-
fresh your memory on certain ponding number in the second section
points, but should serve as an ex- of the lesson entitled "Answers."
cellent indicator to you of how It must be emphasized that this
thoroughly you have learned the ma- review is in no way intended as a
terial covered in preceding lessons. "cram" device. Your training has
This lesson also has another pur- been thorough and such practices are
pose; that is, as preparation for the entirely unnecessary and undesir-
examinations you will be required able. Although you may be able to
to take when applying for employ- pass a given exam by "cram" meth-
ment with many manufacturing and ods, and even obtain a job as a re-
service organizations. This is often sult of holding an FCC license, lack
the first step in determining whether of real understanding becomes read-
or not they can make use of your ily apparent to an employer and you
particular skills. If you fail the ex- would find yourself back where you
amination, there is little hope for started.
employment with that concern. With this in mind, if you have
These industry examinations also difficulty with any problem, and if
serve to point out exactly what we your understanding of the problem
have told you throughout your train- is still not perfectly clear after
ing: Just to know the answer to a studying the answer, go back to the
given question is not enough and lesson text in which the material
is not an indication of skill. You is covered and make a thorough re-
must know the "hows" and "whys" view. For example, if you do not
of electronics to last long on any completely understand how a given
job. You may fool yourself by hurry- formula is transposed, go back to
ing through lessons and learning just the math book where the process is
enough to answer the examination explained in detail. If you do not
questions, but you won't fool an em- understand any part of the non-
ployer. mathematical associated discus-
You have progressed too far now sion, again go back to the original
to permit any small difficulty to lesson text and review. The impor-
stand in your way.You can be justi- tance of this procedure cannot be
fiably proud of your accomplish- over-emphasized.
ments - a relatively small percen- When you have completed this les-
tage of men have neither the ambi- son in the manner recommended and
tion nor the courage to follow through have sent your final exam to NRI
to the end in a course of instruction for grading, make a final review of
such as you have completed. the rules and regulations contained
Make this effort count. Don't hurry in the Lessons 11CX and 12CX. If you
now, when success is so near. Re- do as we recommend, you will have
member, you can always study in no difficulty with the FCC exam.

1
 Problems
1. State the three ordinary mathe- passing through it?
matical forms of Ohm's Law. 13. What is the maximum rated
2. What is the resistance of a current-carrying capacity of a re-
circuit if I = 5 amps and E = 30 sistor marked "5000 ohms 200
volts? watts?"
3. If two resistors of 10 and 5 14. If two 5-watt, 300-ohm resis-
ohms are connected in series, what tors are connected in parallel, what
is the total resistance? are the power dissipation capabili-
4. If two resistors of 10 and 15 ties of the combination?
ohms, respectively, are connected 15. The input power to atransmit-
in parallel, what is their effec- ter is 500 watts. The radiated power
tive resistance? from the antenna is 300 watts. What
5. A battery having an emf of 6 is the efficiency of the transmitter?
volts is connected in series with a 16. State the formula for deter-
300-ohm resistor. What is the cir- mining (1) the quantity or charge of
cuit current? a capacitor; (2) the energy stored in
6. In a series de circuit the cur- a capacitor.
rent, as measured by an ammeter, 17. What is the formula used to
is 0.05 ampere, and the resistance, determine the total capacitance of a
as measured by an ohmmeter is 100 group of capacitors connected in
ohms. What is the applied emf? parallel?
7. Three resistors of 5, 10, and 18. What is the formula used to
20 ohms, are connected in parallel. determine the total capacitance of a
What is their total effective resis- group of capacitors connected in
tance? series?
8. A 6-volt battery is to be charged 19. If capacitors of 5, 3, and 7
at a 3-amp rate from a 115-volt are connected in series, what is the
line. What value of resistance should total capacitance?
be connected in series with the bat- 20. If capacitors of 10. 20, and 30
tery? are connected in parallel, what is
9. The filament of a vacuum tube the total capacitance?
is rated at 250 ma and 5 volts. It 21. Given two identical mica capa-
is to be operated from a 6-volt bat- citors of 0.2 i capacitance each.
tery. What is the value of the re- One is charged to a potential of 116
quired series resistor? volts and disconnected from the
10. The coil resistance of a relay charging circuit. The charged capa-
is 600 ohms. The relay is designed citor is then connected in parallel
to operate when 0.3 amp current with the uncharged capacitor. What
passes through the coil. If operation voltage will appear across the two
is to be made from a 220-volt de capacitors connected in parallel?
line, what value of resistance is 22. State the mathematical for-
needed in series with the coil? mula for the energy stored in the
11. Give the three basic formulas magnetic field surrounding an in-
for calculating power in de circuits. ductance carrying an electric cur-
12. What will be the heat dissipa- rent.
tion, in watts, of a resistor of 50 23. What is the formula for de-
ohms having a current of 0.2 amp termining wavelength when the fre-

2
 quency in kilocycles is known? cuit consisting of a resistance of
24. If the period of one complete 6.5 ohms, and equal inductive and
cycle of a radio wave is 0.000001 capacitive reactances of 175 ohms.
second, what is the wavelength? What is the voltage drop across the
25. What is the effective value of resistance, assuming the applied
a sine wave in relation to its peak circuit potential is 260 volts?
value? 37. Explain how you would deter-
26. What is the seventh harmonic mine the value of cathode bias re-
of 360 kc? sistance necessary to provide cor-
27. What factors must be known in rect grid bias for any particular am-
order to determine the power factor plifier.
of an alternating current circuit? 38. Given the following vacuum
28. In a circuit consisting of an tube constants, Ep = 1000 volts,
inductance having a reactance of 100 Ip = 150 ma, Ig = 10 ma, and grid
ohms and a resistance of 100 ohms, leak = 5000 ohms, what would be the
what will be the phase angle of the value of de grid-bias voltage?
current with respect to the voltage? 39. What is the percentage regu-
29. State Ohm's Law for ac cir- lation of a power supply with a no-
cuits. load voltage output of 126.5 volts
30. Neglecting distributed capaci- and a full-load voltage output of
tance, what is the reactance of a 6 115 volts?
millihenry choke coil at afrequency 40. If a 1500-kc radio wave is
of 500 kc? modulated by a 2000-cycle sine-
31. What is the reactance value of wave tone, what frequencies are
a capacitor of 0.02 of at afrequency contained in the output wave?
of 20 kc? 41. State the formula for deter-
32. Given aseries circuit consist- mining the percentage modulation
ing of a resistance of 4 ohms, an in- in an AM system.
ductive reactance of 4 ohms, and a 42. If a ship telephone station is
capacitive reactance of 1ohm. The assigned the frequency of 2738 kc
applied circuit alternating emf is 50 and the maximum tolerance is 0.04
volts. What is the voltage drop percent, what are the highest and
across the inductance? lowest frequencies within the tol-
33. What is the impedance of a erance limits?
solenoid, if its resistance is 5ohms 43. Define the term "decibel."
and 0.3 amp flows through the wind- 44. A ship radiotelephone trans-
ing when 110 volts at 60 cycles is mitter operates on 2738 kc. At a
applied to the solenoid? certain point distant from the trans-
34. State the formula for deter- mitter the 2738-kc signal has amea-
mining the resonant frequency of a sured field of 147 mv per meter. The
circuit where the inductance and ca- second harmonic field at the same
., pacitance are known. point is measured as 405 ks per
35. Given a series-resonant cir- meter. To the nearest whole unit in
cuit consisting of a resistance of 6.5 decibels, how much has the harmon-
ohms, and equal inductive and capa- ic emission been attenuated below
citive reactances of 175 ohms. What the 2738-kc fundamental?
is the voltage drop across the in- 45. If a superheterodyne receiver
ductance when the applied potential is tuned to a desired signal at 1000
is 260 volts? kc, and its conversion oscillator is
36. Given a series-resonant cir- operating at 1300 kc, what would be

3
the frequency of an incoming signal unity coefficient of coupling and their
which would possibly cause "image" fields in phase, what is the total in-
reception? ductance of the two coils?
46. How much energy is consumed 56. A potential of 110 volts is ap-
in 20 hours by aradio receiver rated plied to a series circuit containing
at 60 watts? an inductive reactance of 25 oluns, a
47. A 6-volt storage battery has capacitive reactance of 10 ohms, and
an internal resistance of 0.01 ohm. a resistance of 15 ohms. What is the
What current will flow when a 3- phase relationship between the ap-
watt, 6-volt lamp is connected? plied voltage and the current flowing
48. What determines the synchro- in the circuit?
nous speed of a synchronous motor? 57. What is the reactance of a
49. A milliammeter with a full- capacitor at the frequency of 1000
scale deflection of 1 ma and a re- kc if the reactance is 600 ohms at
sistance of 25 ohms was used to 800 kc?
measure an unknown current by 58. If an alternating current of 5
shunting the meter with a four-ohm amp flows in a series circuit com-
resistor. It then read 0.4 ma. What posed of 12 ohms resistance, 15
was the unknown current value? ohms inductive reactance, and 40
50. If a 0-1 dc milliammeter is ohms capacitive reactance, what is
to be converted into avoltmeter with the voltage drop across the circuit?
full-scale calibration 100 volts, what 59. If a lamp, rated at 100 watts
value of series resistance must be and 115 volts, is connected in series
connected in series with the milli- with an inductive reactance of 355
ammeter? ohms and a capacitive reactance of
51. If a heterodyne frequency me- 130 ohms across a voltage of 220
ter, having acalibrated range of 1000 volts, what is the current value
to 5000 kc, is used to measure the through the lamp?
frequency of a transmitter oper- 60. If an ac series circuit has a
ating on approximately 500 kc by resistance of 12 ohms, an inductive
measurement of the second harmon- reactance of 7 ohms, and a capaci-
ic of the transmitter, and the indi- tive reactance of 7 ohms, at the res-
cated measurement was 1008 kc, onant frequency, what will be the
what is the actual frequency of the total impedance at twice the resonant
transmitter output? frequency?
52. If a frequency meter having an 61. A series circuit contains re-
over-all error proportional to the actance, inductive reactance, and
frequency, is accurate to 10 cycles capacitive reactance. The resist-
when set at 600 kc, what is its ance is 7 ohms, the inductive re-
error in cycles when set at 1110 kc? actance is 8ohms ,and the capacitive
53. What is the total reactance of reactance is unknown. What value of
two inductors, connected in series, reactance must the capacitor have in
with zero mutual inductance? order for the total circuit impedance
54. If the mutual inductance be- to be 13 ohms?
tween two coils is 0.1 henry, and the 62. If, in a given ac series circuit,
coils have inductances of 0.2 and 0.8 the resistance, inductive reactance,
henry, respectively, what is the co- and capacitive reactance are of equal
efficient of coupling? magnitude of 11 ohms, and the fre-
55. When two coils of equal induc- quency is reduced to 0.411 of its
tance are connected in series with value of resonance, what is the re-

4
sultant impedance of the circuit at db, and the output is 6 watts, what
the new frequency? is the input?
63. If an alternating voltage of 115 70. What is the power output of an
volts is connected across a parallel audio amplifier if the voltage across
circuit made up of a resistance of the load resistance of 500 ohms is 40
30 ohms, an inductive reactance of volts?
17 ohms, and a capacitive reactance 71. If a transformer, having a
of 19 ohms, what is the total current turns ratio of 1:10, working into a
drain from the source? load impedance of 2000 ohms, and
64. A parallel circuit is made up out of a circuit having an impedance
of five branches, three of the branch- of 15 ohms, what value of resistance
es being pure resistances of 7, 11, may be connected across the load to
and 14 ohms, respectively. The effect an impedance match?
fourth branch has an inductive re- 72. What is the formula for de-
actance value of 500 ohms. The fifth termining the db loss or gain.
branch has a capacitive reactance of 73. What unit has been adopted by
900 ohms. What is the total imped- leading program transmission or-
ance of this network? If a voltage is ganizations as a volume unit and to
impressed across this parallel net- what power is this unit equivalent?
work, which branch will dissipate 74. If a frequency doubler stage
the greatest amount of heat? has an input frequency of 1000-kc,
65. In a parallel circuit composed and the plate inductance is 60 micro-
of an inductance of 150 microhenries henries, what value of capacitance is
and a capacitance of 160 micro- necessary for resonance ,neglecting
microfarads, what is the resonant stray capacitances?
frequency? 75. The de input power to the final
66. What value of capacitance amplifier stage is exactly 1500 volts
must be shunted across acoil having and 700 milliamperes. The antenna
an inductance of 56 microhenries in resistance is 8.2 ohms and the an-
order that the circuit resonates at tenna current is 9 amperes. What
5000 kc? is the plate efficiency of the final
67. What is the stage amplification amplifier?
obtained with a single triode opera- 76. How is the inverse peak volt-
ting with the following constants: age to which the tubes of afull-wave
Plate voltage 250, plate current 20 rectifier will be subject, determined
milliamperes, plate impedance 5000 from the known secondary voltages
ohms, load impedance 10,000 ohms, of the power transformer? Explain.
grid bias 4.5 volts, and amplification 77. If a power transformer has a
factor 24? primary voltage of 4400 volts, a
68. If a preamplifier, having a600 secondary voltage of 220 volts, and
ohm output, is connected to amicro- an efficiency of 98%, when delivering
phone so that the power output is 23 amperes of secondary current,
-40 db, and assuming the mixer sys- what is the value of primary cur-
tem to have a loss of 10 db, what rent?
must be the voltage amplification 78. Three single phase trans-
necessary in the line amplifier in formers, each with a ratio of 220 to
order to feed 10 db into the trans- 2200 volts, are connected across a
mitter line? 220-volt, three phase line, pri-
69. If a certain audio frequency maries in delta. If the secondaries
amplifier has an over-all gain of 40 are connected in Y, what is the sec-

5
ondary line voltage? which is to be modulated by a Class
79. What is the predominant ripple A amplifier with a plate voltage of
frequency in the output of the single 2000 volts, plate current of 200
phase fullwave rectifier when the milliamperes and a plate impedance
primary source of power is 110 volts of 15,000 ohms. What is the proper
at 60 cycles? turns ratio for the coupling (modu-
80. If a power supply has a regu- lation) transformer?
lation of 11% when the output voltage 88. If the transmission line cur-
at full-load is 240 volts, what is the rent of an FM broadcast transmitter
output voltage at no load? is 8.5 ampere without modulation,
81. If a power supply has an out- what is the transmission line cur-
put voltage of 140 volts at no load, rent when the percentage of modu-
and the regulation at full load is 15%, lation is 90%?
what is the output voltage at full load? 89. If the conductors in atwo-wire
82. A rectifier filter power supply radio frequency transmission line
is designed to furnish 500 volts at are replaced by larger conductors,
60 milliamperes to one circuit, and how is the surge impedance affected,
400 volts at 40 milliamperes to an- assuming no charge in the center to
other circuit. The bleeder current center spacing of the conductor?
in the voltage divider is to be 15 90. The power input to a 72-ohm
milliampere. What value of resist- concentric transmission line is 5000
ance should be placed between the watts. What is the FtMS voltage be-
500 and 400-volt taps of the voltage tween the inner conductor and
divider? sheath?
83. A 600-kc X-cut crystal, cali- 91. The power input to a 72-ohm
brated at 50 ° C, and having a tem- concentric line is 5000 watts. What
perature coefficient of -20parts is the current flowing in it?
per million per degree, will oscil- 92. An antenna is being fed by
late at what frequency when its tem- a properly terminated two-wire
perature is 60 °C? transmission line. The current in the
84. A certain transmitter has an line at the input end is 3 amperes.
output of 100 watts. The efficiency The surge impedance of the line is
to the final, modulated amplifier 500 ohms. How much power is being
stage is 50%. Assuming that the mod- supplied to the line?
ulator has an efficiency of 66%, what 93. A long transmission line de-
plate input to the modulator is nec- livers 10kw into an antenna; at the
essary for 100% modulation of this transmitter end, the line current is
transmitter? Assume that the modu- 5 amperes and at the coupling house,
lator output is sinusoidal. it is 4.8 amperes. Assuming the line
85. If you decrease the percentage to be properly terminated, and the
of modulation from 100% to 50% by losses in the coupling system negli-
what percentage have you decreased gible, what is the power loss in the
the power in the side-bands? line?
86. If the power output of a mod- 94. A 50kw transmitter employs
ulator is decreased from 1000 watts six tubes in push-pull parallel in the
to 10 watts, how is the power ex- final Class B linear stage,operating
pressed in db? with a 50kw output and an efficiency
87. Given a Class C amplifier with of 33%. Assuming that all the heat
a plate voltage of 1000 volts, and a radiation is transferred to the water
plate current of 150 milliamperes cooling system, what amount of

6
 power must be dissipated from each through the meter, the deflection
tube? is 45 divisions. What is the current
95. If the daytime transmission flowing through the meter when the
line current of a 10-kw transmitter scale deflection is 25 divisions?
is 12 amperes, and the transmitter 105. If a heterodyne frequency
is required to reduce to 5-kw at meter, having a straight line rela-
sunset, what is the new value of tion between frequency and dial
transmission line current? reading, has a dial reading of 31.7
96. If the power output of abroad- for a frequency of 1390-kc, and a
cast station is quadrupled what effect dial reading of 44.5 for a frequency
will this have upon the field intensity of 1400-kc, what is the frequency
at a given point? of the ninth harmonic of the fre-
97. What is the frequency swing of quency corresponding to a scale
an FM broadcast transmitter when reading of 41.2?
modulated 60%? 106. If abroadcast station receives
98. If an FM transmitter employs a frequency measurement report in-
one doubler, one tripler, and one dicating that the station frequency
quadrupler, what is the carrier fre- was 45 cycles low at a certain time,
quency swing when the oscillator and the transmitter log for the same
frequency swing is 2-kc? time, shows the measured frequency
99. An FM broadcast transmitter to be 5 cycles high, what is the error
operating on 98.1 megacycles has a of the station frequency monitor?
reactance tube modulated oscillator 107. If the two towers of a 950-kc
operating on a frequency of 4905-ke. directional antenna are separated by
What is the oscillator frequency 120 electrical degrees, what is the
swing when the transmitter is modu- tower separation in feet?
lated 100% by a 2000-cycle tone? 108. What must be the height of
100. An FM broadcast transmitter a vertical radiator one-half wave-
is modulated 50% by a 7000-cycle length high if the operating frequency
test tone. When the frequency of the is 1100-kc?
test tone is changed to 5000 cycles 109. If the vertical antenna is 405
and the percentage of modulation is feet high and is operated at 1250-kc,
unchanged, what is the transmitter what is the physical height, ex-
frequency swing? pressed in wavelength?
101. An FM broadcast transmitter 110. If the field intensity of 25
is modulated 40% by a 5000-cycle millivolts per-meter develops 2.7
test tone. When the percentage of volts in a certain antenna, what is
modulation is doubled, what is the its effective height?
frequency swing of the transmitter? 111. If the power output of abroad-
102. What is the approximate cast station has been increased so
speed of a 220-volt, 60-cycle, 4- that the field intensity at agiven point
pole, 3-phase induction motor? is doubled, what increase has taken
103. What is the ohms per-volt of place in antenna current?
a voltmeter constructed of a zero-1 112. If the day input power to a
de milliammeter and a suitable re- certain broadcast station antenna
sistor which makes the full-scale having a resistance of 20 ohms is
reading of the meter 500 volts? 2000 watts, what would be the night
104. A current squared meter has input power if the antenna current
a scale divided into 50 equal divi- were cut in half?
sions. When 45 milliamperes flows 113. If the antenna current of a

7
station is 9.7 amperes for 5 kilo- has 370 watts plate power input to
watts, what is the current necessary the last radio frequency stage and an
antenna field gain of 1.3. The ef-
for a power of 1-kilowatt?
114. What is the antenna current ficiency of the last radio frequency
when atransmitter is delivering 900 stage is 65% and the efficiency of the
watts into an antenna having a re- antenna transmission line is 75%.
sistance of 16 ohms? What is the effective radiated power?
115. The ammeter connected at the 117. What is the effective radiated
base of aMarconi Antenna has acer- power of a television broadcast sta-
tain reading. If this reading is in- tion if the output of the transmitter
creased 2.77 times, what is the in- is 1000 watts, the antenna transmis-
crease in output power? sion line loss is 50 watts and the
116. An FM broadcast transmitter antenna power gain is 3?

Answers
E 7. When more than two resistors
1. E = IR, R = and I= E
are connected in parallel, the fol-
lowing formula is used to determine
the total effective resistance.
2. Using Ohm's Law, R=-,
E by sub-

stitution, 30 1
R =-5-
-= 6 ohms. 1 1
11 1 R2 R3 etc.

3. Resistors in series add. Thus, Substituting the values given,

Rt = R1 + R2 + etc. Substituting the
1
values given, Et = 10 + 5 = 15 ohms
R t- 1 1 1
(Rt = total resistance).

4. For two resistors connected in 1

parallel, the total effective resist- - 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.05
ance can be determined by using the 1
formula - 0.35

FL - Re = 2.86 ohms
-I
, R1 + R2
This problem could also be solved
where Rt is the total effective resist- by finding a lowest common denom-
ance and R1 and R2 represent the in- inator in the fractional denominator
dividual resistors. Substituting the in the first step, Thus,
values given,
1
10 x 15 _ 150 = t- 1 1 1
6 ohms R
— + — +—
R t= 10 + 15 - 25 5 10 20
E 6
5. I= --à-
Tt_ 7(3 -0.02
_ amp = 20 ma. 1
- 4 2 1
6. E = IR = 0.05 x 100 = 5 volts. 20 + 20 + 20

8
 1 = 133.3 ohms
7 E2
20 11. P = EI P =I
2R P=

Then, inverting and multiplying,

12. In this problem we are given
1x 20 26 I and R. Thus, we use the formula
Rt = 7 - 7 - 2.86 ohms
P =I 2R

8. Because the battery is the 6- = (0.2) 2 x 50

i volt type, the resistor must "drop" = 0.04 x 50
the remaining 109 volts available = 2 watts
from the line. (115-6) From Ohm's
Law we have the simple relation that 13. Returning to the basic formula
P =I 2 R, in this problem we know P
E
R =T and R. The job is to find the value of
I.
If we divide both sides of the basic
By substituting the values from our
formula by R, we obtain,
problem in this formula, we obtain

109 P_ 2
R= -
3

= 36.3 ohms Then, to find I, we must eliminate

the square. We can do this by taking
9. This problem is very similar the square root of both sides of the
to No. 8. The supply voltage is 6volts equation. When this is done,
and we need 5 volts. The resistor
must, therefore, drop 1 volt. By
Ohm's Law,

E since the square root of a square is

R =T the quantity itself. Substituting the
values originally given,
1
- 0.25 I=
V5000
=4 ohms
= 0.04
10. During normal operation, the
voltage drop across the coil is = 0.2 ampere
14. Each resistor is able to handle
E = IR = 0.3 x 600 =180 volts five watts without overheating. This
dissipation capability is unaffected
Thus, the series resistor must drop by the method of connection. The two
220 - 180 =40 volts. Again, by simple resistors, either in series or paral-
Ohm's Law, lel, can, therefore, dissipate a total
of 10 watts.
=—
E
I
15. The efficiency of any device is
40 equal to the useful output power di-
0.3 vided by the input power. The trans-

9
mitter efficiency in this problem is =105
therefore, 71

300 = 1.48 ilf

500 = 0.6 ' or 60%
20. Ct = 10 + 20 + 30
= 60 uf
16. (1) The quantity of electricity
is given by the formula 21. The formula Q = CE can be
transposed to
Q = CE

E =9c--
where Q is in coulombs, C is in
farads, and E is in volts. (2) The
energy stored in a capacitor is ex- We can then see that when C is dou-
pressed by the formula bled, by the parallel connection, E
is halved. The voltage across the two
capacitors in parallel is, therefore,
58 volts.
where W is expressed in joules. One
1 2
joule is defined as the energy ex- 22. W =—LI
2
pended in one second by an electric
current of one ampere through are- where L = inductance in henries
sistance of one ohm. I= current in amperes
W = energy in joules
17. Ct = C1 + C2 + C3 , etc.
300 000
1 23. X - 'f (kc)
18. Ct - 1 1 1
--
c-7 + .-
2-+ E;

where X = wavelength in meters

(Greek letter Lambda)
1
19. Ct - 1 1 1
f= frequency

24. We must first determine fre-

By substitution, quency in cycles per second. The
frequency is equal to the reciprocal
1 of the period of one complete cycle.
C t- 1 1 1 Thus,
—+— +-
5 3 7
1
f (cps) = - 1,000,000 cps
0.000001
The LCD (lowest common denomina-
tor) for 5, 3, and 7 is 105. Thus, Then, because 1,000,000 cps equals
1000 kc, we can use the formula pre-
1
viously given to find wavelength, that
C t- 21 35 15
is,
105 4- 105 + 105
300 000
1 X= - 300 meters
= 1000
71
105 A more direct solution of the prob-

10
 lem is to recall that electromagnetic 45 ° and 90 ° .If the reactance is less
waves travel 300,000,000 meters per than the resistance, the phase angle
second. In 0.000001 second, the wave is some value between 0° and 45 ° .
must, therefore, travel
29. I=—
E Z= E = IZ
300,000,000 x 0.000001 =300 meters
where Z = circuit impedance in
25. The effective (RMS) value of a ohms.
sine wave is equal to 0.707times the 30. The formula for determining
peak value. If the FtMS value is ap- inductive reactance XL in ohms is
4 plied to a resistance, it produces the
same heating effect as an equal de XL = 27r fL
value.
where 27r = a constant equal to ap-
26. A harmonic is defined as a proximately 6.28.
multiple of the fundamental frequen-
cy, in this case, 360 kc. The 7th f = frequency in cycles per
harmonic is, therefore, the 7th mul- second
tiple of 360 kc, L = inductance in henries

7 x 360 = 2520kc
Substituting the values given,
27. The power factor can be de- XL = 6.28 x 5 x10 6 x6 x 10 -3
termined when we know any of the = 188.4 x 10 2
following: = 18,840 ohms
a. The ratio of true power (as
measured by a wattmeter) to appar- 31. The formula for finding ca-
ent power, as measured by a volt- pacitive reactance is
meter and ammeter.
1
X -
e 27rfC
pf = ;1
1

where Xe = capacitive resistance in

b. The ratio of resistance to im- ohms
pedance 2ir = a constant equal to ap-
proximately 6.28
f = frequency in cycles per
pf
second
C = capacitance in farads
C. The phase angle, e (pf = cos e) Substituting the values,
d. The values of resistance and
reactance. We then use these values 1
to determine Z and then find the pf X -
C 6.28 x 2 x 10 -2 x 2 x 104
as in b.
1
28. When the reactance and resis- 25.12 x 10 -4
tance of acircuit are equal, the phase
angle is 45 °. If the reactance is = 398 ohms, approximately
greater than the resistance, the
phase angle is some value between 32. The formula for determining

11
the voltage drop across the induct- L = inductance in henries
ance is C = capacitance in farads

EL = IXL 35. The basic formula for imped-

ance is Z ,lit.-3--177(2 . Obviously, if
where EL = voltage drop across in- X2 -- 0, then Z = R, because the
ductance L square root of a value squared is
equal to the value itself. Thus,in the
I= current in amperes through L problem being considered, Z = 6.5
XL = inductive reactance of L in ohms, and by basic Ohm's Law,
ohms. I = E + Z = 260 + 6.5 = 40 amperes.
Then EL = 'XL = 40 x 175 = 7000
To use this formula, we must first volts.
determine circuit current. Because
this is a series ac circuit the same 36. Because XL and Xc are equal,
current exists in all parts of the cir- the voltage drops developed across
cuit and is equal to the ratio E + Z. them cancel. Also, because we are
Impedance Z, in turn, is equal to dealing with a simple series circuit
in which the sum of the voltage drops

z=J
R2+(
xi, -)(c) 2 around the circuit is equal to the
applied voltage, the entire 260 volts
= 14 2 + (4 - 1) 2 of applied emf must be dropped
across the resistor.
= W-
F
-3- 2
37. The value of grid bias voltage
= 41-7 1- -9 is equal to
ECC = IRK
= ar and,
RK
= ECC + I
= 5 ohms where ECO = desired grid bias volt-
age in volts
Then, I = E + Z = 50 + 5 = 10 am- I = total current passing through
peres. Finally, we go back to the cathode bias resistor in amps. K R
original formula given: = resistance of cathode bias resistor
in ohms.
EL = IXL Note: "I" may include plate and
= 10 x 4 screen grid currents.
= 40 volts
38. In this problem, notice that
33. In this case, Z is given by the E and I p are of no concern. The de
P
basic relation Z = E +I. Substituting grid-bias voltage is determined en-
given values in this equation: tirely by grid current Ig and the
value of the grid leak. Thus,
Z =—
110 = 367 ohms, approximately.
0.3
ECC -- leg
1 = 0.01 x 5000
34. f- = 50 volts
27r

where f = frequency in cycles per 39. The voltage regulation of a

second device is defined as the change in

12
voltage between full load and no load symbol % thus does the job of two
divided by the full-load voltage. To decimal places. The upper frequency
express regulation as a percentage limit is then
regulation, as determined above, it
is multiplied by 100. Thus, in our 2738 + 1.0952 = 2739.0952 kc
problem,
and the lower frequency limit is
Percentage Regulation
2738 - 1.0952 = 2736.9048 kc
(126.5 - 115 )
100
115
43. The decibel is a unit used to
- (11.5 express the ratio between two sound
7)
.j 10 0
or electric power levels. The for-
mula for calculating decibels (db) is
= 0.1 x 100

= 10%
db = 10 logi 0 p
P12

40. Assuming amplitude modula- where Pi is generally the larger

tion is used, there will be the car- power. If amplification is involved,
rier frequency of 1500 kc and two db becomes a plus (+) value, that is,
sidebands, one 2 kc below the car- simply db. If attenuation is involved,
rier and the other, 2 kc above the db is preceded by the negative (-)
carrier. If FM is used, additional sign. Decibels can also be used to
sidebands spaced at 2 kc intervals express the ratio between two volt-
are also present. The number of ages or two currents as follows:
such sidebands that need be con-
E
sidered depends on the modulation db = 20 logio
E2
index.
and
db = 20 log i0
41. Percentage modulation

_(Emax - Emin ) In both of the above forms of the db

100 equation, the two voltages or two
Emax + Emin currents involved must be measured
at points of equal impedance.
where Emax and Emi n are the maxi- In working with db in power prob-
mum and minimum values of the lems, the following relations are
modulation envelope. useful to remember: an increase of
10 db increases power 10 times; an
42. The first step is to determine increase of 3db doubles the power,
the maximum permissible deviation and a decrease of 3 db (-3 db) cuts
from the assigned frequency, power in half.
When working with voltages or
0.0004 x 2738 = 1.0952 kc
currents, double the number of db
Notice here that 0.04 percent is writ- involved to retain the same relation-
ten as 0.0004 because percent means ship. For example, an increase of
"by the hundred". Thus 0.04 means 20 db increases E and I 10 times;
four hundredth parts of aquantity or an increase of 6db doubles E and I;
number. The word "percent" or the etc.

13
 44. To have both the fundamental "intermediate frequency." This in-
and harmonic field strength stated termediate frequency is equal to the
in the same units, we will first con- difference between the image and
vert the signal strength, given in mv oscillator frequencies. The image
per meter, to .rir per meter. This is frequency is equal to the signal fre-
accomplished simply by moving the quency plus twice the intermediate
decimal point three places to the frequency.
right, so that 147 mv becomes In this problem, the i-f frequency
147,000 gv per meter. We now use is equal to 1300 - 1000 = 300 kc.
the correct db formula using two The image frequency is then equal to
voltages. Thus, 2(300) + 1000 = 1600 kc.

147 000
db = 20 logio 46. The watt hour is the unit used
405 to measure work done in an electri-
cal circuit. It is equal to the product
= 20 log io 363
of the circuit power in watts and
time in hours. Thus, in this problem;
Because there are three places to
the left of the decimal point, the 60 x 20 = 1200 watthours.
characteristic for 363 is 2. From a
table of logs we find the mantissa is
This answer may also be expressed
0.5599. Thus, the log of 363 is 2.5599, as 1.2 kilowatt hours.
and
47. By Ohm's Law, I = E + R,
db = 20 (2.5599) where R is equal to the internal re-
= 51.2 approximately sistance of the battery plus the re-
sistance of the light bulb. The re-
If no log tables are available, we can sistance of the bulb is found by using
estimate the answer from the rela- the formula
tionships previously given. Multi- Ea
plying 405 µv/m by 10 represents R
an increase of 20 db, and gives a
value of 4050 µv/m. Multiplying 62
again by ten gives us 40,500 gv/m
and represents 40 db. If we double
this value, it becomes 81,000 gv/m = 12 ohms
and represents 40 + 6 = 46 db.
Doubling the voltage again gives a The total resistance then is 12 +0.01
value of 162,000 gv/m and repre- = 12.01 ohms, and the circuit current
sents 46 + 6 = 52 db. This is some- is,
what higher than the 147,000 gv/m
I= E + R
in our problem, but provides us with = 6 + 12.01
a reasonable estimate. = 0.4996 ampere or,

45. An image frequency lies as far for practical purposes 0.5 ampere.
above the oscillator frequency as the
signal frequency does below the os- 48. The number of poles and the
cillator frequency. The difference frequency of the supply voltage. The
between the desired signal and the speed in revolutions per minute is
oscillator frequency is called the equal to 60 times the frequency di-

14
vided by the number of pairs of poles, 600X = 11,110
that is X = 18.5 cps

rpm = 60 x f+ N 53. The basic formula that applies

in this case is
where N is the number of pairs of
poles. Lt = L1 + L2 ± 2M

49. By Ohm's Law, the voltage where M is the mutual inductance,

drop is equal to IR. Thus, and LI and L2 are the inductance of
the two inductors. The formula in-
E = IR = 0.0004 x 25 = 0.01 volt dicates that if M = 0, then Lt is
simply the sum of Li + L2
Because the same voltage exists If the lines of force from one coil
across all branches of a parallel link the turns of the other, M is no
circuit, the same 0.01 volt must act longer zero, but assumes a definite
across the shunt so that the current value and must be considered in
through the shunt is, problems such as the above. If the
fields aid each other, we use + 2M,
I= E + R =0.01+4 = 2.5 ma and if the fields oppose each other,
-2M.
The unknown current value must,
then, be the sum of the currents 54. The coefficient of coupling,
through the meter and through the designated k, is ameasure of the de-
shunt, that is, gree of coupling between two cir-
cuits, and has a value ranging from
0.4 + 2.5 = 2.9 ma 0 to 1. The two extremes indicate
no coupling and maximum possible
50. The added value of resistance coupling, respectively. The formula
must be such that when 100 volts is for k is,
applied across the meter, no more
than 1ma current passes through the k-
meter. Thus,
J17,7-17;

R = E + I= 100 + 0.001 = 100,000 when M is the mutual inductance

ohms. in henries, L1 and L2 are the in-
ductances of two coils in henries,
51. The second harmonic is 1008 and k is the coefficient of coupling,
kc, the fundamental must be 1008+2 expressed as apure number (dimen-
= 504 kc. sionless). Substituting the values
52. To find the error, which is given,
proportional to frequency, we setup k- 0.1
the following proportion:
i0.2 x 0.8

0.1
10 600
X - 1110
= .1 + .4

and by cross multiplication = 0.25

15
 55. The mutual inductance between where X = Xe at 1000 kc. Cross-
the two coils is found by simply multiplying,
transposing the formula given for k.
This is accomplished by multiplying
both sides of the equation by the 1000 x = (600 x 800)
square root of L1 L2 .Thus, 1000 x = 480,000
X = 480 ohms
M =kIL 1 L2
58. The formula used in this solu-
Because k is given as unity (1), and tion of problems of this type is very
L1 is given as equal to L2 ,the mutual similar to the formula for determin-
Inductance M is equal to the value of ing the impedance of an ac circuit.
either L1 or L2 .Thus, the total in- Mathematically,
ductance is equal to four times the
inductance of either coil. This can
be seen in the equation E = E7+ EX 2

Lt = L1 + L2 + 2M
where Ex 2 is the algebraic sum of
when M = L. Thus, the voltages across the reactances.
The voltage developed across the
Lt = L1 + L2 + 2L various elements are:
= 4L
ER = IR = 5 x 12 = 60 volts
56. The phase angle is equal to the
angle whose tangent is equal to X +R. EL = IXL = 5 x 15 = 75 volts
In the above problem the total react-
ance is 25 - 10 = 15. Then the ratio EC = IXc = 5 x 40 = 200 volts
X + R = 15 ÷ 15 = 1. From a set of Substituting these values in the pre-
trigonometric tables, the angle is viously given formula,
found to be 45 ° .Just remember, in
any circuit where X = R, the phase E = (60) 2 + (200 - 75) 2
angle is 45 ° .If the reactance is pre-
dominantly inductive, as in this (60) 2 + (125) 2
problem, the 45 ° phase angle is said
to be a "leading" phase angle. If ca- = 19,225
pacitive reactance predominates,
voltage lags current and the 45 ° = 138.6 volts
phase angle is then "lagging". In
either case, notice that "lead" or 59. Circuit current can only be de-
"lag" refers to the voltage in the termined after the lamp resistance
circuit. and circuit impedance are known.
The formula used for resistance is
57. The reactance of a capacitor
varies inversely with frequency; as E2 (115) 2
R =-- = 132.2 ohms
P 100
frequency increases Xe decreases,
and as frequency decreases, Xe in- This value is then used in the stand-
creases. Thus, we can write, ard formula for impedance,
600 1000
X 800 Z = 1R 2 + (X L -Xc)2

16
 =4 (132.2) 2 + (355 - 130) 2 where X = total circuit reactance.

= (132.2) 2 + (225) 2 Substituting the values given,

=417477 + 50625 X =1(13) 2 - (7) 2

= ‘1-
6-871.1 =IT67=19
= 261 ohms

As a final step, = 10.96 ohms

=
i 4 220
= 261
= 0.843 ampere The value of 10.96 ohms can repre-
sent either an inductive reactance
60. Inductive reactance is directly (+) or a capacitive reactance (-), but
proportional to frequency and ca- we know we are looking for Xc so
pacitive reactance is inversely pro- X is negative. Then, because
portional to frequency. Therefore,
X = XL - Xc = 10.96
XL is doubled, and Xc is halved when
the frequency is doubled. Under
these conditions, = 8 -Xc
and

z =1R2 + (XL -Xc) 2 Xc = 18.96 ohms

=1 (12) 2 + (14 - 3.5) 2 62. As noted before, XL is direct-

ly proportional to frequency and Xc
=4144 + 110.25 is inversely proportional to frequen-
cy. When the frequency (f) is re-
= Tr5ti duced to 0.411 its value at resonance,
therefore, is
= 15.9 ohms
XL = 0.411 x 11 = 4.52 ohms
61. The standard formula for im-
pedance is Xc = 11 + 0.411 = 26.7 ohms

Z =IR2 x2 and Z =1Ra + (X L -Xc) 2

To find X, we first square both sides = 1(11) 2 + (26.7 -4.52) 2

of the equation
=4 (11) 2 + (22.2) 2
Z 2 = R2 + X 2

=4121 + 493
then subtract R2 from both sides
=F171-
Z2 - R2 = X 2

= 24.8 ohms
and finally take the square root of
both sides 63. Because the same voltage acts
across all branches of aparallel cir-
X =JZ 2 - R2 cuit

17
 I
ll = E + Ft= 115 + 30 = 3.83A = 30.5 amperes

I
L = E + XL = 115 + 17 = 6.76A Knowing E and I, we can write

lc = E + X = 115 + 19 = 6.05A Z = E +I
= 100 + 30.5
The total current drain is then equal = 3.28 ohms
to the vector sum of the branch cur-
rents, that is, Ideally, acapacitor or inductor dis-
sipate no heat. The greatest heat is,
therefore, dissipated in one of the
/total = J/1, + (I L - /C)2
resistive branches and is propor-
=11(3.83) 2+ (6.76 - 6.05) 2 tional to the power consumed, or to
the product of El. Because E is the
=47.77
- same for all branches of a parallel
circuit, I is the only value we need
= 3.91 amperes consider. The greatest current is in
the 7-ohm resistor, and this branch
64. If we assume an applied volt- must dissipate the most heat.
age of 100 volts,
65. The resonant frequency of an
= E + R1 = 100 + 7 = 14.28 amps LC circuit is found by using the for-
mula
1
2 = E + = 100 + 11 = 9.09 amps
1
f-
1.3 = E + 113 = 100 + 14 = 7.14 amps FIF

1
4 = E + XL = 100 + 500 = 0.2 amps
where 27r = constant, approximately
6.28. Thus, in the given problem,
Is = E + Xc = 100 +900 = 0.111 amp

The currents through the three re- 1

f-
sistors are in phase and can be add-
6.28 J1.5 x 10 -4 x 1.6 x 10' 10
ed directly. Thus,
1
IR = I + 1
2 +1
3
6.28 J2.4 x 10' 14
= 14.28 + 9.09 + 7.14 =30.5 amps 1

6.28 x 1.55 x 10 -7
Then, because 1
4 = IL and Is = IC,

1 x 10 7
/total = 1/2
R +-
(I L /C)2 - 9.73

=J (30.5) 2 + (0.2 -0.111) 2 = 1028 kc

=J (30.5) 2 + (0.09) 2 66. To find the value of C, the

formula used in problem 65 is trans-
=ti 930 + .0081 posed as follows:
First, squaring both sides to re-
= move the radial sign,

18
 f2 = 2 Then, we can write
(2/r) LC
-50 + X = 10
Then, multiplying both sides of the X = 60
equation by C and dividing both sides
by f2, where X = required gain in db.

-47,2 1
Using the basic formula for gain
C Lf2 A,

db = 20 log A
Substituting values given in the prob-
lem
1 and substituting
C - 4(3.14) 2 x 56 x10 -8 x (5 x 10 8 )
2
60 = 20 log A
= 18.1141
60
lo g A =-F
67. Stage amplification of asingle
triode is determined by using the
log A = 3
formula
A = antilog 3
p.RL
A - = 1000
rp + RL
69. The formula to use here is
where A = stage gain
db = 10 log--L
µ = amplification factor of
triode
The output is, obviously P1 and is,
rp = dynamic plate resistance therefore, 6 watts. Thus, in our
of triode problem here we can write

RL = plate load resistor 6

40 = 10 log p 2

By substitution then, 6 40
—
2.4 x 10 1 x 1x 10 4 log r = 10
A-
5000 + 10,000 6
_ 2.4 x 10 5 Tr
2
= antilog 4
15,000 6
= 10,000
2.4 x 10 5 P2

-- 1.5 x 10 4 6
2.4 x 10 1 P2 - 10,000
=
1.5
= 0.0006 watts
= 16
= 600 p watts
68. The total loss in db is
70. This problem is readily solved
-40 + (-10) = -50 db by using the formula

19
 E2 cation in the left side of the equation,
P =R
RE R1 + RE R2 = R1 R2
40 2
_
500
The quantity R2 now appears on both
_ 1600 sides of the equation, but we want it
500 to appear only on one side, by itself,
as the unknown. Thus, we must elim-
= 3.2 watts inate one of the R2 's. To do this,
first subtract RE R2 from both sides
71. A 15-ohm impedance is con- of the equation so that
nected across the transformer pri-
RE R1 = R1 R2 - RE R2
mary. Using the formula

Zs = Zp (turns ratio) 2 Next, factor R2 in the right side of

or the equation,
Ns)2
Zs = Zr% (-
1' Np RE R1 = R2 (R1 - RE)

where Zs and Zp -- secondary and

Then divide both sides by R1 - RE ,
primary impedances, respectively.,
and N and Ns = number of primary RE RI, __ R
P
and secondary turns, respectively, RI - RE 2

we first find the reflected impedance

into the secondary. Substituting our known values

o2
zs =is (4--) 1500 (2000)
Ra - 2000 - 1500
= 15 x 10 2
_ (1.5 x 10 3 )(2 x 10 3 )
= 1500 ohms 500

3 x 10 8
_______,,
For a correct impedance match it is,
5 x 10`
therefore, necessary that Zs = 1500
instead of 2000 ohms as given inthe
3 x 10 4
problem. Now we know that when two
- 5
impedances are connected in paral-
lel, the effective resistance RE is
= 0.6 x 10 4
equal to

= 6000 ohms
R R2
RE - R1 1
+"D2
72. Power gain or loss

We already know RE (1500 ohms) and

= 10 log -
-
P
1 Idb
5;
R1 (2000 ohms), so the problem is to
find R2 .First, multiply both sides of
the equation by (R 1 + R2), When voltages and currents are used
in the equation, they must be meas-
RE (R 1 + R2) = R1 R2 ured at points of equal impedance and
the numerical multiplier is 20 in-
Performing the indicated multipli- stead of 10.

20
 Thus, voltage gain or loss = 92 x 8.2

El db
= 20 log— = 664 watts
Ea

and, current gain or loss and Pi = EI

1Idb
I
= 20 log —
= 1.5 x 10 3 x 7 x 10 -1
2

73. The volume unit designated = 10.5 x 10 2

VU. The reference level, OVU, is
= 1050 watts
1milliwatt in 600 ohms.
664
Then, plate efficiency 100
74. The formula for finding the = 1050 -
resonant frequency f
r is,

=63.2 percent
1
f =
76. The inverse peak voltage
r 2r %I
across the nonconducting tube is the
and by transposition, rms value (peak-to-peak ac voltage)
of the entire secondary winding
1 times 1.414, less the drop in the
C-
47r 2 fr2 L conducting tube.
If the drop across the tube is not
specified in a problem, the answer
Substituting given values,
is found by simply multiplying the
1 rms voltage value by 1.414.
C-
4 x (3.14) 2 x (2 x10 8 )
2 x 6 x 10 -5

1 77. With 98 percent efficiency,the

power output of the secondary is
4 x 9.86 x 4 x 10 12 x 6 x 10 -5
io 220 x 23
1 - 0.98
946.56 x 10 7
= 5163 watts
1x 10 -7
= 947 The same power must be delivered
to the primary. Knowing the values
= 106 if of P and E,

75. Plate efficiency expressed as I= P + E

a percentage = 5163 + 4400
= 1.173 amperes

(
II) 100
Pi 78. The secondary line voltage of
a delta-Y connected three-phase
where po and Pi = output and input system is determined by using the
power, respectively. formula

In turn, po = 1
2 R Es = Ep x turns ratio x 1.732

21
The turns ratio is the same as the ENL 'EFL
voltage ratio, that is, 10:1, or simply Regulation (R)-
10. By substitution EFL
Es = 220 x 10 x 1.732 By transposition
= 3810 volts
R EFL = ENL " EFL
In a Y connection, the output volt-
age is obviously greater than the R EFL + EFL = ENL
voltage across a single line because
two windings are in series between EFL (R + 1)= E NL
any two of the three windings. How-
ever, the voltages induced between ENL
and EFL - R + 1
any of the two windings are not en-
tirely in phase, and this is why we
use the factor 1.732 as a multiplier By substitution
in the above equation, rather than 2.
140
EFL - 0.15 + 1
79. In a single-phase, full-wave
rectifier, the lowest and most pre- _ 140
dominant ripple frequency in the out- 1.15
put is twice the applied frequency.
Thus, the predominant ripple fre- = 121.7 volts
quency is 2 x 60 = 120 cycles.
82. Two currents are present in
80. The output voltage at no load the resistor section of this question,
is equal to the full-load voltage, the 15-ma bleeder current, and the
plus 11 percent of the full-load volt- 40-ma taken by the 400-volt circuit.
age. Thus, Total current through the resistor
is, therefore,
0.11 x 240 = 26.4 volts
40 + 15 = 55 ma
and no load voltage
The voltage drop across the same
= 240 + 26.4 resistor is
= 266.4 volts
500 - 400 = 100 volts
81. The no-load output voltage
ENL is 15 percent greater than the By Ohm's Law,
full-load output voltage EFL. Thus,
the no-load voltage is equal to 115 R =E +I
percent of the full-load voltage, or = 100 + .055
= 1,818 ohms
140
ENL 83. The crystal frequency de-
creases 20 cycles for every mega-
= 121.7 volts cycle-operating frequency and for
every 1. C temperature increase. In
In finding ENL ,we can also use the this problem the operating frequency
formula is 0.6 mc and temperature increases

22
10 ° C. The total decrease in crystal where Pi = 1000 watts
frequency is
and p2 = 10 watts
-20 x 0.6 x 10 = -120 cycles
1000
db = 10 log 10
10
The new operating frequency is
= 10 log 10 100
600,000 - 120 = 599,880 cycles
= 599.88 kc = 10 x 2

The characteristics of the crystal

= 20 db
in this case are sometimes written
as -20 + 10 8 +° C. 87. When a triode of moderate g
is used as a Class A amplifier, the
84. It is stated that the efficiency load impedance should be about twice
of the final stage is 50 percent. The the dynamic plate resistance of the
dc power input to the stage must, tube for reasonable power output and
therefore, be two times the output, acceptable distortion (about 5 per-
that is, 100 + 0.5 = 200 watts. Under cent).
conditions of 100 percent modula- Assuming this condition is satis-
tion, the modulator must supply fied, the load impedance in our prob-
power equal to 50 percent of the dc lem should be 2 x 15,000 = 30,000
power input to the final, that is, ohms. The load on the modulator
200 + 2 = 100 watts. Then, because tube is equal to the dc plate imped-
the efficiency of the modulator is ance of the Class C modulated rf
only 66 percent, its input power must amplifier, in this problem,
be 100 + 0.66 = 151.5 watts.
Eb 1000
load on modulator =
85. Assuming sinusoidal modula- Ib 0.15
tion, the power in the sidebands
varies as the ratio of sideband power = 6667 ohms
at 100 percent modulation squared
to sideband power at the reduced We now have two widely different
percentage of modulation squared. impedances of 30,000 and 6667 ohms,
Taking the values given, the new which must be matched by the modu-
sideband power is in the ratio of lation transformer.
To obtain this match, the turns
(100) 2 _ 10,000 _ 4 ratio of the matching transformer
should be equal to the square root of
(50) 2 2500 1
the ratio of the Class C stage im-
pedance to the Class A stage imped-
This means Psg is now one quarter ance. Thus, the correct turns ratio
(25 percent) of its value at 100 per-
(T.R.) is,
cent modulation.
30,000
86. For this problem we use the T.R. = 6667
formula
= 4.5
P
db power loss = 10 log 10 P

= 2.12 :1
2

23
that is, 2.12 to 1. Substituting given values,

88. The power output of an FM

j 5T)0
72
--6

transmitter remains constant with

or without modulation. Thus, the
=k7"
transmission line current remains
at 8.5 amperes.
= 8.34 amperes

89. The formula for computing 92. Here we use the basic formula
surge impedance Zo is P =I 2R

2D P = 32 X 500
Zo = 276 log i0
d = 9X 500
=4500 watts
where D is the center-to-center
spacing of the conductors and d is 93. We must first determine line
the diameter of the conductors. impedance, which is equal to the in-
Examination of the formula indi- put antenna impedance, assuming
cates that if d is increased while D proper line termination. We do this
remains unchanged, Zo must de- by transposing the basic formula
crease. P = I2 R, so that

90. Assuming the line is nonreso- R =—

nant, we take the formula I
2

E2 Substituting given values,

P= R

R - 10 '000 - 434 ohms

and transpose to (4.8) 2

E s = Knowing the value of R, the input

rm
power is

Then, by substitution, Pi = I2R

52 x 434
E s = 72 X 5000 = 25 X 434
rm
= 10,840 watts
= 1360,000
Then the line power loss is equal to
= 600 volts Pi - Po ,that is,

If we wanted the peak voltage, we line power loss = 10,840 - 10,000

would multiply this rms value by = 840 watts
1.414.
94. We must first find the total
91. Taking the basic formula power input which is equal to the
power output divided by efficiency.
P =I
2R Thus,
and D 50,000
I= ITT
FR
— = 0.33

24
 = 151,515 watts 98. Using a doubler, tripler, and
quadrupler, the oscillator swing is
The total power dissipation for all multiplied
six tubes is equal to
2 x 3 x 4 = 24 times
Pi - Po = 151,515 - 50,000=101,515
Thus, the carrier frequency swing is
Finally, the power dissipated by a
single tube is equal to the total power 2 Ice x 24 = 48 kc
dissipation divided by 6, that is,
101,515 + 6 = 16,919 watts. 99. If the oscillator frequency is
4905 kc and the operating frequency
95. The power is proportional to is 98.1 mc, the multiplication be-
the square of the current as shown tween the oscillator and the final rf
in the basic formula P = I2 R.Thus stage is
we can write
98 .
1 - 20
4.905
P1 11 2
At 100 percent modulator the output
P2 12 2 frequency swing is ±75 kc. This
means the oscillator frequency
and by transposition

1
2 =II _
r swing at 100 percent modulation
must be

—1 x 75 kc =± 3.75 kc
Pi 20

100. The frequency of the test tone

Substituting given values,
is of no importance in this problem.
Since, at 100 percent modulation the
1
2 = 12
frequency swing is ±75 kc ,at 50 per-
cent modulation it becomes
= 12
75 kc
—2 =± 37.5 kc
= 12 x 0.707

= 8.48 amperes 101. The new frequency swing is

80 percent of that which occurs at
96. The field intensity varies as 100 percent modulation, that is,
the square root of radiated power.
If power is increased four times, 0.8 x 75 kc =±60 kc
then field intensity doubles because
g = 2. 102. The voltage and number of
phases need not be considered in this
97. By definition, 100 percent problem. The synchronous speed is
modulation of an FM transmitter oc- equal to,
curs when the frequency swing is
± 75 kc. At 60 percent modulation, synchronous speed
the frequency swing then becomes
line frequency x 60
0.6 x±75 =±45 kc . No. pairs of poles

25
and by substitution, where DI = deflection of 25 divisions
Da = deflection of 45 divisions
synchronous speed 12 = current for deflection D2
II = unknown current
60 x 60
- =1800 rpm
2 By substitution

In a synchronous motor, the emf 25 11 2

generated by the rotor must be ex- — .—
actly the correct amount to produce 45 (45) 2
a current that, in turn, produces a
torque equal to the combined resist- 2 25 x (45) 2
ing torque of the load and rotor II - 45
losses. This characteristic requires
that the running speed be somewhat 112 = 25 x 45
less, about 2 to 3 percent in the
motor described, than the synchro- and II =1.)--
<45
nous speed. This difference in speed
is called "slip." Thus, the running II =F.fià-
speed of the motor in this problem = 33.5 ma
would be

1800 x 0.98 =1764 rpm 105. When the frequency is chang-

ed 10 kc, from 1390 to 1400 Ice, the
for ,2 percent slip and dial reading changes 44.5 -31.7 =12.8
divisions. When the scale reading is
1800 x 0.97 =1746 rpm 41.2 it is 9.5 divisions higher than
the reading at 1390 kc, (41.2 - 31.7
for 3 percent slip. = 9.5). Because 12.8 divisions repre-
sents 10 kc,
103. Regardless of the full-scale
meter reading, the ohms per volt of 9'5 x 10 = 7.421 kc
a meter is equal to the reciprocal 12.8
of full-scale current. Thus, in this
problem, and the frequency at adial reading of
41.2 is
1
ohms per volt -
0.001 1390 + 7.421 = 1397.421 kc

= 1000
The ninth harmonic of this frequency
is
104. The needle deflection is pro-
portional to the square of measured 9 x 1397.421 = 12576.789 kc
current even though the scale is
linear (has equal division). This per- 106. The error in the monitor is
mits us to set up the proportion the sum of the low reading report and
the high reading recorded in the log,
DI Ii 2 that is, 45 + 5 = 50 cps.
— =—
D2 122 107. If 360 ° represents one wave-

26
length, the towers are separated by Finally the ratio of the two measure-
1/3 wavelength (360/120). Convert- ments in meters is
ing the frequency in kc to wave-
lengths in meters 123.44
- 0.514 wavelengths
240
= 300,000
950 110. The effective height is equal
to the ratio of the total voltage de-
= 316 meters veloped, to the voltage developed per
meter, that is,
The tower separation in meters is
2.7
then - 108 meters
0.025
316
- 105.3 Converting to feet,
3

108 x 3.28 = 354 feet

To convert meters to feet, we multi-
ply by 3.28. Thus, the tower separa-
111. Field intensity is directly
tion in feet is
proportional to antenna current and
is a measure of voltage. When field
3.28 x 105.3 = 345.4 feet density doubles, so does antenna
current.
108. The wavelength in meters is
112. We know that P = I 2 R. In-
300,000
specting this formula, it is apparent
1100
that when R is constant, if we cut I
In half, P is reduced to 14 its former
= 272.7 meters
value. Thus, the right input power is
One half wavelength at 1100 kc is,
therefore, 1
—
4 x 2000 = 500 watts

2'
272 7 - 136.35 meters

113. Power is proportional to the

Multiplying by 3.28 we obtain the
square of current, so we can write
height of the half-wave vertical radi-
ator in feet
P1 I l2

3.28 x 136.35 = 447 feet

109. Changing height in feet to

P2 12 2
meters, we obtain
By substitution
405
- 123.44 meters
3.28 1 1
12

5 (9.7) 2
Then, changing frequency in kc to
meters, and transposing

300,000 I 9.7
=-
1250
15
-7

= 240 meters = 4.33 amperes

27
 114. Here, we use the formula rf stage is 370 x 0.65 = 241 watts.
The power reaching the antenna is
1
2 = P/R and I = n17-
1
7t 241 x 0.75 = 180.4 watts. (Twenty-
five percent is dissipated on line).
substituting Th 3 antenna power gain is equal
to the square of the antenna field
900 30
I= = 7-
1 = 7.5 amperes gain, that is, (1.3) 2 = 1.69.Then,
the effective radiated power is

115. Output power is proportional 1.69 x 180.4 = 305 watts

to the square of the current. In this
problem the increase in current is 117. The power reaching the an-
2.77 times. Output power is, there- tenna is
fore,
1000 - 50 = 950 watts
(2.77) 2 = 7.67
With an antenna power gain of 3,
times as great as its previous value. the effective radiated power is

116. The power output of the last 3 x 950 = 2850 watts

28
 SHOULD YOU DEPEND
ON LUCK?

Accident--chance--luck--have very little bearing

upon the production of any great result or true success
in life. Of course, there have been many discoveries
and accomplishments which may seem to be the result
of "luck."

For instance: Newton "discovered" the law of

gravity by watching an apple fall from a tree. Galileo
"invented" the telescope after hearing of a toy con-
structed by a spectacle-maker. Brown "invented" the
suspension bridge after watching a spider throw its
web.

But these discoveries and inventions were made by

men trained to take advantage of what they observed.
Thousands of untrained men had seen the same things
and paid no attention.

The new discoveries in radio—television--elec-

tronics will be made by men trained to take advantage
of what they observe.
;,0
J
I

r,
..
 , FCC RULES AND
_es r REGULATIONS

eaddle
kr
41.*
_e_j 1_1111' ei
w Ter
REFERENCE TEXT C112X

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON,

Zr«: rie),,e7
,
:feee.0»,.-,>
,1

FCC RULES AND REGULATIONS

C112X
 STUDY SCHEDULE

i=i 1. Introduction Pages 1-2

Recommendations on how and what to study in order to
pass your FCC exam are discussed in this section.

Ei 2. Basic Law —Element I Pages 2-5

This section gives 28 questions and answers on Element I.

D 3. Basic Operating Practice —Element II Pages 5-20

Fifty four general questions and answers and 68 Maritime
questions and answers are covered in this section.

n 4. Basic and Advanced Radiotelephone for Elements III and IV. Pages 20 -30
Here you study 55 questions and answers on Elements HI
and IV.

Ill 5. Glossary—FCC Words and Phrases Pages 31 -85

COPYRIGHT 1969 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

CEC1M175 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 FCC Rules and Regulations
Although your final goal is afirst-class tolerances, permissible operating powers,
radiotelephone license, the job is made methods of measurement acceptable by
somewhat easier by first acquiring a the FCC, etc. This material is not given in
third-class radiotelephone permit. To do the regular lesson. Just remember, it costs
this, you must pass Elements 1and II, you one to five points to miss aquestion
which are essentially non-technical and on any examination, whether it is of a
made up largely of laws and regulations. technical nature or related to Rules and
To qualify for broadcast station oper- Regulations.
ation Element IX must be passed. Once A companion book on Rules and Regu-
you have this permit, you will not have to lations, Cil1X, should be consulted for
be re-examined on Elements 1 and II more detailed information on many of
when you take the examination for a the questions asked. We recognize that
first-class license. reading material of this type can be
The minimum passing grade on any extremely tiresome, but it is an important
Element is 75%. part of your training and ajob that must
The examination for Element Iconsists be done if you are to pass your FCC
of 20 multiple-choice type questions. exam. It might be agood idea to under-
The examination for Element II also line or otherwise mark information which
consists of 20 multiple-choice type ques- you will want to study again.
tions. This examination covers practices Lesson CII1X also contains informa-
and procedures generally followed or tion related to amateur and citizen's band
required in radiocommunications. Two communications. It is not arequired part
separate tests are offered. One is general of your study, but should be looked over
and is intended for all persons seeking at least partially whenever you have the
work in non-marine stations. This in- opportunity. It may be that you will be
cludes land, mobile, and aircraft stations. employed by an organization that does a
The general questions and answers are great deal of maintenance work on such
from 2.1 to 2.54. Marine questions are equipment and this knowledge will then
preceded by the letter "M". prove useful.
The third part of this lesson contains When you have completed the final
"Rules and Regulations" type questions examination in your course and, just
such as might be encountered in Elements before you go to take the FCC exam, it is
Ill and IV. The examination for Element suggested that you restudy the Rules and
Ill consists of 100 questions and for Regulations information contained both
Element IV, 50 questions. It is recom- in this lesson and in Lesson CII1X. This
mended that you study these questions type of material is the most likely to be
after completing the material in the regu- forgotten and can often cause the most
lar lesson dealing with television. Certain trouble in passing the exam. More than
of these questions provide necessary in- one man has "sat" for his ticket with
formation about transmitter frequency good preparation on technical material

1
only to find that he failed due to alack It should be apparent by now why we
of knowledge about Rules and Regula- think it is best to get your third class
tions. Just remember, they all count and permit first, even though this means an
you cannot afford to give any points extra trip to the FCC office and may
away. cause you considerable inconvenience.

Basic Law --Element I

1.1 Where and how is an operator Ans. Any time during the final year of
license or permit obtained? the license term or during a1-year period
Ans. Licenses and permits are issued of grace after expiration date of the
by the Federal Communications Commis- license to be renewed.
sion to those citizens of the United States 1.6 Must aperson designated to oper-
who have been found qualified to receive ate a radiotelephone station post his
them. Applicants for a license or permit operator's license or permit, and if so,
must appear before an FCC field engineer where?
at a designated examining point and Ans. Yes. The original license of each
successfully complete awritten examina- station operator must be posted at the
tion and show other qualifications as place where he is on duty, or kept in his
required for the type of license or permit possession in the manner specified in the
desired. rules governing the particular class of
1.2 Who may apply for an FCC station concerned.
license? 1.7 If alicensee is notified that he has
Ans. Generally any citizen or other violated an FCC rule or provision of
national of the United States. (The FCC Communications Act of 1934, what must
may waive nationality requirements pro- he do?
vided the alien holds an aircraft pilot Ans. He must send a written reply
certificate issued by the FAA and public within 10 days to the office of the
interest is served.) Commission originating the official
1.3 What is the usual license term for notice. If unavoidable circumstances
radio operators? make it impossible within that time, the
Ans. Five years from date of issuance. reply must be made at the earliest prac-
1.4 When a licensee qualifies for a ticable date and a satisfactory explana-
higher grade of FCC license or permit, tion given of the delay. The answer must
what happens to the lesser grade license? be complete in itself and not abbreviated
Ans. It will be cancelled upon issuance by reference to other correspondence or
of the new license. answers to other notices. It must contain
1.5 When may a license be renewed? astatement of action taken to correct the

2
condition or omission. If the notice re- 1.9 If a licensee receives a notice of
lates to violations due to physical or suspension of his license, what must he
electrical characteristics of the trans- do?
mitting apparatus, the reply shall state Ans. Within 15 days of receipt of
what steps, if any, have been taken to notice, or as soon as possible thereafter
prevent future violations. If any new with a satisfactory explanation of the
equipment is to be installed, the date of delay he must send an application for
order, the name of the manufacturer, and hearing to the FCC. The suspension order
the promised delivery date must be is held in abeyance until the hearing is
stated. If this installation requires acon- concluded. At that time the FCC will
struction permit, the application file affirm, modify, or revoke the order of
number or other identification must be suspension.
given to help locate the application. If the 1.10 What must a person do whose
notice relates to lack of attention to, or operator license or permit has been lost,
improper operation of, the transmitter, mutilated, or destroyed?
the name and license number of the Ans. Immediately notify the Commis-
operator in charge must be given. sion. A properly prepared and sworn
1.8 What are the grounds for suspen- application for aduplicate should then be
sion of operator licenses? submitted to the office of issue. This
Ans. Upon proof sufficient to satisfy application should include astatement of
the Commission that the licensee has: (1) the circumstances involved in the loss of
violated any provision of any act, treaty, the original license. It must also include a
or convention binding on the United statement that a reasonable search has
States, which the FCC is authorized to been made for the lost license, and if it is
administer, or any regulation made by the later found, it will be returned for cancel-
FCC under any such act, treaty, or lation. Documentary evidence of service
convention; (2) failed to carry out a obtained under the original license, or a
lawful order of the master or person statement under oath or affirmation
lawfully in charge of the ship or aircraft embodying that information, must also
on which he is employed; (3) wilfully be submitted.
damaged, or permitted to be damaged, 1.11 Is it permissible to operate pend-
radio apparatus or installation; (4) trans- ing receipt of aduplicate operator license
mitted superfluous radiocommunications or permit after application has been made
or communications containing profane for reissue?
and/or obscene language or meaning; (5) Ans. Yes. The operator should post a
transmitted false or deceptive signals, or signed copy of the application for dupli-
call letters, not assigned by proper cate or renewal in place of the original
authority; (6) wilfully or maliciously in- document.
terfered with any other radiocommunica- 1.12 Is the holder of aradiotelephone
tions or signals; or (7) obtained or third-class permit authorized to make
attempted to obtain, or helped another technical adjustments to the transmitter
person obtain, or attempt to obtain, an he operates?
operator's license by fraudulent means. Ans. Only under the immediate super-

3
vision of aperson holding the proper class authority to impose fines for failure to
of license required for the equipment comply with the Rules and Regulations
involved. The licensed man is responsible governing the use of radio on com-
for the proper functioning of the station pulsorily equipped ships?
equipment. Ans. Yes. Any person who knowingly
1.13 Should a radio station that is violates any international radio treaty or
required to be operated by a licensed convention to which the United States is
radio operator be alicensed radio station? a party may, upon conviction, be fined
Ans. Yes. Any such station should be not more than $500 for each and every
licensed. day during which such violation occurs.
1.1 4 Are communications bearing International treaties and conventions re-
upon distress situations subject to the quire certain ships to be compulsorily
secrecy provisions of law? equipped with radio, and regulate the
Ans. No. Distress communications are requirements and use of this equipment.
exempt from these provisions. 1.19 What government agency inspects
1.15 When may an operator divulge radio stations in the U. S.?
the contents of an intercepted message? Ans. The Federal Communications
Ans. Whenever the contents of any Commission has authority to inspect all
radiocommunication broadcast, trans- radio stations required to be licensed, to
mitted by amateurs or others, is for the ascertain if station construction, installa-
use of the general public, or relating to tion, and operation meet the require-
ships in distress. ments of the Commission Rules and
1.16 What are the penalties for vio- Regulations.
lating aprovision of the Communications 1.20 Who keeps the station logs?
Act of 1934? Ans. The station employee (or con-
Ans. Any person upon conviction shall tract operator) competent to do so and
be punished for such offense for which having knowledge of facts required.
no penalty (other than a forfeiture) is 1.21 Who corrects errors in the station
provided in this Act by afine of not more logs?
than $10,000 or by imprisonment for a Ans. The operator on duty or other
term not exceeding one year or both. person who made the error. All correc-
Subsequent convictions provide the same tions must be approved by the person
penalty except for imprisonment term of responsible for keeping the log.
two years. 1.22 How may errors in the station
1.17 What are the penalties for vio- logs be corrected?
lating aprovision of the Rules and Regu- Ans. By striking out the erroneous
lations of the FCC? portion, or by making a corrective ex-
Ans. Any person upon conviction planation on the log or attachment to it.
shall, in addition to any other penalties 1.23 Is it prohibited by law to trans-
provided by law be punished by afine of mit false or fraudulent signals of distress?
not more than $500 for each and every Ans. Yes. International convention
day during which such offense occurs. and the Communications Act of 1934
1.1 8 Does the government have forbid false distress signals.

4
 1.24 Under what conditions may Ans. No.
messages be rebroadcasted?
1.27 What is meant by "harmful inter-
Ans. Only when authority is obtained ference"?
from the originating station.
Ans. Any emission, radiation or induc-
1.25 What messages and signals may
tion which endangers the functioning of a
not be transmitted?
radionavigation service or of other safety
Ans. Unnecessary, unidentified, super-
services, or seriously degrades, obstructs,
fluous, obscene, indecent, profane, false
or repeatedly interrupts aradiocommuni-
or deceptive messages and signals. Un-
cation service.
assigned call letters or signals may not be
transmitted. 1.28 What type of communication has
1.26 May an operator deliberately in- top priority in the mobile service?
terfere with any radiocommunication or Ans. All distress communications in-
signal? cluding alarm signals and distress traffic.

Basic Operating Practice

Element II
2.1 If a radiotelephone operator de- Ans. Yes. Failure to listen in on a
sires to make abrief test of atransmitter, channel before transmitting can cause
what would be agood choice of words to serious interference and should be
use in the test? avoided.
Ans. The official call sign of the test- 2.4 Why is it desirable to listen in on a
ing station, then the word "testing" channel before transmitting?
followed by the count "1, 2, 3, 4 ..." or Ans. To make sure that interference
by test phrases or sentences not in con- will not be caused in communications
flict with normal operating signals. The already in progress.
test signals shall have a duration not 2.5 Why should a trial of the radio-
exceeding 10 seconds. telephone installation be made every day?
2.2 Why is it important to avoid un- Ans. To insure that it is in proper
necessary calls by radiocommunications? operating condition, not only for normal
Ans. To help prevent interference, to use, but also for emergency use.
allow others the opportunity to use the 2.6 How can aradiotelephone installa-
air waves, and to improve station oper- tion be tested?
ating efficiency. Ans. See Question 2.1. In testing a
2.3 Is it required that a person listen radiotelephone transmitter, the operator
in on achannel before transmitting? should clearly indicate that he is testing,

5
and station identification must be given. but not so loud as to become distorted
Tests should be made as brief as possible. and difficult to understand. Normally the
2.7 Before placing the transmitter microphone is held 2to 6inches from the
apparatus of aradio station in operation operator's lips.
for a test, what precautions must be 2.11 How should a microphone be
taken? treated when used in noisy locations?
Ans. The radio operator shall ascertain Ans. The operator cups his hands over
by careful listening that the test emissions the microphone to exclude extraneous
will not be likely to interfere with any noise.
other communications. 2.12 Why should the operator use
2.8 What is the correct form for trans- well-known words and phrases?
mitting adistress call by radiotelephone? Ans. To insure accuracy and save time
Ans. The correct form for transmitting from undue repetition of words.
a distress call by radiotelephone is: (1) 2.13 What is the operator's responsi-
announce the distress signal Mayday three bility upon hearing the word "SE-
times, and (2) the words, "this is," CURITY" repeated three times?
followed by the identification of the Ans. The word "SECURITY" is the
mobile station in distress, the whole safety signal. Upon hearing it three times
repeated three times. This distress call, the operator must continue to listen on
when sent by radiotelephony, is generally the frequency on which it is being trans-
preceded by the signal ... ---... (SOS) mitted until he is satisfied that the
produced by a whistle or other suitable message is of no interest to him. In
means. addition, he must not make any trans-
2.9 Why is it agood policy to be brief mission likely to interfere with the
in radiotelephone conversation? message.
Ans. To aid in preventing interference 2.14 What must the operator do if he
and give others an opportunity to use the is told that he is interfering with adistress
airwaves. call?
2.10 What may happen to the received Ans. He must discontinue the cause of
signal when an operator has shouted into interference at once. The distress call has
amicrophone? absolute priority over all other transmis-
Ans. Shouting into the microphone sions. All stations that hear it must
overloads the audio amplifier and over- immediately cease any transmission capa-
modulates the transmitter. This causes so ble of interfering with the distress traffic
much distortion the signals may become and must listen on the frequency used for
unintelligible at the receiving end. Also, the emission of the distress call.
the width of the radiated band is in- 2.15 What are the meanings of these
creased, possibly causing interference words: clear, out, over, roger, words
with other services. The operator should twice, repeat, and break?
make every effort to train his voice for Ans. "Clear" means the sending sta-
most effective radiocommunication. His tion has completed all messages for the
voice should be loud enough .to be dis- receiving station and is ending its trans-
tinctly heard by the receiving operator, mission. "Out" means "This conversation

6
is ended and no response is expected." communications. For example, in the
"Over" means "My transmission is ended, ship service, an initial call may be made
and I expect a response from you." on 500 kc. After contact is made, oper-
"Roger" means "I have received all of ation may be shifted to 410 kc.
your last transmission." "Words twice" 2.21 Why is the station's call sign
means "Give every phrase twice." "Say transmitted?
again" means "Repeat." "Break" means a Ans. To avoid unnecessary repetition
separation between portions of amessage. of call letters or names, and to enable
2.16 Can aradio operator always con- monitoring stations to clearly identify all
sider his conversation completely con- calls.
fidential and not heard by other persons? 2.22 Should atest of the transmitting
Ans. No. Radio signals normally travel equipment be made each day?
outward from the transmitter in all direc- Ans. Yes. Regular tests may reveal
tions, and can easily be intercepted by defects which, if corrected immediately,
unauthorized persons. may prevent delays when communica-
2.17 In calling a station, how many tions are necessary. If, however, the
times does the calling station generally equipment is used during the day for
repeat the call sign or name of the called regular communications purposes, its gen-
station in each calling transmission? eral operating condition is known, and
Ans. Generally, not more than three special tests are unnecessary.
times, followed by the letters of the 2.23 What precautions should be ob-
calling station not more than three times. served in testing astation on the air?
2.18 Would you listen on a shared Ans. The operator should clearly indi-
channel before transmitting? Why? cate that he is testing. Tests should be as
Ans. Yes, to make sure that you do brief as possible. He should be certain
not interfere with communications in that the test message will not interfere
progress. with other communications in progress at
2.19 Under normal conditions would a the same time.
transmission on a calling frequency be 2.24 Should messages bearing upon
proper if the receiver for that frequency safety, including weather information, be
were inoperative? given priority over business messages?
Ans. No. Calls other than emergency Ans. Yes. Communications preceded
calls should not be made until the re- by the safety signal have priority over all
ceiver is repaired. communications except those related to
2.20 What is the difference between distress and preceded by the urgency
calling and working frequencies? signal.
Ans. Calling frequencies are those used 2.25 If astation is required by law to
for initial contact of another station, or listen in on acalling of distress frequency,
stations, for some particular purpose. when may the listening be discontinued?
Once initial contact is made, all stations Ans. The listening may be discon-
concerned shift to another designated tinued whenever the station is being used
frequency, known as the working fre- for transmission on that channel, or for
quency, for completion of further communication on other radio channels.

7
In the event a distress, urgent, or safety ing frequencies have been designated by
call is heard, the operator must continue the FCC, or by international convention,
to listen until it is evident that the for the particular service involved.
distress, urgency, or safety message does 2.32 Should a calling station repeat
not concern his station. the call sign or name of the called station
2.26 Why should radio transmitters be in each calling transmission more than
"off' when signals are not being trans- three times?
mitted?
Ans. No. Repetition of the call sign or
Ans. The operator of aradiotelephone
name more than three times during any
station should not press the push-to-talk
one calling is prohibited. The call may be
button except when he intends to speak
repeated, however, after a one minute
into the microphone. Radiation from a
delay, if no response is obtained to the
transmitter may cause interference even
first call.
when voice is not transmitted.
2.27 Why is it beneficial for the trans- 2.33 Why should stations using a
mitter radio station to be in constant shared frequency have an interval be-
readiness for making acall? tween calls?
Ans. So that it is available as needed, Ans. To allow other stations sharing
either for routine or emergency use. the frequency an opportunity to make
2.28 If a station is required to main- calls.
tain effective listening on a distress fre- 2.34 Under what conditions may it be
quency, why is it desirable for the equip- desirable to repeat important words?
ment to return automatically to reception Ans. When conditions of reception are
on the distress frequency immediately such that words are not clearly intelli-
after completing use of the equipment on gible, or when requested by the receiving
another frequency? operator.
Ans. To eliminate the possibility of 2.35 What is the operator's responsi-
the operator forgetting to switch back to bility upon hearing a distress call in a
the distress frequency channel. mobile service?
2.29 Why is rapid frequency change of Ans. Cease all transmissions and con-
the transmitter and receiver desirable? tinue to listen until he is certain the
Ans. To permit the operator to distress message in no way concerns his
quickly shift from acalling to aworking station.
frequency. 2.36 Is it good practice to listen on
2.30 What would you do if you were the working frequency to be later used
told that your voice was distorting? before making an initial call on the calling
Ans. Lower my voice to see if the frequency?
distortion is eliminated. If not, check the Ans. Yes, to make sure that the de-
transmitter for improper operation. sired communication can be handled on
2.31 Under what conditions may a the working frequency. Unnecessary
station employ a calling frequency as interference to other parties wishing to
contrasted to aworking frequency? use the calling frequency is thereby
Ans. When separate calling and work- avoided.

8
 2.37 Why is it important to avoid Ans. The urgency signal is second in
unnecessary calls? the order of priority. Distress signals are
Ans. Unnecessary calls are forbidden first and safety signals third.
by international law because they may 2.42 What are the distress, urgency,
cause interference with other stations and safety signals?
wishing to use the air lanes. Ans. The distress signal is the word
2.38 State why station identification MAYDAY. The urgency signal is the
should be clearly made by aradio station. word PAN. The safety signal is the word
Ans. To avoid unnecessary repetition SECURITY. All are repeated three times
of call letters or names, and to enable before the call.
monitoring stations to identify all calls. 2.43 In radiocommunications what
2.39 When routine radiocommunica- does the transmission of the "distress,"
tions are unreliable due to static or "urgency," and "safety" signals signify,
fading, should the operator continue respectively?
transmitting or wait for more favorable Ans. "MAYDAY" indicates that the
conditions? ship, aircraft, or other vehicle sending the
Ans. When radiocommunications at a distress signals is threatened by serious
station are unreliable or are disrupted due and imminent danger, and requests im-
to static or fading, the operator should mediate assistance. "PAN" indicates the
wait for more favorable conditions. Con- calling station has an urgent message to
tinued calling can cause severe inter- transmit concerning the safety of aship,
ference with other stations. aircraft, or other vehicle, or person on
2.40 What is the order of priority for board or within sight. "SECURITY" indi-
communications? cates the station is about to transmit a
Ans. (1) Distress calls, distress message concerning the safety of naviga-
messages, and distress traffic; (2) com- tion or important meterological warnings.
munications preceded by an urgent signal; 2.44 What information must be con-
(3) communications preceded by the tained in adistress message?
safety signal; (4) communications related Ans. (1) The distress call, (2) the name
to radio direction finding bearing; (5) of the ship, aircraft, or vehicle in distress,
communications related to the navigation (3) position of the latter, (4) the nature
and safe movement of aircraft; (6) com- of the distress, (5) assistance, and (6) any
munications related to the navigation, other information which might facilitate
movements, and need of ships for an matters.
official meteorological service; (7) govern- 2.45 Under what conditions may a
ment communications for which priority mobile radio station send a distress
rights have been claimed; (8) service message for another mobile station in
communications related to the working distress?
of the radiocommunications service, or Ans. (1) When the station in distress
to communications previously trans- cannot itself transmit the message, (2) the
mitted; and (9) all other communications. master or person responsible for the ship,
2.41 What is the priority of the aircraft, or other vehicle carrying the
urgency signal? station which intervenes believes addi-

9
tional help is needed, and (3) when such other action as necessary to prevent
directed to do so by the station in charge recurrence. Prepare explanation in event
of distress traffic. suspension notice is received.
2.46 In the case of a mobile radio 2.51 How does the licensed operator
station in distress, what station is re- of a station normally exhibit his au-
sponsible for the control of distress thority to operate the station?
message traffic? Ans. By posting a valid operator
Ans. The mobile station in distress, or license or permit at the transmitter con-
the mobile station which, under the trol point.
provision of the Commission Rules and 2.52 When may an operator use his
Regulations, sends the distress call. These station without regard to certain pro-
stations may, however, delegate the con- visions of his station license?
trol of distress traffic to another station. Ans. During aperiod of emergency in
2.47 What does the distress call consist which normal communications facilities
of? are disrupted as a result of hurricane,
Ans. The word MAYDAY repeated flood, earthquake or similar disaster.
three times, and the words "this is," 2.53 Who bears the responsibility if an
followed by the call of the mobile station operator permits an unlicensed person to
in distress, repeated three times. The speak over his station?
distress call may be preceded by the Ans. The operator bears the responsi-
Morse Code signal ... ... (SOS) pro- bility for proper operation at all times.
duced by awhistle or some other means. 2.54 What is meant by a "phonetic"
2.48 What should an operator do alphabet in radiotelephone communica-
when he leaves atransmitter unattended? tions?
Ans. The transmitter should be left Ans. It is an alphabet or word list used
inoperable or inaccessible to unauthor- to identify letters or words that may
ized persons. The operator continues to sound like other letters or words of
bear responsibility for proper operation different meaning. For example "group"
of the station. may sound like "scoop," or "bridge" may
2.49 Where does an operator find sound like "ridge." It consists of 26
specifications for obstruction marking words, each word representing aletter of
and lighting (where required) for the the alphabet. If the letters "GROUP" are
antenna towers of a particular radio represented in a phonetic alphabet as
station? George, Roger, Oboe, Uncle and Peter,
Ans. Part 17 of the Rules and Regula- the word "group" is transmitted as
tions of the FCC. If he wishes to deter- "GROUP," G as in George, R as in Roger,
mine the specifications for a particular 0 as in Oboe, U as in Uncle, Pas in Peter.
station he should examine the station
authorization issued by FCC. MARITIME QUESTIONS
2.50 What should an operator do if he AND ANSWERS
hears profanity being used at his station?
Ans. He should discontinue broadcast 2.1M In making aship-to-ship contact,
immediately. Warn the offender. Take except in an emergency involving safety,

10
how long may a ship station continue intervals not exceeding fifteen minutes
calling in each instance? whenever transmission is sustained for a
Ans. Calling aparticular station, either period exceeding fifteen minutes.
by voice or by automatic means, shall not 2.6M Do public coast stations nor-
continue for a period of more than 30 mally charge for forwarding messages
seconds. reporting dangers to navigation?
2.2M Except in an emergency in- Ans. No public coast station shall
volving safety, if a ship radiotelephone charge for the transmission, receipt, or
station does not receive a reply after reply of information concerning dangers
calling, how long must it wait before to navigation originating on aship of the
calling again? United States or aforeign country.
Ans. At least two minutes. 2.7M How does the licensed operator
2.3M What types of communications of a ship radiotelephone station exhibit
may be transmitted by ship stations on his authority to operate the station?
the ship-to-ship frequencies between Ans. The operator must post his
2000 and 3000 kc? original license in aconspicuous place at
Ans. Frequencies between 2000 and the principal location on board ship at
3000 kc can be used for distress, safety, which the station is operated. If, how-
or urgent signals, initial calls and answers, ever, the station is portable, or is amarine
and normal radio traffic on working utility station, the operator can keep the
frequencies. required license, or aduly issued verifica-
2.4M In regions of heavy traffic, how tion card attesting to the existence of the
long may the ship-to-ship radiotelephone license, on his person.
frequencies between 2000 and 3000 kc 2.8M If aradiotelephone installation is
be used for any one exchange of com- provided on board ship for safety pur-
munication (other than distress or poses, in accordance with atreaty, and it
emergency)? becomes defective, what action must the
Ans. Any one exchange shall not ex- licensed operator take?
ceed three minutes in duration. Ans. The ship master must be notified
2.5M How is a ship radiotelephone promptly. If the ship is being navigated
station required to be identified in con- outside of port, the licensed operator
nection with its operation? shall make every effort to return the
Ans. All radiotelephone emissions equipment to normal operating condi-
from aship station shall be clearly identi- tions as quickly as possible. If operating
fied by transmitting in the English lan- on the Great Lakes, and the equipment
guage the official call sign assigned to that cannot be repaired sooner, it must be
station by the Commission. If no call sign placed in operating condition at the next
has been assigned the complete name of port of arrival. In addition, the master of
the ship and name of licensee shall be the vessel must send a written report to
sent. The required station identification the Federal Communications Commission
shall be made: (1) at the beginning and in Washington, D. C., giving full partic-
upon the completion of each transmission ulars of the matter. The report must
made for any other purpose, (2) at include the date the master became

11
aware of the deficiency, adescription of 2.12M Is it necessary for all vessels
the steps taken to correct it, and a having knowledge of distress traffic to
statement to the effect that the equip- follow the traffic even if they do not take
ment has been, or will be, placed in any part in it?
operation before the ship again leaves Ans. Any station of the mobile service
port. having knowledge of distress traffic must
2.9M Who signs the radio log of aship follow such traffic, even if it does not
radiotelephone station certifying the take part in it. While following such
entries made therein? distress traffic, however, if the mobile
Ans. The licensed operator who is station is able to continue its normal
responsible for the operation of radio- service, it may do so, provided the dis-
telephone apparatus. The use of initials or tress traffic is well established, and pro-
signs in lieu of the operator's signature is vided it does not transmit on frequencies
not authorized. used for the distress traffic, and does not
2.10M What are the requirements for interfere with the distress traffic.
keeping watch on 2182 kc? If a radio 2.13M What is the proper form to use
operator is required to "stand watch" on in acknowledging adistress message?
international distress frequency, when Ans. To acknowledge receipt of adis-
may he stop listening? tress message, use the following form: (1)
Ans. Ship stations shall during its call sign of the mobile station in distress
hours of service maintain an efficient repeated three times; (2) the letters DE in
watch for the reception of A3 and A3H Morse Code or the words "This is,"
emissions on 2182 kc frequency when- followed by (3) call sign of the station
ever such station is not being used for repeated three times; (4) the three-
transmission on that frequency or for lettered group RRR in Morse Code, or
communication on other frequencies. the spoken word "received" repeated
The watch period on an international three times; and (5) distress signal.
distress frequency, when the ship station 2.14M What information is required to
is in Region 1 or 3 shall be, insofar as be sent following acknowledgement of a
possible, maintained at least twice each distress message?
hour for 3 minutes commencing at X Ans. The following information, in the
h.00 and X h.30, GMT. order shown, must be transmitted as soon
2.11M Who may operate the radio- as possible by the mobile station ac-
telephone set aboard the vessel? knowledging receipt: (1) its name, (2) its
Ans. Operation of all transmitting position, (3) the speed at which it is
apparatus in any radio station in the proceeding toward the ship, aircraft, or
maritime mobile service of the United other vehicle in distress. Before sending
States must normally be carried on only the message, the station must insure that
by aperson holding an operator's license it will not interfere with the emissions of
of the required class. However, at aship other stations better situated to render
station, the licensee or master may permit immediate assistance to the station in
an unlicensed person to speak into the distress.
microphone. 2.15M Is it necessary that the authori-

12
ty of the master or person responsible for the equipment demonstrates that it is in
the vessel be obtained prior to sending proper operating condition for an emer-
information required following acknowl- gency.
edgement of adistress call? 2.19M How can the radiotelephone
Ans. Yes. The information can only be installation be tested each day?
sent on the order of the master or person Ans. By making atest communication
responsible for the ship, aircraft, or other to demonstrate that the equipment is in
vehicle. proper operating condition for an emer-
2.16M Is it desirable that care be gency.
taken to insure that an acknowledgment 2.20M Does the Geneva 1959 Treaty
to a distress message will not interfere give other countries the authority to
with other acknowledgments from vessels inspect U. S. vessels?
that are better able to assist? Ans. Yes. The license must be pro-
Ans. Yes. Mobile stations that receive duced for examination upon request of
a distress message from another mobile the government of the country being
station which, beyond any possible visited by the mobile station. The oper-
doubt, is not in their vicinity, must allow ator of the mobile station will cooperate
a short interval of time before acknowl- in this examination.
edging receipt of the message, to permit 2.21M What is the difference between
stations nearer the station in distress to calling and working frequencies?
answer and acknowledge receipt without Ans. Calling frequency is transmission
interference. from a station solely for getting the
2.17M Is avessel which hears adistress attention of another station(s) for a
message, but is not in aposition to assist, particular purpose. Working frequency is
required to take all steps to attract the for all radiocommunications except call-
attention of stations which might be in a ing.
position to assist? 2.22M How would you contact an-
Ans. Yes. Any mobile station not in a other vessel prior to communicating with
position to assist, after hearing adistress it for routine communication purposes?
message which has not been properly Ans. Example: Suppose Station KENT
acknowledged, must take all possible wishes to contact Station WASH. KENT
steps to attract the attention of mobile would call as follows: "WASH, WASH,
stations which are in aposition to render WASH, this is KENT, KENT, KENT,
assistance. For this purpose, with the over." The repetition of the call station
approval of the person lawfully responsi- and the calling station as shown is not
ble for the station, the distress message absolutely required and should never be
may be repeated. All necessary steps are repeated more than three times.
also taken to notify authorities who may 2.23M Why are call signs sent? Why
be able to help. should they be sent clearly and dis-
2.18M Is it necessary to make a trial tinctly?
of the ship radiotelephone installation Ans. To enable other stations to iden-
every day? tify calls easily.
Ans. Yes, unless normal daily use of 2.24M In the mobile service, why

13
should messages be as brief as possible? Urgency signal indicates that the calling
Ans. To allow other stations on the station has a very urgent message to
same frequency to make calls. transmit concerning the safety of aship,
2.25M What procedure would you use aircraft or other vehicle or the safety of a
in contacting the U. S. Coast Guard? person.
Ans. Example: "Baltimore Lifeboat 2.31M What are the international
Station ,this is KENT, over." urgency, safety and distress signals?
2.26M Is it permissible to use 2182 kc Ans. (1) Urgency signal is PAN. (2)
for establishing contact prior to com- Safety signal is SECURITY. (3) Distress
municating on an appropriate public signal is MAYDAY.
correspondence channel? 2.32M In the case of a mobile radio
Ans. Yes; 2182 kc is the international station in distress, what station is re-
radiotelephone calling frequency for the sponsible for the control of distress
maritime mobile service. message traffic?
2.27M Is it the general practice for a Ans. It is the responsibility of the
ship to use 2182 kc for establishing mobile station in distress or the station
contact prior to communicating with a which had sent the message. These sta-
coast station on an appropriate public tions may delegate control to another
correspondence channel? station.
Ans. Yes. 2.33M What daily attention should be
2.28M Is it permissible to communi- given to the antenna tower lights at a
cate with coast stations or any other radio station?
stations on 2182 kc except for safety Ans. A daily check of the tower lights
purposes? must be made not later than one hour
Ans. Yes. See Question 2.26M. after sunset. Inspection may be made
2.29M Give a typical procedure you either by visually observing the tower
might use to call avessel when its identity lights or by observing an automatic indi-
is not known. cator, to insure that all tower lights are
Ans. In this case, the inquiry symbol functioning properly as required.
CQ is used in place of the call sign of the 2.34M What should be done in case of
station called. Example: "CQ, CQ, CQ, failure of the antenna tower lights at a
this is KENT, KENT, KENT, calling radio station?
tanker at position 35 degrees north, 81 Ans. Report immediately by tele-
degrees west, over." phone or telegraph to the nearest airways
2.30M What do distress, safety and communications station or office of the
urgency signals indicate? Federal Aviation Agency any observed
Ans. (1) Distress signal indicates that a failure of any code or rotating beacon
mobile station is threatened by grave and light if such failure is not corrected
imminent danger and requests immediate within thirty minutes after observation
assistance. (2) Safety signal indicates that thereof. Further, notify the above station
the station is about to transmit amessage or office immediately upon resumption
concerning the safety of navigation or of the required illumination. Data con-
giving meteorological warnings. (3) cerning the failure of tower lights must

14
 also be recorded in the station log. fering with the distress traffic and listen
Include in the log entry the nature of the on the frequency used for the emission of
failure, the date and time the failure was the distress call. After the distress mes-
observed, and the date, time, and nature sage is sent, receipt should be acknowl-
of the adjustments, repairs, or replace- edged.
ments made. In the event of failure of 2.38M Under what circumstances
rotating or beacon lights, the time of should a public coast station employing
notifying the Federal Aviation Agency radiotelephony use acalling frequency in
must also be entered. establishing a communications circuit
2.35M Flow should a radio identifica- with aship or aircraft?
tion be made at a coast station using Ans. (1) For distress signals and
radiotelephony? traffic, (2) urgency signals, and very
Ans. All radiotelephone emissions of a urgent messages concerning safety of a
public coast station shall be clearly iden- ship, aircraft, or other vehicle, or safety
tified by voice transmission in the English of a person on board or within sight of
language, either by the official call sign such vehicles, (3) safety messages, (4)
assigned to that station by the Com- occasional messages of general interest to
mission or by the approximate geographic ship mobile stations, (5) normal calls,
location of the station as approved in replies, and brief operating signals, (6)
such case by the Commission. Alterna- brief test signals, to determine if the
tively, the official call sign may be clearly station transmitting equipment is in good
transmitted by tone-modulated tele- operating condition.
graphy in the Morse Code, either by a 2.39M When may acoast station NOT
duly licensed radiotelegraph operator or charge for messages it is requested to
by means of an automatic device ap- handle?
proved by the Commission. Ans. Whenever tariffs for the re-
2.36M If a licensed operator at the quested service are not on file with the
controls of a coast station observes or Commission. No charge will be made (1)
hears obscene language being transmitted for transmission of distress messages and
through the facilities of a station, what replies thereto, involving safety of life
action should be taken? and property at sea; (2) for transmission,
Ans. The station should immediately receipt or relay of information about
be removed from the air or steps taken to dangers to navigation, and (3) any
insure against further transmission of the services related to preparation for
obscene language. Details of the unlawful national defense.
transmission must be entered in the sta- 2.40M In regions of heavy traffic why
tion log, and areport sent to the FCC. should an interval be left between radio-
2.37M If a coast station hears a dis- telephone calls? Why should a radio
tress call from a mobile station, what operator listen before transmitting on a
action, if any, should the operator on shared channel?
duty take? Ans. Each authorized channel is avail-
Ans. The operator must immediately able for use on ashared rather than an
cease any transmission capable of inter- exclusive basis. Cooperation on use of

15
assigned frequency reduces interference. respect to log-keeping at a coast station
Listen first, and if interference is likely, using radiotelephony?
then wait until existing communication is Ans. Public coast stations using tele-
ended. Intervals between calls permit calls phony shall maintain an accurate log
to be made by another station using the during their hours of service. Each log
same frequency. sheet shall be numbered in sequence, be
2.41M How long may aradio operator dated, and shall include the official call
in the mobile service continue attempting sign of the station and the signature of
to contact a station which does not the licensed operator on duty. The entry
answer? "on duty," followed by his signature,
Ans. An interval of 2 minutes must shall be made by the operator at the
elapse before calling astation again. After beginning of a duty period. The entry
three attempts without response the "off duty," followed by his signature,
interval will be 15 minutes. Should harm- shall be made by the operator ending a
ful interference to other communications duty period. All log entries shall be
not be indicated then the calls may be currently completed and, unless other-
made as before, with apause of 3instead wise stated, shall be made by the licensed
of 15 minutes. In all cases calling may operator on duty. The use of initials in
continue for no longer than 30 seconds. lieu of any operator's signature is not
These provisions do not apply to emer- authorized. The time of each entry shall
gency calls involving safety. be shown opposite the entry and, except
2.42M What is meant by "safety for the following, shall be expressed in
communication" in the maritime service? Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). (1) In the
Ans. Safety communication is the Great Lakes region, the time shall be
transmission or reception of distress, expressed in Eastern Standard Time
alarm, urgent, or safety signals, or any counted from 00:00 to 24:00 o'clock,
form of radiocommunication which, if beginning at midnight. (2) For public
delayed in transmission or reception, may coast stations which communicate ex-
adversely affect the safety of life or clusively with vessels on inland waters of
property; an occasional test transmission the United States, the time shall be
or reception is necessary for determining expressed in local standard time. The first
if the radio equipment is in good working entry in each hour shall consist of four
condition for purposes of safety. figures; additional entries in the same
2.43M Describe completely what hour may be expressed in two figures by
actions should be taken by aradio opera- omitting the hour designation. The abbre-
tor who hears asafety message? viation GMT (or other kind used) shall be
Ans. All stations hearing the safety marked at the head of the column in
signal shall listen to the safety message which the time is entered.
until they are satisfied that the message is 2.45M What is the importance of the
of no concern to them. They shall not frequency 2182 kc?
make any transmission likely to interfere Ans. This is the international distress
with the message. frequency. It shall be used for this pur-
2.44M What are the requirements with pose by ship, aircraft and survival craft

16
stations using frequencies in the author- ship stations may defer acknowledgment
ized bands between 1605 and 4000 kc for ashort interval so that acoast station
when requesting assistance from the mari- may acknowledge receipt. When the dis-
time services. tressed mobile station is, without doubt,
2.46M What information must be con- not in the vicinity, then ashort interval
tained in distress messages? What pro- will be allowed to elapse before acknowl-
cedures should be followed by a radio edging receipt of message, in order to
operator in sending a distress message? permit stations nearer the mobile station
What is agood choice of words to be used in distress to acknowledge receipt with-
in sending adistress message? out interference.
Ans. The distress message consists of: Acknowledgment of receipt of a dis-
(1) the distress signal MAYDAY; (2) tress message takes this form: (1) Call
name of mobile station in distress; (3) its sign or other identification of the station
position; (4) nature of distress; (5) kind sending the distress message, spoken three
of assistance desired; (6) any other infor- times; (2) the words THIS IS; (3) call sign
mation which might facilitate rescue. or other identification of the station
The distress procedure consists of: (1) acknowledging receipt, spoken three
alarm signal (when possible); (2) distress times; (4) the word RECEIVED; the
call; (3) distress message. Transmissions distress signal MAYDAY.
shall be made slowly and distinctly with Every mobile station which acknowl-
each word clearly pronounced to ease edges receipt of a distress message shall,
receipt of message. After sending the on the order of the master or person
distress message, the mobile station may responsible for the ship, aircraft or other
be requested to send suitable signs vehicle carrying such mobile station,
followed by its call sign or name to transmit as soon as possible the following
permit direction-finding stations to deter- information in the order shown: (1) Its
mine its position. As necessary, this re- name; (2) its position; (3) the speed at
quest may be repeated at frequent inter- which it is proceeding towards, and
vals. The alarm signal, when possible, approximate time it will take to reach,
distress call and distress message shall be the mobile station in distress.
repeated at intervals until an answer is Before acknowledging, the station shall
received. If no answer is received on the ensure that it will not interfere with the
distress frequency, any other frequency emissions of other stations better situated
may be used to attract attention. to render immediate assistance to the
2.47M Describe completely what station in distress.
actions should be taken by aradio opera- 2.48M Under what conditions may a
tor who hears adistress message. coast station intervene in adistress situa-
Ans. When a distress message is re- tion?
ceived from a mobile station which is, Ans. Any station or mobile service,
beyond any possible doubt, in his vi- which is not in aposition itself to render
cinity, he shall immediately acknowledge assistance, but which has heard adistress
receipt. If reliable communication with message that has not been acknowledged,
one or more coast stations is practicable, must take all possible steps to attract the

17
attention of stations which are in a to request that the message be read back
position to render service. With the ap- to the sending operator for verification.
proval of the person lawfully in charge of 2.54M Why are test transmissions
the station, the distress call or the distress sent? How often should they be sent?
message may be repeated, using full What is the proper way to send a test
power, on the distress frequency or on message? How often should the station's
another frequency which may be used in call sign be sent?
case of distress. Ans. Tests may reveal defects or faults
2.49M To what extent may a coast which, if corrected immediately, may
station using radiotelephony communi- prevent delays when communications are
cate with stations other than ship sta- necessary. Before testing, listen to make
tions? sure there will be no interference with
Ans. Coast stations may communicate transmissions in progress. The call sign of
with other land stations to facilitate the the testing station, followed by the word
transmission or reception of safety com- "test" shall be announced on the radio
munications to and from aship or aircraft channel being used for the test, as a
station. They may also communicate with warning that test emissions are about to
marine fixed stations on a frequency be made on that frequency. The test must
below 4000 kc, provided no harmful be delayed if there is interference or
interference or intolerable delay is caused when "wait" is heard.
in communication with mobile stations as The operator announces the word
aresult of such communication. "Testing" followed by "1, 2, 3, 4 ..." or
2.50M What is indicated by the use of by test phrases, sentences or test signals
the word "break" in a radiotelephone not in conflict with normal operating
conversation? signals. The signals shall not last longer
Ans. The word "break" indicates a than 10 seconds. At the end of the test,
separation between portions of amessage. announcement is made of the call sign,
2.51M What is indicated by the use of name of ship and its general location at
the word "Roger" as a reply to aradio- time of test. One minute should elapse
telephone communication? before retest on 2182 kc in heavy traffic,
Ans. "Roger" means "I have received 5 minutes is waiting period. The call sign
all of your last transmission." is sent at the beginning and end of test.
2.52M What is indicated by the ex- 2.55M For what purpose is the fre-
pression "words twice" when transmitted quency 121.5 megacycles authorized to
by radiotelephone? be used by an aircraft radio station?
Ans. "Words twice" is used to ask a Ans. This is auniversal simplex emer-
station to send every phrase twice, or to gency and distress frequency for air-
inform a station every word will be sent ground communications.
twice. 2.56M In lieu of using acall sign, how
2.53M What is indicated by the use of may a private aircraft telephone station
the words "read back" when transmitted be identified in the course of operation?
by radiotelephone? Ans. By use of the official aircraft
Ans. The words "read back" are used registration number. The full number

18
must be given for the initial call of a tower, this is Beechcraft N123456,
continuous series of communications or, Over."
name of owner of aircraft followed by 2.62M How should an air carrier air-
last two characters of registration; type of craft radiotelephone station normally be
aircraft may be substituted for name or identified in operation in lieu of using the
owner, provided practice is initiated by call sign?
ground station operator. Ans. The official aircraft registration
2.57M What types of communications number or company flight identification
or messages is an aircraft radiotelephone may be used, provided proper records are
station authorized to transmit? kept to permit ready identification of a
given aircraft.
Ans. Communications limited to those
2.63M What is meant by a phonetic
necessary for safe aircraft operations.
alphabet in radiotelephone communica-
2.58M When must an aircraft radio
tions?
station and maintenance record be made
Ans. A phonetic alphabet is aword list
available for inspection?
with each letter represented by an easily
Ans. Upon request of an authorized
understood word. This alphabet is used to
representative of the FCC made to the
make sure amessage is received correctly.
licensee or his representative.
For example, the word "robe" may be
2.59M How is the communications transmitted as Roger (r), oboe (o), baker
range of an aircraft radio station at avery (b), easy (e). The possibility of the word
high frequency dependent upon the alti- then being misunderstood is minimized.
tude of the aircraft? 2.64M What radio channel or channels
Ans. The higher the aircraft, the are used by ships for communicating by
greater the communications range, be- radiotelephone with the U. S. Coast
cause very high frequency radiations Guard?
travel in essentially straight lines, which Ans. Normally 2182 kc. In the Great
limits reception to the line-of-sight dis- Lakes, distress calls may be made on
tance. The higher the aircraft radio sta- 2670 kc.
tion, the greater the distance to the 2.65M How often should station iden-
horizon and the greater the communica- tification be made at a base or land
tions range. radiotelephone station?
2.60M Why should an aircraft station Ans. At the end of each transmission
avoid making unnecessary "on the air" or exchange of transmissions, or once
tests? every 30 minutes of the operating period,
Ans. To avoid interference with com- as the licensee may prefer.
munications in progress and to permit 2.66M What entries must be made in
other stations with necessary business to the logs or records of radio stations
use the airways. required to have antenna tower lights?
2.61M What is the normal calling pro- Ans. The time each day the lights are
cedure of aprivate aircraft for contacting turned on and off if manually controlled,
acontrol tower? the time a daily check for proper oper-
Ans. Example: "Washington control ation is made if an automatic alarm

19
system is not provided, and results of and associated apparatus at a radio sta-
periodic inspections required at least once tion?
every three months. This includes general Ans. The lights must be checked at
condition of the system and any adjust- least once every 24 hours, either by direct
ments, replacements, or repairs made and observation or through a properly oper-
the date. ating indicator system that will indicate
If the tower lights fail, the log must any failure. Inspection must also be made
show the nature of the failure, the time at least once every three months to insure
observed, the date, time, and nature of that all automatic or mechanical control
repairs, and the time the FAA was noti- devices, indicators, and alarm systems
fied (for failures not corrected within 30 associated with the tower lighting is in
minutes). The results of the periodic proper operating order.
inspection required every three months 2.68M What precaution should be
must be entered in the log, showing the taken in a radio station which is left
date of the inspection and the condition unattended in apublic place?
of all tower lights and associated equip- Ans. The station should be locked up
ment. Any adjustments, replacements, or and other necessary precautions taken to
repairs to insure compliance with the prevent unauthorized use of the equip-
lighting requirements must also be shown. ment. This may include temporary dis-
2.67M What attention should be given ablement of the equipment by tube re-
periodically to the antenna tower lights moval, crystal removal, etc.

Basic and Advanced

Radiotelephone for Elements
III and IV
3.1 What is the frequency range associated with the following general subdivisions?

ULF Below 30 kc VHF 30-300 mc

LF 30-300 kc UHF 300-3000 mc
MF 300-3000 kc SHF 3-30 gc
HF 3-30 mc EHF 30-300 gc

3.2 What is meant by the following emission designations? (Answer combined with
question).

20
Symbol Modulation Type of transmission Other characteristics

A3 Amplitude Telephony Double sideband

A3A Amplitude Telephony Single sideband,
reduced carrier
A5C Amplitude Television Vestigial sideband
F3 Frequency Telephony
or phase
F5 Frequency Television
or phase
P3D Pulse Telephony Amplitude modu-
lated

3.3 What is the basic difference be- FCC? What type does not require FCC
tween type approval and type acceptance approval?
of transmitting equipment? Ans. Approval is necessary whenever
Ans. Type approval is based on tests any operation would be inconsistent with
made by FCC. Type acceptance is based terms of authorization. Proposed changes
on test data submitted by manufacturer which are consistent do not require
or licensee and accepted by FCC. approval.
3.4 May stations in the Public Safety 3.8 The carrier frequency of a trans-
Radio Services be operated for short mitter in the Public Safety Radio Service
periods of time without astation authori- must be maintained within what per-
zation issued by FCC? centage of the licensed value? Assume the
Ans. No. Even in emergencies in- station is operating at 160 mc with a
volving safety of life or property, authoii- licensed power of 50 watts.
zation must be obtained. Ans. .0005 per cent.
3.5 What notification must be for- 3.9 What is the authorized bandwidth
warded to the Engineer in Charge of the and frequency deviation of Public Safety
FCC district office prior to testing anew stations operating at about 30 mc? At
radio transmitter in the Public Safety about 160 mc?
Radio Service which has been obtained Ans. At either 30 mc or 160 mc,
under a construction permit issued by authorized bandwidth is 20 kc with 5kc
FCC? frequency deviation.
Ans. At least two days before test 3.10 What is the maximum percentage
date, send written notice giving name of modulation allowed by FCC rules for
permittee, station location, call sign and stations in the Public Safety Radio Serv-
frequencies to be used in testing. ices which utilize amplitude modulation?
3.6 Where may standard forms appli- Ans. Not more than 100% on negative
cable to the Public Safety Radio Services peaks.
be obtained? 3.11 Outline the transmitter measure-
Ans. From any engineering field office ments required by FCC rules for stations
or FCC, Washington, D. C. 20554. in the Public Safety Radio Service.
3.7 In general, what type of changes in Ans. Each transmitter operating with a
authorized stations must be approved by plate input power to the final radio

21
frequency stage in excess of 3watts must Records will be retained by licensee for at
be measured at stated intervals. Objec- least one year.
tives are to assure that (1) carrier fre- 3.15 If astandard broadcast station is
quency is maintained within prescribed licensed to operate at a frequency of
tolerance, (2) maximum voltage specified 1260 kc, what are the minimum and
in the station authorization is not ex- maximum frequencies at which it may
ceeded, and (3) that modulation does not operate and still be within the proper
exceed specified limits. limits established by the FCC rules?
3.12 What are the general require- Ans. The operating frequencies shall
ments for transmitting the identification be maintained within 20 cycles. There-
announcements for stations in the Public fore, 1259.98 kc and 1260.02 kc are
Safety Radio Service? frequency limits.
Ans. The assigned signal at each trans- 3.16 What is an STL system?
mission, or each 30 minutes, as licensee Ans. It is a fixed station using tele-
prefers. Mobile units operating above 30 phony for transmission of aural program
mc may use another identifier plus name material between the studio and the
of government unit. transmitter of a broadcasting station,
3.13 When a radio operator makes other than an international broadcasting
transmitter measurements required by station, for simultaneous or delayed
FCC rules for a station in the Public broadcast.
Safety Radio Service, what information 3.17 What is a proof-of-performance?
should be transcribed into the station's How does a proof-of-performance differ
records? from annual equipment performance
Ans. Results and dates of required measurements required by FCC rules?
measurements and name of person What must be included in the annual
making measurements. equipment performance measurements?
3.14 What are FCC general require- Ans. Proof-of-performance is a set
ments regarding the records which are schedule of tests made throughout the
required to be kept by stations in the year for purposes of locating trouble
Public Safety Radio Service? areas, making measurements and keeping
Ans. Kept in an orderly manner and in station at top efficiency. It is more
detail so that required facts are readily inclusive and frequent than the annual
available. Key letters and abbreviations measurements required by FCC. Required
may be used provided meaning is set annual measurements are: (1) data and
forth in the record. Each entry shall be curves showing over-all audio frequency
signed by a qualified person who has response from 30 to 7500 cps for
actual knowledge of the recorded facts. approximately 25, 50, 85, and 100 (if
No entries shall be erased, obliterated or obtainable) percent modulation; (2) data
destroyed within the retention period. and curves showing audio frequency for
Correction may be made by person harmonic content for 25, 50, 85, and 100
originating the entry who shall strike out per cent modulation for fundamental
the erroneous portion, initial correction frequencies of 50, 100, 400, 1000, 5000,
made and show date of correction. and 7500 cps; (3) data showing per-

22
centage carrier shift for 25, 50, 85, and Ans. No change in the last radio stage,
100 per cent modulation with 400 cps the number of vacuum tubes, nor change
tone; (4) carrier hum and extraneous to vacuum tubes of different power rating
noise generated within the equipment and or class of operation, nor change in
measured as the level below 100 per cent system or modulation without authority
modulation throughout the audio spec- of the FCC. Other changes which do not
trum or by bands; and (5) measurements affect the maximum power rating or
or evidence that spurious radiations in- operating power of the transmitter or the
cluding radio frequency harmonics are operation or precision of the frequency
suppressed or are not causing objection- control equipment may be made at any
able interference. time without authority of the FCC.
3.18 What are the specifications of a 3.23 What is the FCC requirement
plate current meter in the last radio stage regarding maintenance of operating
of atransmitter? power?
Ans. Length of scale not less than 2.3 Ans. As practicable, but not above 5%
inches; accuracy at least 2% of full-scale nor below 10% of licensed power.
reading; maximum rating shall not read 3.24 What is frequency tolerance at
off-scale during modulation; scale must standard broadcast stations?
have at least 40 divisions; full scale Ans. ± 20 cycles of assigned fre-
reading shall not be greater than five quency.
times the minimum normal indication. 3.25 What are the FCC requirements
3.19 Under what conditions may re- concerning stations which operate their
mote reading antenna ammeters be used transmitters by remote control?
to indicate antenna current? Ans. Operation by remote control
Ans. When the transmission line cur- shall be subject to the following condi-
rent meter is used at transmitter. tions: (1) the equipment at the operating
3.20 (a) What is the maximum tem- and transmitting positions shall be so
perature variation at the normal operating installed and protected that it is not
temperature when using X or Y cut accessible to or capable of operation by
crystals? (b) When using low temperature persons other than those duly authorized
coefficient crystals? by the licensee; (2) the control circuits
Ans. (a) Not greater than ±0.1 °C; (b) from the operating positions to the trans-
±1.0 °C. mitter shall provide positive on and off
3.21 Who keeps the keys to the fence control and shall be such that open
which surrounds the antenna base at a circuits, short circuits, grounds or other
standard broadcast station? Where are the line faults will not actuate the transmitter
keys usually kept? and any fault causing loss of such control
Ans. In possession of the operator on will automatically place the transmitter in
duty at the transmitter. an inoperative position; (3) amalfunction
3.22 Changes to the broadcast trans- of any part of the remote control equip-
mitter of what general nature require ment and associated line circuits resulting
FCC approval? What types of changes or in improper control or inaccurate meter
alterations do not require approval? readings shall be cause for the immediate

23
cessation of operation by remote control; directional antennas, in which case aFirst
(4) control and monitoring equipment Class operator must be on duty at all
shall be installed so as to allow the times during directional operation.
licensed operator at the remote control
point to perform all the functions in a 3.28 During what period of time pre-
manner required by the FCC's rules; (5) ceding the date of filing for arenewal of
the indications at the remote control the station license should such measure-
point of the antenna current meter or, for ments be made?
directional antennas, the common point Ans. During a four-month period be-
current meter and remote base current fore filing renewal applications.
meters shall be read and entered in the
3.29 (a) Explain how operating power
operating log each half hour; (6) the
is computed using direct measurement;
indications at the transmitter, if adirec-
(b) Using indirect measurement; (c) Un-
tional antenna station, of the common
der what conditions at astandard broad-
point current, base currents, phase
cast station may the indirect method be
monitor sample loop currents and phase
used?
indications shall be read and entered in
Ans. (a) Resistance is determined by
the operating log once each day for each
taking measurements at 5, 10, 15 and 20
pattern. These readings must be made
kc on each side of operating frequency.
within two hours after the commence-
These readings are plotted and asmooth
ment of operation for each pattern.
curve developed. Where the operating
All stations, whether operating by re-
frequency cuts the curve is the antenna
mote control or direct control, shall be
resistance. Operating power is the square
equipped so as to be able to follow the
of the antenna current times the resist-
prescribed procedure for Emergency
ance. (b) Computed from the plate input
Broadcast Service in event of national
power of the last radio stage and is the
emergency.
product of En X 1 p X F. F is a factor
3.26 At what place must the station
based on method of modulation, maxi-
license be posted? Where must the li-
mum rated carrier power and class of
censes of the operator be posted?
amplifier. (c) Emergency, where antenna
Ans. Station license: In aconspicuous
system has been damaged; pending com-
place at the principal control point of the
pletion of changes in antenna system or
transmitter; a photocopy at each other
any change affecting antenna system.
control point is also required. Operator
3.30 What is the FCC requirement as
license: Original license or FCC Form 759
to maintenance of percentage of modula-
of each operator at his place of duty.
tion?
3.27 What are the operator require- Ans. As high as possible along with
ments for AM broadcast stations? good quality of transmission and broad-
Ans. Third Class permit with Broad- cast practice. It must not exceed 100% on
cast Endorsement, provided that a First negative peaks of frequent recurrence,
Class licensed operator is on call, except nor should it be less than S5% on peaks
in the case of certain stations employing of frequent recurrence except as neces-

24
sary to avoid objectionable loudness. Ans. (a) All readings pertaining to
3.31 (a) What should be done if the transmitting apparatus. (b) All readings,
station's modulation monitor becomes tests, and results of equipment installa-
defective? (b) If the frequency monitor tion and grounds inspections.
becomes defective? 3.35 How long must the station's logs
Ans. (a) The station may be operated be kept?
up to 60 days without FCC authority, Ans. Two years. However, logs with
pending repair or replacement. During entries about a disaster, investigation by
this time modulation will be monitored the FCC, will be kept until the FCC
with cathode ray oscilloscope, or other authorizes their destruction. Logs in-
means. Engineer in Charge will be noti- volving claims or complaints shall be kept
fied immediately of defect and whenever until settled or when statute time limit
additional time is needed to correct. runs out.
Entries in maintenance log showing date 3.36 What information (logs and
and time, when removed and restored to records) must be made available to an
service; (b) same requirements as in (a) authorized FCC employee?
except frequency of station shall be Ans. All logs, equipment performance
measured by an external source at least records, copy of most recent antenna
each 7days and results entered in mainte- resistance or common-point impedance
nance log. measurements submitted to the FCC and
3.32 Under what conditions may a copy of most recent field intensity meas-
standard broadcast station use its facili- urements to establish performance of
ties for communications directly with directional antennas.
individuals or other stations? What notice 3.37 What specific equipment per-
shall be given when astation is operating formance measurements must be made at
during alocal emergency? all FM broadcast stations on an annual
Ans. When there is asevere emergency basis?
and communications are to dispatch aid, Ans. Audio frequency response, audio
assist in rescue, promote safety of life and frequency harmonic distortion, output
property, and reduce hardship. Notify the noise level (frequency modulation), and
FCC in Washington, D. C., Engineer in output noise level (amplitude modula-
Charge of District, of use to which station tion).
is being put, at the start and end of 3.38 During what time period may an
operations. FM broadcast station transmit signals for
3.33 How many times and when must testing and maintenance purposes?
the station's operating log be signed by an Ans. Between 1:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m.
operator who goes on duty at 10 a.m. and 3.39 What are the operator license
off duty at 6p.m.? requirements for FM broadcast stations?
Ans. Usually twice; upon going on and Ans. One or more operators holding
coming off duty. aThird Class permit, endorsed for broad-
3.34 (a) What entries shall be made in cast operation (Element IX). However,
the operating log? (b) In the station's a First Class licensed operator must be
maintenance log? on call.

25
 3.40 By what methods may operating modulation of main carrier by SCA sub-
power at FM broadcast stations be com- carriers shall not exceed 30% -- 10% for
puted? stereophonic broadcast; FM of main car-
rier caused by SCA subcarrier shall, in
Ans. By direct or indirect method. frequency range 50 to 15,000 cycles, be
at least 60 db below 100% modulation.
3.41 What is the allowable frequency
tolerance at FM broadcast stations? 3.45 What are the licensed operator
requirements for aTV broadcast station?
Ans. The center frequency shall be An FM broadcast station? A 5-kilowatt,
maintained within 2000 cycles of the nighttime directional standard broadcast
assigned frequency. station?

3.42 What is SCA? What are some Ans. For a TV broadcast station, one
possible uses of SCA? or more licensed radiotelephone First
Class operators must be on duty where
Ans. SCA means Subsidiary Communi- the transmitting equipment is located,
cations Authorization. It permits limited and in actual charge thereof when the
types of secondary services on a multi- equipment is in operation.
plex basis. Possible uses are: (1) Trans- At an FM broadcast station, one or
missions of interest to segments of public more operators holding a Third Class
wishing to subscribe thereto, and (2) permit, endorsed for broadcast operation,
transmissions of signals directly related to must be on duty, provided that a First
operation of FM broadcast stations. Class licensed operator is on call.
Adjustment of transmitting equipment
3.43 What items must be included in by lower-class operators, except when
an SCA operating log? under the immediate supervision of a
radiotelephone First Class operator, shall
Ans. The times subcarrier generator is be limited to the following; (1) putting
turned on and off; and times modulation the transmitter on and off the air in a
is applied to, and removed from sub- routine manner; (2) making external ad-
carrier. Daily entries are made excluding justments required as a result of vari-
subcarrier interruptions of 5 minutes or ations of primary power supply; (3)
less. making external adjustments required to
insure proper modulation.
3.44 What are the transmission stand- Should the transmitting equipment be
ards of subsidiary communications multi- observed to be operating improperly, an
plex operations? operator holding a license other than
First Class must shut down the equip-
Ans. FM of SCA subcarriers shall be ment and call aradiotelephone First Class
used; instantaneous frequency shall be operator to make the necessary repairs
within 20 to 75 kc -- range for stereo- and adjustments. Every FM station with
phonic broadcast is 53 to 75 kc; sum of power over 25 kw must have at least one

26
First Class licensed operator in full-time of last radio stage of aural transmitter
employment, whose primary duties are to (total plate voltage and plate current). (2)
insure proper equipment operation. Transmission line meter readings for both
For an AM broadcast using a highly transmitters. (d) Any other entries re-
critical or unstable directional antenna, a quired by the instrument of authorization
First Class licensed operator is required or the provisions of this part. (e) The
on duty during directional operation. In entries required for tower light inspec-
less critical installations, a Third Class tions.
operator may be employed, but only if The following entries shall be made in
aFirst Class operator is on call. the maintenance log: (a) An entry each
3.46 What is the frequency tolerance week of the time and result of test of
for television stations? auxiliary transmitters. (b) A notation
Ans. (a) The carrier frequency of the each week of the calibration check of
visual transmitter shall be maintained automatic recording devices. (c) An entry
within ± 1000 cycles of the authorized describing the method used and the re-
carrier frequency. (b) The center fre- sults obtained in determining the oper-
quency of the aural transmitter shall be ating frequency of the transmitter: (1)
maintained 4.5 megacycles ± 1000 cycles, Whenever the required frequency check is
above the visual camer frequency. made. (2) Whenever the required fre-
3.47 What items must be included in a quency measurement is made. (d) An
television station's operating log? What entry of the date and time of removal
items must be included in a television from and restoration to service of any of
station's maintenance log? the following equipment in the event it
Ans. The following entries shall be becomes defective: (1) Visual modulation
made in the operating log by the properly monitoring equipment or aural modula-
licensed operator in actual charge of the tion monitor. (2) Final stage plate volt-
transmitting apparatus only: (a) An entry meters of aural and visual transmitters.
of the time the station begins to supply (3) Final stage plate ammeters of aural
power to the antenna and the time it and visual transmitters. (4) Visual and
stops. (b) An entry of each interruption aural transmitter transmission line radio
of the carrier wave, where restoration is frequency voltage, current, or power
not automatic, its cause and duration meter. (e) Record of tower light inspec-
followed by the signature of the person tions. (f) Entries shall be made so as to
restoring operation (if licensed operator describe fully any operation for testing
other than the licensed operator on and maintenance purposes.
duty). (c) An entry, at the beginning of 3.48 (a) How is operating power deter-
operation and at intervals not exceeding mined for the visual transmitter at a
one-half hour, of the following (actual television broadcast station? (b) For the
readings observed prior to making any aural transmitter?
adjustments to the equipment) and, when Ans. (a) Average power output shall
appropriate, an indication of corrections be measured while operating into a
made to restore parameters to normal dummy load of substantially zero re-
operating values: (1) Operating constants actance and a resistance equal to the

27
transmission line characteristic imped- Ans. It consists of two 5-second car-
ance. During this measurement the trans- rier breaks and 15 seconds of 1000 cps
mitter shall be modulated only by a tone. It is followed by the warning or
standard synchronizing signal with blank- other message.
ing level set at 75 per cent of peak 3.50 Under normal conditions all
amplitude as observed in an output moni- standard FM and TV broadcast stations
tor, and with this blanking level ampli- must make what provisions for receiving
tude maintained throughout the time Emergency Action Notifications and
interval between synchronizing pulses. Terminations?
The peak power output shall be the Ans. Licensees are required to install,
power so measured in the dummy load maintain, and operate radio receiving
multiplied by the factor 1.68. During this equipment for such messages.
measurement the direct plate voltage and 3.51 What type of station identifica-
current of the last radio stage and the tion shall be given during an Emergency
transmission line meter shall be read and Action Condition?
compared with similar readings taken Ans. No broadcast of call letters; only
with the dummy load replaced by the State and Operational Area identifica-
antenna. These readings shall be in sub- tions will be given.
stantial agreement. (b) Determined by 3.52 Must stations operate in accord-
either the direct or indirect method: (1) ance with Section 73.57 (about mainte-
Using the direct method, the power shall nance of operating power) of the FCC
be measured at the output terminals of Rules during an Emergency Action Con-
the transmitter while operating into a dition?
dummy load of substantially zero re- Ans. No, not while operating under
actance and a resistance equal to the NDEA.
transmission line characteristic imped- 3.53 How often and at what times
ance. The transmitter shall be unmodu- must EBS tests be sent?
lated during this measurement. During Ans. Once each week on an unsched-
this measurement the direct plate voltage uled basis between 8:30 a.m. and local
and current of the last radio stage and the sunset.
transmission line meter shall be read and SPECIAL BROADCAST SERVICES
compared with similar readings taken
with the dummy load replaced by the 3.54 What is the uppermost power
antenna. These readings shall be in sub- limitation imposed on remote pickup
stantial agreement. (2) Using the indirect broadcast stations? STL (studio trans-
method, the operating power is the mitter link) stations? Intercity relay
product of the plate voltage (E r)and the broadcast stations?
plate current (I r)of the last radio stage, Ans. Not more than 5% above the
and an efficiency factor, F, as follows: maximum authorized power for all these
stations.
Operating power = Ep X 1
p XF
3.55 What records of operation must
3.49 Describe the Emergency Action be maintained for each licensed remote
Notification Attention Signal. pickup broadcast station?

28
 Ans. Hours of operation; program lighted and the lights are controlled by a
transmitted; frequency check; remarks light-sensitive device and the device mal-
about transmission; entry giving points of functions, when should the tower lights
program origination and receiver location; be on?
where an antenna structure(s) is required Ans. Sunset to sunrise.
to be illuminated. 3.62 As ageneral rule, alight-sensitive
3.56 What is the basic difference be- device used to control tower lights should
tween STL and Intercity Relay broadcast face which direction?
stations? Ans. North.
Ans. STL stations can transmit pro- 3.63 If the operation of a station's
gram material only between the studio tower lights are not continuously moni-
and transmitter location of a broadcast tored by an alarm device, how often
station; the Intercity Relay station is should the lights be visually checked?
authorized to transmit between broadcast Ans. At least once each 24 hours.
stations. 3.64 How often should automatic con-
3.57 What type of antenna must be trol devices and alarm circuits associated
used with STL and Intercity Relay broad- with antenna tower lights be checked for
cast stations? proper operation?
Ans. Directional. Ans. Not less than once every three
3.58 What is the frequency tolerance months.
provided by FCC Rules for an STL 3.65 What items regarding the oper-
(studio transmitter link) and Intercity ation of antenna tower lighting should be
Relay broadcast station? included in the station's maintenance log?
Ans. ± 0.005 per cent of the assigned Ans. The licensee of any radio station
frequency. which has an antenna structure requiring
illumination shall make the following
ANTENNAS entries in the station record of the inspec-
tions: (a) The time the tower lights are
3.59 Under what two general condi- turned on and off each day if manually
tions must antenna structures be painted controlled. (b) The time the daily check
and lighted? of proper operation of the tower lights
Ans. When higher than 200 feet above was made, if automatic alarm system is
ground or when aeronautical study is not provided. (c) In the event of any
required. observed or otherwise known extinguish-
3.60 What color(s) should antenna ment or improper functioning of atower
structures be painted? Where can paint light: (1) Nature of such extinguishment
samples be obtained? or improper functioning. (2) Date and
Ans. With alternate bands of aviation time the extinguishment or improper
surface orange and white. Specifications functioning was observed, or otherwise
for paint can be obtained from General noted. (3) Date, time, and nature of the
Services Administration, Washington, adjustments, repairs or replacements
D.C. 20407. made. (4) Identification of Flight Service
3.61 If a tower is required to be Station (Federal Aviation Administra-

29
tion) notified of the extinguishment of replacement at all times.
improper functioning of any code or 3.68 Generally speaking, how soon,
rotating beacon light or top light not after adefect in the antenna tower lights
corrected within 30 minutes, and the date is noted, should the defect be corrected?
and time such notice was given. (5) Date Ans. As soon as possible.
and time notice was given to the Flight 3.69 What action should be taken if
Service Station (Federal Aviation Admin- the tower lights at astation malfunction
istration) that the required illumination and cannot be repaired immediately?
was resumed. (d) Upon completion of the Ans. Report immediately by tele-
periodic inspection required at least once phone or telegraph to the nearest airways
each 3 months: (1) The date of the communications station or office of the
inspection and the condition of all tower Federal Aviation Agency any observed
lights and associated tower lighting con- failure of any code or rotating beacon
trol devices, indicators and alarm systems. light if such failure is not corrected
(2) Any adjustments, replacements, or within thirty minutes after observation
repairs made to insure compliance with thereof. Further, notify the above station
the lighting requirements and the date or office immediately upon resumption
such adjustments, replacements or repairs of the required illumination. Data con-
were made. cerning the failure of tower lights must
3.66 Generally speaking, how often also be recorded in the station log.
should the antenna tower be painted? Include in the log entry the nature of the
Ans. As necessary to maintain good failure, the date and time the failure was
visibility. observed, and the date, time, and nature
3.67 Is it necessary to have replace- of the adjustments, repairs, or replace-
ment lamps for the station's antenna ments made. In the event of failure of
tower lights? rotating or beacon lights, the time of
Ans. A sufficient supply of spare notifying the Federal Aviation Agency
lamps shall be maintained for immediate must also be entered.

30
 Glossary --FCC Words and Phrases

CONTENTS PAGE

I General Definitions 32
II Experimental Radio Service (other than broadcast) 47
III Radio Frequency Devices 47
IV Industrial, Scientific and Medical Equipment 48
V Broadcast Services (including television) 49
VI Maritime Services (Land and Shipboard Stations) 64
VII Aviation Services 74
VIII Public Safety Radio Services 78
IX Industrial Radio Services 79
X Land Transportation Radio Services 79
XI Citizens Radio Service 81
XII Amateur Radio Service 81
XIII Disaster Communications Service 82
XIV Domestic Public Radio Services 83

HOW TO USE THIS GLOSSARY

When the Service is shown separately, use the section first. Whenever
the word or phrase is not shown, use Section I-General Definitions next.

These groupings by Service are arranged for your convenient reference

when studying for the exam. Necessarily, all definitions are not shown
because some of them are very simple or familiar.

An asterisk (*) with a word means an often asked definition in

examination. Know these words very well.

31
 I General Definitions

Active satellite. An earth satellite carrying a station intended to transmit or

retransmit radiocommunication signals.

Alaska Communication System or ACS. The telecommunication system within

Alaska and between Alaska and other areas which is operated by the United States
Army Signal Corps.

Alaska-public fixed station. A fixed station in Alaska, which is open to public

correspondence and is licensed by the Commission for radiocommunication between
specified fixed points in Alaska exclusively.

Antenna power gain. The square of the ratio of the root-mean-square free space
field intensity produced at one mile in the horizontal plane, in millivolts per meter for
one kilowatt antenna input power to 137.6 mv/m. This ratio should be expressed in
decibels (db). (If specified for aparticular direction, antenna power gain is based on
the field strength in that direction only.)

Antenna power input. The radio frequency peak or RMS power, as the case may
be, supplied to the antenna from the antenna transmission line and its associated
impedance matching network.

Antenna structures. The term "antenna structure" includes the radiating system, its
supporting structures, and any surmounting appurtenances.

Assigned frequency. The frequency coinciding with the center of an authorized

bandwidth of emission shall be specified as the assigned frequency.

Aural broadcast intercity relay station. A fixed station utilizing telephony for the
transmission of aural program material between broadcasting stations other than
international broadcasting stations, for simultaneous or delayed broadcast.

Aural broadcast STL (studio transmitter link) station. A fixed station utilizing
telephony for the transmission of aural program material between astudio and the
transmitter of abroadcasting station other than an international broadcasting station,
for simultaneous or delayed broadcast.

*Authorized bandwidth. The authorized bandwidth is the occupied bandwidth

authorized to be used by astation.

32
 Authorized carrier frequency. A specific carrier frequency authorized for use by a
station, from which the actual or suppressed carrier frequency is permitted to deviate,
solely because of frequency instability, by an amount not to exceed the frequency
tolerance.

Authorized frequency. The frequency assigned to astation by the Commission and

specified in the instrument of authorization.

Authorized power. The power assigned to aradio station by the Commission and
specified in the instrument of authorization. The authorized power does not
necessarily correspond to the power used by the Commission for purposes of its
Master Frequency Record (MFR) and notification to the International Telecommuni-
cation Union.

*Bandwidth occupied by an emission. The width of the frequency band (normally

specified in kilocycles) containing those frequencies upon which atotal of 99 percent
of the radiated power appears, extended to include any discrete frequency upon which
the power is at least 0.25 percent of the total radiated power.

Baseband. In the process of modulation, the baseband is the frequency band

occupied by the aggregate of the modulating signals when first used to modulate a
carrier.

*Base station. A land station in the land mobile service carrying on aservice with
land mobile stations.

Broadcasting service. A radiocommunication service in which the transmissions are

intended for direct reception by the general public. This service may include sound
transmissions, television transmissions or other types of transmissions.

Broadcasting station. A station in the broadcasting service.

*Carrier. In a frequency stabilized system, the sinusoidal component of a

modulated wave whose frequency is independent of the modulating wave; or the
output of atransmitter when the modulating wave is made zero; or awave generated
at apoint in the transmitting system and subsequently modulated by the signal; or a
wave generated locally at the receiving terminal which, when combined with the side
bands in asuitable detector, produces the modulating wave.

*Carrier frequency. The frequency of the carrier.

Carrier power. The average power supplied to the antenna transmission line by a
transmitter during one radio frequency cycle under conditions of no modulation. This
definition does not apply to pulse modulated emissions.

33
 Citizens radio service. A radiocommunication service of fixed, land, and mobile
stations intended for personal or business radiocommunications, radio signalling,
control of remote objects or devices by means of radio, and other purposes not
specifically prohibited.

*Coast station. A land station in the maritime mobile service.

"Common carrier" or "carrier". "Common carrier" or "carrier" means any person

engaged as acommon carrier for hire, in interstate or foreign communication by wire
or radio or in interstate or foreign radio transmission of energy, except where
reference is made to common carriers not subject to the Communications Act of 1934,
as amended; but a person engaged in radio broadcasting shall not, insofar as such
person is so engaged, be deemed acommon carrier.

Common carrier fixed station. A fixed station open to public correspondence.

Common carrier land station. A land station open to public correspondence.

Common carrier mobile station. A mobile station open to public correspondence.

Communication common carrier. Any person engaged in rendering communication

service for hire to the public.

Communication-satellite earth station. An earth station in the communication-

satellite service.

Communication-satellite service. A space service: (a) between earth stations, when

using active or passive satellites for the exchange of communications of the fixed or
mobile service, or (b) between an earth station and stations on active satellites for the
exchange of communications of the mobile service, with aview to their re-transmission
to or from stations in the mobile service.

Communication-satellite space station. A space station in the communication-

satellite service, on an earth satellite.

Community antenna relay service. A fixed service, the stations of which are used
for the transmission of television and related audio signals, and signals of standard and
FM broadcasting stations, to aterminal point from which the signals are distributed to
the public by cable.

Community antenna relay station. A fixed station in the community antenna relay
service.

34
 Control point. A control point is an operating position which is under the control
and supervision of the licensee, at which a person immediately responsible for the
proper operation of the transmitter is stationed, and at which adequate means are
available to aurally monitor all transmissions and to render the transmitter inoperative.

Control station. A fixed station whose transmissions are used to control automati-
cally the emissions or operations of another radio station at aspecified location, or to
transmit automatically to an alarm center telemetering information relative to the
operation of such station.

Deep space. Space at distances from the earth equal to or greater than the distance
between the earth and the moon.

Developmental broadcast station. A station licensed experimentally to carry on

development and research primarily in radiotelephony for the advancement of the
broadcast services.

Disaster communications service. A service of fixed, land, and mobile stations

licensed or authorized to provide essential communications incident to or in
connection with disaster or other incidents which involve loss of communications
facilities normally available or which require the temporary establishment of
communications facilities beyond those normally available.

Dispatch point. A dispatch point is any position from which messages may be
transmitted under the supervision of the person at acontrol point.

Domestic fixed public service. A fixed service, the stations of which are open to
public correspondence, for radiocommunications originating and terminating solely at
points all of which lie within: (a) the State of Alaska, or (b) the State of Hawaii, or (c)
the contiguous 48 states and the District of Columbia, or (d) asingle possession of the
United States. Generally, in cases where service is afforded on frequencies above 72
mc/s, radiocommunications between the contiguous 48 States (including the District
of Columbia) and Canada or Mexico, or radiocommunications between the State of
Alaska and Canada, are deemed to be in the domestic fixed public service.

Domestic fixed public station. A fixed station in the domestic fixed public service.

Domestic public radiocommunication services. The land mobile and domestic fixed
public services the stations of which are open to public correspondence.

Duplex operation. Operating method in which transmission is possible simultane-

ously in both directions.

35
 *Earth station. A station in the space service located either on the earth's surface,
including on board aship, or on board an aircraft.

Environmental communications. Communications in the maritime mobile service

for the broadcast of information pertaining to the enviromtiental conditions, in which
vessels operate, i.e., weather, sea conditions, time signals of a grade adequate for
practical navigation, notices to mariners and hazards to navigation.

Experimental station. A station utilizing radio waves in experiments with aview to

the development of science or technique. This definition does not include amateur
stations.

Experimental television broadcast station. A station licensed for experimental

transmission of transient visual images of moving or fixed objects for simultaneous
reception and reproduction by the general public.

Facsimile. A system of telecommunication for the transmission of fixed images,

with or without halftones, with aview to their reproduction in apermanent form.

Facsimile broadcasting station. A station licensed to transmit images of still objects

for record reception by the general public.

Fixed earth station. An earth station intended to be used at aspecified fixed point.

Fixed public control service. A fixed service carried on for the purpose of
transmitting intelligence between transmitting or receiving stations in the public
radiocommunication services and the message centers or control points associated
therewith.

Fixed relay station. An operational fixed station established for the automatic
retransmission of radiocommunications received from either one or more fixed
stations or from acombination of fixed and mobile stations and directed to aspecified
location.

Fixed service. A service of radiocommunication between specified fixed points.

*Fixed station. A station in the fixed service.

FM broadcasting station. A broadcasting station utilizing telephony by means of

frequency modulation, and when authorized under a Subsidiary Communications
Authorization (SCA), utilizing F9 emissions.

Frequency modulation (FM). A system of modulation where the instantaneous

36
radio frequency varies in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal (amplitude of modulating signal to be measured after pre-emphasis, if used) and
the instantaneous radio frequency is independent of the frequency of the modulating
signal.

Frequency tolerance. The extent to which an actual or suppressed carrier frequency

is permitted to depart, solely because of frequency instability, from the authorized
carrier frequency. The frequency tolerance is expressed in parts in 10 6 or in cycles per
second.

Gc/s (gigacycle per second). A gigacycle per second (gc/s) means one thousand
megacycles.

Great Lakes Agreement. The Agreement for the Promotion of Safety on the Great
Lakes by Means of Radio and the regulations referred to therein, made by and
between the Governments of the United States and Canada, which came into force on
November 13,1954.

*Harmful interference. Any emission, radiation or induction which endangers the

functioning of a radionavigation service or of other safety services or seriously
degrades, obstructs, or repeatedly interrupts aradiocommunication service.

Hertz. A unit of frequency equivalent to one cycle per second. The terms Hertz
(Hz) and cycle(s) per second (c/s) are synonymous and may be used interchangeably.

Hours of service. The period of time during each calendar day when astation is
used, in conformity with the terms of the station authorization, for the rendition of its
normal service.

Industrial radio services. Any service of radiocommunication essential to, operated

by, and for the sole use of, those enterprises which for purposes of safety or other
necessity require radiocommunication in order to function efficiently, the radio
transmitting facilities of which are defined as fixed, land, mobile or radiolocation
stations.

Industrial, scientific and medical equipment (ISM equipment). Devices which use
radio waves for industrial, scientific, medical, or any other purposes including the
transfer of energy by radio and which are neither used nor intended to be used for
radiocommunication.

Instructional television fixed station. A fixed station operated by an educational

organization and used primarily for the transmission of visual and aural instructional,

37
cultural and other types of educational material to one or more fixed receiving
locations.

ITFS response station. A fixed station operated at an authorized location to provide

voice communication to an associated instructional television fixed station.

International broadcasting station. A broadcasting station employing frequencies

allocated to the broadcasting service between 5950 kc/s and 26100 kcis, whose
transmissions are intended to be received directly by the general public in foreign
countries.

International control station. A fixed station in the fixed public control service
associated directly with the international fixed public radiocommunication service.

International fixed public radio service. A fixed service, the stations of which are
open to public correspondence and which, in general, is intended to provide
radiocommunication between any one of the contiguous 48 states (including the
District of Columbia) and the State of Alaska, or the State of Hawaii, or any U. S.
possession or any foreign point; or between any U. S. possession and any other point;
or between the State of Alaska and any other point; or between the State of Hawaii
and any other point. In addition, radiocommunications within the contiguous 48
states (including the District of Columbia) in connection with the relaying of
international traffic between stations which provide the above service, are also deemed
to be in the international fixed public radiocommunication service; provided, however,
that communications solely between Alaska, or any one of the contiguous 48 states
(including the District of Columbia), and either Canada or Mexico are not deemed to
be in the international fixed public radiocommunication service when such radio-
communications are transmitted on frequencies above 72 mc/s.

International fixed public station. A fixed station in the international fixed public
radio service.

International Radio Regulations. The Radio Regulations in force annexed to the

International Telecommunication Convention, Geneva, 1959, as between the Govern-
ment of the United States and other Contracting Governments; and such preceding
international radio regulations as remain in force between the Government of the
United States and other Contracting Governments.

Interzone station. A fixed station in the public safety (police) radio service using
radiotelegraphy (Al emission) for communication with zone stations within the zone
and with interzone stations in other zones.

Ionospheric scatter. The propagation of radio waves by scattering as a result of

irregularities or discontinuities in the ionization of the ionosphere.

38
 Kc/s (kilocycle per second). A kilocycle per second (kc/s) means one thousand
cycles per second.

*Land mobile service. A mobile service between base stations and land mobile
stations, or between land mobile stations.

Land mobile station. A mobile station in the land mobile service capable of surface
movement within the geographical limits of acountry or continent.

*Land station. A station in the mobile service not intended to be used while in
motion.

Land transportation radio service. Any private service of radiocommunication

essential to the conduct of certain land transportation activities and operated for the
use of persons engaged in those activities, the transmitting facilities of which are
defined as fixed, land, mobile or radiolocation stations.

Loran station. A long distance radionavigation land station transmitting synchro-

nized pulses. Hyperbolic lines of position are determined by the measurement of the
difference in the time of arrival of these pulses.

Man-made structure. Any construction other than atower, mast or pole.

Marine radiobeacon station. A radionavigation land station, the emissions of which

are intended to enable aship station to determine its bearing or its direction in relation
to the marine radiobeacon station.

Maritime mobile service. A mobile service between coast stations and ship stations,
or between ship stations, in which survival craft stations may also participate.

Maritime radionavigation service. A radionavigation service intended for the benefit

of ships.

Mc/s (megacycle per second). A megacycle per second (mc/s) means one thousand
kilocycles.

Mean power of radio transmitter. The power supplied to the antenna during normal
operation, averaged over a time sufficiently long compared to the period corre-
sponding to the lowest frequency encountered in actual modulation.

39
 Meteorological aids service. A radiocommunication service used for meteorological,
including hydrological, observations and exploration.

Meteorological-satellite earth station. An earth station in the meteorological-

satellite service.

Meteorological-satellite service. A space service in which the results of meteoro-

logical observations, made by instruments on earth satellites, are transmitted to earth
stations by space stations on these satellites.

Meteorological-satellite space station. A space station in the meteorological-satellite

service, on an earth satellite.

Mobile earth station. An earth station intended to be used while in motion or

during halts at unspecified points.

Mobile, except television pickup, station. Any mobile station other than a
television pickup station.

Mobile relay station. A base station established for the automatic retransmission of
mobile service communications which originate on the transmitting frequency of the
mobile stations and which are retransmitted on the receiving frequency of the mobile
stations.

*Mobile service. A service of radiocommunication between mobile and land

stations, or between mobile stations.

Mobile station. A station in the mobile service intended to be used while in motion
or during halts at unspecified points.

Modulation. The process of producing awave some characteristic of which varies as

afunction of the instantaneous value of another wave, called the modulating wave.

NARBA and the U.S./Mexican Agreement. "NARBA" means the North American
Regional Broadcasting Agreement signed at Washington, D. C., November 15, 1950,
which entered into force April 19, 1960 and to which the signatory countries are The
Bahama Islands and Jamaica, Canada, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and the United
States of America. U.S./Mexican Agreement means the Agreement between the United
States of America and the United Mexican States concerning radio broadcasting in the
standard broadcast band signed at Mexico, D.F., January 29, 1957 which entered into
force June 9, 1961.

Occupied Bandwidth. The frequency bandwidth such that, below its lower and
above its upper frequency limits, the mean powers radiated are each equal to 0.5
percent of the total mean power radiated by agiven emission.

40
 Operational land station. A land station, excluding aeronautical stations, not open
to public correspondence, operated by and for the sole use of those agencies operating
their own radiocommunication facilities in the public safety, industrial, land
transportation, marine or aviation services.

Operational mobile station. A mobile station, excluding aircraft stations, not open
to public correspondence, operated by and for the sole use of those agencies operating
their own communication facilities in the public safety, industrial, land transportation,
marine or aviation services.

Passive satellite. An earth satellite intended to transmit radiocommunication signals

by reflection.

Peak envelope power. The average power supplied to the antenna transmission line
by a transmitter during one radio frequency cycle at the highest crest of the
modulation envelope, taken under conditions of normal operation.

Peak power of aradio transmitter. The mean power supplied to the antenna during
one radio frequency cycle at the highest crest of the modulation envelope, taken under
conditions of normal operation.

Perrnittee. A person who holds avalid station construction permit.

Person. An individual, partnership, association, joint stock company, trust, or

corporation.

Point of communication. This term, when applied to an Alaska-public fixed station,

means a specified fixed station or specified geographic location with which such
station is authorized to communicate.

Port operations. Communications in or near a port, or in locks or waterways,

between coast stations and ship stations, or between ship stations, in which messages
are restricted to those relating to the movement and safety of ships and, in emergency,
to the safety of persons.

*Primary standard of frequency. The primary standard of frequency for radio

frequency measurements shall be the national standard of frequency maintained by
the National Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. The
operating frequency of all radio stations will be determined by comparison with this
standard or the standard signals of station WWV of the National Bureau of Standards.

Public correspondence. Any telecommunication which the offices and stations

must, by reason of their being at the disposal of the public, accept for transmission.

Public safety radio service. Any service of radiocommunication essential either to

the discharge of non-Federal governmental functions or the alleviation of an
emergency endangering life or property, the radio transmitting facilities of which are
defined as fixed, land, mobile, or radiolocation stations.

41
 Racon. A radionavigation system transmitting, automatically or in response to a
predetermined received signal, apulsed radio signal with specific characteristics.

Racon station. A radionavigation land station which employs aracon.

Radar. A radiodetermination system based on comparison of reference signals with

radio signals reflected, or retransmitted, from the position to be determined.

Radio. A general term applied to the use of radio waves.

Radio astronomy. Astronomy based on the reception of radio waves of cosmic

origin.

Radio astronomy service. A service involving the use of radio astronomy.

Radio astronomy station. A station in the radio astronomy service.

Radiobeacon station. A station in the radionavigation service, the emissions of

which are intended to enable amobile station to determine its bearing or direction in
relation to the radiobeacon station.

Radiocommunication. Telecommunication by means of radio waves.

Radiodetermination. The determination of position, or the obtaining of infor-

mation relating to position, by means of the propagation properties of radio waves.

Radiodetermination service. A service involving the use of radiodetermination.

Radiodetermination station. A station in the radiodetermination service.

Radio direction-finding. Radiodetermination using the reception of radio waves for

the purpose of determining the direction of astation or object.

Radio direction-finding station. A radiodetermination station using radio direction-

finding.

Radio district. The territory within each radio district.

Radiolocation. Radiodetermination used for purposes other than those of radio-

navigation.

Radiolocation land station. A station in the radiolocation service not intended to

be used while in motion.

42
 Radiolocation mobile station. A station in the radiolocation service intended to be
used while in motion or during halts at unspecified points.

Radiolocation service. A radiodetennination service involving the use of radio.

location.

Radionavigation. Radiodetermination used for the purposes of navigation, in-

cluding obstruction warning.

Radionavigation land station. A station in the radionavigation service not intended

to be used while in motion.

Radionavigation mobile station. A station in the radionavigation service intended to

be used while in motion or during halts at unspecified points.

Radionavigation-satellite earth station. An earth station in the radionavigation-

satellite service.

Radionavigation-satellite service. A service using space stations on earth satellites

for the purpose of radionavigation, including, in certain cases, transmission or
re-transmission of supplementary information necessary for the operation of the
radionavigation system.

Radionavigation-satellite space station. A space station in the radionavigation-

satellite service, on an earth satellite.

Radionavigation service. A radiodetermination service involving the use of radio-

navigation.

Radionavigation station. A station in the radionavigation service.

Radio range station. A radionavigation land station in the aeronautical radio-

navigation service providing radial equisignal zones.

Radiosonde. An automatic radio transmitter in the meteorological aids service

usually carried on an aircraft, free balloon, kite or parachute, and which transmits
meteorological data.

Radio service. An administrative subdivision of the field of radiocommunication. In

an engineering sense, the subdivisions may be made according to the method of
operation, as, for example, mobile service and fixed service. In aregulatory sense, the
subdivisions may be descriptive of particular groups of licensees.

43
 Radio waves (or Hertzian waves). Electromagnetic waves of frequencies lower than
3,000 gc/s (3,000,000 mc/s), propagated in space without artificial guide.

Region I, Region 2, and Region 3. Those geographic areas defined as "Region I",
"Region 2", and "Region 3" in Article 5 of the International Radio Regulations,
Geneva, 1959.

Remote pickup broadcast base station. A base station licensed for communicating
with remote pickup broadcast mobile stations.

Remote pickup broadcast mobile station. A land mobile station licensed for the
transmission of program material and related communications from the scene of events
which occur outside a studio to broadcasting station, and for communicating with
other remote pickup broadcast base and mobile stations.

Repeater station. An operational fixed station established for the automatic

retransmission of radio communications received from any station in the Mobile
Service.

Safety Convention. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea,
London, 1960, including the Regulations annexed thereto.

Safety service. A radiocommunication service used permanently or temporarily for

the safeguarding of human life and property.

Selective calling. A means of calling in which signals are transmitted in accordance

with aprearranged code for the purpose of operating aparticular automatic attention
device in use at the selected station whose attention is sought.

Ship station. A mobile station in the maritime mobile service located on board a
vessel, other than asurvival craft, which is not permanently moored.

Ship station license. A license authorizing the operation of aship station, asurvival
craft station associated with aship, or aship radionavigation station.

Signaling. Intermittent or periodic transmission (excluding radiotelephony or any

type of Morse code) of intelligence by means of prearranged tones, impulses, or
combinations thereof, designed to actuate amechanism at the point of reception.

Simplex operation. Operating method in which transmission is made possible

alternately in each direction, for example, by means of manual control.

Spacecraft. Any type of space vehicle including an earth satellite or adeep-space

probe, whether manned or unmanned.

44
 Space research earth station. An earth station in the space research service.

Space research service. A space service in which spacecraft or other objects in space
are used for scientific or technological research purposes.

Space research space station. A space station in the space research service.

Space telecommand. The use of radiocommunication for the transmission of signals

to a space station to initiate, modify or terminate functions of the equipment on a
space object, including the space station.

Space telemetering. The use of telemetering for the transmission from a space
station of results of measurements made in aspacecraft, including those relating to the
functioning of the spacecraft.

Space tracking. Determination of the orbit, velocity or instantaneous position of an

object in space by means of radio determination, excluding primary radar, for the
purpose of following the movement of the object.

Space service. A radiocommunication service: (a) between earth stations and space
stations, or (b) between space stations, or (c) between earth stations when the signals
are retransmitted by space stations, or transmitted by reflection from objects in space,
excluding reflection or scattering by the ionosphere or within the earth's atmosphere.

Spurious emission. Emission on a frequency or frequencies which are outside the

necessary band, and the level of which may be reduced without affecting the
corresponding transmission of information. Spurious emissions include harmonic
emissions, parasitic emissions, and intermodulation products, but exclude emissions in
the immediate vicinity of the necessary band, which are aresult of the modulation
process for the transmission of information.

Standard broadcasting station. A broadcasting station operated on afrequency in

the band 535-1605 kilocycles.

Standard frequency service. A radiocommunication service for scientific, technical

and other purposes, providing the transmission of specified frequencies of stated high
precision, intended for general reception.

Stationary satellite. A satellite, the circular orbit of which lies in the plane of the
earth's equator and which turns about the polar axis of the earth in the same direction
and with the same period as those of the earth's rotation.

Station. One or more transmitters or receivers or acombination of transmitters and

45
receivers, including the accessory equipment, necessary at one location for carrying on
aradiocommunication service. Each station shall be classified by the service in which it
operates permanently or temporarily.

*Station authorization. Any construction permit, license, or special temporary

authorization issued by the Commission.

Survival craft station. A mobile station in the maritime or aeronautical mobile

service intended solely for survival purposes and located on any lifeboat, liferaft or
other survival equipment.

Telecommunication. Any transmission, emission or reception of signs, signals,

writing, images, and sounds, or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or
other electromagnetic systems.

Telegraphy. A system of telecommunication which is concerned in any process

providing transmission and reproduction at adistance of documentary matter, such as
written or printed matter or fixed images, or the reproduction at adistance of any
kind of information in such form. The foregoing definition appears in the
International Telecommunication Convention, but, for the purposes of the Com-
mission's rules, telegraphy shall mean, unless otherwise specified, "A system of
telecommunication for the transmission of written matter by the use of asignal code."

Telemetering. The use of telecommunication for automatically indicating or

recording measurements at adistance from the measuring instrument.

Telemetering fixed station. A fixed station, the emissions of which are used for
telemetering.

Telemetering land station. A land station, the emissions of which are used for
telemetering.

Telemetering mobile station. A mobile station, the emissions of which are used for
telemetering.

Telephony. A system of telecommunication set up for the transmission of speech

or, in some cases, other sounds.

Television. A system of telecommunication for transmission of transient images of

fixed or moving objects.
i

Television broadcasting station. A broadcasting station utilizing both television and

telephony to provide combination and simultaneous visual and aural programs
intended to be received directly by the general public.

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 Terrestrial service. Any radio service defined in this Part, other than aspace service
or the radio astronomy service.

Terrestrial station. A station in aterrestrial service.

Tropospheric scatter. The propagation of radio waves by scattering as aresult of

irregularities or discontinuities in the physical properties of the troposphere.

Zone station. A fixed station in the public safety (police) radio service using
radiotelegraph (Al emission) for communication with other similar stations in the
same zone and with an interzone station.

II Experimental Radio
Services (other than broadcast)
Experimental Service. A service in which Hertzian waves are employed for purposes
of experimentation in the radio art or for purposes of providing essential communica-
tions for research projects which could not be conducted without the benefit of such
communications.

Experimental Service (Research). An Experimental Service (1) for research in the

radio art not related to the development of an established or proposed new service, or
(2) for providing essential communications for research projects which could not be
conducted without the benefit of such communications.

Experimental Service (Developmental). An Experimental Radio Service for the

development of equipment, engineering or operational data, or techniques for an
existing or proposed radio service.

III Radio Frequency Devices

Community antenna television system. A restricted radiation device designed and
used for the purpose of distributing television signals by means of conducted or guided
radio frequency currents to amultiplicity of receivers outside the confines of asingle
building. Note: The television signals that are distributed are modulated radio
frequency signals and may be: (a) Broadcast signals that have been received and
amplified, (b) Broadcast signals that have been received and converted to another
frequency, (c) Any other modulated radio frequency signals fed into the system.

Incidental radiation device. A device that radiates radio frequency energy during
the course of its operation although the device is not intentionally designed to
generate radio frequency energy.

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 Low power communication device. A low power communication device is a
restricted radiation device, exclusive of those employing conducted or guided radio
frequency techniques, used for the transmission of signs, signals, (including control
signals), writing, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by radiation of
electromagnetic energy. Examples: Wireless microphone, phonograph oscillator, radio
controlled garage door opener and radio controlled models.

Restricted radiation device. A device in which the generation of radio frequency

energy is intentionally incorporated into the design and in which the radio frequency
energy is conducted along wires or is radiated, exclusive of transmitters which require
licensing under other parts of this chapter and exclusive of devices in which the radio
frequency energy is used to produce physical, chemical, or biological effects in
materials and which are regulated under the Rules.

Television broadcast receiver. Apparatus designed to receive television pictures

broadcast simultaneously with sound.

IV Industrial, Scientific and

Medical Equipment
Industrial heating equipment. Any apparatus which utilizes a radio frequency
oscillator or any other type of radio frequency generator and transmits radio
frequency energy used for or in connection with industrial heating operations utilized
in amanufacturing or production process.

Industrial, scientific and medical equipment (ISM equipment). Devices which use
radio waves for industrial, scientific, medical or any other purposes including the
transfer of energy by radio and which are neither used nor intended to be used for
radiocommunication.

ISM frequency. A frequency assigned for the use of ISM equipment. A specified
tolerance is associated with each ISM frequency.

Medical diathermy equipment. Any apparatus (other than surgical diathermy

apparatus designed for intermittent operation with low power) which utilizes aradio
frequency oscillator or any other type of radio frequency generator and transmits
radio frequency energy used for therapeutic purposes.

Miscellaneous equipment. Any apparatus other than that defined in or excepted

above in which radio frequency energy is applied to materials to produce physical,
biological, or chemical effects such as heating, ionization of gases, mechanical
vibrations, hair removal and acceleration of charged particles, which do not involve
communications or the use of radio receiving equipment.

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 Ultrasonic equipment. Any apparatus which generates radio frequency energy and
utilizes that energy to excite or drive an electromechanical transducer for the
production of sonic or ultrasonic mechanical energy for industrial, scientific, medical
or other noncommunication purposes.

V Broadcast Services

A. STANDARD BROADCAST STATIONS

I. General Definitions

Auxiliary transmitter. A transmitter maintained only for transmitting the regular

programs of astation in case of failure of the main transmitter.

*Broadcast day. Period of time between local sunrise and 12 midnight local
standard time.

*Daytime. Period of time between local sunrise and local sunset.

Dominant station. A Class Istation operating on aclear channel.

*Experimental period. That time between 12 midnight and local sunrise. This
period may be used for experimental purposes in testing and maintaining apparatus by
the licensee of any standard broadcast station on its assigned frequency and with its
authorized power, provided no interference is caused to other stations maintaining a
regular operating schedule within such period. No station licensed for "daytime" or
"specified hours" of operation may broadcast any regular or scheduled program during
this period.

*Nighttime. Time between local sunset and 12 midnight local standard time.

Portable transmitter. A transmitter so constructed that it may be moved about

conveniently from place to place, and is in fact so moved about from time to time, but
not ordinarily used while in motion. In the standard broadcast band, such a
transmitter is used in making field intensity measurements for locating atransmitter
site for astandard broadcast station. Aportable broadcast station will not be licensed
, in the standard broadcast band for regular transmission of programs intended to be
received by the public.

. Secondary station. Any station except a Class I station operating on a clear

channel.

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 Service areas. (a) Primary service area of a broadcast station means the area in
which the groundwave is not subject to objectionable interference or objectionable
fading. (b) Secondary service area of abroadcast station means the area served by the
skywave and not subject to objectionable interference. The signal is subject to
intermittent variations in intensity. (c) Intermittent service area of abroadcast station
means the area receiving service from the groundwave but beyond the primary service
area and subject to some interference and fading.

*Standard broadcast band. The band of frequencies extending from 535 to 1605
kilocycles.

*Standard broadcast channel. The band of frequencies occupied by the carrier and
two sidebands of abroadcast signal with the carrier frequency at the center. Channels
shall be designated by their assigned carrier frequencies. The 107 carrier frequencies
assigned to standard broadcast stations shall begin at 540 kilocycles and be in
successive steps of 10 kilocycles.

*Standard broadcast station. A broadcasting station licensed for the transmission of

radiotelephone emissions primarily intended to be received by the general public and
operated on achannel in the band 535-1605 kilocycles.

*Sunrise and sunset. For each particular location and during any particular month,
the time of sunrise and sunset as specified in the instrument of authorization.

2. Technical Definitions

*Antenna current. The radio frequency current in the antenna with no modulation.

*Antenna power. Antenna input power or antenna power means the product of the
square of the antenna current and the antenna resistance at the point where the
current is measured.

*Antenna resistance. Total resistance of the transmitting antenna system at the

operating frequency and at the point at which the antenna current is measured.

Blanketing. Form of interference which is caused by the presence of abroadcast

signal of 1 v/m or greater intensity in the area adjacent to the antenna of the
transmitting station. The 1v/m contour is referred to as the blanket contour and the
area within this contour is referred to as the blanket area.

Combined audio harmonics. Arithmetical sum of the amplitudes of all the separate
harmonic components. Root sum square harmonic readings may be accepted under
conditions prescribed by the Commission.

50
 Effective field. Effective field or effective field intensity is the root-mean-square
(RMS) value of the inverse distance fields at adistance of 1mile from the antenna in
all directions in the horizontal plane.

*Grid modulation. Modulation produced by introduction of the modulating wave

into any of the grid circuits of any tube in which the carrier frequency wave is present.

*High level modulation. Modulation produced in the plate circuit of the last radio
stage of the system.

*Last radio stage. Oscillator or radio-frequency-power amplifier stage which

supplies power to the antenna.

*Low level modulation. Modulation produced in an earlier stage than the final.

Maximum percentage of modulation. Greatest percentage of modulation that may

be obtained by a transmitter without producing in its output harmonics of the
modulating frequency in excess of those permitted by these regulations.

Maximum rated carrier power. Maximum power at which the transmitter can be
operated satisfactorily. It is determined by the design of the transmitter and the type
and number of vacuum tubes used in the last radio stage.

*Modulated stage. The radio frequency stage to which the modulator is coupled
and in which the continuous wave (carrier wave) is modulated in accordance with the
system of modulation and the characteristics of the modulating wave.

*Modulator stage. The last amplifier stage of the modulating wave which modulates
aradio frequency stage.

*Operating power. Power that is actually supplied to the radio station antenna.

*Percentage modulation (amplitude). The ratio of half the difference between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the amplitude modulated wave to the average
amplitude expressed in percentage.

*Plate modulation. Modulation produced by introduction of the modulating wave

into the plate circuit of any tube in which the carrier frequency wave is present.

*Plate input power. The product of the direct plate voltage applied to the tubes in
the last radio stage and the total direct current flowing to the plates of these tubes,
measured without modulation.

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 B. FM STATIONS

1. Frequency Modulation

Antenna height above average terrain. The average of the antenna heights above the
terrain from 2 to 10 miles from the antenna for the eight directions spaced evenly for
each 45 degrees of azimuth starting with True North. (In general, adifferent antenna
height will be determined in each direction from the antenna. The average of these
various heights is considered the antenna height above the average terrain. In some
cases less than eight directions may be used.) Where circular or elliptical polarization is
employed, the antenna height above average terrain shall be based upon the height of
the radiation center of the antenna which transmits the horizontal component of
radiation.

*Antenna power gain. The square of the ratio of the root-mean-square free space
field strength produced at 1mile in the horizontal plane, in millivolts per meter for 1
kilowatt antenna input power to 137.6 mv/m. This ratio should be expressed in
decibels (db). (If specified for aparticular direction, antenna power gain is based on
the field strength in that direction only.)

*Center frequency. (1) The average frequency of the emitted wave when
modulated by a sinusoidal signal. (2) The frequency of the emitted wave without
modulation.

*Effective radiated power. The product of the antenna power (transmitter output
power less transmission line loss) times (1) the antenna power gain, or (2) the antenna
field gain squared. Where circular or elliptical polarization is employed, the term
effective radiated power is applied separately to the horizontal and vertical
components of radiation. For allocation purposes, the effective radiated power
authorized is the horizontally polarized component of radiation only.

*FM broadcast band. The band of frequencies extending from 88 to 108

megacycles per second, which includes those assigned to noncommercial educational
broadcasting.

*FM broadcast channel. A band of frequencies 200 kc/s wide and designated by its
center frequency. Channels for FM broadcast stations begin at 88.1 mc/s and continue
in successive steps of 200 kc/s to and including 107.9 mc/s.

*FM broadcast station. A station employing frequency modulation in the FM

broadcast band and licensed primarily for the transmission of radiotelephone emissions
intended to be received by the general public.

52
 *Field strength. The electric field strength in the horizontal plane.

Free space field strength. The field strength that would exist at a point in the
absence of waves reflected from the earth or other reflecting objects.

*Frequency Modulation. A system of modulation where the instantaneous radio

frequency varies in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
(amplitude of modulating signal to be measured after pre-emphasis, if used) and the
instantaneous radio frequency is independent of the frequency of the modulating
signal.

*Frequency swing. The instantaneous departure of the frequency of the emitted

wave from the center frequency resulting from modulation.

*Multiplex transmission. The simultaneous transmission of two or more signals

within a single channel. Multiplex transmission as applied to FM broadcast stations
means the transmission of facsimile or other signals in addition to the regular
broadcast signals.

*Percentage modulation. The ratio of the actual frequency swing to the frequency
swing defined as 100 percent modulation, expressed in percentage. For FM broadcast
stations, afrequency swing of ±75 kilocycles is defined as 100 percent modulation.

2. Stereophonic Broadcasting

*Cross-talk. An undesired signal occurring in one channel caused by an electrical

signal in another channel.

FM stereophonic broadcast. The transmission of astereophonic program by asingle

FM broadcast station utilizing the main channel and astereophonic subchannel.

*Left (or right) signal. The electrical output of amicrophone or combination of

microphones placed so as to convey the intensity, time, and location of sounds
originating predominantly to the listener's left (or right) of the center of the
performing area.

*Left (or right) stereophonic channel. The left (or right) signal as electrically
reproduced in reception of FM stereophonic broadcasts.

*Main channel. The band of frequencies from 50 to 15,000 cycles per second
which frequency-modulate the main carrier.

53
 *Pilot subcarrier. A subcarrier serving as acontrol signal for use in the reception of
FM stereophonic broadcasts.

*Stereophonic separation. The ratio of the electrical signal caused in the right (or
left) stereophonic channel to the electrical signal caused in the left (or right)
stereophonic channel by the transmission of only aright (or left) signal.

*Stereophonic subcarrier. A subcarrier having a frequency which is the second

harmonic of the pilot subcarrier frequency and which is employed in FM stereophonic
broadcasting.

*Stereophonic subchannel. The band of frequencies from 23 to 53 kilocycles per

second containing the stereophonic subcarrier and its associated sidebands.

3. Facsimile

Available line. The portion of the total length of scanning line that can be used
specifically for picture signals.

Index of cooperation. The product of the number of lines per inch, the available
line length in inches, and the reciprocal of the line-use ratio (e.g., 105 X 8.2 X 8/7 =
984).

Line-use ratio. The ratio of the available line to the total length of scanning line.

Optical density. The logarithm (to the hase 10) of the ratio of incident to
transmitted or reflected light.

Rectilinear scanning. The process of scanning an area in apredetermined sequence

of narrow straight parallel strips.

C. TELEVISION BROADCAST STATIONS

Amplitude Modulation (AM). A system of modulation in which the envelope of the

transmitted wave contains a component similar to the waveform of the signal to be
transmitted.

Antenna height above average terrain. The average of the antenna heights above the
terrain from two to ten miles from the antenna for the eight directions spaced evenly
for each 45 degrees of azimuth starting with True North. (In general, a different
antenna height will be determined in each direction from the antenna. The average of
these various heights is considered the antenna height above the average terrain. In
some cases less than 8directions may be used.

54
 Antenna power gain. The square of the ratio of the root-mean-square free space
field intensity produced at one mile in the horizontal plane, in millivolts per meter for
one kilowatt antenna input power to 137.6 mv/m. This ratio should be expressed in
decibels (db). (If specified for aparticular direction, antenna power gain is based on
the field strength in that direction only.)

*Aspect ratio. The ratio of picture width to picture height as transmitted. The
standard now used is 4to 3.

*Aural transmitter. The radio equipment for the transmission of the aural signal
only.

*Aural center frequency. (1) The average frequency of the emitted wave when
modulated by a sinusoidal signal; (2) the frequency of the emitted wave without
modulation.

*Blanking level. The level of the signal during the blanking interval, except the
interval during the scanning synchronizing pulse and the chrominance subcarrier
synchronizing burst.

*Chrominance. The colorimetric difference between any color and a reference

color of equal luminance, the reference color having aspecific chromaticity.

*Chrominance subcarrier. The carrier which is modulated by the chrominance

information.

*Color transmission. The transmission of color television signals which can be

reproduced with different values of hue, saturation, and luminance.

*Effective radiated power. The product of the antenna input power and the
antenna power gain. This product should be expressed in kilowatts and in decibels
above one kilowatt (dbk). (If specified for a particular direction, effective radiated
power is based on the antenna power gain in that direction only. The licensed effective
radiated power is based on the average antenna power gain for each horizontal plane
direction.)

*Field. Scanning through the picture area once in the chosen scanning pattern. In
the line interlaced scanning pattern of two to one, the scanning of the alternate lines
of the picture area once.

*Frame. Scanning all of the picture area once. In the line interlaced scanning
pattern of two to one, aframe consists of two fields.

55
 *Free space field intensity. The field intensity that would exist at apoint in the
absence of waves reflected from the earth or other reflecting objects.

*Frequency swing. The instantaneous departure of the frequency of the emitted

wave from the center frequency resulting from modulation.

*Interlaced scanning. A scanning process in which successively scanned lines are

spaced an integral number of line widths, and in which the adjacent lines are scanned
during successive cycles of the field frequency.

*Luminance. Luminous flux emitted, reflected, or transmitted per unit solid angle
per unit projected area of the source.

*Monochrome transmission. The transmission of television signals which can be

reproduced in gradations of asingle color only.

*Negative transmission.. Where adecrease in initial light intensity causes an increase

in the transmitted power.

Noise figure of a television broadcast receiver. The ratio of (1) the total noise
power delivered by the receiver into its output termination when the noise
temperature of its input termination is standard (290 °K) at all frequencies, to (2) the
portion thereof engendered by the input termination. Note: For atelevision broadcast
receiver, portion (2) includes only that noise from the input termination which
appears in the output via the principal frequency transformation and does not include
spurious contributions such as those from image frequency transformation.

Peak picture sensitivity for television broadcast receiver. The lowest input signal
which results in standard picture test output when the receiver is tuned for maximum
picture output. Note: Standard picture test output for symmetrical sine wave
modulation shall be 20 volts peak-to-peak between the control elements of the picture
tube.

*Peak power. The power over aradio frequency cycle corresponding in amplitude
to synchronizing peaks.

Percentage modulation. As applied to frequency modulation, the ratio of the actual

frequency swing to the frequency swing defined as 100 percent modulation, expressed
in percentage. For the aural transmitter of television broadcast stations, afrequency
swing of ±25 kilocycles is defined as 100 percent modulation.

Polarization. The direction of the electric field as radiated from the transmitting
antenna.

56
 *Reference black level. The level corresponding to the specified maximum
excursion of the luminance signal in the black direction.

*Reference white level of the luminance signal. The level corresponding to the
specified maximum excursion of the luminance signal in the white direction.

*Scanning. The process of analyzing successively, according to a predetermined

method, the light values of picture elements constituting the total picture area.

*Scanning line. A single continuous narrow strip of the picture area containing
highlights, shadows, and halftones, determined by the process of scanning.

*Standard television signal. A signal which conforms to the television transmission

standards.

*Synchronization. The maintenance of one operation in step with another.

*Television broadcast band. The frequencies in the band extending from 54 to 890
megacycles which are assignable to television broadcast stations. These frequencies are
54 to 72 megacycles (channels 2 through 4), 76 to 88 megacycles (channels 5and 6),
174 to 216 megacycles (channels 7through 13), and 470 to 890 megacycles (channels
14 through 83).

Television broadcast station. A station in the television broadcast band transmitting

simultaneous visual and aural signals intended to be received by the general public.

Television broadcast booster station. A station in the broadcasting service operated

for the sole purpose of retransmitting the signals of atelevision broadcast station by
amplifying and reradiating such signals which have been received directly through
space, without significantly altering any characteristic of the incoming signal other
than its amplitude.

Television broadcast translator station. A station in the broadcasting service

operated for the purpose of retransmitting the signals of atelevision broadcast station,
another television broadcast translator station, or atelevision translator relay station,
by means of direct frequency conversion and amplification of the incoming signals
without significantly altering any characteristic of the incoming signal other than its
frequency and amplitude, for the purpose of providing television reception to the
general public.

*Television channel. A band of frequencies 6 megacycles wide in the television

broadcast band and designated either by number or by the extreme lower and upper
frequencies.

57
 Television intercity relay station. A fixed station used for intercity transmission of
television program material and related communications for use by television
broadcast stations.

Television pickup station. A land mobile station used for the transmission of
television program material and related communications from the scenes of events
occurring at points removed from television broadcast station studios to television
broadcast stations.

Television STL station (studio-transmitter link). A fixed station used for the
transmission of television program material and related communications from the
studio to the transmitter of atelevision broadcast station.

*Television transmission standards. The standards which determine the character-

istics of atelevision signal as radiated by atelevision broadcast station.

Television transmitter. The radio transmitter or transmitters for the transmission of

both visual and aural signals.

Television translator relay station. A fixed station used for relaying the signals of
television broadcast stations to television broadcast translator stations.

UHF translator. A television broadcast translator station operating on a UHF

television broadcast channel.

UHF translator signal booster. A station in the broadcasting service operated for
the sole purpose of retransmitting the signals of a UHF translator station by
amplifying and reradiating such signals which have been received directly through
space, without significantly altering any characteristic of the incoming signal other
than its amplitude.

VHF translator. A television broadcast translator station operating on a VHF

television broadcast channel.

*Vestigial sideband transmission. A system of transmission wherein one of the

generated sidebands is partially attenuated at the transmitter and radiated only in part.

Visual carrier frequency. The frequency of the carrier which is modulated by the
picture information.

Visual transmitter. The radio equipment for the transmission of the visual signal
only.

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 *Visual transmitter power. The peak power output when transmitting astandard
television signal.

D. INTERNATIONAL BROADCAST STATIONS

Autumnal equinox season. That period of any calendar year starting at 0000 EST
on 1August and ending at 2400 EST on 31 October.

Contract operation. Any nongovernment operation of an international broadcast

station pursuant to acontract with an agency of the United States Government and
subject to Governmental control as to program content, target areas to be covered, and
time of broadcast.

Day. Any twenty-four hour period beginning 0000 EST and ending 2400 EST.

Delivered median field intensity or field intensity. The field intensity incident upon
the target area expressed in microvolts per meter, or decibels above one microvolt per
meter, which is exceeded by the hourly median value on 50 percent of the days of the
reference month.

Frequency-hour. One frequency used for one hour.

International broadcast station. A broadcasting station employing frequencies

allocated to the broadcasting service between 5950 and 26100 kc, whose transmissions
are intended to be received directly by the general public in foreign countries.

Maximum usable frequency (MUF). The highest frequency which is returned to the
surface of the earth for aparticular path and time of day on 50 percent of the days of
the reference month.

Optimum working frequency (OWF). The frequency which is returned to the

surface of the earth for aparticular path and time of day on 90 percent of the days of
the reference month.

Primary station. The television broadcast station radiating the signals which are
retransmitted by atelevision broadcast booster station or translator station.

Private operation. Any nongovernment operation of an International Broadcast

station which is not contract operation.

Reference month. The middle month of any season in "Daily Frequency Hour
Availability Table."

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 Summer season. That period of any calendar year starting at 0000 EST on IMay
and ending at 2400 EST on 31 July.

Sunspot number. The predicted 12 month running average of the number of

sunspots for any month as indicated in the National Bureau of Standards CRPL Series
D publications.

Target area. Geographic area in which the reception of particular programs is

specifically intended and in which adequate broadcast coverage is contemplated.

Vernal equinox season. That period of any calendar year starting at 0000 EST on 1
February and ending at 2400 EST on 30 April.

Winter season. That period of any calendar year starting at 0000 EST on 1
November and ending at 2400 EST on 31 January.

E. EMERGENCY ACTION NOTIFICATION SYSTEM

AND THE EMERGENCY BROADCAST SYSTEM

Emergency Action Notification System. The System by which all licensees and
regulated services of the Federal Communications Commission, and the general public,
are notified (with or without an Attack Warning) of the existence of an Emergency
Action Condition resulting from agrave national crisis or war. The Emergency Action
Notification System and the Emergency Broadcast System Implementation System
consist only of the following approved facilities, systems, and arrangements:
(a) First Method. From the President of the United States via the White House
Communications Agency to the Associated Press (AP) and United Press International
(UPI); thence via automatic selective switching and teletype Emergency Action
Notification to all standard, FM, and television broadcast and other stations
subscribing to the AP and UPI Radio Wire Teletype Networks.
(b) Second Method. From the President of the United States via the White House
Communications Agency to specified control points of the nationwide commercial
Radio and Television Broadcast Networks, the American Telephone and Telegraph Co.
and other specified points via a dedicated teletypewriter network; thence to all
affiliates via any available internal commercial radio and television network alerting
facilities.
(c) Third Method. Off-the-air monitoring of specified standard, FM, and television
broadcast stations by standard, FM, and television broadcast stations and other
licensees and regulated services for receipt of the Emergency Action Notification. All
broadcast licensees are required to install, maintain, and operate radio receiving
equipment for receipt of the Emergency Action Notification.
(d) Fourth Method. Off-the-air monitoring of standard, FM, and television
broadcast stations by the general public who are listening or viewing or whose radio or

60
television receivers are equipped for actuation by the Attention Signal to receive the
Emergency Action Notification.

Attention Signal. The signaling arrangement transmitted by all standard, FM, and
television broadcast stations for the purpose of actuating muted standard, FM, and
television receivers.

*Emergency Action Notification. Notice (with or without an Attack Warning) to

all licensees and regulated services of the Federal Communications Commission and to
the general public of the existence of an Emergency Action Condition. The Emergency
Action Notification is released upon direction of the President of the United States
and is disseminated only via the Emergency Action Notification System.

*Emergency Action Condition. The Emergency Action Condition is the period of

time between the transmission of an Emergency Action Notification and the
transmission of the Emergency Action Condition Termination.

*Emergency Action Condition Termination. The Emergency Action Condition

Termination is the notice to all licensees and regulated services of the Federal
Communications Commission and to the general public of the termination of an
Emergency Action Condition. The Emergency Action Condition Termination is
released upon direction of the President of the United States and is disseminated only
via the Emergency Action Notification System.

Emergency Broadcast System (EBS). System of facilities and personnel of

nongovernment broadcast stations and other authorized facilities licensed or regulated
by the Federal Communications Commission, including approved and authorized
integral facilities or systems, arrangements, procedures, and interconnecting facilities,
which have been authorized by the Commission to operate in acontrolled manner
during agrave national crisis or war.

*Basic Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Plan. Plan containing, among other
things, approved basic concepts and designated national-level systems, arrangements,
procedures, and interconnecting facilities to satisfy the White House Statement of
Requirements for Presidential Messages and National Programing and News. Provision
is made therein for the development, designation, and approval of facilities, mutually
compatible operational arrangements, procedures, and interconnecting facilities to
satisfy the Department of Defense (Office of Civil Defense) statement of requirements
for the dissemination of emergency information and instructions by Regional, State,
and Operational Area (Local) authorities in addition to Presidential Messages and
National Programing and News, as set forth above.

MAC Order. Service order previously filed with the American Telephone and

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•
 Telegraph Co. providing for approved arrangements for program origination recon-
figuration of the major commercial Radio and Television (aural) Broadcast Networks
(except UPI Audio) voluntarily participating in the Emergency Broadcast System
(EBS). Broadcast networks presently participating are American Broadcasting Co.
(ABC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), Mutual Broadcasting System (MBS),
National Broadcasting Co. (NBC), Intermountain Network (IMN), and the United
Press International Audio (UPI). Any NIAC Order must meet White House
requirements and may be activated only when requested by the White House
Communications Agency in accordance with approved established procedures.

National Defense Emergency Authorization (NDEA). Authorization issued by the

Federal Communications Commission only to the licensees of broadcast stations to
permit controlled operation of such stations, as well as associated auxiliary broadcast
stations on a voluntary organized basis during an Emergency Action Condition, also
consistent with the Basic Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Plan, including the
annexes and supplements to that plan. A broadcast station licensee will be issued a
National Defense Emergency Authorization only in accordance with the Criteria for
Eligibility set forth in the Basic Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Plan, which will
remain valid concurrently with the term of the broadcast station license, so long as the
station licensee continues to comply with the Criteria for Eligibility.

Primary Station National Defense Emergency Authorization (NDEA). Authori-

zation issued to one or more broadcast station licensees in an Operational Area
assigning such licensees the responsibility for broadcasting a common emergency
program for the initial period of, or for the duration of, and Emergency Action
Condition. Broadcasts by such stations are intended for direct public reception in an
Operational Area, as specified in an approved Detailed State Emergency Broadcast
System (EBS) Operational Plan.

Alternate Station National Defense Emergency Authorization (NDEA). Authori-

zation issued to one or more broadcast licensees in an Operational Area assigning such
licensees as specified alternates. An Alternate station will assume broadcasting
responsibility in accordance with the Detailed State Emergency Broadcast System
(EBS) Operational Plan.

Primary Relay National Defense Emergency Authorization (NDEA). Authorization

issued to one or more broadcast licensees in an Operational Area assigning such
licensees the function of emergency program distribution or relay service of emergency
programing to stations holding Primary or Alternate Station National Defense
Emergency Authorizations, in accordance with an approved Detailed State Emergency
Broadcast System (EBS) Operational Plan. A Relay station will not generally broadcast
emergency program material intended for direct public reception.

62.
 Alternate Relay National Defense Emergency Authorization (NDEA). Authori-
zation issued to one or more broadcast licensees in an Operational Area assigning such
licensees as specified alternates to stations holding Primary Relay National Defense
Emergency Authorizations. In the event aPrimary Relay station is unable to assume
its initial operational functions, or discontinues such operation for any reason, an
alternate Relay station will assume those operational functions, in accordance with the
"alternate" designations (1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc.) contained in an approved Detailed
State Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Operational Plan.

Non-NDEA Station. A broadcast station which is not voluntarily participating in

the Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) and does not hold a National Defense
Emergency Authorization. Such stations are required to discontinue operations for the
duration of an Emergency Action Condition.

Detailed Regional Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Operational Plan. Plan

providing for a regional emergency programing origination capability at the Federal
Regional Center in coordination with the State Industry Advisory Committees and
integrated into the Detailed State Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Operational
Plans within the Federal Region as acoordinated Regional/State operation.

Detailed State Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) Operational Plan. Plan con-
taining the designation of facilities, approved detailed mutually compatible operational
arrangements, procedures, instructions, and interconnecting facilities to satisfy the
requirements of the President and the Federal Government, as well as State and
Operational Area (Local) authorities for communicating with the general public during
the Emergency Action Condition. Such a plan includes approved and authorized
detailed emergency operational communications facilities, systems, procedures, and
interconnecting systems.

Operational Area. Geographical area which may encompass anumber of contiguous

communities, as mutually determined by the State Industry Advisory Committee and
State authorities, and as delineated in the approved Detailed State Emergency
Broadcast System, (EBS) Operational Plan.

Common Program Control Broadcast Station. A Primary NDEA broadcast station

in each Operational Area assigned the responsibility for coordinating the operations
for the broadcasting of the common program for the Operational Area.

F. REMOTE PICKUP BROADCAST STATIONS

Associated broadcasting station. The broadcasting station with which a remote

pickup broadcast base or mobile station is licensed as an auxiliary and with which it is
principally used.

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 Attended operation. Operation of astation by aqualified operator on duty at the
place where the transmitting apparatus is located with the transmitter in plain view of
the operator.

Automatic mobile relay station. A remote pickup broadcast base station actuated
by automatic means and used to relay communications between base and mobile
stations, between mobile stations, and from mobile stations licensed under the rules of
this subpart, to broadcast stations.

Operational communications. Communications related to the technical operation

of a broadcasting station and its auxiliaries, other than the transmission of program
material and cues and orders directly concerned therewith.

Remote control operation. Operation of a station by a qualified operator at a

control position from which the transmitter is not visible but which control position is
equipped with suitable control and telemetering circuits so that the essential functions
which could be performed at the transmitter can also be performed from the control
point.

Remote pickup broadcast base station. A base station licensed for communicating
with remote pickup broadcast mobile stations.

Remote pickup broadcast mobile station. A land mobile station licensed for the
transmission of program material and related communications from the scene of
events, which occur outside astudio, to broadcasting stations and for communicating
with other remote pickup broadcast base and mobile stations. (As used in this part,
land mobile station includes hand-carried, pack-carried, and other portable trans-
mitters.)

Studio. Any room or series of rooms equipped for the regular production of
broadcast programs of various kinds. A broadcasting booth at astadium, convention
hall, church, or other similar place is not considered to be astudio.

VI Maritime Services
(Land and Shipboard Stations)

A. GENERAL

Categories of ships. (1) Where use of the term "passenger ship" or "cargo ship"
occurs in reference to the provisions of Part II of Title Ill of the Communications Act,
such use of the term shall be construed as follows: A ship is a passenger ship if it

64
carries or is licensed or certificated to carry more than twelve passengers. A cargo ship
is any ship not apassenger ship. (2) Where use of the term "passenger ship" or "cargo
ship" occurs in reference to the radio provisions of the Safety Convention or in
reference to frequency assignment, such use of the term shall be construed as follows:
A ship is apassenger ship if it carries more than twelve passengers. A cargo ship is any
ship not a passenger ship. (3) A "commercial transport vessel" is any ship or vessel
which is used primarily in commerce (i) for transporting persons or goods to or from
any harbor(s) or port(s) or between places within a harbor or port area, or (ii) in
connection with the construction, change in construction, servicing, maintenance,
repair, loading, unloading, movement, piloting, or salvaging of any other ship or vessel.
(4) The term "passenger carrying vessel," as used in this part solely in reference to
requirements of the Great Lakes Agreement, means any vessel transporting persons for
hire.

Day. (I) Where the word "day" is applied to the use of a specific frequency
assignment or to aspecific authorized transmitter-power, such use of the word "day"
shall be construed to mean transmission on such frequency assignment or with such
authorized transmitter-power during that period of time included between one hour
after local sunrise and one hour before local sunset. (2) Where the word "day" occurs
in reference to watch requirements, or to the provisions of §83.449, such use of the
word "day" shall be construed to mean the calendar day, from midnight to midnight,
local ship's time.

Destination. In reference to the Great Lakes Agreement this term means a port
which a vessel enters for the purpose of initiating or completing the specific activity
which characterizes the vessel. For example, with respect to vessels carrying passengers
or goods, a port at which a vessel, either partially or completely, loads or unloads
passengers or goods, would constitute its destination.

Great Lakes. This term, as used in this part solely in reference to the Great Lakes
Agreement, means all of the Great Lakes, their connecting and tributary waters, and
the St. Lawrence River as far east as the lower exit of the Lachine Canal and the
Victoria Bridge at Montreal, but shall not include tributary rivers which are not also
connecting rivers, and shall not include the Niagara River (including the Black Rock
Canal).

Installed. As used in this part with respect to the requirements of radio apparatus
authorized under the provisions of this part for use on board ship or in stations subject
to this pait, the term "installed" means installed on board the particular ship or in the
particular station to which the pertinent rule or regulation, involving the use of this
term, is applied.

Mile. As used in this part, the term "mile" means astatute mile or 5,280 feet.

65
 Safety Convention Certificates. (1) Nuclear Passenger Ship Safety Certificate. A
certificate issued after inspection and survey to a nuclear passenger ship which
complies with the relevant requirements of the Safety Convention. (2) Passenger Ship
Safety Certificate. A certificate issued after inspection and survey to apassenger ship
which complies with the relevant requirements of the Safety Convention. (3) Nuclear
Cargo Ship Safety Certificate. A certificate issued after inspection and survey to a
nuclear cargo ship which complies with the relevant requirements of the Safety
Convention. (4) Cargo Ship Safety Radiotelegraphy Certificate. A certificate issued
after inspection to a cargo ship which complies with the Safety Convention radio
requirements applicable to cargo ships carrying a radiotelegraph station for the
purpose of meeting such requirements. (5) Cargo Ship Safety Radiotelephony
Certificate. A certificate issued after inspection to acargo ship which complies with
the Safety Convention radio requirements applicable to cargo ships carrying a
radiotelephone station for the purpose of meeting such requirements. (6) Exemption
Certificate. A certificate issued to a ship which is granted partial, conditional, or
complete exemption from applicable provisions of the Safety Convention.

Ship or vessel. "Ship" or "vessel" includes every description of watercraft or other

artificial contrivance, except aircraft, used or capable of being used as a means of
transportation on water whether or not it is actually afloat.

B. MARITIME MOBILE SERVICE

Base Station. A land station in the land mobile service carrying on aservice with
land mobile stations.

Class I coast station. A coast station (public or limited) licensed to provide a

maritime mobile service to ships at sea, including such service over distances up to
several thousand miles, whose frequency assignment for this purpose includes
appropriate frequencies below 150 kc/s or between 5,000 kc/s and 25,500 kas.

Class II coast station. A coast station (public or limited) licensed to provide a

maritime mobile service, primarily of aregional character, whose frequency assignment
does not include any frequency below 150 kc/s or between 5,000 kc/s and 25,000 kc/s
except on a secondary basis under specified conditions intended to minimize the
possibility of interference to other stations having priority on these frequencies.

Class III coast station. A coast station (public or limited) licensed to provide a
maritime mobile service, primarily of alocal character, whose frequency assignment
does not include any frequency below 25,000 kc/s.

Coast station. A land station in the maritime mobile service.

66
 Land mobile station. A mobile station in the land mobile service capable of surface
movement within the geographical limits of acountry or continent.
Land station. A station in the mobile service not intended to be used while in
motion.

Limited coast station. A coast station, not open to public correspondence, which
serves the operational and business needs of ships.

Limited ship station. A ship station not open to public correspondence.

Marine-utility coast station. A coast station, readily portable for use as alimited
coast station at unspecified points ashore within adesignated local area.

Marine-utility ship station. A ship station, readily portable for use as alimited ship
station on mobile vessels within adesignated local area.

Marine-utility station. A coast or ship station in the maritime mobile service having
a frequency assignment which is available for both marine-utility coast stations and
marine-utility ship stations and licensed under one station authorization to operate as
either a marine-utility coast station or a marine-utility ship station according to its
location.

Maritime and land mobile service. (1) Maritime mobile service. A mobile service
between coast stations and ship stations, or between ship stations, in which survival
craft stations may also participate. (Aircraft stations, when transmitting on frequencies
allocated to the maritime mobile service, may communicate in this service with ship
stations and coast stations.) (2) Land mobile service. A mobile service between base
stations and land mobile stations, or between land mobile stations. (Only land mobile
service carried on exclusively for maritime purposes is governed by this part.)

Mobile service. A service of radiocommunication between mobile and land stations,

or between mobile stations.

Mobile station. A station in the mobile service intended to be used while in motion
or during halts at unspecified points.

Operational designator. The letter "A," "B," or "F," appended to the term "class
I," "class II," or "class Ill," designates that the coast station is licensed to render its
normal service by means of (A) telegraphy, (B) telephony, or (F) facsimile. The
designator "L" means "local" and is used to indicate (in lieu of aseparate class Ill
coast station license for the same station) that aclass Ior aclass II station provides
maritime mobile service of alocal character on afrequency or frequencies above 30
mc/s in addition to its service on other frequencies.

67
 Public coast station. A coast station open to public correspondence.

Public ship station. (1) A ship station open to public correspondence. (2) Public
ship stations authorized to employ telegraphy for public correspondence are further
classified according to their hours of service for telegraphy as designated in this
section: (a) First Category. These stations carry on a continuous service of public
correspondence. (b) Second Category. These stations carry on adesignated service of
public correspondence of prescribed but limited duration at least during the period
designated for ship stations of the second category by the International Radio
Regulations or, in the case of voyages of short duration, as otherwise designated by the
Commission in accordance with those Regulations. (c) Third Category. These stations
carry on aservice of public correspondence, the duration of which is prescribed but is
less than that of stations of the "Second Category," or is not prescribed but is
determined by the master of vessel pursuant to his authority under Section 360 of the
Communications Act.

Shipyard land mobile unit. A land vehicle operated and controlled by ashipyard
and used for the transportation of shipyard personnel, material, or supplies.

Shipyard base station. A land station, licensed and operated primarily as alimited
coast station in the maritime mobile service, which is authorized additionally to be
operated on a secondary basis as a base station for communication with shipyard
mobile stations of the same licensee within alocal geographic area designated by the
Commission.

Ship station. A mobile station in the maritime mobile service located on board a
vessel, other than asurvival craft, which is not permanently moored.

Shipyard mobile station. A land mobile station on ashipyard land mobile unit used
for communication solely with one or more shipyard base stations of the same licensee
within alocal geographic area designated by the Commission.

Survival craft station. A mobile station in the maritime or aeronautical mobile

service intended solely for survival purposes and located on any lifeboat, liferaft or
other survival equipment.

C. MARITIME RADIO DETERMINATION SERVICE

Direction finder (radio compass). Apparatus capable of receiving clearly perceptible

radio signals and capable of taking bearings on these signals from which the true
bearing and direction of the point of origin of such signals with respect to the point of
reception may be determined.

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 Maritime radiodetermination service. A radiodetermination service intended for the
benefit of ships.

Maritime radiolocation service. A radiolocation service intended for the benefit of

ships.

Maritime radionavigation service. A radionavigation service intended for the benefit

of ships.

Radar. A radiodetermination system based on the comparison of reference signals

with radio signals reflected, or retransmitted, from the position to be determined.

Radiodetermination. The determination of position, or the obtaining of infor-

mation relating to position, by means of the propagation properties of radio waves.

Radiodetermination service. A service involving the use of radiodetermination.

Radio direction finding. Radiodetermination using the reception of radio waves for
the purpose of determining the direction of astation or object.

Radiolocation. Radiodetermination used for purposes other than those of radio-

navigation.

Radiolocation land station. A station in the radiolocation service not intended to

be used while in motion.

Radiolocation mobile station. A station in the radiolocation service intended to be

used while in motion or during halts at unspecified points.

Radiolocation service. A radiodetermination service involving the use of radio-

location.

Radionavigation. Radiodetermination used for the purposes of navigation, in-

cluding obstruction warning.

Radionavigation land station. A station in the radionavigation service not intended

to be used while in motion.

Radionavigation mobile station. A station in the radionavigation service intended to

be used while in motion or during halts at unspecified points.

Radionavigation service. A radiodetermination service involving the use of radio-

navigation.

69
 Ship radar station. A ship radionavigation station utilizing radar.

Ship radiolocation station. A radiolocation mobile station located on board aship

and used solely for maritime radiolocation service.

Ship radiolocation test station. A ship radiolocation station used solely for testing
maritime radionavigation apparatus incident to its manufacture, installation, repair,
servicing, and/or maintenance.

Ship radionavigation station. A radionavigation mobile station located on board a

ship and used solely for maritime radionavigation service.

Shore radar station. A shore radionavigation station utilizing radar.

Shore radiolocation station. A radiolocation land station performing a maritime

radiolocation service.

Shore radiolocation test station. A shore radiolocation station used solely for
testing maritime radiodetermination apparatus incident to its manufacture, installa-
tion, repair, servicing, or maintenance.

Shore radiolocation training station. A shore radiolocation station used solely to

train and qualify persons in the effective use of maritime radiodeterminat ion.

Shore radionavigation station. A radionavigation land station performing a mari-

time radionavigation service.

D. MARITIME FIXED SERVICES

Marine control station. An operational fixed station used to control the emissions
or operation of acoast station at aseparate location.

Marine fixed station. A fixed station, used primarily for safety communication
which is established at adesignated location in awater area of, or contiguous to, the
United States, and isolated from the mainland by water or marsh.

Marine receiver-test station. A fixed station used to simulate transmission from a

ship station to a coast station for the purpose of periodically testing the normal
receiving installation of a licensed coast station to determine that such receiving
installation is in good working condition.

Marine repeater station. An operational fixed station used to retransmit, to apoint

of destination or to amessage routing center, radiocommunications received at acoast
station from ship or aircraft stations in the maritime mobile service.

70
 Marine relay station. An operational fixed station used for communication between
coast stations or between a coast station and an associated remote control point,
which is intended to expedite the movement of message traffic to or from mobile
stations in the maritime mobile service.

Operational fixed station. A fixed station, not open to public correspondence,

operated by and for the sole use of those agencies operating their own radio-
communication facilities in the public safety, industrial, land transportation, marine,
or aviation services.

E. DEVELOPMENTAL MARITIME STATIONS

Developmental fixed station. A fixed station operated for the express purpose of
developing equipment or a technique solely for use only in that portion of the
nongovernment fixed service which has been specifically allocated the authorized
frequency (or frequencies) of the developmental fixed station.

Developmental land station. A land station operated for the express purpose of
developing equipment or a technique solely for use only in that portion of the
nongovernment mobile service which has been specifically allocated the authorized
frequency (or frequencies) of the developmental land station.

Developmental mobile station. A mobile station operated for the express purpose
of developing equipment or a technique solely for use only in that portion of the
non-Government mobile service which has been specifically allocated the authorized
frequency (or frequencies) of the developmental mobile station.

Developmental radiodetermination station. A radiodetermination station operated

for the express purpose of developing equipment or atechnique solely for use only in
that portion of the nongovernment radiodetermination service (including the
nongovernment radionavigation service) which has been specifically allocated the
authorized frequency (or frequencies) of the developmental radiodetermination
station.

Specific classification. The specific classes of developmental stations on land

licensed in the maritime mobile service, the maritime radiodetermination service
(including maritime radionavigation service), and the maritime fixed services, are the
same as the particular class of station followed by the parenthetical indicator
"(developmental)", for example: "Public class Ill coast station (developmental)".

F. OPERATIONAL

Business communication. Radiocommunication pertaining to economic, com-

71
mercial, or governmental matters related directly to the purposes for which aship is
being used.

Calling. Transmission from a station solely to secure the attention of another

station, or other stations, for aparticular purpose.

Control point. An operating position associated with aparticular station or stations

which is: (1) Under the control and supervision of the station licensee or his
authorized agent; and (2) A place at which the required monitoring and control
facilities are available; and (3) A place at which a duly licensed operator (or other
person if the requirement for a licensed operator is waived by the Commission)
responsible for the operation of the transmitter(s) is stationed.

Dispatch point. A place from which radiocommunication may be transmitted under

supervision of aresponsible operator at acontrol point.

Distress signal. (1) The distress signal is the international radiotelegraph or

radiotelephone signal which indicates that a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle is
threatened by grave and imminent danger and requests immediate assistance. (2) In
radiotelegraphy, the international distress signal consists of the group "three dots,
three dashes, three dots", transmitted as a single signal in which the dashes are
emphasized so as to be distinguished clearly from the dots. (3) In radiotelephony, the
international distress signal consists of the oral enunciation of the word "Mayday",
pronounced as the French expression "m'aider". In case of distress, transmission of
this particular signal is intended to insure recognition of aradiotelephone distress call
by stations of any nationality.

Distress traffic. All messages relative to the immediate assistance required by the
ship, aircraft, or other vehicle in distress.

500 kilocycles silent period. The three-minute period twice an hour beginning at x
h 15 and x h45, Greenwich mean time (GMT), during which the International Radio
Regulations require that all transmissions (except for certain emissions designated in
those Regulations) must cease on all frequencies within adesignated frequency-band
centered on 500 kc/s.

Operational communication. Radiocommunication concerning the navigation,

movement, or management of aship or ships. (1) Navigation. This includes the piloting
of a vessel. (2) Movement. This includes information and necessary communications
relative to when and where the boat or ship will move or be moved as, for example,
rendezvous at a port, basin, or marina, or for maneuvers during a cruise. (3)
Management. This includes the obtaining of necessary supplies for the ship, limited to
immediate needs, and the scheduling of repairs or modifications to the ship, limited to

72
communications with those directly involved in the repairs or modification or
concerned with changes in the movement of the ship because of those repairs or
modifications.

Port operations. Communications in or near a port, or in locks or waterways,

between coast stations and ship stations, or between ship stations, in which messages
are restricted to those relating to the movement and safety of ships and, in emergency,
to the safety of persons.

Safety communication. The transmission or reception of distress, alarm, urgency,

or safety signals, or any communication preceded by one of these signals, or any form
of radiocommunication which, if delayed in transmission or reception, may adversely
affect the safety of life or property.

Safety signal. (1) The safety signal is the international radiotelegraph or radio-
telephone signal which indicates that the station sending this signal is ready to transmit
a message concerning the safety of navigation or giving important meteorological
warnings. (2) In radiotelegraphy, the international safety signal consists of three
repetitions of the group "TTT", sent before the call, with the letters of each group and
the successive groups clearly separated from each other. (3) In radiotelephony, the
international safety signal consists of three oral repetitions of the French word
"Securite", sent before the call.

Superfluous radiocommunication. Any transmission that is not necessary in

properly carrying on the service for which the station is licensed.

Urgency signal. (1) The urgency signal is the international radiotelegraph or radio-
telephone signal which indicates that the calling station has avery urgent message to
transmit concerning the safety of aship, aircraft, or other vehicle, or of some person
on board or within sight. (2) In radiotelegraphy, the international urgency signal
consists of three repetitions of the group "XXX", sent before the call, with the letters
of each group and the successive groups clearly separated from each other. (3) ln
radiotelephony, the international urgency signal consists of three oral repetitions of
the word "Pan" pronounced as the French word "panne" and sent before the call.

Watch. The act of listening on adesignated frequency.

Working. Radiocommunication carried on, for apurpose other than calling, by any
station or stations using telegraphy, telephony, or facsimile.

73
 VII Aviation Services

Aeronautical advisory station. An aeronautical station used for advisory and civil
defense communications primarily with private aircraft stations.

Aeronautical enroute station. An aeronautical station carrying on aservice with

aircraft stations, but which may also carry on alimited communication service with
other aeronautical enroute stations.

Aeronautical fixed service. A fixed service intended for the transmission of

information relating to air navigation, preparation for and safety of flight.

Aeronautical fixed station. A station in the aeronautical fixed service.

Aeronautical metropolitan station. An aeronautical station used for communication

with aircraft, including helicopters, operating between a main air terminal of a
metropolitan area and subordinate landing areas.

Aeronautical mobile service. A mobile service between aeronautical stations and

aircraft stations, or between aircraft stations, in which survival craft stations may also
participate.

Aeronautical multicom land station. An aeronautical station operating in the

aeronautical multicom service.

Aeronautical multicom mobile station. A mobile station operating in the aero-

nautical multicom service.

Aeronautical multicom service. A mobile service not open to public correspon-

dence, used to provide communications essential to conduct of activities being
performed by or directed from private aircraft.

Aeronautical public communication service. A communication service carried on

between aircraft and land radio stations for the purpose of providing a public
communication service for persons aboard aircraft.

Aeronautical public service station. A radio station, ground or aircraft, operated in

the aeronautical public communication service.

Aeronautical radionavigation service. A radio navigation service intended for the

benefit of aircraft.

74
 Aeronautical search and rescue station. A land or mobile station in the aeronautical
mobile service used for communication with aircraft and other aeronautical search and
rescue stations pertaining to search and rescue activities with aircraft.

Aeronautical station. A land station in the aeronautical mobile service. In certain

instances an aeronautical station may be placed on board aship.

Aeronautical telemetering land station. A telemetering mobile station used in the

flight testing of manned or unmanned aircraft, missiles, or major components thereof.

Aeronautical telemetering mobile station. A telemetering mobile station used in the

flight testing of manned or unmanned aircraft, missiles, or major components thereof.

Aeronautical utility land station. A land station located at airdrome control towers
and used for control of ground vehicles and aircraft on the ground at airdromes.

Aeronautical utility mobile station. A mobile station used for communication, at

airdromes, with the aeronautical utility land station, ground vehicles, and aircraft on
the ground.

Air carrier aircraft station. An aircraft station aboard an aircraft engaged in or

essential to, transportation of passengers or cargo for hire. For the purpose of the rules
in this part an aircraft weighing less than 10,000 lbs. may be considered at the option
of the applicant, as a private aircraft even though actually engaged in air carrier
operations. The election by the applicant will determine the equipment and
frequencies to be employed and the regulations applicable to the aircraft radio station.

Aircraft station. A mobile station in the aeronautical mobile service on board an

aircraft.

Airdrome control station. An aeronautical station providing communication

between an airdrome control tower and aircraft.

Aviation instructional station. A land or mobile station in the aeronautical mobile

service used for radiocommunications pertaining to instructions to students or pilots
while actually operating aircraft or engaged in soaring activities.

Aviation services. Aviation services are primarily for the safe, expeditious and
economical operation of the aircraft. They include the aeronautical fixed service,

75
 aeronautical mobile service, aeronautical radionavigation service, and secondarily, the
handling of public correspondence to and from aircraft.

Civil Air Patrol Land Station. A land station used exclusively for communications
of the Civil Air Patrol.

Civil Air Patrol Mobile Station. A mobile station used exclusively for communi-
cations of the Civil Air Patrol.

Earth-space service. A radiocommunication service between earth stations and

space stations.

Earth Station. A station in the earth-space service located either on the earth's
surface or on an object which is limited to flight between points on the earth's surface.

Flight test aircraft station. An aircraft station aboard an aircraft used for the
transmission of essential communications in connection with the tests of aircraft or
major components of aircraft.

Flight test station. An aeronautical station used for the transmission of essential
communications in connection with the testing of aircraft or major components of
aircraft: Provided, however, flight test stations, when operating on the frequency 3281
kc/s, are designated as land stations, only with respect to operation on the frequency
3281 kc/s.

Glide path station. A directional radio beacon associated with an instrument

landing system which provides guidance in the vertical plane to an aircraft for the
purpose of approach in landing.

Ground radio station. Any radio station on the ground equipped or engaged in
radiocommunication or radio transmission of energy.

Instrument landing system. A radionavigation system which provides aircraft with

horizontal and vertical guidance just before and during landing and, at certain fixed
points, indicates the distance to the reference point of landing.

Instrument landing system glide path. A system of vertical guidance embodied in

the instrument landing system which indicates the vertical deviation of the aircraft
from its optimum path of descent.

Instrument landing system localizer. A system of horizontal guidance embodied in

the instrument landing system which indicates the horizontal deviation of the aircraft
from its optimum path of descent along the axis of the runway.

76
 Landing area. Any locality, either land or water, including airports and inter-
mediate landing fields, which is used, or intended to be used, for the landing and
take-off of aircraft, whether or not facilities are provided for shelter, servicing, or
repair of aircraft, or for receiving or discharging passengers or cargo.

Localizer station. A radionavigation land station in the aeronautical radionavigation

service which provides signals for the lateral guidance of aircraft with respect to a
runway center line.

Marker beacon. A transmitter in the aeronautical radionavigation service which

radiates vertically adistinctive pattern for providing position information to aircraft.

Marker beacon station. An aeronautical radionavigation land station employing a

marker beacon.

Omni-directional range station. A radionavigation land station in the aeronautical

radionavigation service providing direct indication of the bearing (omni-bearing) of
that station from an aircraft.

Private aircraft station. An aircraft station on board an aircraft not operated as an

air carrier.

Public correspondence. Any telecommunication which the offices and stations

must, by reason of their being at the disposal of the public, accept for transmission.

Radio altimeter. A radionavigation equipment, on board an aircraft, which makes

use of the reflection of radio waves from the ground to determine the height of the
aircraft above the ground. (For the purpose of this definition, "ground" refers to the
surface of the earth.)

Radionavigation land test station (MTF). A radionavigation land station (Main-

tenance Test Facility) in the aeronautical radionavigation service which is used as a
radionavigation calibration station for the transmission of essential information in
connection with the testing and calibration of aircraft navigational aids, receiving
equipment, and interrogators at predetermined surface locations. The primary purpose
of this facility is to permit maintenance testing by aircraft radio service personnel.

Radionavigation land test station (OTF). A radionavigation land station (Opera-

tional Test Facility) in the aeronautical radionavigation service which is used as a
radionavigation calibration station for the transmission of essential information in
connection with the testing and calibration of aircraft navigational aids, receiving
equipment, and interrogators at predetermined surface locations. The primary purpose
of this facility is to permit the pilot to check aradionavigation system aboard the
aircraft prior to takeoff.

77
 *Space station. A station in the earth-space service or the space service located on
an object which is beyond, or intended to go beyond, the major portion of the earth's
atmosphere and which is not intended for flight between points on the earth's surface.
Surveillance radar station. A radionavigation land station in the aeronautical
radionavigation service employing radar to display the presence of aircraft within its
range.

VIII Public Safety Radio Services

Fire Radio Service. A public safety service of radiocommunication essential to
official fire activities.

Forestry-Conservation Radio Service. A public safety service of radiocommuni-

cation essential to forestry-conservation activities.

Highway Maintenance Radio Service. A public safety service of radiocommuni-

cation essential to official highway activities.

Interzone station. A fixed station in the Police Radio Service using radiotelegraphy
(Al emission) for communication with zone stations within the zone and with
interzone stations in other zones.

Local Government Radio Service. A service of radiocommunication essential to

official activities of states, possessions, and territories, including counties, towns,
cities, and similar governmental subdivisions.

Police Radio Service. A public safety service of radiocommunication essential to

official police activities.

Public safety radio services. Any service of radiocommunication essential either to

the discharge of non-Federal government functions or the alleviation of an emergency
endangering life or property, the radio transmitting facilities of which are defined as
fixed, land, mobile, or radiolocation stations.

Safety service. A radiocommunication service used permanently or temporarily for

the safeguarding of human life and property.

Special Emergency Radio Service. A public safety service of radiocommunication

essential to the alleviation of an emergency endangering life or property.

State Guard Radio Service. A public safety service of radiocommunication essential

to official activities of state guards or comparable organizations of states, territories,
possessions, or the District of Columbia.

78
 Zone station. A fixed station in the Police Radio Service using radiotelegraphy (Al
emission) for communication with other similar stations in the same zone and with an
interzone station.

IX Industrial Radio Services

Community antenna television systems. The term "community antenna television

system" ("CATV system") means any facility which, in whole or in part, receives
directly or indirectly over the air and amplifies or otherwise modifies the signals
transmitting programs broadcast by one or more television stations and distributes
such signals by wire or cable to subscribing members of the public who pay for such
service, but such term shall not include (1) any such facility which serves fewer than
50 subscribers, or (2) any such facility which serves only the residents of one or more
apartment dwellings under common ownership, control, or management, and
commercial establishments located on the premises of such an apartment house.

Distant signal. The term "distant signal" means the signal of atelevision broadcast
station which is extended or received beyond the Grade Bcontour of that station.

Grade A and Grade B contours. The terms "Grade A contour" and "Grade B
contour" means the field intensity contours.

Independent station. The term "independent station" means a television station

which is not affiliated with any national television network organization.

Network programing. The term "network programing" means the programing

supplied by anational television network organization.

Principal community contour. Signal contour which atelevision station is required

to place over its entire principal community.

Substantially duplicated. The term "substantially duplicated" means regularly

duplicated by the network programing of one or more other stations, singly or
collectively, in anormal week during the hours of 6to 11 p.m., local time, for atotal
of 14 or more hours.

X Land Transportation Radio Services

Automobile Emergency Radio Service. The term "Automobile Emergency Radio

Service" as used in this part means aradiocommunication service for use in connection
with the dispatching of emergency road service vehicles for the purpose of providing

79
assistance to disabled automotive vehicles used on streets or highways.

Common carrier. As used in the Motor Carrier Radio Service, aperson who holds
himself out to the general public to engage in the transportation of passengers or
property without discrimination, for compensation as aregular occupation or business.

Contract carrier. As used in the Motor Carrier Radio Service, aperson who under
individual contracts or agreements engages in the transportation of passengers or
property for compensation as aregular occupation or business.

Land transportation radio services. Any private service of radiocommunication

essential to the conduct of certain land transportation activities, the transmitting
facilities of which are defined as fixed, land, mobile or radiolocation stations.

Mobile relay station. A base station in the mobile service, authorized primarily to
retransmit automatically on a mobile service frequency, communications originated
either by associated mobile units or by an associated control station. (Authorized in
the Railroad Radio Service only.)

Mobile Repeater station. A mobile station in the mobile service, authorized to

retransmit automatically on a mobile service frequency, communications originated
either by associated pack-carried or hand-carried mobile units or by other mobile or
base stations directed to such pack-carried or hand-carried units. (Authorized in the
Railroad Radio Service only.)

Motor carrier. Any streetcar, bus, truck, or other land motor vehicle operated over
public streets or highways by a common or contract carrier and used for the
transportation of passengers or property (freight) for compensation: Provided,
however, that motor vehicles used as taxicabs, livery vehicles, or school buses, and
motor vehicles used for sightseeing or special charter purposes, shall not be included
within the meaning of this term as used in the Motor Carrier Radio Service.

Motor Carrier Radio Service. A radiocommunication service for use in connection

with the operation of amotor carrier land transportation system.

Railroad Radio Service. Radiocommunication service for use in connection with

the operation and maintenance of arailroad common carrier.

Taxicab Radio Service. The term "Taxicab Radio Service", as used in this part
means a radiocommunication service for use in connection with the transportation
facilities of ataxicab common carrier.

Urban area. As used in the Motor Carrier Radio Service, one or more contiguous,

80
incorporated or unincorporated cities, boroughs, towns, or villages, having aggregate
population of 2,500 or more persons.

XI Citizens Radio Service

Citizens Radio Service. A radiocommunications service of fixed, land, and mobile
stations intended for short-distance personal or business radiocommunications, radio
signaling, and control of remote objects or devices by radio; all to the extent that these
uses are not specifically prohibited in this part.

Class A station. A station in the citizens Radio Service licensed to be operated on

an assigned frequency in the 460-470 mc/s band and with input power of 60 watts or
less.

Class B station. A station in the Citizens Radio Service licensed to be operated on

an authorized frequency in the 460-470 mc/s band and with input power of 5watts or
less.

Class C station. A station in the Citizens Radio Service licensed to be operated on

an authorized frequency in the 26.96-27.23 mc/s band, or on the frequency 27.255
mc/s, for the control of remote objects or devices by radio, or for the remote
actuation of devices which are used solely as ameans of attracting attention, or on an
authorized frequency in the 72-76 mc/s band for the control of model aircraft only.

Class D station. A station in the Citizens Radio Service licensed to be operated on

an authorized frequency in the 26.96-27.23 mc/s band or on the frequency 27.255
mc/s, with input power of 5watts or less, and for radiotelephony only.

Remote control. The term "remote control" when applied to the use or operation
of acitizens radio station means control of the transmitting equipment of that station
from any place other than the location of the transmitting equipment, except that
direct mechanical control or direct electrical control by wired connections of
transmitting equipment from some other point on the same premises, craft or vehicle
shall not be considered to be remote control.

XII Amateur Radio Service

Amateur mobile station. An amateur station that is so constructed that it may

conveniently be transferred to or from amobile unit or from one such unit to another,
and is ordinarily used while such mobile unit is in motion.

8I
 Amateur operator. A person interested in radio technique solely with apersonal
aim and without pecuniary interest, holding a valid license issued by the Federal
Communications Commission authorizing him to operate licensed amateur stations.

Amateur portable station. An amateur station that is so constructed that it may

conveniently be moved about from place to place for communication, but which is not
operated while in motion.

Amateur radiocommunication. Radiocommunication between amateur stations

solely with apersonal aim and without pecuniary interest.

Amateur service. A radio service carried on by amateur stations.

Amateur station. A station used by an amateur operator, and embracing all radio
transmitting apparatus at aparticular location used for amateur service and operated
under asingle instrument of authorization.

XIII Disaster Communications Service

Associated station. A disaster station is considered to be associated with alicensed

station in some other service when both stations are licensed to the same licensee at
the same location and both stations are included in at least one coordinated disaster
communications plan of the area concerned. A portable station or amobile station in
the Disaster Communications Service will be considered to be associated with the
station in the other service which is located at its base of operations.

Competent local authority. That authority within a community or larger area

which is so designated in the coordinated disaster communications plan for the area
concerned, including any alternate authority who may be so designated in such plan.
In the absence of the specifically designated authority, the individual in charge of the
net control station, or his representative, for the organized disaster station network
established in accordance with the coordinated disaster communications plan, shall be
considered as competent authority for the activation of the stations of that network.
Duly designated civil defense officials will be considered competent local authority in
the organization or operation of disaster communications radio networks and stations,
and in the coordination of disaster communications plans.

Disaster. An occurrence of such nature as to involve the health or safety of a

community or large area, or the health or safety of any group of individuals in an
isolated area to whom no normal means of communications are available, and include,
but are not limited to, floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, explosions, aircraft or train
wrecks, and consequences of armed attack.

82
 Disaster communications. Communications essential to the establishment and
maintenance of communication channels to be used in connection with disasters or
other incidents involving loss of communications facilities normally available or which
demand the temporary establishment of communications facilities beyond those
normally available, including communications necessary or incidental to drills and
simulated disaster relief activity on the part of persons or organizations participating in
the use of such communication channels; or communications or signals essential to the
public welfare, or that of any segment of the public, including communications
directly concerning safety of life, preservation of property, maintenance of law and
order, and alleviation of human suffering and need, in the case of any actual or
imminent disaster or other such incident.

Disaster Communications Service. A service of fixed, land, and mobile stations

licensed, or authorized, to provide essential communications incident to or in
connection with disasters or other incidents which involve loss of communications
facilities normally available or which require the temporary establishment of
communications facilities beyond those normally available.

Disaster station. Any government or nongovernment radio station able to function

as a fixed, land, or mobile station and authorized, if government, by its controlling
federal government agency or licensed, if nongovemment, by the Federal Communi-
cations Commission to operate in the Disaster Communications Service. A single
disaster station may consist of more than one unit, each capable of being operated
independently as afixed, land, or mobile station.

Portable station. A land station in the Disaster Communications Service which is

capable of being moved from place to place and is in fact, from time to time, moved to
and operated at unspecified fixed locations for the purpose of communicating with
other fixed, land, or mobile stations.

XIV Domestic Public Radio Services

Auxiliary test station. A fixed station used for test transmissions only, operating on
mobile station frequencies from a specified fixed location, for the purpose of
determining the performance of fixed receiving equipment which is remotely located
from the base station with which it is associated, or where the receiving equipment is
located with the base station and both are remotely located from the control point of
the station.

Central office. A landline termination center used for switching and intercon-
nection of public message communication circuits.

83
 Central office station. A fixed station used for transmitting communications to
rural subscriber stations associated therewith.

Domestic fixed public service. A fixed service, the stations of which are open to
public correspondence, for radiocommunication between points all of which lie
within: (a) the State of Alaska, or (b) the State of Hawaii, or (c) the remaining 48
states and the District of Columbia, or (d) asingle possession of the United States.

Domestic public land mobile radio service. A public communication service for hire
between land mobile stations wherever located and their associated base stations which
are located within the United States or its possessions, or between land mobile stations
in the United States and base stations in Canada.

Domestic public radio service. The land mobile and domestic fixed public services
the stations of which are open to public correspondence.

Effective radiated power. The product of the antenna power input and the antenna
power gain. This product should be expressed in watts. (If specified for aparticular
direction, effective radiated power is based on the antenna power gain in that direction
only.)

Exchange. A unit of a communication company or companies for the adminis-

tration of communication service in aspecified area, which usually embraces acity,
town, or village and its environs, and consisting of one or more central offices,
together with the associated plant, used in furnishing communication service in that
area.

Exchange area. The geographic area included within the boundaries of an exchange.

Fixed microwave auxiliary station. A fixed station used in connection with (1) the
alignment of microwave transmitting and receiving antenna systems and equipment,
(2) coordination of microwave radio survey operations, and (3) cue and contact
control of television pickup station operations.

Frequency tolerance. The frequency tolerance, expressed as a percentage or in

cycles per second, is the maximum permissible deviation, with respect to the reference
frequency of the corresponding characteristic frequency of an emission.

General communication. Two-way voice communication, through a base station,

between a common carrier land mobile station and a landline telephone station
connected to a public message landline telephone system, or between two common
carrier land mobile stations via abase station.

84
 Inter-office station. A fixed station in the domestic fixed public service which is
used exclusively for interconnection of telephone central offices.

Local television transmission service. A domestic public radiocommunication

service for the transmission of television material and related communications.

Message center. The point at which messages from members of the public are
accepted by the carrier for transmission to the addressee.

Microwave frequencies. As used in this part, this term refers to frequencies of 890
mc and above.

Miscellaneous common carriers. Communications common carriers which are not

engaged in the business of providing either apublic landline message telephone service
or public message telegraph service.

Mobile microwave auxiliary station. A mobile station used in connection with (1)
the alignment of microwave transmitting and receiving antenna systems and
equipment, (2) coordination of microwave radio survey operations, and (3) cue and
contact control of television pickup station operations.

Point-to-point microwave radio service. A domestic public radio service rendered on

microwave frequencies by fixed stations between points which lie within the United
States or between points in its possessions or to points in Canada or Mexico.

Private line service. A service whereby facilities for communication between two or
more designated points are set aside for the exclusive use or availability for use of a
particular customer and authorized users during stated periods of time.

85
 WHY DO YOU WANT
TO SUCCEED?

There are several answers to this question. You may want to

succeed for the very human reason that you want more money
with which to enjoy life, or you may have afamily for whom
you want to provide those comforts they so well deserve -- a
home, a new car, good clothes, life insurance, and financial
security.

Your ambition to succeed may be prompted by the desire

to bring happiness to an aged father, mother, or relative whose
chief hope in life is to see you enjoy prosperity and prestige,
to see you on the pinnacle of success.

Pause for just aminute and think -- what is your reason for
wanting success? With this reason in mind, resolve firmly that
you will never allow your ambition to weaken. Resolve that
you will never swerve from the direct path of your goal. Make
this resolution now and keep it, so the years to come will be
happier and more prosperous for you.
f•
e
l-
v e
1F1 r
Ai. Innovation in learning
I by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-RT-312
ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH ELECTRONICS

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

"."?•.141•Mrrer*-7 '"»
TRAINING KIT MANUAL 1T
PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATIONS
IN BASIC ELECTRONICS
 A Plan For Studying The Experiments
As you know, these Experimental Kits are intended to come to you on adefinite
schedule. This arrangement is so that you will study the necessary theory in your
regular lessons before you carry out any corresponding experiments. This permits you
to adopt either of the following plans of study:

I. You may wish to complete one or two experiments in akit, do alesson, and
then return to the kit for one or two more experiments. This plan permits the
experiments in one kit to be finished about the time the next kit is due. Thus, the
lessons and experiments run along together, and provide you with avaried program of
study.
2. You may prefer to break away from your lessons and to complete all the
experiments in akit at one time before going back to your lessons. This plan has the
advantage that you do not waste any time getting out and putting away materials, but
it can be followed only if you can leave your equipment set up long enough to finish.
Whichever plan you follow, you can begin NOW with the experiments in this kit.
However, be sure to read the preliminary information on pages one through sixteen
before you begin, so you will know just how the experiments are to be carried out. In
asimilar manner, begin on future kits as soon as you receive them.

NOTICE

NR1 has set up the CONAR Division of the National Radio Institute to handle
the sale of professional test equipment and other electronic equipment. NR1 has
had unsurpassed experience in the design of quality kits. All CONAR kits are
designed and produced by the National Radio Institute. The transistorized
volt-ohmmeter you will build as part of your training is the CONAR Model 212.
This is the same professional tvom you will see advertised nationwide. Several of
the parts you received in this kit, including the meter, will be used in the assembly
of your tvom.

COPYRIGHT 1970 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

KLIOM671 1973 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING
EXPERIMENTS 1THROUGH 10
LECTURE-ROOM DEMONSTRATIONS fidence in your own ability and will
YOU PERFORM IN YOUR OWN HOME provide what you need to become a
practical technician.
How many times have you heard the The experiments will help you to solve
expression, "Seeing is believing"? Prob- technical problems you will encounter in
ably many times, because it is human your work. You will see for yourself what
nature to doubt something you cannot happens when a particular part is defec-
see or touch. tive, and you will learn how to detect and
Although you can learn how apiece of correct errors and how to adjust circuits.
equipment works from pictures and Every experiment in every manual is
words, the average person understands important, because it is an actual working
better if he can actually set up equipment demonstration. Do not pass over any of
and make tests himself to see how it them hurriedly, even though you may
works. feel that you already know the results.
You must have aknowledge of theory If you look underneath the chassis of
before you can work successfully in the any modern piece of electronic equip-
radio-TV-electronics field. However, un- ment, you will see that the connections
less you know how to apply theory and are soldered. A soldered connection is the
make tests, your knowledge is useless. most reliable type of connection to make
Theory and practical application must go in commercial production because it will
hand-in-hand. not deteriorate much during the entire
The NRI Course of training is awell- life of the electronic equipment.
balanced combination of theory and When you repair defective equipment,
practical instruction. Practical demon- you must be able to find the defective
strations and experiments are given in this stage and then the defective part. How-
manual and the following manuals. ever, the ability to find what is wrong is
Doing these experiments will give you of little use unless you also know how to
actual experience in handling parts and take out the defective part and how to
making measurements, and will help you solder the connections for a new part.
understand explanations of more ad- Furthermore, you may often have to
vanced circuit actions. This type of ex- unsolder one or more connections during
perience is more valuable to you than your tests in order to find the defective
class or lecture-room demonstrations by part.
an instructor in which you take no active In the first section of this manual, you
part, and you can do the experiments at will study the fundamentals of soldering
your own convenience. and learn how to make a good soldered
This practical work with experimental connection using actual electronic parts.
equipment will help you develop con- You will make these connections in ex-

1
 BR I P07

CO:13 UTZ) 11/11XI

PAE21 STIO ST28 STI7

RESISTORS
HA6
- S076
4.
,••••• CH65
NUTS SCREWS LUI LU7 SRI2

CaZ)
1484 WR7 WR78
EC24 BAI

Fig. 1. Parts used in this Experimental Manual are shown here and listed below.

Part Price
Part Price
Quan. No. Description Each Quan. No. Description Each

2 BA1 Size D flashlight cell .20 2 RE36 100,000-ohm resistor .15

1 BR1 Pot mounting bracket .05 1 RE50 6800-ohm resistor .15
1 CH65 Chassis plate .93 1 RE52 82,000-ohm resistor .15
1 EC24 Etched circuit board 1.10 2 RE56 680-ohm resistor .15
1 11A6 Solder .41 1 RE165 15,000-ohm, 5%
1 LU1 Solder lug, small 12/.15 resistor .24
2 LU7 Solder lug, large 12/.15 6 SC1 1/4" X 6-32 machine
1 ME21 Meter 10.92 screw 12/.15
1 MS4 Marking crayon .05 2 SC6 1/4" X 4-40 machine
6 NUI 6-32 hex nut 12/.15 screw 12,/.15
2 NU5 4-40 hex nut 12/.15 1 S076 7-pin tube socket .12
1 P07 1000-ohm pot 2 SR12 Silicon diode .67
w/lockwasher/nut .75 1 STIO 3-lug terminal strip .05
1 RE28* 470-ohm resistor .15 1 ST17 7-lug terminal strip .12
2 RE29 4700-ohm resistor .15 1 ST28 4-lug terminal strip .10
3 RE30 1000-ohm resistor .15 1 WR7 25' red hookup wire .50
2 RE33 22,000-ohm resistor .15 1 WR78 6' black hookup wire .12

*All resistors are 1/2-watt, 10% tolerance unless otherwise specified.

2
actly the same way that you would in ment 6. If there are any figures that do
working on commercial equipment. The not apply to one particular experiment,
solder, hookup wire, and other parts that they will be numbered consecutively in
are included in this kit are standard items, each manual, starting with Fig. 1.
just like those that you might use in
working on any piece of electronic equip- CONTENTS OF THIS KIT
ment. In later experiments, you will have
practice in working from schematic dia- The parts included in your first kit are
grams. You will also assemble anumber pictured in Fig. 1and listed below. Each
of simple circuits to demonstrate some part that you receive in your kits is
basic electrical laws. assigned apart number. The part number
and description appears below Fig. 1.
HOW THE MANUALS ARE ARRANGED When you need a part for the experi-
ments, you will be given the part value, a
The manual for each kit in your description, and in some cases the part
Practical Demonstration Course contains number.
the instructions for performing ten Now check the parts that you receive
experiments. These experiments are against this list to make certain that you
numbered consecutively throughout the have all of the parts. Do not lose or
whole series; Experiments 1-10 are in the discard any of these parts because you
first manual, 11-20 in the second, etc. At will use many of them again in later
the end of each experiment is a State- experiments.
ment that you are to complete, so that For your convenience, most of the
you can check your work as you go parts are packed on cardboard under a
along. When the ten statements have been clear plastic film. This protects the parts
answered, be sure to submit the training during shipment and also makes it easy to
Kit Report to NRI for grading. inventory your parts. To remove the
In each manual, the figures are num- parts, cut around them with asharp knife
bered to correspond to each experiment. or arazor blade.
Each figure number has two parts. The IMPORTANT: If any part of this kit is
first part is the number of the experiment obviously defective or has been damaged
in which it appears, and the second part is during shipment, please return the de-
the number of the figure within the fective part to NRI for replacement,
experiment. For example, Fig. 1-3 would following the procedure given on the
be the third figure in Experiment 1; Fig. "Packing and Returned Material Slip"
6-2 would be the second figure in Experi- enclosed in this kit.

3
 Preparing For The Experiments
Before you start the experiments, there TOOLS YOU WILL NEED
are several things you will need to do.
You will need aplace to work and tools The tools you need to do these experi-
to work with. ments are the same as those you will use
You do not need an elaborate work- in all kinds of electronic work. They are
bench. A folding card table set up near an pictured in Fig. 2, and listed under the
electrical outlet will be satisfactory. Do figure. None of these tools are supplied
not use a metal-top table, because it with this kit. Probably you already have
could cause short circuits that might some of these tools, since the average
damage the equipment. If you have to use home usually does have a few tools for
a metal-top table, cover the top with a simple repair work.
nonconductor, such as cardboard or li- You can get those tools you do not
noleum. have from hardware stores, radio-supply

Fig. 2. These are the tools you will need to do these experiments. You probably already
have many of them. Get the best ones you can afford; you will be using them throughout
your course as well as when you do service work. These tools are not supplied with your
kits. From left to right, all-purpose pliers, longnose pliers, diagonal cutters, small screw-
driver, medium size screwdriver, Phillips screwdriver, metal-cutting file, and pocket knife.
Below the tools is asoldering iron.

4
houses, or mail-order firms. Since you screws. Because the average person uses a
will use the tools in all of your electronic screwdriver as a can opener, a pry or
work, they are aworthwhile investment. pinch bar, and even as a chisel, the
Select good quality tools that "feel right" screwdriver is one of the most abused
in your hand. tools.
Pliers. The technician needs three The technician needs three screw-
types of pliers: longnose pliers, diagonal drivers - one with a small blade for
cutters, and ordinary slip-joint pliers. loosening setscrews in dial and control
Each type has its own purpose and should knobs and one with amedium blade for
be used for that purpose only. Pliers are general purpose work. He also needs a
designed primarily for holding, bending, Phillips screwdriver because screws with a
and cutting. Many people use them for special head known as a "Phillips head"
other purposes so they often ruin them or are often used in electronic equipment.
mar the material on which they are Screwdrivers with plastic handles are best
working. because the plastic is a good insulator.
Perhaps the pliers most often used in Later on you will need aspecial type of
electronics are the longnose type. Al- screwdriver, known as an "alignment
though you may use longnose pliers to tool." This is a non-metallic tool for
hold a nut in position so that it can be special uses, but you won't need it now.
started on ascrew, you should never use Files. There are more than twenty
them to tighten nuts. You may spring the types of files. Each type comes in sizes
jaws so the points will not meet or you from three to eighteen inches. They may
could actually break one of the jaws. Use be either single or double cut and are
your longnose pliers to hold wires in classified according to the different
position for soldering, to remove wires, or grades of coarseness or fineness, de-
for hard-to-reach places. pending upon the size and spacing of the
Diagonal cutting pliers, or "side teeth.
cutters" as they are often called, are used The type most often used in elec-
for most cutting operations. Because the tronics is a10-inch second-cut mill file. It
cutting jaws are at an angle, these pliers is used to keep the tip of the soldering
are ideal for cutting wires close to termi- iron in good condition by removing small
nals. amounts of metal, leaving the filed sur-
Combination slip-joint pliers, often face smooth. This type of rile is also
called "combination pliers," are also in useful in brightening lugs for easier sol-
common use. Because of the slip joint, dering.
the jaws can be opened wider at the hinge Knife. A good knife is useful when
pin so that larger diameters can be preparing wires for connection to other
gripped. These pliers come in 5, 6, 8, and parts; asturdy pocket knife is fine.
10-inch sizes. The thin-type, 6-inch size is Soldering Iron. The soldering iron is
best for electronics work. used more often by servicemen than any
Screwdrivers. Practically everyone is other tool. Since you will use it often and
familiar with the standard screwdriver. it is so important, you should choose it
The screwdriver is intended for one carefully. A number of soldering irons
principal purpose -to loosen or tighten suitable for electronics work are shown in

5
 Fig. 3. Several soldering irons suitable for electronics work.

Fig. 3. It is best to buy asoldering iron "pencil" type irons. These types have
from afirm that specializes in electronics replaceable heating elements and tips.
parts. You should obtain your iron from They are available with various wattage
your local wholesaler, from amail-order ratings, usually 25 to 40 watts, suitable
wholesaler, or from the CONAR Instru- for general electronic soldering, and 40 to
ments Division of NRI. 50 watts, for heavier duty work. These
Hardware stores sometimes carry sol- "pencil" irons are the types most suitable
dering irons in stock, but they may have for the beginner as they are lightweight
only the large type that is used for heavy and easy to handle. Perhaps the most
work, such as automobile radiator repair suitable iron for the beginner would be
or roofing work. These irons are too one like the third iron from the left in
heavy for easy handling and too big to be Fig. 3. A 37-1/2 element and a chisel-
used where small parts are crowded to- shaped tip make an ideal choice of
gether. element and tip.
From left to right in Fig. 3, the first At the right in the photo is asoldering
iron is called a medium duty iron. This gun. A gun of this type has the advantage
type of iron generally has arating of from over the iron in that it heats and cools
50 to 150 watts and is used where a very quickly. Thus, it is excellent for a
relatively large amount of heat is needed, serviceman making house calls or atech-
such as when soldering to the chassis. nician working on equipment in aplant.
The two irons in the center are He plugs the gun in when he arrives at

6
the job and it is ready for use immedi- it is ready for use. If the tip is anatural
ately. Everyone going into electronics, copper color, you must tin it before using
whether on apart-time or full-time basis, it.
will find agun useful. However, it is not
TINNING A SOLDERING IRON
quite as easy to turn out well-soldered
connections with a gun as it is with an
You cannot solder properly unless
iron. Therefore, the beginner should start
your soldering iron is properly tinned.
with a conventional soldering iron and
Therefore, your first step in learning how
learn to use it correctly and later, if he so
to solder is to learn how to tin asoldering
desires, he can use asoldering gun.
iron.
As mentioned previously, the most
The tip of the soldering iron is made of
suitable single iron for general service
copper. When an untinned soldering iron
work and for use in your kits is an
is heated, the copper combines with the
electric iron with atip about an inch long
oxygen in the air, forming adark coating
and 1/8" to 1/4" in diameter. The tip
of copper oxide on the tip of the iron. If
should be of the chisel type with two flat
you try to use an untinned iron, the
surfaces. The wattage rating should not
copper oxide coating will act as a heat
be more than 50 watts, because a high-
insulator and keep the heat of the iron
wattage iron is bulky, and if its barrel
from the parts you are trying to solder. It
touches parts, it may damage them.
will be practically impossible to heat the
When you buy an iron, be sure you get
part sufficiently to melt the solder
asoldering iron stand with it, to rest the
properly.
hot iron on when it is not in use. Or get
You can prevent this by covering the
an iron that is designed so that the handle
tip of the iron with solder. This is called
is heavier than the tip end. Then the iron
"tinning" the iron. The solder will form a
will balance when it is laid down with the
protective layer over the copper tip so
tip off the bench.
that the oxygen cannot get at the copper
The average electric soldering iron will and corrode it. The tinned tip will be a
operate on ac or dc at 117 volts. Power- good conductor of heat, and you will be
line voltages may vary between 110 and able to heat the parts enough to solder
120 volts; an iron designed for 117-volt them properly.
operation may be used on any voltage Preparing the lip. The first step in
between 105 volts and 130 volts. tinning asoldering iron is to examine the
Although the modern soldering iron is tip. A photograph of the tip of a new
a rugged tool, it should never be abused. soldering iron that has not been tinned is
Do not use it as a hammer, drop it, or shown in Fig. 4A, and aphotograph of a
attempt to cool it quickly by plunging it soldering iron that has been used and
into water. When properly cared for, an needs re-tinning is shown in Fig. 4B.
iron will last for years. Notice that the tip of the new iron is
Although some irons have pre-tinned reasonably smooth, whereas the tip of the
tips, most tips must be tinned before use. iron that has been used is pitted, dirty,
If your iron has a bright, shiny tip or a and uneven.
dull gray tip, it has been pre-tinned, and If your soldering iron is in good condi-

7
 like the one shown in Fig. 4B. You will
have to go through this procedure to
re-tin it.
To file the tip of the iron, rest the iron
on a vise or asimilar metal support, as
shown in Fig. 5. Grasp the iron in one
hand and proceed to file one of the
surfaces flat as shown. Try to file the
surface at approximately the same angle
as that of the original tip. Do not remove
any more metal than is necessary, but
make sure that you file the surface until
all of the dark spots and holes in the
Fig. 4. If your soldering iron is new and surface are gone. When you have com-
has not been tinned as at (A), or if it has pleted the operation, the tip of the iron
been used and is pitted as at (B), it will should look•as it does in Fig. 6.
need tinning. After you have filed one surface of the
tip, turn the iron over. In other words,
tion, like the one shown in Fig. 4A, you rotate the iron 180°,and file the surface
can plug it into an electrical outlet and flat on the opposite side of the tip. Again,
start heating it. On the other hand, if you remove no more metal than is necessary,
have an iron that has been used and looks but make sure you file the surface until it
like Fig. 4B, you should file the tip is clean. Try to file at the same angle as
smooth before you start to heat it. Even the first surface, as shown in Fig. 7.
though your iron may be in good condi- If your iron has apyramid-shaped tip,
tion, read the following instructions care- turn the iron aquarter turn and rile one
fully, because after your iron has been of the other surfaces. Then turn the iron
used for some time, it will become pitted over and file the last surface. When you

Fig. 5. To file the tip of your iron, hold it Fig. 6. When you have filed one surface,
against avise as shown here. your iron should look like this.

8
 Fig. 7. File the opposite surface at the Fig. 8. Your iron should look like this
same angle as the first surface, as shown. after filing all four surfaces on its tip.

have filed all tip surfaces, the tip of the Move the solder around the tip until the
iron should look like the one shown in entire surface is tinned, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 8. Notice that the sides are approxi- 9. After you have tinned one surface of
mately even. the tip, turn the iron and go through the
Before you start to heat the iron, same procedure of lightly filing the other
examine the edges of the flat surfaces on surfaces, and then applying solder.
the tip. If the edges are rough, smooth After you have tinned the surfaces of
them by careful rubbing with apiece of the tip, use aclean cloth to wipe off any
sandpaper. excess solder. Hold the cloth loosely as
Tinning the Iron. After you have pre- shown in Fig. 10 to avoid burning your
pared the surface for tinning, or if you hand. When you have your iron tinned, it
are tinning a new iron that is in good is ready for use. Unplug it, and set it aside
condition, plug the iron in and wait for it until you are ready to start soldering.
to heat. As the iron heats, periodically
touch the end of the solder to the tip so
you will know when the iron is hot
enough to melt the solder. You should tin
it as soon as it reaches a high enough
temperature, because the longer an un-
tinned iron is heated, the more copper
oxide will form on the tip.
When the iron has reached operating
temperature, again rest it on avise and
lightly file one surface as shown in Fig. 5.
Once you have filed the surface lightly so
that it is shiny, quickly set the file down,
pick up the roll of solder, and touch the Fig. 9. How to apply solder to tin the tip
end of the solder to the tip of the iron. of the iron.

9
 MOUNTING THE PARTS

Most of your experiments will be

carried out on your experimental chassis
plate which is shown in the parts photo,
Fig. 1. You will mount several parts on
the chassis plate before you begin the
experiments.
The parts supplied with this kit are
Fig. 10. Wiping excess solder from the shown in Fig. 1and identified in the list
iron with a piece of cloth. below the photograph.
Gather the following parts and place
Notice that the solder you received in them on your worktable. Then they will
this kit contains arosin core that acts as a be handy when you are ready to use
cleaning agent and prepares the metal them:
surface to receive the solder. It is difficult
to make agood soldered connection using 1 Chassis plate (CH65)
plain solder alone; another material called 1 7-lug terminal strip (ST17)
flux must be applied along with the 1 3-lug terminal strip (ST10)
solder. Rosin flux is used in this case. 1 4-lug terminal strip (ST28)
Only rosin core solder should be used in 1 Potentiometer mounting bracket
soldering electronic equipment. (BR1)
Hardware and other stores sell some 1 1K-ohm potentiometer (P07)
solder with an acid core. Acid flux in any 1 Solder lug (LU1)
form should never be used in electronic 6 1/4" X 6-32 screws (SC1)
equipment. The acid will corrode the 6 6-32 hex nuts (NUI)
leads and terminals and may damage 1 Marking crayon (MS4)
some of the parts. Use only rosin core
solder in electronics work; do not use Notice that we have supplied two sizes
liquid or paste flux. Solder similar to that of screws and nuts. The size of amachine
which we have supplied in this kit should screw is given by its diameter and the
be used in all your electronics work. number of threads per inch. The first
number is the diameter. Thus, the 6-32
screws (SC1) are larger in diameter than
IMPORTANT NOTICE
the 4-40 screws (SC6), but the 4-40
In checking students' problems, screws have afiner thread. The length of
NRI has found that poor soldering ascrew is given in fractions of an inch.
is more frequently the cause of
Follow the instructions as you mount
failure to get proper results than all
the parts on your chassis and do not
other troubles combined. There-
fore, be sure to perform every attach any parts until instructed to do so.
step in each experiment to learn all Place the chassis upright on your work-
you can about soldering. table so that the holes are positioned as
shown in Fig. 11. The bent lip should be
DO NOT SKIP ANY STEPS
away from you and pointing upward. To

10
 o

GO
N
A

i
o

0 0
j

H
CI o o Li O L2
C2 o
0 0 o 0 0 °0
o o
c3 L3
o

S
oU V

Fig. 11. Chassis hole identification.

help you locate the parts correctly, we you can put small pieces of tape near
have given the holes identifying letters. these holes and mark on the tape with a
You can use the marking crayon to label pen.
these holes on the chassis. If you prefer, Fig. 12 shows the chassis with the parts

o
o
o
o o

o o

Dçs
o
o o
12 0
5 6 7 8 9 10 II
o
13

14

o o o o 15 o

Fig. 12. Parts mounted on the chassis and the terminal identification number.

11
 .e."^

Fig. 13. (A) Mounting the potentiometer bracket; (B) mounting the potentiometer.

mounted on it. Be sure to mount the chassis. Attach the nut and tighten the
parts at the çorrect location and position screw.
them as shown in the drawing. Install the potentiometer in the po-
Mount the 3-lug terminal strip at hole tentiometer mounting bracket. As shown
C, as shown in Fig. 12. Pass a1/4" X 6-32 in Fig. 13B, slip the large lockwasher over
screw down through the mounting foot in the shaft and bushing of the potenti-
the terminal strip and through hole C in ometer and slip the bushing through the
the chassis. Attach a 6-32 hex nut. hole in the bracket mounted on the
Position the terminal strip as shown and chassis. Attach the large control nut, turn
tighten the screw. Hold the nut with the potentiometer so its terminals are
pliers as you tighten the screw. upward; then tighten the control nut.
Install the 7-lug terminal strip at holes Bend the solder lug at about a 45 °
D and K. Use 1/4" X 6-32 screws and angle, as shown in Fig. 14. Mount the
nuts. Position the strip exactly as shown solder lug at hole B, using a 1/4" X 6-32
in Fig. 12. Pass ascrew down through the screw and nut. Tighten the screw.
left mounting foot and hole D and attach The numbers appearing in Fig. 12 are
a nut. Pass a screw through the other the terminal identification numbers. They
mounting foot and through hole K. will be used throughout this kit for
Attach anut and tighten both screws. identifying the terminals when making
Mount the 4-lug terminal strip at hole connections.
U. Use a 1/4" X 6-32 screw and nut.
Position the terminal strip as shown in
o
BEND
-- - ABOUT
Fig. 12 and tighten the screw. HERE ABOUT
Install the potentiometer mounting 45'
ANGLE

bracket at hole W. See Fig. 13A. Use a

BEFORE AFTER
1/4" X 6-32 screw and nut. Pass the screw
down through the small mounting hole in Fig. 14. Before you mount the solder lug,
the bracket and through hole W in the bend it as shown here.

12
 Learning To Solder
Our experience in teaching students SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
has shown that over 75% of the troubles
encountered by students and technicians Perhaps the most important step in
is due to poor soldering! You might think making agood soldered connection is to
from this that good soldering is difficult, make sure that the parts you are at-
but this is not true. If you watch an tempting to solder together are clean. For
experienced man work with asoldering example, if you try to solder acapacitor
iron, it looks quite simple. The experi- lead to aterminal strip, and the capacitor
enced technician follows the two basic lead is not clean, you will find it practi-
rules given below to make good soldering cally impossible to get the solder to stick
easy. to the lead.
First: Have the materials to be joined All leads, whether they are resistor or
and the tip of the iron clean and free capacitor leads or merely wires to be
from grease. If the terminals or wires are soldered, should be tinned before you
not bright, scrape them with a knife or attempt to solder them. Most of the
with apiece of fine sandpaper until they resistors and capacitors that you will
are clean and bright. receive in your kits have been tinned by
Second: Have the sections to be joined the manufacturer. However, in the manu-
hot enough to melt the solder so that it facturing processes, the tinned surface
will run freely to all parts of the con- sometimes becomes covered with wax or
nection and form agood bond. other impurities. These leads should be
If you follow these two basic rules, cleaned and retinned whenever necessary.
you will never have soldering trouble. If You can use approximately the same
you ignore them, you may spend hours procedure to tin alead as you used to tin
looking for defective parts when the the tip of your soldering iron. The first
trouble is simply a poorly soldered con- step is to clean the lead. You can either
nection. scrape the lead carefully with aknife, as

Fig. 15. How to use aknife to clean aresistor lead.

13
Fig. 16. Using sandpaper to clean alead. Fig. 17. How to tin aresistor lead.

shown in Fig. 15, or you can use asmall entire lead. If you apply enough heat to
piece of fine sandpaper. Hold the lead in melt the solder thoroughly, the solder
the sandpaper, as shown in Fig. 16, and will flow smoothly over the lead, as
draw the sandpaper over the lead several shown in Fig. 18. Tin the other lead in
times. the same way.
After you have cleaned the lead, hold Lugs on terminal strips also should be
the part with your longnose pliers and cleaned and tinned before you attempt to
touch it to the tip of your soldering iron, solder awire or alead to the lug. Usually,
as shown in Fig. 17. Then touch the brushing over the terminal quickly with a
solder to the lead. Allow asmall amount piece of sandpaper will remove any dirt
of solder to melt onto the lead and onto or grease that may be on the terminal.
the tip of the iron. Move the lead back Sometimes it will be necessary to scrape
and forth through the solder to tin the the terminal with aknife or file.

Fig. 18. A tinned resistor lead. Fig. 19. Making aconnection to terminal.

14
 Fig. 20. Bending the lead. Fig. 21. Soldering aconnection.

The tube socket pins and lugs on the After they are hot enough, touch the
terminal strips that you will receive in end of the solder to the terminal and
your kits have been tinned. You should lead, so that the solder will flow freely
have no trouble in soldering to these over the resistor lead and the terminal.
terminals. However, before soldering to Do not use too much solder. You want
them, carefully examine them to be sure only enough to cover the resistor lead and
they are clean. If they are not, clean and hold it to the terminal. If you use too
tin them to avoid soldering difficulties much, the solder will flow down the
later. terminal strip and may short to the
To solder alead to aterminal strip or chassis. A properly soldered connection
solder lug, place the lead through the showing the correct amount of solder is
opening in the terminal lug, as shown in shown in Fig. 22, and aconnection with
Fig. 19. Bend the end of the lead slightly an excessive amount of solder is shown in
as in Fig. 20 so that the lead can be Fig. 23.
placed in contact with the metal part of
the lug. Do not wrap the lead around the
terminal strip lug unless you are told to
do so. This type of connection is too
difficult to remove. Later, when you
begin wiring equipment that you will
leave assembled permanently, you will
wrap the leads around the various termi-
nals in order to insure strong mechanical
and electrical connections.
When you have the lead in place, hold
your soldering iron against the terminal
and against the lead, as shown in Fig. 21,
to heat both of them to the solder.
melting point. Unless you heat them
both, you will not make agood connec-
tion. Fig. 22. Good solder connection.

15
 Usually, if you heat the terminal and lead
sufficiently, you will find that adrop of
solder will be all that is needed. Do not

friêtei
hold the soldering iron in place and

lieuesçr
simply melt more and more solder onto
the joint. Once you have one drop of

e01.
solder flowing around the joint, lift the
solder off the terminal, but continue to
heat the connection so that the solder
that you have on the terminal flows
around the leads and over the terminal.
Fig. 23. Poor solder connection (too much This may be all the solder you need. If
solder). not, add more solder and allow it to flow
into the joint. If you use too much, the
When soldering a connection, do not solder will flow between the pins and the
be in ahurry to get the soldering iron off chassis, and between the chassis and
the connection. In most cases, it is better terminal strip lugs.
to hold the iron on the connection alittle It is particularly important that you
too long than it is not to hold the iron on heat large wires thoroughly. You will
long enough. When you are starting to often find in your radio, TV, or elec-
solder, watch each connection carefully. tronics work that you must solder trans-
Hold the iron on the connection long former leads in place. Usually the leads
enough to allow the solder to flow freely. from atransformer, particularly the leads
Solder should melt and flow in, around, from the filament winding on a TV
and over all the leads you are attempting replacement power transformer, will be
to solder to aterminal. The solder should of afairly large size. In addition, they are
also flow freely over the terminal. If you made of copper, which is a good heat
hold the iron on the terminal only long conductor. As a result, they can carry
enough to melt the solder and have it away a substantial amount of heat. You
start to flow, you will find that you have will have to be sure that you have the
arough-looking joint, and the chances are iron in good contact with the lead when
that if you apply pressure to the leads, making this type of connection.
they will pull loose. On the other hand, if Etched Circuit Wiring. Etched or
you hold the iron on the joint long "printed" circuit boards are used in many
enough to allow the solder to melt radio and TV receivers as well as in other
completely and flow freely over the joint, types of electronic equipment. You can
you will have a smooth-looking connec- expect to have to wire and to repair
tion that will be mechanically strong. circuit boards. Therefore, you should
This is extremely important -make sure know how to do so.
that the solder flows freely over each Examine the etched circuit board in-
connection you make. cluded in your kit (NRI part EC24). This
Using Too Much Solder. Avoid using is fairly typical of the boards used in
too much solder. It takes very little solder commercial equipment. The board con-
to make a good electrical connection. sists of a sheet of phenolic, which is an

16
insulating material, with a pattern of into and around the joint. After the
copper foil strips bonded to one side. solder cools, cut off the lead flush with
Notice that the copper foil connects the top of the soldered connection. Fig.
together holes in the circuit board. When 25 shows an etched circuit board with
parts are mounted on the board with good soldered connections.
their leads extending through these holes As you go through these experiments,
and soldered to the copper, the copper pay particular attention to each soldered
foil provides the electrical paths which connection you make. Tin the part leads
connect the parts together to form cir- before attempting to solder them; heat
cuitry. each connection thoroughly; inspect each
We call them "etched" circuit boards connection and wiggle the leads after it is
because of the way the boards are made. soldered to make sure that it is agood
Each board is cut from alarge sheet of solid connection. Try to develop sound
phenolic to which asheet of copper foil soldering habits; they will save you a
has been bonded. The desired copper foil great deal of time and difficulty, not only
pattern is transferred to the board by a in your experiments, but all through your
photographic process. The board is then electronics career.
placed in a highly corrosive solution Performing the Experiments. To get
which etches away the unwanted copper the most benefit from the experimental
foil, leaving the desired foil pattern. course, you should follow a logical,
After the etching is completed, the planned procedure in each experiment.
board is cleaned and the holes are drilled When you start a new manual, always
or punched and the lettering and other study first the introduction at ,the be-
markings are printed on the phenolic. ginning of the book. Then perform the
Parts are usually mounted on the experiments one at atime, in the correct
phenolic side of the board and they are order, by observing the following pro-
supported by their leads, as shown in Fig. cedures:
24. The leads are passed through the
holes in the board and soldered to the I. Read through the instructions and
foil. When you install a part, bend the discussions for the entire experiment
lead outward slightly to hold the part once very slowly, and study any parts
until you can solder the leads. Place the that are not immediately clear to you. Do
tip of your iron in contact with the lead not touch asingle tool or part until you
and the foil and apply solder. Allow a make this preliminary study.
small amount of solder to melt and flow 2. Lay out on your worktable the

Fig. 24. Phenolic side of an etched circuit Fig. 25. Foil side of an etched circuit
board with the parts installed. board, showing the parts installed.

17
parts and tools needed for the experiment will mount parts and make several sol-
to be performed. dered connections. This experiment may
3. Carry out the experiments one step seem simple, but do not pass over it
at a time. Record your results whenever quickly. The points that will be brought
spaces are provided in the manual for this out are all very important.
purpose. Additional observations and Soldering ability is not hard to acquire
comments can be written in the margins and you should make this your first goal.
of the pages for future reference.
4. Study the discussion at the end of Experimental Procedure: Before you
the experiment very carefully, and start the experiment, make sure your
analyze your results. After finishing an workbench is cleared so you will not lose
experiment, you should be able to tell in any parts or have anything in your way.
your own words exactly what you proved Gather your tools and the parts you will
and how you did it. need in the experiment. At this time you
5. Complete the Report Statement by should have apotentiometer, asolder lug
writing the Statement Number on your and three terminal strips mounted on the
Training Kit Report sheet in the space chassis.
provided. Then enter the number of your In the experiment, you will need the
choice for completing the Statement in chassis with the parts mounted on it and
the next column. Use the additional the following parts:
columns to the right for Statements that
have more than one part. 3 1000-ohm resistors (RE30; brown-
6. When you have completed all ten black-red-silver)
experiments in the manual and have Rosin-core solder
answered all of the statements, send in
your Report Sheet for grading. Do not Step 1: To prepare the parts to be
send in the manual. soldered.

EXPERIMENT 1
If you have the parts mounted on the
Purpose: To mount parts in acircuit; chassis correctly, you are ready to wire
and to make soldered connections to the circuit by soldering resistors to vari-
these parts.
ous terminals. Plug in your soldering iron
Introductory Discussion: Solder will so that it can be heating.
hold parts together mechanically and fuse Tin each lead of the three resistors
parts together so that they are, in effect, until they are bright and shiny.
a single unit. A good soldered joint has As you were instructed previously, you
little or no resistance and protects the can use a knife or a small piece of
surfaces of the parts from oxidation. sandpaper folded and held between the
Good soldered connections are aclue to thumb and forefinger to clean the leads if
the technician's ability. A man with an they will not tin easily.
average knowledge of theory who can Test the iron by touching the end of
make good soldered connections will have the solder to the tinned tip of the iron. lf
less trouble than an expert on theory who the solder melts readily, the iron is ready
cannot solder! In this experiment, you for use.

18
 o

o
o o
o o

o
o
°0
o

Fig. 1-1. Top view of the chassis, showing the resistors you will install in this experiment.

IMPORTANT: Do not cut the leads of the iron so that one flat surface of the tip
any parts you received in this kit unless is against the terminal. This permits maxi-
you are instructed to do so in the mum transfer of heat from the tip of the
experiment. You will use most of the iron to the connection.
parts again in future experiments. Touch the solder to the point where
Fig. 1-1 shows you where you are to the terminal and the lead meet, and allow
connect the resistors. The resistors are to the solder to melt. Notice that the rosin
be mounted so that the resistors and the flux flows out of the solder as the solder
leads are to be at least 1/2" above the
chassis. As we mentioned earlier, we have
given each terminal an identifying num-
ber. We will use these terminal numbers
in this kit to indicate where the connec-
tions are to be made so as to simplify the
instructions.
Connect the lead of one of the resistors
to terminal 1, which is the solder lug
mounted at hole B. Push the end of the
lead through the hole in the solder lug
and solder, as shown in Fig. 1-2.

Bring the tip of your soldering iron

into contact with both the solder lug and Fig. 1-2. Soldering the resistor lead to the
the resistor lead, as in Fig. 1-2. Position terminal.

19
Fig. 1-3. Resistor R1 soldered to terminal 1. Fig. 1-4. Resistor R1 in place on chassis.

melts. Remove the roll of solder and moving the lead before the joint has
continue to heat the joint. cooled.
After the solder flows into the connec- Another problem which you might
tion and coats the terminal and lead, encounter is the "rosin" joint. This is a
remove the heat and allow the joint to connection having a layer of rosin be-
cool and harden. Do not disturb the tween the wire and the terminal. A rosin
connection until the solder hardens. joint is indicated by a brown crusty
If your solder joint is made correctly, appearance on the connection. You can
the lead will be covered with solder where correct a rosin joint by reheating the
it touches the terminal and the solder connection and allowing the rosin to boil
should have aclean smooth appearance. out. As you heat the joint, you will see
Fig. 1-3 shows agood solder connection. the vapor from the rosin rising from it.
The space between the resistor lead and With your longnose pliers, grasp the
the terminal is filled with solder and the free lead of the resistor and slip it
solder also seals the connection. through the slot in terminal 2. Position
It is agood idea to test each connec- the resistor as shown in Fig. 1-1. Twist
tion after it has cooled. To do this, grasp the resistor slightly so the lead stays near
the resistor lead you have just soldered the top of the slot in the terminal. Bend
between the connection and the resistor the end of the lead passing through the
body with your longnose pliers. Twist the terminal so the lead touches the terminal,
lead gently and move it back and forth. If as shown in Fig. 1-4. Do not solder the
the lead does not move, you probably connection at this time.
have agood soldered connection. If the
lead breaks loose, or if the connection has Step 2: To mount resistor R2.

a brown crust on it, re-melt the solder

with your iron and let it cool again. Now take another resistor and push the
If you did make apoor solder connec- end of one lead about 1 /8" through the
tion, it may have been due to insufficient slot in terminal 2. Bend the end slightly
heat or to dirt on the lead or terminal. A to bring it into contact with the terminal.
poor joint can also result from your Solder both leads to terminal 2. Place the

20
 tip of your soldering iron in contact with does not rely on the solder for physical
both leads and the terminal, with a flat strength. Usually the wire is twisted or
surface against the terminal. Touch your wrapped around the terminal for physical
solder to the connection and allow a strength before the connection is sol-
small amount of the solder to melt. dered.
Remove the roll of solder and allow the You will make only temporary sol-
molten solder to flow into the connec- dered connections in the experiments in
tion. Remove the heat and let the joint this manual. However, you will make
cool. permanent connections in later experi-
Test each connection by twisting and ments. The instructions on how to make
trying to move each lead. If the joint does them will be given at that time.
not break loose, and the solder looks Look over the connections you have
smooth, you probably have an acceptable made and examine them critically. Check
connection. If not, reheat the connection, to see if any solder has run down the
remelt the solder and allow it to cool and terminal where it may make contact with
test the connections again. the chassis and cause ashort circuit. This
Bend the leads of resistor R2 at aright condition is illustrated in Fig. 1-5. Also,
angle about 1/2" from the body of the look at each connection to see if solder
resistor and position the resistor as shown has flowed to all parts of the joints. Look
in Fig. 1-1. Connect the free lead of for big lumps of solder on the terminal.
resistor R2 to terminal 4. Do not solder it They indicate too little heat or too much
at this time, since another lead will be solder.
connected to the same terminal. Excess solder will do no harm, pro-
vided it does not short terminals together,
Step 3: To mount resistor R3. short aterminal to the chassis, or contain
excessive rosin. However, it looks messy
Connect another resistor, R3,from and is awaste of solder. Too little heat
terminal 4 to terminal 8. This time make means a poor connection; the cure is to
the connection without detailed instruc- hold the lead in position and reheat the
tions. Bend the leads as required and joint.
position the resistor as shown in Fig. 1-1. Next you will unsolder the connections
Note that the body of the resistor should in order to learn the proper techniques
be about 1 /2" to 3/4'' from the 7-lug for doing this.
terminal strip. Solder and test both con-
nections.
If you have done your work correctly,
your chassis should look like Fig. 1-1.
You should have atotal of three resistors
and four temporary soldered connections.
We call them "temporary" because they
can be disconnected easily, as you will see
later. The solder provides both the
mechanical strength and the electrical
path between the leads and the terminals. Fig. 1-5. A terminal shorted to the chassis
By contrast, a permanent connection by excessive solder.

21
 Whenever you remove parts, clean the
leads, lugs, and terminals so that you can
use the parts again and connect other
parts to the same lugs and terminals.
To practice this technique, first use
your longnose pliers to straighten the
resistor leads. Then, wipe any excess
solder from the tip of your iron with a
piece of cloth, and place the iron on the
holder so that you can get to the tip
easily. In one hand, hold apiece of cloth
so that there are several thicknesses be-
Fig. 1-6. Removing R3 from terminal 8. tween your thumb and forefinger. With
your longnose pliers in your other hand,
grasp aresistor lead close to the body of
Step 4: To learn to unsolder con-
the resistor. Hold the end of the lead
nections.
against the tip of the iron until the solder
on the lead melts, and quickly pull the
Grasp the lead of R3 connected to
hot lead through the cloth, as shown in
terminal 8 with your longnose pliers. See
Fig. 1-7. This will remove all excess solder
Fig. 1-6. Then touch the tip of your
and leave the lead surface clean and
soldering iron to the connection. As soon
bright. Do this on all resistor leads that
as the solder melts, pull the lead out of
have been used in this experiment.
the terminal. Wipe the tip of your iron
There are several methods of removing
with acloth to remove the excess solder,
the solder from terminal and solder lugs.
and then touch the tip of the iron to the
Probably the easiest and most efficient
connections to terminal 4. Grasp the lead
method to use on small pieces of elec-
of resistor R3 with your longnose pliers
and, as soon as the solder melts, pull that
lead free. Lay the resistor on your work-
bench. Grasp the lead of resistor R2
connected to terminal 4. Apply heat to
the terminal, and when the solder melts,
pull the lead free. Wipe the excess solder
from your iron with a cloth and then
apply heat to the second lead of resistor
R2 which is connected to terminal 2.

Remove the resistor and lay it on your

work surface.
Use the procedure which we have
outlined to unsolder the remaining con-
nections and to remove resistor RI.

Step 5: To clean parts so they will be Fig. 1-7. Removing the excessive solder
ready for reuse. from aresistor lead.

22
tronic equipment, such as the experi- tions. You have had practice in mounting
mental chassis you received in this kit, is actual electronics parts and soldering
to turn the chassis upside down so that them into place. You have been able to
the terminals are pointing downward. see how solder looks as it cools and
Apply the tip of the iron to the end of hardens. You should not expect to be an
the terminal, and when the solder melts expert at soldering at this time; it takes
most of it will run onto the tinned considerable practice. However, if you
surface of the iron. Wipe the excess solder carefully follow the procedures discussed
from the tip and repeat the procedure on in this experiment, you should have no
the other lugs on the terminal strip. If a trouble making good soldered connec-
thin film of solder remains in the terminal tions and you will soon become an expert
holes, wipe the excess solder from the tip with asoldering iron.
of the iron and reheat the lug. Push a You have also had practice in the
resistor lead through the hole to remove equally important task of unsoldering,
the solder. and you have learned how to clean the
In addition to removing the solder parts so they will be ready for reuse. This
from the terminals, this method will is important because often the serviceman
remove any excess solder that may be on must disconnect one part in order to
the terminal strip lugs near the chassis. check another. When you disconnect a
Removing excess solder from termi- part or lead, you should carefully prepare
nals, tube socket pins and other types of it and the terminal from which you
solder lugs in large pieces of electronic removed it before resoldering the lead
equipment that you cannot pick up and back into position.
turn upside down requires a slightly
different procedure. In this case, with the Instructions for Statement No. 1: In
terminals pointing upward, wipe the ex- this statement, there are two sentences to
cess solder from the tip of your iron and be completed, each having several choices
keep the cloth in one hand while you preceded by numbers. Only one of the
work. Touch the tip of the iron to the choices in each group correctly completes
side of the lug; when the solder melts, a sentence in the statement. Read the
some of it will run onto the tinned first sentence, and put acircle around the
surface of the iron. Wipe off the solder number preceding the choice that com-
and keep repeating the process until all pletes it. Do the same for the second
surplus solder has been removed. If you sentence.
have trouble getting the solder out of the Statement No. 1: In this experiment, I
hole in a lug, heat the lug and push a used
resistor lead through the hole. The solder
that accumulates on the resistor lead can (1) temporary
then be easily removed. (2) permanent
The same procedure should be used to
remove solder from tube socket pins and connections; and Ifound that as molten
terminal strip lugs. solder becomes hard, its appearance is
Discussion: In this first experiment,
you began acquiring one of the most (1) acopper color.
important skills atechnician must have -- (2) ashiny gray color.
the ability to make good soldered connec- (3) adull black color.

23
 SOLDERING TIPS

Always use aclean, hot, well-tinned iron. Never try to solder dirty or uritinned leads
Always heat the junction to be soldered or terminals.
enough to melt the solder. Never melt solder on the iron tip and earn
Always use arosin-core solder. it to the junction.
Always tin part leads to be soldered. Never use acid-core solder or pastes for
Always test all leads in each joint after radio and electronic work.
solder cools. Never drip solder off iron on to joint.
Always keep iron on joint until the rosin has Never let leads move while solder is setting.
boiled out of the joint.

Turn now to the enclosed Training Kit circuit variations are important. The vast
Report sheet. Fill in the top part with majority of radio and TV receivers use
your name, address, student number and etched circuit boards. Thus, it is likely
Kit number, IT. Write the number 1in that when you repair areceiver you will
the first box of the column with the have to make repairs on etched circuit
heading, "Statement No." This statement boards.
is in two parts. Therefore, place the Etched circuit boards are fragile. They
number of your choice for the first part can be damaged by rough handling or
in the second column and place the poor workmanship. The phenolic will
number of your choice for the second crack or break when subjected to ex-
part of the statement in the third column. cessive pressure. This results in breaks in
As an example, assume that the first the copper foil strips and produces open
statement was: circuits.
San Francisco is located in the The copper foil is glued to the circuit
(1) East board. When overheated, the glue will
(2) Soutb weaken and the copper foil strips will pull
(3) West loose from the board. However, the board
And it is in the state of will withstand asurprisingly large amount
of heat before either the phenolic or the
(1) Nebraska.
foil becomes damaged.
(2) California.
In performing this experiment, you
(3) New York.
will develop skill in working on etched
The correct answers are (3) for the first
circuit boards. This will prepare you for
part and (2) for the second part. There-
work on your future experimental kits
fore, you would place the Statement
and for practical work as atechnician.
number in the first column, the number 3
Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
as your answer for the first part is the
periment, in addition to your chassis,
second column, and the number 2in the
soldering iron and solder, you will need
third column.
the following:
EXPERIMENT 2
1 Etched circuit board (EC24)
Purpose: To learn how to wire and 2 22,000-ohm resistors (RE33; red-
repair etched circuit boards. red-orange-silver)
Introductory Discussion: Etched cir- 1 7-pin tube socket (S076)
cuit boards are often used where com- Red hookup wire
pactness, ease of wiring or freedom from Solder

24
 Plug in your soldering iron so that it
can be heating. Inspect the tip. If the tip
is not clean, wipe it with a cloth and
apply a thin coating of solder. If you
wipe the tip frequently, it will last longer.
Also, you will seldom have to file and
retin the tip.
In this experiment, you will practice
soldering to the etched circuit board and
you will make repairs on the copper foil.
The foil near holes A through H is for
practice only. Do not be concerned if you
damage it in performing this experiment.
However, the remainder of the board will
be used in later experiments. Therefore,
you should exercise reasonable care in
working on the board.

Step 1: To wire acircuit on the etched

circuit board.
Fig. 2-2. (A) Measuring the resistor against
In order to become proficient at the mounting holes; (B) resistor leads bent
working on circuit boards, you will have to correct spacing.
to develop a feel for soldering to the
straight up with the tip at the edge of the
copper foil. Before mounting any parts,
hole, as shown in Fig. 2-1. Touch the end
you will determine how much heat the
of your solder to apoint where the tip
foil can withstand.
touches the foil. Allow about 1/4" of
Place your etched board on your work-
solder to melt and flow onto the foil.
table with the foil side up. Touch the tip
When the solder spreads out smoothly on
of your soldering iron to the foil near
the foil, remove the heat and allow the
hole B. Hold the soldering iron nearly
foil to cool. Do not be concerned if the
hole is covered with solder.
In asimilar manner, apply heat to the
foil surrounding hole A. Touch your
solder to the iron and the foil and melt
about 1/4" of the solder. Continue to
heat the foil until the foil begins to
loosen. This may take up to 15 seconds,
depending upon the wattage rating of
your iron and the condition of the tip.
Remove the heat from the foil.
Notice that the phenolic around the
overheated foil is charred slightly. Use a
Fig. 2-1. Applying heat and solder to the knife or your longnose pliers to peel the
foil. damaged foil off the board.

25
 In this case, the spacing between the
holes is about 1/4" greater than the
length of the body of the resistor, so
bend both leads at right angles about 1/8"
from the body of the resistor. Fig. 2-2B
shows the leads ready for insertion in the
holes.
Next, slip the leads through holes C
and D and push the resistor down against
the board. Bend the leads outward
slightly, as shown in Fig. 2-3, to hold the
resistor in place.
Turn the foil side of the circuit board
up to solder the connections. Position the
Fig. 2-3. Leads are bent outward to hold soldering iron so that the tip is in contact
the resistor in place. with both the foil and the lead. Touch
the end of your solder to the point where
The brief experience which you have the tip, lead and foil meet and allow
gained will give you some idea of how about 1/4" of the solder to melt. Con-
long it takes to make a connection and tinue to heat the connection until the
how long it takes to damage the circuit solder flows smoothly and completely
board. Next, you will mount and solder surrounds the lead. Then, remove the iron
parts to the circuit board. and allow the connection to cool.
Install one of the 22,000-ohm resistors Finally, use your diagonal cutters to
(red-red-orange-silver) on the phenolic cut off the lead flush with the top of the
side of the circuit board at holes C and D. solder connection.
Use the following procedure: First, Use the procedure outlined here to
"measure" the resistor against the spacing solder the other resistor lead to the foil.
between the holes, as shown in Fig. 2-2A. Fig. 2-4 shows typical poorly soldered

Fig. 2-4. Typical examples of poorly soldered connections.

26
connections. At A, too little heat was
used; the solder adheres to the lead, but
Hot to the foil. This connection could be
improved by simply applying more heat.
In Fig. 2-4B, too little solder was used,
resulting in a minimum of strength and
reliability. To improve this connection,
you would apply both heat and solder.

Step 2: To demonstrate methods for

removing components from etched circuit
boards.

Wedge the blade of your small screw-

driver between the board and the body of Fig. 2-5. Cutting the foil to simulate iz
the resistor near hole C. (If the resistor is crack in the board.
flat against the board, slip the screwdriver
blade under the lead at hole C.) Heat the can use your pocket knife. Fig. 2-5 shows
solder at hole C and lift the resistor how to make aclean cut safely.
enough to pull the lead from the hole. Heat the foil near the cut and melt a
Stand the circuit board on edge on small amount of solder onto the foil. Use
your worktable. On the phenolic side of the tip of your iron to "run" the solder
the board, grasp the lead of the resistor across the crack. The solder should ad-
connected at hole D. With your forefinger here to the foil on both sides and bridge
and thumb pressing against the board, the narrow gap. If necessary, apply alittle
apply a lifting pressure to the resistor more solder to make areliable repair.
lead. Heat the connection at hole D on A wider break, such as the one be-
the foil side and when the solder melts, tween holes F and G, requires aslightly
pull the resistor from the board and different repair. You solder ashort piece
discard it. of bare wire across the break in the foil.
Now you should clean the holes so that Remove about 2" of insulation from a
a new resistor can be installed. Heat the length of red hookup wire. There are
solder at one of the holes. While the several ways of removing the insulation.
solder is molten, insert a toothpick into You can peel the insulation off with a
the hole from the foil side of the board. knife, or you can cut the insulation with
Remove the soldering iron and let the foil your diagonal cutters, knife or wire
and solder cool. When you remove the strippers and simply pull off the un-
toothpick, the hole will be left clear. wanted piece. Another technique is to
crush the insulation with pliers and then
Step 3: To demonstrate techniques for peel off the pieces. When stripping the
repairing etched circuit boards. insulation off wire, it is important to
avoid nicking or cutting the wire because
Cut through the foil between holes D this will weaken the wire and make it
and E to simulate acrack in the foil. You break easily.

27
 As you did previously for the narrow on the board by pushing firmly. When the
break, heat the foil on both sides of the socket is properly installed, the pins
break and tin the foil with solder. Lay the project about 1/16" on the phenolic side
bare wire across the break in the foil and of the board.
solder the wire to the foil. Run solder With the socket in position, you are
along the wire and foil for about 1/2" on ready to solder. Since the tube socket
each side of the break. Using your di- pins on the phenolic side of the board
agonal cutters, cut off the wire beyond will become quite hot as you solder them
the solder. This should leave about 1" of to the board, it would be agood idea to
wire bridging the break in the foil. lay the board on anewspaper to protect
your worktable. Hold the soldering iron
Step 4: To install parts on the foil side so the tip is at the junction of the foil and
of the circuit board. apin of the tube socket.
The flat surface of the soldering iron
Bend the leads of a 22,000-ohm re- tip should be turned toward the pin.
sistor (red-red-orange-silver) at right Apply solder to the foil and to the pin.
angles close to the body of the resistor, Melt about 1/4" of solder and let it flow
and insert the leads through holes C and around the pin. Solder should adhere to
D from the foil side of the board. one half or more of the perimeter of the
Position the resistor about 1/16" to 1/8" pin and to the foil. Remove the heat and
from the board. This will leave room for let the solder cool. In the same manner,
soldering the connections. Bend the leads solder the six remaining pins of the tube
outward slightly to hold tile resistor in socket. Do not try to solder the center
place. locating pin. Fig. 2-6 shows the socket
Solder one lead of the resistor to the soldered in place.
foil. Apply heat to both the foil and the
lead and apply solder. Allow the solder to
flow freely over the connection. Remove
the heat and let the joint cool. In a
similar manner, solder the other resistor
lead to the foil. You will use this resistor
in later experiments, so do not cut off the
leads! (Normally, after installing a part
from the foil side as you have just done,
you would clip off the excess lead length
on the other side of the board.)
Locate the 7-pin tube socket. The
socket has 7pin connections and acenter
locating pin. You will install the tube
socket on the foil side of the circuit
board instead of from the phenolic side.
Align the pins over the holes on the
circuit board. Notice that there is an open Fig. 2-6. Tube socket mounted on the
space between the pins. Install the socket etched circuit board.

28
 Discussion: In tnis experiment, you attached will be used in later experi-
have experienced working on a typical ments.
etched circuit board. You learned that
Instructions for Statement No. 2: In
you can solder to the circuit board with a
order to answer the Report Statement for
moderate amount of heat. If the iron is
this experiment, you will have to make a
clean and tinned, a connection can be
few connections on your etched circuit
soldered in amatter of seconds; it takes a
board and trace the connections. You will
considerable length of time to overheat
need your red hookup wire.
and damage the circuit board.
Cut a 2" length of hookup wire and
In Step 2, you learned how to install
remove about 1 /4" of insulation from
components on the circuit board. First,
each end. Push one end through hole E
you determined the lead spacing and bent
from the phenolic side of your circuit
the leads so you could insert the leads in
board. The holes are identified on the foil
the holes; then you pushed the part down
side of the board. Bend the wire and push
against the circuit board and bent the
the other end through hole F from the
lead to hold the part in place. Then you
same side of the board. Solder both
soldered the connection, allowed it to
connections.
cool, and cut off the excess lead length,
Cut a 3 length of hookup wire and
"

close to the soldered connection. In a

remove about 1/4" insulation from each
good solder connection, the solder ad-
end. Push one end of the wire through
heres to both the lead and to the foil and
hole G and push the other end through
the solder has asmooth appearance.
the hole identified by the number 7from
You also learned how to remove parts
the phenolic side of the board. Solder
from the etched circuit board. This is
both connections.
important because frequently you will
Trace the connections on the circuit
have to disconnect a part to make tests
board and answer the Report Statement.
and when you determine which part is
After you have completed the Report
bad, you will have to replace it. Before
Statement, unsolder and remove the re-
replacing a lead, clean the hole in the
sistor and the pieces of hookup wire.
board. Otherwise, you may break the foil
Clean the holes which you used on your
loose when you try to insert the lead.
circuit board and clean and straighten the
In Step 4, you learned how to install
resistor leads.
parts on the foil side of the board. This is
useful because you will sometimes find it Statement No. 2: When Itraced the
easier to replace apart On the foil side of wiring, Ifound that the resistor
the board. Also, interconnecting jumper
wires are sometimes connected on the foil (1) was
side of the board in some pieces of (2) was not
equipment.
The circuit board with the tube socket electrically connected to the tube socket.

29
 Using Schematic Diagrams

To service any type of electronic _i_

equipment, the technician must know 'Ts
how the parts are connected in the 0 RESISTOR O CAPACITOR 0 GROUND

circuit.
The electrical connections in acircuit Fig. 26. Symbols often used in schematics.
can be shown by means of a schematic
diagram. In aschematic diagram, symbols
tions. Study these symbols so that you
are used to indicate the various parts, and
will be sure to recognize them the next
the connections between the parts are
time you see them. You will use them in
shown by lines. these experiments.
You have already seen many of the Connections and Crossovers. Often in a
symbols used in schematic diagrams in schematic diagram, one lead crosses over
your lesson texts. You have also seen another. In some cases, there will be a
some simple schematic diagrams. It is connection between the two leads; in
extremely important for you to become other cases, there will be no connection.
familiar with the various symbols used, There are three different systems in use
and also to learn how to read schematic to indicate whether or not there is a
diagrams. You will have to use this type connection; the one that is used in any
of diagram throughout your career, be- particular diagram depends on the prefer-
cause manufacturers of electronic equip- ences of the person making the diagram.
ment seldom supply pictorial wiring dia- You might think that this would be
grams. Even if you have a pictorial
confusing, but it is usually very simple to
diagram, it is far easier to work from a
see which system has been used.
schematic once you learn how to use it.
Fig. 27 shows the three systems. No-
In your experiments, you will start tice that in System 1when there is adot
first with simple schematics, and gradu- used on some crossovers and no dot used
ally work up to more complex ones. In on the others, the dot indicates aconnec-
time, you will be as much at ease reading tion, and the crossover without the dot
a complex schematic diagram as you are indicates that there is no connection.
reading your evening newspaper. You will In System 2, a straight crossover is
soon learn the value of this type of used to show aconnection, and aloop is
diagram and see how much easier it is to used to show no connection. You can
use than the pictorial type. easily tell when this system has been
used. If you notice some crossovers with
SYMBOLS USED the loop, and some without the loop, you
know that the straight crossovers repre-
Before you can read schematic dia- sent connections, and the crossovers with
grams, you must be able to recognize the the loop indicate no connection. Simi-
symbols used in them. Fig. 26 shows the larly, if you see some crossovers with dots
symbols commonly used to represent and others without, you will know that
resistors, capacitors, and ground connec- System 1has been used.

30
 SYSTEM I SYSTEM 2 SYSTEM 3

CONNECTION CROSSOVER CONNECTION CROSSOVER CONNECTION CROSSOVER

Fig. 27. Three systems used on schematics to show connections and crossovers on wires.

System 3 is acombination of the first Diodes. The symbol for a semi-

two. We will use this system in the conductor diode is shown in Fig. 29. The
drawings in the experiments. The cross- two elements of adiode are the cathode
over with a dot indicates a connection. and the anode. The "arrow" in the
The crossover with a loop indicates no symbol points toward the cathode termi-
connection. Study these three systems - nal.
become familiar with them now, and you
will have no trouble later. ANODE CATHODE
Tubes. The various symbols used to
represent the elements in a tube are
shown in Fig. 28. The symbol for the
heater is shown at A, the symbol for the
cathode at B, for the grid at C, for the Fig. 29. Schematic symbols for asemi-
plate at D, and for the whole tube at E. conductor diode.
This tube is called atriode -it has three
elements plus a heater. Notice the little Transistors. There are several types of
numbers beside each of the elements. transistors in wide usage. The symbols for
These tell you which pin each element is two types are shown in Fig. 30. At A and
connected to inside the tube. The tube B, we have bipolar transistors. As you can
we have shown is a6C4. In this particular see, the only difference between the NPN
tube, the plate is connected to pins 5and and PNP symbols is the direction of the
1; the grid to pin 6, the cathode to pin 7, arrow. The e, b, and clabels identify the
and the heater to pins 3and 4. Nothing is emitter, base and collector of both tran-
connected to pin 2. sistors.

1,5

Fig. 28. Symbols used to represent the elements in atube. Shown is tube type 6C4.

31
 nections. An example of this can be seen
in Fig. 32A. The schematic diagram
shows the capacitor C1 connected on the
left to resistor RI.From the junction of
—(1
b5 1e these two components there is a line
PNP going to the plate of the tube VI.
NPN
In your work you will be interested
BIPOLAR only in the electrical connections. It will
be unimportant to know whether the
capacitor and resistor are first connected
g _ey s
d _EGrd together and alead run from the junction
9
of the two to the tube socket, or whether
the two are connected directly to the
N-CHANNEL 0 P-CHANNEL tube socket. Electrically both connec-
tions are the same.
FIELD EFFECT
The other side of capacitor CI is
connected to the grid of the tube marked
V2. The schematic diagram shows CI
Fig. 30. Schematic symbols for transistors.
connected to R2 and then a line going
The symbols for junction field-effect from the junction over to the grid. The
transistors (FET's) are shown in Figs. 30C pictorial wiring diagram shows that both
and 30D. You can see that the direction the capacitor and the resistor are con-
of the arrow is toward the junction for nected directly to the grid terminal on
the N-channel and away from the junc- the socket.
tion for the P-channel FET's. In both Notice on the schematic diagram that
cases, the s, gand drepresent the source, the lower end of resistor R2 is connected
gate and drain terminals. You will learn to ground. In the wiring diagram, we see
other transistor symbols later in your
course.
Meters. Fig. 31 shows symbols used to
represent meters on schematic diagrams. OHM)-
In the symbols in Fig. 31A, the letters
inside the circle indicate the type of
meter: V for voltmeter, ga for micro-
ammeter, ma for milliammeter, and ohm
for ohmmeter. Fig. 31B shows semi-
pictorial symbols that are sometimes
used.

READING A SCHEMATIC

When working with schematic dia-

grams, you must remember that the
schematic diagram shows the electrical Fig. 31. Symbols used on schematics to
connections, not the actual physical con- represent meters.

32
 V Vz
V V2

G
INSULATED
LUG FROM CHASSIS
WIRE BETWEEN INSULATED
PARTIAL SCHEMATIC INSULATED LUGS
FROM CHASSIS
WIRE TO B+

Fig. 32. (A) A schematic diagram; (B), actual wiring diagram of the same circuit.

that R2 connects to alug that is bolted to were connected between terminals 1and
the chassis. Any number of ground con- 2, avariable positive dc voltage would be
nections can be made in this way to the available between terminals 17 and 15.
chassis. When this is done, the chassis is In a simple circuit of this type a
used as part of the circuit; the chassis pictorial diagram may seem easier to
connects directly to B-. In some equip- follow than a schematic diagram. How-
ment the chassis is not used as part of the ever, a glance under the chassis of any
circuit. You will see later how to tell electronic device will show how complex
from aschematic diagram whether or not the pictorial diagram would become. In
the chassis is part of the circuit. This fact, it would be practically impossible to
information will be given to you on the show how the parts are connected with a
schematic diagram. photograph or pictorial drawing. On the
Study Fig. 32 carefully. Find an elec- other hand, it is easy to show the
trical circuit on the schematic diagram, connections with aschematic diagram.
and then trace out the circuit on the
pictorial wiring diagram. This will be Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
valuable practical experience for you and periment, in addition to the chassis with
will help you to become familiar with the terminal strips and potentiometer
schematic diagrams. mounted on it, you will need:

EXPERIMENT 3 3 1000-ohm resistors (RE30; brown-

black-red-silver)
Purpose: To obtain practical experi- 1 Silicon diode (SR12)
ence in wiring from aschematic diagram Hookup wire
Solder
Introductory Discussion: Fig. 3-1 is a
pictorial diagram showing the actual As you can see in Fig. 3-1, the diode
physical location of the parts in the appears similar to aresistor and is some-
circuit you will wire in this experiment. what smaller. The diode is a semi-
Fig. 3-2 shows the same circuit in conductor device which passes current in
schematic form. The circuit is that of a one direction only. Current can pass from
simple power supply. If an ac voltage cathode to anode but not from anode to

33
 o
O
o
o o

o o
R3
o
PI
o °
16
17
6 7 J11 131 ° 16 74
R2 14

o o o 15, o

Fig. 3-1. Pictorial diagram of the circuit used in Step 1.

cathode. Thus, the diode is capable of is connected between R3 and ground.

rectifying an ac voltage. Notice the ground symbols on the
The cathode and anode terminals of a diagram. The metal chassis forms the
diode are identified in one of several common connection between the ground
ways. You will usually find colored bands points.
or aplus sign near one end of the diode, Where possible, leads of the parts
or one end of the diode may be tapered. which are wired together are connected
The band, taper or other markings indi- to acommon terminal. For example, the
cate the cathode lead of the diode as cathode lead of DI,one lead of R2 and
shown in Fig. 3-3. one lead of R3 can all be soldered to the
same terminal.
Step 1: To determine what connec- When instructed to use hookup wire,
tions are to be made. cut alength of your red wire and remove
about 1/4" of insulation from each end
before making the connection. See that
First, carefully study Fig. 3-2. Resistor the insulation is about 1/16" back from
R1 is connected between terminal 2, the actual solder connection. Never try to
which is the "input" terminal, or the solder to the insulation.
terminal to which the ac voltage would be When we instruct you to use a short
applied, and the diode Di.The cathode length of bare wire, use your wire
lead of diode DI is connected to resistors strippers, diagonal cutters or longnose
R2 and R3. One lead of R2 is grounded. pliers to remove the insulation from a
Resistor R3 is connected between the short length of hookup wire.
junction of diode Di and resistor R2 and In the next step, you will perform the
the potentiometer, PI.Potentiometer PI actual wiring.
INPUT
Pi
01 017

18 OUTPUT

125

Fig. 3-2. Circuit used in Experiment 3.

Step 2: To wire the circuits from the tween the junction of diode DI and
schematic diagram. resistor R2 and terminal 16 of the po-
tentiometer. For convenience, we con-
In this step, you will mount the parts nect the resistor between terminals 8and
and connect wires between them to form 10 and use hookup wire to complete the
the circuit shown in the schematic dia- connection.
gram in Fig. 3-2. Install the resistor and solder terminal
Connect resistor RI to terminals 2and 8. Connect alength of hookup wire from
6 as shown in Fig. 3-2. You can choose
any of the three resistors since they are
all the same value. Bend the leads so that
the ends are spaced properly to slip
through the slots in terminals 2 and 6.
Slip the leads through the terminals and
solder terminal 2.
li
Connect the diode to terminals 6and 8
with the proper polarity. The cathode
and anode leads are identified in Fig. 3-3.
o
The cathode lead of each diode is on the o
o<
right. Connect the cathode lead to termi-
nal 8 and connect the anode lead to
terminal 6. Solder terminal 6.
On the schematic diagram, notice that
the cathode lead of the diode and one +1
lead of resistor R2 are connected to-
gether. Also, R2 is connected from the
junction with the diode lead to ground.
Therefore, connect R2 between terminals
8 and 11 as shown in Fig. 3-1. Solder
terminal Il.
Next connect resistor R3. On the Fig. 3-3. Methods used to identify the
schematic, this resistor is connected be- leads of semiconductor diodes.

35
terminal 10 to terminal 16 and solder and diode leads and remove the excess
both connections. solder from all terminals. Use the tech-
The potentiometer is connected be- niques you learned in Experiment 1.
tween resistor R3 and ground. Thus, we Remove the 1000-ohm potentiometer
must ground terminal 18. Again, we from the mounting bracket and carefully
choose a convenient grounded terminal, clean the terminals. Remove the potenti-
which is terminal 15. Connect alength of ometer mounting bracket and put it with
hookup wire from terminal 18 to ter- the potentiometer. You will use these in a
minal 15 to complete the wiring. The later Training Kit.
center terminal of the potentiometer,
terminal 17, is the "output" terminal. Discussion: In this experiment, we
This completes your wiring. You have taken you step-by-step through the
should have made all of the connections wiring of a circuit from a schematic
shown in Fig. 3-1. To make certain, check diagram. You have checked your work by
your wiring as follows: comparing the actual parts layout with a
list of the connections and with a pic-
1. There should be a resistor, RI,be- torial diagram. This layout is not the only
tween terminals 2and 6. one that could be made from the sche-
2. Diode DI should be connected be- matic of Fig. 3-1. The same electrical
tween terminals 6 and 8, with the circuit could have been made with the
cathode lead to terminal 8. leads routed along different paths.
3. Resistor R2 should be connected be- You should practice drawing schematic
tween terminals 8and 11. diagrams because such practice will help
4. Resistor R3 should be connected be- you to become more familiar with sche-
tween terminals 8and 10. matic symbols and will aid you later in
5. There should be hookup wire from tracing circuits. You need not start with
terminal 10 to terminal 16 on the elaborate diagrams; simple circuits like
potentiometer. those shown in this experiment will be
6. There should be a length of hookup satisfactory.
wire from terminal 18 on the potenti- The schematic diagram shows electrical
ometer to terminal 15. connections only. Therefore, additional
information is needed in order to wire
You should make a habit of checking more complex circuits. Experienced tech-
your connections in this way each time nicians usually sketch a layout before
you finish wiring a circuit. By checking wiring. However, once acircuit is wired,
your work, you may find and correct it is easy to trace the circuit by following
errors that could be serious or difficult to the schematic diagram.
find later. When you check your work,
pay particular attention to the soldered Instructions for Statement No. 3: This
connections. Be sure that all connections statement is a test of your ability to
are soldered properly. If not, resolder relate a physical parts layout to a sche-
them. matic diagram of that layout. Fig. 3-4
When you are satisfied with your work, shows a circuit wired on your experi-
unsolder all of the connections and re- mental chassis using resistors, adiode and
move the parts. Straighten the resistor apotentiometer.

36
 o

12
R3 13 .
]

o o 0 0 0 15

Fig. 3-4. Pictorial diagram of the circuit shown in Statement 3.

Study this circuit carefully and com- Statement No. 3: The schematic dia-
pare the arrangement with the four sche- gram of the circuit in Fig. 3-4 is Fig. 3-5:
matics in Fig. 3-5. When you are certain
you have the schematic which corre- (1 (1) A
sponds to the circuit of Fig. 3-4, com- (2) B j

plete the statement here and on your (3) C

Report Sheet. (4) D

1, Di R2 12-

7
R R3

LC.)

R2 DI

Fig. 3-5. Schematics for use with Statement No. 3.

37
 IDENTIFYING RESISTORS and the fourth band gives the tolerance of
the resistor (silver for ±10% tolerance,
As you go ahead with your experi- gold for ±5% tolerance). If the tolerance
ments, and when you work on your own, is ±
-10%, it means that the actual value of

you will need to be able to identify the the resistor may be as much as 10%
value of resistors. higher or lower than the value indicated.
Although the value is stamped on some If it is ±5%, the actual value may be up to
resistors, on most 1/2-watt, 1-watt, and 5% higher or lower than the value indi-
2-watt resistors the value is indicated by cated.
means of colored bands on the resistor. Some resistors may have a fifth color
You should learn to read this color code band. This band will follow the tolerance
so that you can identify resistors quickly. band (to the right) and is used to indicate
The colored bands on the resistor amilitary reliability level. The fifth band
usually are nearer to one end than the will be Brown, Red, Orange or Yellow
other. Thus, to read the color code, turn which indicate increasing percent of
the resistor so that the colored bands are reliability. In your work you can simply
toward the left end of the resistor as ignore the fifth band.
shown in Fig. 33. To find the value, you need to look
Each color represents anumber. These only at the first three bands. For ex-
are given in Fig. 33. The first band, ample, suppose you have aresistor color-
labeled A, gives the first figure in the coded red, red, and black. Referring to
value; the second band, labeled B, gives the chart, you see that red represents 2.
the second figure in the value; the third Therefore, the first two figures in the
band, labeled C, gives the number of value are both 2. As we have said, the
zeros after the second figure in the value, third band indicates the number of zeros
in the value. Since black represents 0,
when the third band is black, there are no
zeros in the value. So the value of the
resistor is 22 ohms.
BLACK If the resistor had been color-coded
SHOWN
RED red, red, and brown, the first two figures
ORANGE
YELLOW would again be 2. Brown represents 1, so
GREEN
SLUE
there would be one zero, and the value
VIOLET
would be 220 ohms. Red, red, and red
GRAY
WHITE
would indicate a value of 2200 ohms
(often written 2.2K ohms, where the K
COLOR A GIVES FIRST FIGURE OF RESISTOR VALUE stands for 1000); red-red-orange, avalue
COLOR S GIVES SECOND FIGURE OF RESISTOR VALUE.
of 22,000 ohms (often written 22K-
COLOR C GIVES THE RUNNER OF CIPHERS
FOLLOWING THE FIRST TWO FIGURES. ohms); red-red-yellow, avalue of 220,000
COLOR D GIVES THE TOLERANCE ohms (or 220K ohms or .22 meg; a
GOLD SAND INDICATES t5%
megohm is 1,000,000 ohms); red-red-
SILVER BAND INDICATES TIO%
NO BAND INDICATES 2011, green, avalue of 2,200,000 ohms (or 2.2
megohms); and red-red-blue, a value of
22,000,000 ohms (or 22 megohms).
Fig. 33. Standard resistor color code. Look over the resistors you have re-

38
ceived, and practice reading the color more complex circuits. The manu-
codes on them. You can check the values facturer's servicing information on any
by referring to the parts list given in Fig. equipment usually has a complete sche-
1. In the next experiment you will have matic diagram and the parts values. If you
some practice in picking out resistors of are servicing the equipment, you will have
different values. to find the defective part, determine its
value, and make the replacement.
EXPERIMENT 4 Usually connections between parts are
shown by aline that follows the shortest
Purpose: To construct a circuit using path between the two parts. However,
only aschematic diagram for guidance. this is not always true. The only sure way
to find the part is to trace the circuit.
Introductory Discussion: If you read Often it is more convenient to run alead
construction articles in any of the radio- over a somewhat longer path to avoid
TV-electronics magazines, you will see crowding a section of the diagram. An
that step-by-step wiring instructions are example of this is given in Fig. 4-1. We
rarely given; you work from aschematic could have drawn a horizontal line di-
diagram. Thus, if you wanted to build rectly from pin 4of VI to pin 3of V2 to
some of this equipment, you would have show that they are connected. However,
to work out the placement of the parts the line would have had to cross a
and other details for yourself. number of other lines, thus crowding the
We want you to become so familiar diagram, and perhaps causing some con-
with schematic diagrams that you can fusion. Drawing the line as in Fig. 4-1
look at one and picture the arrangement avoids confusion.
of the parts. That is not hard if you start Tracing circuits on aschematic diagram
with simple circuits like those you have is in many ways like tracing a road
built so far, and gradually work up to between your home and another city on a

1I
vi V2

§h

It
3 4 3 4

- El+

Fig. 4-1. Typical schematic diagram showing atwo-stage tube circuit.

39
road map. You will seldom find aroad matic, the equipment you build will not
that goes in astraight line from one place work properly unless all connections are
to another. Instead, the road will turn properly soldered. Many people waste a
time and time again; you may have to go great deal of time because of careless
acertain distance on one road and then wiring and poorly soldered connections,
turn onto another. So it is in tracing the which could easily have been spotted if a
circuit on aschematic diagram. You start little extra time had been taken to check
at one point in the circuit and trace the work. Start right now by checking
toward another point. You may find a each circuit you wire against the sche-
direct circuit between the two points, but matic diagram and by checking each
more often you will find the circuits are soldered connection you make. These are
connected by something other than a good habits, and the sooner you acquire
direct connection. In addition, you may them the better.
find that to get from one point to the
other you have to trace the circuit to Experimental Procedure: For this ex-
some intermediate point, and then from periment, in addition to the chassis with
that point on through an additional cir- the solder lug and terminal strips, you
cuit to the point that you are interested will need the following:
in reaching.
Frequently in service work you will 1 1000-ohm resistor
have to trace out the actual wiring in a 1 22,000-ohm resistor
receiver and compare the wiring with a 1 100,000-ohm resistor
schematic diagram. We cannot stress too 2 1/4" X 4-40 screws
strongly how important it is for you to 2 4-40 hex nuts
learn to use this type of diagram. This is 1 Etched circuit board (EC24)
why we will concentrate on learning how Hookup wire
to use diagrams. Solder
When you work from a schematic
diagram in the experiments, there may be Use the resistor color code chart shown
several ways in which the various leads in Fig. 33 to help identify the three
can be run. In general, try to use the resistors used in this experiment.
shortest possible route. When we work on Check your experimental chassis and
the more complicated circuits, we will make certain that the terminals are clean
give detailed instructions on exactly and all excess solder has been removed.
where to place each important lead; but At the same time, check the tip of your
during these early experiments, we will soldering iron to be sure it is clean and
leave you on your own as much as well-tinned.
possible to give you all the practical For this experiment, you will use the
exper:ence we can. tube socket on your circuit board and the
When you build equipment from a terminals on your chassis. You will
schematic diagram, you should carefully mount the circuit board along the edge of
check each circuit you wire to make sure the chassis and connect "jumper" wires
it is wired correctly. Also make sure that from the tube socket terminals in the
each connection is properly soldered. copper foil to the 7-lug terminal strip on
Even if you learn to work from asche- the chassis.

40
 /
o o

o
o
o
o o

o o
o
o
o
0

o
o r--.1-1.Q
o
5 6 7 6 9 10 11

sN.
,T
r

o o o o o o

Fig. 4-2. Mounting the circuit board on the experimental chassis.

Mount the circuit board over holes S from the top. As shown in Fig. 4-3, pin 1
and T in the chassis (the holes are is at the right of the blank space, pin 2is
identified in Fig. 11 and Fig. 4-2). Posi- next, and so on. Pin 7is to the left of the
tion the circuit board over the edge of the blank space. The pin in the center of the
chassis as shown in Fig. 4-2. Note that the socket is not numbered. We will be
tube socket is toward the chassis and the primarily interested in pins 1, 6, and 7of
foil side of the board is turned upward. the socket. Connections to these holes are
Attach the board with 1/4" X 440 screws labeled on the foil side of EC24.
through the mounting holes in the circuit Refer to Fig. 44 as you make the
board and chassis. Attach two 440 nuts following connections. Connect a short
and tighten. length of hookup wire from the hole in
The pins on the tube socket or tube are the foil which connects to pin 1of the
numbered from the blank space in a tube socket to terminal 8 on the 7-lug
counterclockwise direction when viewed terminal strip. Remove about 1/4" insula-

41
Fig. 4-3. Identifying the tube socket pins Fig. 4-4. Wiring connecting the tube
on the etched circuit board. socket to the terminal strip.

tion from each end of the wire. Slip the anything that is connected to the chassis
end of the wire through the hole in the electrically. As your chassis is presently
circuit board from the foil side and solder set up, you can use terminals 1, 5, 11,
to the foil. and 15 as ground connections.
Similarly, connect a short length of If you are connecting two or more
hookup wire from the hole in the foil at leads to agiven point, do not solder until
pin 7to terminal 9. all leads are in position.
In the same manner, connect a short In this experiment, you are to wire a
length of hookup wire from the hole in circuit directly from aschematic diagram.
the foil at pin 6to terminal 10. The diagram you are to use is shown in
We often refer to a terminal or a Fig. 4-5. The tube socket pins are indi-
conductor connected to atube socket pin cated by the open circles nearest the tube
by the tube pin number or even by the symbol. All of the other terminals, which
element of the tube connected to that pin are shown by black dots, represent termi-
when a tube is inserted in the socket. nals on the terminal strip.
Thus, the terminals on the chassis may be Before mounting apart, make atrial fit
identified by the tube socket pin num- to determine where the part should be
bers, or as the grid, cathode and plate located. Sometimes this technique is used
terminal of the 6C4 tube. by experienced technicians in order to get
When working from schematic dia- a neat layout and prevent undue crowd-
grams, remember that ground symbols ing of parts.
indicate connections to the common re-
turn point (the chassis in this case) and
that these connections can be made to Step 1: To mount resistor R1.

42
 B+
terminal because you may want to make
other connections to it.

Step 2: To mount resistor R2.

Find resistor R2 on the schematic

diagram. You will see that it is a
22,000-ohm resistor (indicated by 22K
on the diagram). You can also see that R2
is connected from pin 1 of the tube
socket, which is the same as terminal 8on
the terminal strip to terminal 7. Terminal
7 is marked "B+" on the schematic.
Connect one lead of the 22,000-ohm
resistor and solder these connections.

Fig. 4-5. Circuit used in Step 1.

Step 3: To mount resistor R3.

First, find R1 on the schematic dia- R3 is a 1000-ohm resistor. On the

gram in Fig. 4-5. Notice that it is a schematic, R3 is between pin 7 of the
100,000-ohm resistor. Select a 100,000- tube socket and ground.
ohm resistor from among the parts you Install the resistor between terminal 9
have collected for this experiment. on the terminal strip (which is electrically
From the schematic, you can see that the same as pin 7) and ground. You will
R1 is connected between pin 6 of the have to choose aground terminal. There
tube socket and ground. Because these are no more connections to be made.
connections will be made on the terminal Thus, you can solder all connections
strip, the connection will be made to which you have not yet soldered.
terminal 10 and aground terminal.
As stated earlier, there are four places Step 4: To check your work.
where you can make your ground connec-
tion. The solder lug, terminal 1, and the After all wiring is in place, check your
mounting feet of the terminal strips, work against the schematic diagram. This
terminals 5, 11 and 15, are bolted di- check should now show:
rectly to the chassis. Thus, they make
electrical contact with the chassis and can I. A 100,000-ohm resistor between tube
be used for ground connections. socket pin 6and aground terminal.
Connect one end of the 100,000-ohm 2. A 22,000-ohm resistor between tube
resistor to terminal 10 and connect the socket pin 1and terminal 7.
other end to whichever ground point you 3. A 1000-ohm resistor between pin 7of
find to be most convenient. Bend the the tube socket and ground.
resistor leads so that they do not touch
the chassis. Also, they should not make Discussion: In this experiment, you
contact with any other terminals. Solder have gained experience in working from a
terminal 10. Do not solder the ground schematic diagram. You have practiced

43
reading resistor color codes, and you have Report Sheet. Then unsolder the connec-
again practiced making solder connec- tions and remove the resistors. Dis-
tions. You will use each of these skills connect the three jumper wires from the
every time you work on any electronic terminal strip and from the circuit board.
equipment. Remove the circuit board from the chas-
After you have looked over your work sis, clean the holes, and put the board
to be sure that it is electrically equivalent aside. Finally, clean the resistor leads and
to the circuit shown in Fig. 4-5, turn to terminals so that they will be ready for
the back of this manual. On page 77 you use in later experiments.
will see Fig. 4-6. This shows two ways in
which you might have arranged your
parts. However, these are not the only Statement No. 4: When Iwired the
possible ways to mount the parts. As long circuit used in this experiment, Icon-
as your arrangement is electrically the nected the 22,000-ohm resistor to the:
same as Fig. 4-5, you have done the
experiment correctly. tLi_P_fr_Ite
(2) cathode
Instructions For Statement No. 4: (3) grid
After carefully checking your work,
answer the statement here and on your terminal of the tube socket.

44
 Learning to Use A Meter
An electric current is invisible, odorless much more sensitive and will respond to
and tasteless. In other words, we cannot much smaller currents.
tell that awire is carrying current unless The meter you will use in your experi-
we use some special means of detecting it. ments has a range of 0 to 200 micro-
Although a bell or light bulb can be amperes. This means that a full scale
used to show the presence of current, reading on the meter indicates that 200
neither of these devices will indicate how microamperes are flowing through the
much current is flowing. The current in meter. When the meter pointer is at half
the circuit must be at a certain level scale, half of 200 microamperes or 100
before the bell will ring or the bulb will microamperes are flowing through the
light. For example, the light bulb will meter. When the meter pointer is at
light to full brilliance when its greatest 1/10th scale, 20 microamperes are flow-
current is flowing through it. As the ing through the meter.
current is decreased, the light will grow
dimmer. Finally, it will reach a point PREPARING THE METER
where the light will give no visual indica-
tion of current, even though current may The meter supplied in this kit is an
still be present in the circuit. Something extremely delicate instrument. It contains
is needed that will show not only whether ajewel movement similar to that of afine
there is current flowing, but also how watch. Therefore, the meter must be
much current is flowing. A meter will do handled with care at all times. We cannot
both of these jobs. replace any meter that has been damaged
through careless handling or improper
MEASURING CURRENT
usage. If you follow carefully the instruc-
tions given, you will have no trouble with
A meter that is used to measure cur-
the meter. However, if you fail to follow
rent is known as an ammeter. An am-
the instructions, you may damage your
meter indicates current in amperes. The meter and have to replace it.
ampere, however, is much too large aunit The meter case is plastic. It can easily
for most measurements in electronics, so be scratched with ascrewdriver or similar
we use a meter that indicates either tool, or by scraping it across your work-
milliamperes (ma) or microamperes (µa). bench. Also, the plastic can be perma-
A milliampere equals one-thousandth of nently damaged by heat. Be sure that you
an ampere and a microampere equals do not accidentally touch the soldering
one-millionth of an ampere. Such meters iron to the meter case.
are called milliammeters and micro- While you are performing these experi-
ammeters. They are made the same and ments, the meter will be left in its box.
operate in the same manner as an am- You will connect wires to the meter
meter. The only difference is that the terminals so that you will have easy
milliammeter and microammeter are access to the meter.

45
 You will need the following: In a similar manner, attach two nuts
and a solder lug to the other meter
2 Large solder lugs (LU7) terminal and tighten the nuts.
1 Meter (ME21) Now you will identify the lugs on the
2 Diodes (SR12) back of the meter. The one on the left as
Hookup wire you face the back of the meter is the
Solder positive, or plus terminal of the meter;
the one on the right is the negative or
Your meter is supplied with mounting minus terminal. The terminals may be
hardware and two large nuts for each further identified by plus or minus signs
terminal. These parts are in an envelope stamped on the plastic or on the ends of
in the meter box. Save all of the hardware the screws or "POS" and "NEG" printed
as you will have need for it later. near the terminals.
To prepare the meter, place asoft pad Examine the two diodes supplied with
or towel on your workbench. Next, re- this kit. Refer to Fig. 3-3 to help you
move the meter from the box and place identify the cathode leads.
the meter carefully on the pad or towel, Connect the lead at the cathode end of
face down, and with the top of the meter one diode to the positive terminal of the
away from you. meter. This is diode DI in Fig. 34. Slip
Remove the wire from the meter ter- the end of the lead through the lug
minals. The terminals were shorted to- attached to the terminal. Do not solder at
gether to prevent damage to the meter this time. Slip the anode lead of Di
during shipment. If the meter is shaken or through the negative terminal lug.
dropped, the physical movement will Connect the second diode, D2, to the
cause the meter pointer to move. A meter terminals also, but with the oppo-
voltage is generated in the coil attached site polarity. Slip the cathode lead
to the pointer. The short circuit across through the negative terminal lug and the
the meter terminals permits the current anode lead through the positive terminal
to flow through the terminals and back lug. Do not solder at this time.
through the coil. This cancels the tend-
ency of the coil to move and protects the
meter from violent pointer swing.
You will now attach the large solder
lugs to the meter terminals. First, attach a
large nut to one of the terminals and run
it all the way down. Then slip a large
solder lug over the terminal and secure it
with another nut. Position the solder lug
so it points toward the bottom of the
meter case and tighten the nut. Hold the
lower nut with a small wrench or pliers
and tighten the outer nut. Do not allow
the terminal to turn, since this could
damage the connection inside the meter Fig. 34. Connections to the meter move-
case. ment.

46
 Prepare 2-foot lengths of red and black meter terminal" and we will call terminal
hookup wire. Remove about 1/4" of 12 the "negative meter terminal."
insulation from each end of each wire. Put the meter in its box, face up. Do
Connect the 2-foot length of red hook- not attempt to make any measurements
up wire to the positive meter terminal with your meter until instructed to do so.
lug. Check to see that all three leads are The diodes, which you connected to
through the hole in the terminal; then the meter, are used to help protect the
solder the connection. Be sure all three meter movement from excessive current.
leads are soldered. After the solder cools, When avoltage of about .6 volt is present,
test the connection. one of the diodes will conduct and
In asimilar manner, connect and solder provide alow resistance path around the
the length of black hookup wire to the meter movement. We use two diodes
negative meter terminal lug. Compare connected with the opposite polarities to
your wiring with Fig. 34 to see that you provide protection regardless of the po-
have done the work correctly. larity of the excessive voltage.
Next, you will connect the meter leads In normal operation, the voltage across
to terminals on your chassis. Refer to Fig. the meter terminals will not exceed .15
35. Connect the red lead from the meter volt. Therefore, the diodes have no sig-
to terminal 14. Connect the black lead nificant effect on the operation of the
from the meter to terminal 12. meter unless excessive voltage is applied.
Connect a 6" length of hookup wire
from terminal 14 to terminal 10. Solder
SETTING THE METER
terminal 14.
POINTER TO ZERO
In order to simplify the instructions,
we will call terminal 10 the "positive The meter pointer should rest directly

o
o o
o o

o o 8LAC

TO _4.
METER

o
o
e
RED

1
- 1 f-• 1"1
20
5 6 7 8 9 10 II
]13
14
6" RED

o o o o o

Fig. 35. The meter leads connected to terminals 12 and 14 with ajumper from 10 to 14.

47
 Fig. 36. The 0-12 and 0-30 volt scales on your meter.

over zero as shown in Fig. 36 when the and that it will be difficult to read. As a
meter is not in use. To set the pointer to matter of fact, it is no more difficult to
zero, use a screwdriver blade that fits in read a meter than it is to tell time on a
the plastic screw slot on the meter face. clock. Of course, a meter may be some-
Too small or too large ablade can damage thing new to you, and it will take some
the screw. Turn this screw, and notice practice to learn how to read it quickly.
that the meter pointer can be placed to However, it will not be long before you
the right or to the left of zero. Leave the will be able to read it at aglance.
screw adjusted so the meter pointer is At this time we will concentrate on the
over the zero mark. It is unlikely that you 0 to 12 and 0 to 30 volt scales. As you
will have to make this adjustment again. will see, the two scales may often be used
together to help you obtain precise read-
READING THE METER ings. These two scales are shown in white
in Fig. 36. The 0 to 12 volt scale is the
The first time you look at the face of upper scale and has the numbers 0, 2, 4,
the meter you received in this kit, you 6, 8, 10 and 12 printed in black. The 0to
may think that the meter is complicated 30 volt scale is the lower scale and has the

Fig. 37. A meter reading of 25 or 10.

48
 6 8

15
(.7
oue-

teito
.c.)mr:LNeer,4».: . kedeifiii4e.me
•
•
Fig. 38. A meter reading of 10 or 4.

numbers 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 Look at the scale shown in Fig. 39.
printed in black. Notice that the 0to 12 Now the pointer is over one of the short
volt scale has several short marks as well marks of the 0 to 12 volt scale, but is
as some longer unnumbered marks. The 0 between two short marks on the 0to 30
to 30 volt scale has four short un- volt scale! To read this value, note that
numbered marks between each number. on the 0 to 12 volt scale there are nine
Now look at the meter shown in Fig. marks (or ten spaces) between 6 and 8;
37. In this case the pointer is indicating eight short marks and one long mark. The
10 on the 0to 12 volt scale and shows 25 long mark represents 7 volts, and each
on the 0 to 30 volt scale. If the pointer is short mark represents 0.2V. The pointer
as shown in Fig. 38, the reading would be in Fig. 39 is on the third short mark
10 on the 0 to 30 volt scale and 4on the following the 6 volt mark. Since each
0 to 12 volt scale. These readings are short mark is 0.2V, the pointer shows a
quite easy to determine, as you can see, reading of 6.6 volts.
but what happens if the pointer is some- Now, what is the reading of Fig. 39 on
where between the numbers on the scale? the 0 to 30 volt scale? First, notice that

Fig. 39. Another sample meter reading.

49
 'Y1 «.i
•ii»;ù6.
.iii•e.i••
•

Fig. 40. Study this meter reading and see if you can tell what it is.

between 15 and 20 there are four short the reasoning that we applied in the
marks. Each mark, therefore, represents previous examples, can you tell what the
one volt. The pointer is halfway between reading would be on the 0to 12 and 0to
the first and second marks following 15 30 volt scales? If you have trouble, go
so the reading is 16.5 volts. You can tell back and reread the material in the
that the pointer is exactly halfway be- previous paragraphs. After careful study
tween the two marks by looking at the you should have no difficulty in seeing
upper (0 to 12 volt) scale. On this scale, that the readings are 9.4 volts and 23.5
every other mark falls exactly halfway volts respectively on the 0to 12 and 0to
between the one volt marks on the 0 to 30 volt scales.
30 volt scale. This means that while the 0 There is always the possibility that the
to 30 volt scale is marked in one volt pointer will not fall precisely on one of
steps, you can determine readings to one the short marks of the 0 to 12 volt scale.
half avolt by looking at the divisions on How are these values read? Take alook at
the 0to 12 volt scale. Fig. 41. Notice here that the pointer is
Let's look at another example. Take a halfway between the second and third
look at the scale shown in Fig. 40. Using short marks after 4 on the 0 to 12 volt

•• ••4.,• •• ..........

.••
• ••
..•
• •
..•
•
•
.•
• •
..•
••

6 8

Is

0c4e.

fid1
6:•::•:•:•:• •
•• •::

Fig. 41. Here is another meter reading for you to practice on.

50
 Fig. 42. What is the indication on this meter?

scale. This would be a reading of 4.5 the question. The pointer falls about
volts. On the 0to 30 volt scale it is just as halfway between 5.4 and 5.6 volts so we
easy. The pointer falls one fourth of the would call it 5.5 volts. There is, of course,
way between the first and second mark some uncertainty in this reading. For the
after 10, so the reading is 11.25 volts. purposes of your experiments, you would
As a final example, try your hand at read it as 5.5 volts.
reading the two values indicated in Fig. What reading does Fig. 42 represent on
42. Again, the pointer does not fall on the 0 to 30 volt scale? Well, it is
any of the scale marks of either scale. Let somewhere between 10 and 15 volts.
us see how close we can come to reading Each short mark represents one volt, so
the meter by applying what we have the reading would be between 13 and 14
already learned. On the 0to 12 volt scale, volts. Remember that the short mark on
the pointer is between 5and 6. We can be the upper scale (0 to 12 volts) is exactly
more exact than that; it appears to be halfway between the 13 and 14 volt
halfway between the second and third marks, or in other words represents 13.5
marks following the (unmarked) 5 volt volts. The pointer falls to the right of this
mark. The first mark is 5.2 volts, the mark so the reading must be between
second mark is 5.4 volts and the third 13.5 and 14.0 volts. We would probably
mark is 5.6 volts. Therefore the reading is call this 13.75 volts; any value from 13.7
between 5.4 and 5.6 volts. How much, is to 13.8 volts would be sufficient.

51
 Building A Simple Series Circuit
You have already studied Ohm's Law Inspect the tip of your soldering iron.
and you know that there is a definite If necessary, file and retin the tip.
relationship between the voltage, current You will connect the three resistors to
and resistance in acircuit. In Experiment terminals 7, 8, 9and 10 on your chassis.
5, you will see just what happens to the The chassis with the resistors in place is
current when you change either the re- shown in Fig. 43. Begin by connecting
sistance in the circuit or the voltage one lead of a 4.7K-ohm resistor to
applied to the circuit. Before you begin terminal 10. (There should already be a
Experiment 5you will prepare the chassis red wire connected to terminal 10.)
by installing some parts on it. Then, when Temporarily solder the lead and the red
you begin Experiment 5 you will add wire to terminal 10. Bend the resistor
some more parts and perform the Experi- leads near the body of the resistor and
ment. push the free lead through the slot in
In addition to your meter and chassis, terminal 9. Connect one lead of another
you will need: 4.7K-ohm resistor to terminal 9. Solder
terminal 9. Connect the other lead of this
2 4.7K-ohm resistors (yellow-violet- resistor to terminal 8. Connect one lead
red-silver) of the 6.8K-ohm resistor from terminal 8
1 6.8K-ohm resistor (blue-gray-red- to terminal 7as shown in Fig. 43. Solder
silver) terminal 8.
1 1.5-volt flashlight cell Remove 1/4" of insulation from each
Black hookup wire end of a 10" length of red hookup wire.
Red hookup wire Connect and solder one end to terminal
Solder 7. Leave the other end free.

Fig. 43. Experimental chassis wired for Experiment 5.

52
 Be sure that your soldering iron tip is
clean and hot. Then, hold the end of your
roll of solder on the negative terminal of
the cell and touch your soldering iron to
the solder. Rub the iron around so that
the terminal becomes well-tinned.
Now cut a10" length of black hookup
wire and remove 1/4" of insulation from
each end. Place one end of the 10" length
black hookup wire on the tinned area of
the negative terminal of the cell. Touch
Fig. 44. How to clean the center of the the tip of your soldering iron to the wire
bottom of aflashlight cell with apiece and the tinned portion of the cell. The
of sandpaper. solder should melt and run over the wire.
Remove the heat and allow the joint to
You should now have three series- cool. If the solder does not flow
connected resistors going from the posi- smoothly over the wire, add alittle more
tive meter terminal (terminal 10) to solder as you heat the connection.
terminal 7. The total resistance between If you like, you can use a piece of
terminal 7 and the positive meter termi- hookup wire to secure the cell in place
nal is the sum of the values of the three along the bend in the chassis as shown in
Fig. 43. Note that the negative terminal is
resistors; atotal of about 16,000 ohms.
toward the left side of the chassis.
You now have a 0-200 microampere
meter with approximately 16,000 ohms
in series with it. --1111111
In order to measure current, your
meter must be connected to asource of Fig. 45. Schematic symbol for abattery.
voltage with the proper polarity. The
positive terminal of the voltage source The symbol we use on schematic dia-
must always be connected to the lead or grams to represent abattery is shown in
circuit point that goes to the positive Fig. 45. Each pair of lines represents one
meter terminal. cell of the battery. The short wide line
At first, we will use a flashlight cell represents the negative terminal and the
which produces 1.5 volts dc as asource of longer thin line represents the positive
voltage. To do this, you are to connect a terminal. To represent one cell, we use
wire from the negative meter terminal, only one pair of lines; but to represent
terminal 12, to the negative battery several cells, we do not try to show the
terminal. Notice that one end of your exact number, as two or more pairs are
flashlight cell has araised portion while sufficient.
the other end is flat. The negative battery
terminal is the end with no raised section. EXPERIMENT 5
Clean aspot in the middle of the bottom
of the cell with apiece of fine sandpaper, Purpose: To show that current flowing
as shown in Fig. 44. in a series circuit will change when the

53
 L.
1 1.5-volt flashlight cell
Hookup wire

4.7K The first circuit you will use is shown

in Fig. 5-1. When you read the meter, use
the 30-volt scale which you practiced
4.7K 6.8K reading previously.
e
Step 1: To connect 1.5 volts across
Fig. 5-1. The circuit you will use in
the meter and series resistor combination.
Step 1of Experiment 5.

resistance in the circuit or the voltage Touch the red wire from terminal 7to
applied to the circuit is changed. the positive terminal of the flashlight cell.
This closes the circuit and causes current
Introductory Discussion: Although the to flow.
circuit you will use in this experiment is a Observe the pointer on your meter. It
simple circuit, it will act in the same way should be slightly below one-half scale. If
that a more complex circuit would act you get no reading, look for a bad
when either the resistance or voltage is connection or ashort circuit. Check to be
changed. sure that your circuit is wired as shown in
This experiment will demonstrate Fig. 5-1. Trace the wiring from terminals
Ohm's Law, which is one of the most 12 and 10 back to the terminals on the
important laws you will study. Do each meter. Also check for a short circuit
step of the experiment carefully and between the meter terminals or leads.
make sure you understand exactly what The meter scale which you are using in
you are doing and what the changes in this experiment (Fig. 5-2) is the 0 to 30
current that you observe mean. volt scale. However, in this experiment
you are using this scale only as arelative
Experimental Procedure: In this ex- indication of the amount of current in
periment, in addition to the meter, chas- the circuit. The meter indicates acurrent
sis and the circuit you have just wired, of about 100 microamperes, since you
you will need the following: know that afull scale reading (30) repre-

Fig. 5-2. The meter reading of Step 1 should be approximately 13 on the 0-30 scale.

54
 STEP READING
Step 2: To determine the effect of
I
/3. 5 increasing the voltage in a series circuit.

2
To do this, you will connect another
3
23, 2 flashlight cell in series with the cell you
used in Step 1. This is shown in the
Fig. 5-3. Record your reading for Experi- schematic diagram in Fig. 5-4.
ment 5here.

sents acurrent of 200 microamperes.

In later experiments you will learn that
the 0 to 30 volt scale will also be used to
indicate 0 to 3volts, and 0 to 300 volts.
The 0 to 12 volt scale will also be used to
indicate ranges of 0to 1.2 volts, 0to 120
volts and 0 to 1200 volts. For the time
being, however, you need only be con-
cerned with relative scale indications on
the 0 to 30 volt scale. Read the meter Fig. 5-4. Circuit to use for Step 2.
carefully and write the reading of the
meter in the space provided for Step 1in Clean the positive terminal of the
Fig. 5-3. Remove the red wire from the second flashlight cell with apiece of fine
positive terminal of the flashlight cell to sandpaper. Hold your soldering iron on
open the circuit. the terminal and apply solder. Melt

Fig. 5-5. Series resistor with 3-volt battery.

55
enough solder on the terminal to tin it. Touch the free end of the red wire to
Rub the tip of the iron around so that the the positive terminal of the flashlight cell
terminal is well-tinned. on the chassis. You now have atotal of
Place the free end of the red wire about 9,400 ohms in the circuit with a
connected to terminal 7 on the tinned source voltage of 1.5 volts. Read the
area of the positive terminal of this meter and record your readings in the
flashlight cell and apply heat to solder the space for Step 3in Fig. 5-3.
wire to the terminal. Use additional sol-
der if necessary. Discussion: In this experiment, you
Now, to complete the circuit, hold the have seen what happens in aseries circuit
positive end of the first flashlight cell when the voltage or resistance is changed.
against the negative terminal of the sec- You should have areading of something
ond flashlight cell, as shown in Fig. 5-5. less than 15 for Step 1. When you
This places the two 1.5-volt cells in series, doubled the voltage in the circuit by
thus forming a3-volt battery. adding a second flashlight cell, you
The meter pointer should swing to the should have obtained areading of about
right to just under 30 on the 30-volt two times the original reading. In other
scale. Look at the meter carefully, read words, when you double the voltage
the value as closely as you can, and write supplied to the circuit, the current in the
the reading in the space reserved in Fig. circuit doubles. From this, you can see
5-3. that there is a definite relationship be-
tween voltage and current in a series
circuit.
Step 3: To show that the amount of
current will change when the resistance is In Step 3, when you reduced the
changed. resistance in the circuit, you should have
found that the current was greater than in
The circuit you will use is shown in Step 1. This shows that if you reduce the
Fig. 5-6. Unsolder the red wire from the resistance in a series circuit, the current
positive terminal of the second flashlight will increase. We could have shown that
cell and from terminal 7and set the cell increasing the resistance will cause the
current to decrease, but this should have
to one side. Solder one end of the red
been obvious from the steps that you
wire you just removed to terminal 8.
have already carried out in this experi-
ment.

Instructions For Statement No. 5: In

order to complete this statement you
must obtain one additional reading. You
will find the current through aresistance
of approximately 7,500 ohms connected
across a voltage of 1.5 volts. To get this
reading, wire the circuit shown in the
schematic in Fig. 5-7. Connect a short
length of hookup wire from terminal 7to
Fig. 5-6. Circuit you use for Step 3. terminal 9. Solder both connections. Fig.

56
 leads so they will be ready for reuse.
Also, disconnect and remove the short
length of wire connecting terminals 7and
9 and remove the 10" length of red wire
from terminal 8. Do not discard this wire
as you can reuse it in later experiments.
Do not remove any of the other wires.

Fig. 5-7. Connect the free end of the resis- Statement No. 5: When Itouched the
tors to the junction of the first and free end of the lead from terminal 8 to
second resistors to get Statement answers. the 1.5-volt cell, Iobtained areading of
approximately
5-8 shows the chassis wired according to
Fig. 5-7. This places a4,700-ohm resistor (1) 15
in parallel with the 6,800-ohm resistor. (2) 30
This combination is in series with the (3) 10
other 4,700-ohm resistor. Next, touch the
red wire from terminal 8 to the positive EXPERIMENT 6
terminal of the flashlight cell on the
chassis. Purpose: To show how to connect
Observe the meter reading on the resistors in parallel; and to show that the
30-volt scale and answer the statement. net resistance of a group of parallel-
Remove the three resistors connected connected resistors is less than that of the
to terminals 7, 8, 9and 10 and clean their smallest resistor in the group.

Fig. 5-8. Chassis arrangement for Statement 5.

57
 Introductory Discussion: In the last 2 100,000-ohm resistors
experiment, you learned how to connect 1 82,000-ohm resistor
resistors in series with asource of voltage. 2 Flashlight cells
When resistors or any other parts are Red hookup wire
connected across a voltage source, they
are called aload. In acircuit of this type, Since good connections will be re-
each resistance, including that of the quired, we will solder leads to the bat-
meter, can be considered as part of the teries. To do this, clean the battery
total load resistance. Thus, the total load terminals (that you have not yet used)
resistance is the sum of the individual with a piece of sandpaper and tin them,
resistances. as you learned to do in the last experi-
In this experiment we will show that ment.
loads can also be connected to the source Remove 1/2" of insulation from each
voltage so that the entire source voltage is end of an 8" length of red hookup wire.
connected to each load. We will also show Place one end of one wire on the tinned
that when loads are connected in this area of the positive terminal of the cell
manner, the net resistance of the com- connected to terminal 12. Touch the
bined load is less than the resistance of soldering iron to the junction. The solder
the smallest resistance in the group. on the tinned areas should melt and run
over the wire. If necessary, add solder to
Experimental Procedure: In making get agood connection. Remove the heat,
these tests, you will use the following and let the joint cool. Solder the other
parts: end of the wire lead to the tinned area on

SLACK

TO
'TEN

RED

Fig. 6-1. Chassis wired for Step 1.

58
 Complete the circuit shown in Figs. 6-1
and 6-2 by soldering a 100,000-ohm
resistor between terminals 7and 10.

Step 1: To get an indication of the

current flowing with a100,000-ohm resis-
tor in the circuit.

Fig. 6-2. Schematic diagram for Step 1. Touch the free end of the positive
battery lead, which is soldered to the
the negative terminal of the second bat- positive terminal of B2,to terminal 7.
tery. Read the meter indication on the 30-volt
Secure the second battery to the right scale. The meter pointer should be in
side of the chassis as shown in Fig. 6-1. about the position shown in Fig. 6-3.
You can pass apiece of string or hookup Your reading may be somewhat higher or
wire through the hole in the chassis and lower than the value shown in Fig. 6-3
around the battery. because of normal tolerances in resistor
We will call the cell on the left side of values and the output voltages of differ-
the chassis B1 and we will call the cell on ent cells. Read the meter carefully and
the right B2. then remove the free end of the positive
Locate the 10" length of red hookup battery lead from terminal 7 to open the
wire you used in the last experiment. circuit. Record your reading in the space
Solder one end of this wire to the positive provided for Step 1in Fig. 6-4.
terminal of the flashlight cell, B2.Leave
the other end free. Step 2: To connect a 100,000-ohm
You now have a 3-volt battery. The resistor in parallel with the resistor used
negative terminal of the 3-volt battery is in Step 1.
the negative terminal of B1 and is con-
nected to terminal 12. The red wire Clean the leads of the second
connected to the positive terminal of B2 100,000-ohm resistor and connect it in
is the "positive battery lead." parallel with the resistor used in the last

.........7. 7.....:.7...:•:.:.7... .7: :.:.:.7:7: 7::.::::7: :

.::::::7: .:.:
:::::: .
:.:::::;:::•:::::7.
7e:::
::::•7

F*ig: 6-3: Meter reading for Step

* 1.

59
 STEP READING Discussion: In this experiment you
I y have demonstrated what happens to the

a
‘i 1

g, 5 current in a circuit when resistors are

connected in parallel. You should have
3
} zi , 9 discovered that as you added the second
100,000-ohm resistor to the circuit, your
Fig. 6-4.Record your reading for Experi- reading on the meter was about twice
ment 6here. what it was with only one resistor in the
step. You may solder the leads to termi- circuit. When you added the third resis-
nal 7 and 10 or, if you prefer, you may tor, you should have found that the
solder the leads to the leads of the current increased still more.
resistor already in the circuit. The circuit
for this step is shown in Fig. 6-5.
Touch the positive battery lead to
terminal 7 and read the meter on the
30-volt scale. Remove the positive battery
lead after recording your reading in the
chart in Fig. 6-4.

Step 3: To add an 82,000-ohm resistor

Fig. 6-5. Schematic diagram for Step 2.
to the parallel connected 100,000-ohm
resistor.
You know from Ohm's Law that the
Clean the leads of the 82,000-ohm amount of current that will flow in a
resistor and solder it either to terminals 7 circuit depends on the voltage applied to
and 10 or to the leads of one of the the circuit and the resistance in the
resistors used in Step 2. The schematic circuit. In other words, I= E ÷ R. The
diagram of the circuit for this step is value of E did not change; it was 3volts
shown in Fig. 6-6. Touch the positive throughout the entire experiment. There-
battery lead to terminal 7 and note the fore, the change in current must have
reading on the meter. Open the connec- been entirely due to the change in re-
tion after recording your reading in Fig. sistance. In fact, the total resistance in
6-4. the circuit decreased as you added more

Fig. 6-6. Schematic diagram for Step 3.

60
resistors in parallel to produce the in- Introductory Discussion: You already
crease in the circuit current. know that current in acircuit is the flow
Of the three resistors used in this of electrons through the circuit. Electrons
experiment, the 82,000-ohm resistor has flow from the negative terminal of the
the lowest resistance, and we will use this voltage source, which is the battery in
resistor by itself in the statement for this this experiment, through the load, and
experiment. back to the positive terminal of the
battery. Inside the battery, electrons flow
Instructions for Statement No. 6: Re-
from the positive terminal to the negative
move all three resistors from terminals 7 terminal.
and 10. Separate the resistors and re- In any series circuit, the current is the
connect the 82,000-ohm resistor to termi-
same throughout the entire circuit. In
nals 7and 10. other words, if you connect a current-
Touch the positive battery lead to measuring instrument into the circuit to
terminal 7 and note the reading on the measure the current, it will not make any
meter. Open the circuit, and write the difference where you connect the instru-
reading in the margin of this page. ment — you will always get the same
Answer the statement, and then dis- current reading. In this experiment you
connect the 82,000-ohm resistor. Clean will demonstrate this. You will even show
and straighten its leads so that it will be that the current flowing in the battery
ready for re-use. Leave all other connec- itself is the same as the current flowing in
tions alone as they will be used in the the external circuit.
next experiment. Leave the two flashlight
cells connected together and the lead
Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
from the negative terminal of the battery periment, in addition to the meter, chas-
connected to terminal 12.
sis and flashlight cells you will need the
Statement No. 6: When Iconnected following parts:
an 82,000-ohm resistor in place of the
parallel group, the reading was: 1 100,000-ohm resistor
1 82,000-ohm resistor

(2¢
(Vighet
lower 2 7 1 22,000-ohm resistor
Hookup wire

than the reading obtained in Step 3.

Fig. 7-1 shows the circuit you will use
This indicates that the resistance of the
for Step I. This is the same setup used in
parallel group was:

10 14

22K
that of the 82,000-ohm resistor by itself. - 3V

EXPERIMENT 7

Purpose: To show that the current is

the same at every point in aseries circuit. Fig. 7-1. Schematic of circuit for Step 1.

61
 STEP READING Step 2: To measure the current re-
turning to the battery.

2 #t)% Rewire the circuit as shown in Fig. 7-3.

3 To do this, first unsolder and remove the
red wire from terminal 10 to terminal 14.
Unsolder the black negative battery lead
Fig. 7-2. Record your reading for Experi-
from terminal 12. Solder the free end of
ment 7 here.
the black wire to terminal 10. Connect
the last experiment. To construct the and solder alength of hookup wire from
circuit, solder the leads of the 22,000- terminal 7to terminal 12.
ohm resistor to terminals 7and 10. When Notice on the schematic in Fig. 7-3
you have made these connections you that the meter is now between the resis-
should have: tor and the positive battery terminal.
Touch the free end of the positive
(1 ) a wire from the negative battery battery lead to terminal 14 to complete
terminal (negative terminal of B1)to
the circuit. Read the meter on the 30-volt
terminal 12,
scale. Open the circuit after recording the
(2) a wire connecting terminal 14 and
reading for Step 2in Fig. 7-2.
terminal 10,
a 22,000-ohm resistor connected 10
(3)
from terminal 10 to terminal 7,
(4) a wire from the positive terminal of
B1 to the negative terminal of B2,
and
(5) a wire soldered to the positive bat-
tery terminal with the other end free.
There should be no wire soldered to
terminal 7. Fig. 7-3. Circuit for Step 2.

If your circuit is properly wired, you

may proceed with the first step. Step 3: To show that the current
flowing inside the battery itself is the
Step 1: To measure the current leaving same as the current flowing in the ex-
the battery. ternal circuit.

Touch the free end of the positive The battery you are using in this
battery lead to terminal 7. Read the experiment consists of two flashlight
meter on the 30-volt scale and record the cells. Large batteries of the type used in
reading in the space provided for Step 1 earlier tube-type portable radios have
in Fig. 7-2. On the schematic in Fig. 7-1, voltages of 45 and 90 volts and are made
you can see that the battery current flows up of groups of 1.5-volt cells, similar to
from the negative battery terminal, flashlight cells. These are connected in
through the meter to the resistor. It then series to get the required voltage. The
flows through the resistor and back to more cells that are connected in series,
the positive battery terminal. the higher the voltage.

62
 82 131 the positive terminal of 13 1.Solder the
10 + - 12 14 4' -
/ free end of the wire to terminal 12.
Solder the negative battery lead to
terminal 7.
122K Connect and solder alength of hookup
wire from terminal 14 to the positive
terminal of 13 1.Check to see that your
7
circuit is wired correctly.
Touch the positive battery lead (from
Fig. 7-4. Circuit for Step 3. B2) to terminal 10 to complete the
circuit. Read the meter carefully and
With an external circuit connected to open the circuit after recording your
the battery, you can measure the internal reading in the space provided for Step 3
current in the battery by inserting a in Fig. 7-2.
meter between any two adjacent cells.
To illustrate this in the experiment, Discussion: In Step 3 of this experi-
wire the circuit shown in the schematic in ment, the circuit is connected as shown in
Fig. 74. Fig. 7-5 shows a pictorial dia- Fig. 74. Here the meter is actually placed
gram of the wiring. Unsolder and remove between the two flashlight cells, and is
the short length of hookup wire con- measuring the current flowing from one
nected from terminal /to terminal 12. cell into the second cell. Compare your
Locate the wire connecting the two readings for this step with your readings
flashlight cells. Unsolder this wire from in Steps 1and 2.

Fig. 7-5. Chassis wired for Step 3.

63
 Notice that the readings are the same To carry out the experiment for this
in all three steps. This demonstrates an statement, you will need one 100,000-
extremely important fact. The value of ohm resistor and one 82,000-ohm re-
the current is the same throughout the sistor. Wire the circuit as shown in Fig.
entire circuit. This means you can con- 7-6. Connect a 100,000-ohm resistor
nect a meter at any point in a simple from terminal 10 to terminal 13. Solder
series circuit to measure the current; the both connections. Check your circuit to
reading will be the same regardless of see that it is wired according to Fig. 7-6.
where the meter is connected. Solder the positive battery wire to termi-
It is easy to see why the current in a nal 13.
series circuit is the same throughout the Note the reading on the meter on the
entire circuit. When you close the circuit 30-volt scale. Bend the leads of the
by touching the battery wire to the 82,000-ohm resistor so that you can
circuit, electrons begin to leave the nega- conveniently bridge the resistor across
tive terminal of the battery. They strike either the 100,000-ohm or the 22,000-
other electrons and cause them to move. ohm resistor. Bridge the 82,000-ohm re-
These electrons, in turn, strike additional sistor first across the 100,000-ohm re-
electrons, and so on throughout the sistor and note the meter reading on the
entire circuit. This, of course, occurs margin. Next move the 82,000-ohm re-
instantaneously; as soon as the circuit is sistor over and bridge the 22,000-ohm
completed, electrons start moving resistor. Again, read the meter and note
through the entire circuit. the reading in the margin.
At the same instant that electrons Compare the two meter readings and
begin to leave the negative terminal of the answer the Report Statement.
battery, pushing other electrons before Unsolder the positive battery lead from
them, other electrons begin entering the terminal 13. Unsolder and remove the
positive terminal of the battery, because 100,000-ohm resistor connected between
the electrons are attracted by the positive terminals 10 and 13 and the 22,000-ohm
potential. The number of electrons resistor connected between terminals 7
moving in one part of the series circuit is and 10. Unsolder and remove the short
exactly equal to the number of electrons red wire between the positive terminal of
moving in any other part of the series B1 and terminal 14. Unsolder the red
circuit. wire from terminal 12. (The other end of
Instructions for Statement No. 7: In -7 82K

the preceding experiment, you demon-

i
strated that when resistors are connected Bi
: B2
in parallel, the total resistance of the jo 100K 13 1 + _ _
r
combination is lowered. If the applied
voltage does not change, this results in an B2K 12
14

increase in current. For this Report State-

22K ,
ment, you will connect alow resistance in
series with a high resistance. Then you
will shunt each resistance with an
82,000-ohm resistor and note the effect
on the total circuit current. Fig. 7-6. Circuit for Statement 7.

64
this wire is soldered to the negative sum of the currents flowing in the
terminal of B2.) Solder the free end of branches.
this wire to the positive terminal of B1 to
connect the two cells in series again. Introductory Discussion: In any piece
of electronic equipment, there are usually
Clean and straighten the leads of the
several tubes or transistors connected
resistors you removed and clean all un-
across asingle power supply. Each circuit,
used terminals.
or stage, as they are usually called,
generally draws adifferent current. The
Statement No. 7: When Ishunted the
total current that the power supply must
100K-ohm resistor with an 82K-ohm re-
provide is equal to the sum of the
sistor, and then shunted the 22K-ohm
currents drawn by the individual stages.
resistor with the 82K-ohm resistor, I
Each stage acts as a separate load con-
found that the effect on the current was:
nected across the power supply. If a
defect develops in one stage so that the
(1) greater when the 22K-ohm resis-
stage draws more current than it should,
_tor was shunted.
not only will that stage be overloaded,
(2) greater when the 100K-ohm re- -
but also the total current that the power
sistor was shunted.
supply must furnish will increase. As a
(3) the same in both cases.
result, the power supply may be over-
loaded. It is important for you to remem-
EXPERIMENT 8 ber this when you start doing repair
work. If apower transformer overheats, it
Purpose: To show that the total cur- does not necessarily indicate that the
rent flowing in a parallel circuit is the transformer is defective; it often indicates

Fig. 8-1. Chassis for Step 1.

65
 solder the other end to terminal 7. Do
not connect the positive battery lead at
this time.
Before you go to Step 1, carefully
check your work with the schematic of
Fig. 8-2 and the pictorial drawing of Fig.
10 8-1. Make sure you have made all of the
connections correctly.
Fig. 8-2. Schematic of circuit for Step 1.
Step 1: To measure the total current
that adefect in some stage other than the flow in aparallel circuit.
power supply is causing the transformer
to overheat. Touch the positive battery lead (con-
In this experiment you will prove that nected to the positive terminal of B2)to
the sum of the individual branch currents terminal 10. Observe the readings on the
in a parallel circuit is equal to the total 30-volt scale on your meter. Remove the
circuit current. positive battery lead from terminal 10
after recording your reading in the space
Experimental Procedure: In addition provided for Step 1in Fig. 8-3.
to the parts already on the experimental
chassis you will need the following parts: STEP READING

I
2 100K-ohm resistors 1 (4 1 C )

1 82K-ohm resistor 2

Hookup wire 3
4,
You should have the two flashlight
4
Ç
O
cells connected to form a 3-volt battery
Fig. 8-3. Record your reading for Experi-
on your chassis. For this experiment, you
ment 8here.
must wire your circuit as shown in Figs.
8-1 and 8-2. With the arrangement shown in Fig.
Solder the two 100,000-ohm resistors 8-2, the three resistors are in parallel and
and the 82,000-ohm resistor to terminals the current which you measured is the
10 and 7. You should then have two total current flowing in the circuit.
100,000-ohm resistors and the 82,000-
ohm resistor connected in parallel. Con- Step 2: To measure the current
nect the black wire from the negative through a100,000-ohm resistor.
terminal of B1 to terminal 6. Next strip
1/4" of insulation from each end of a5" You will use the circuit shown in the
length of black hookup wire and solder schematic diagram in Fig. 8-4. To change
this wire to terminals 6 and 12 as your wiring to make this circuit, unsolder
indicated in Fig. 8-1. the lead of the 82,000-ohm resistor and
Remove about 1/4" of insulation from the lead of one 100,000-ohm resistor
each end of an 8" length of red hookup from terminal 7. Solder these two leads
wire. Solder one end to terminal 14 and to terminal 6.

66
 terminal 10 and observe the meter indica-
tion on the 30-volt scale. Remove the
battery lead from terminal 10 after re-
cording your reading in the space for Step
3in Fig. 8-3.

10 Step 4: To measure the current

through the 82,000-ohm resistor.
Fig. 8-4. Circuit for Step 2.
Modify the circuit as shown in the
As you can see in the schematic, when schematic in Fig. 8-6. Unsolder the
the circuit is completed, current will flow 100,000-ohm resistor lead from terminal
through all three resistors. However, only 7 and resolder it to terminal 6. Unsolder
the current through R3 the 100,000-ohm the lead of the 82,000-ohm resistor from
resistor connected to terminal 7will flow terminal 6 and resolder it to terminal 7.
through the meter. This places the meter in the 82,000-ohm
Touch the positive battery lead to resistor circuit only.
terminal 10. Read the meter on the
30-volt scale and record your reading for
Step 2in Fig. 8-3.

Step 3: To measure the current

through the second 100,000-ohm resistor,
R2 •

Fig. 8-5 shows the circuit. To make the

necessary changes, unsolder the
10
100,000-ohm resistor lead from terminal
7 and resolder it to terminal 6. Then
Fig. 8-6. Circuit for measuring the current
unsolder the lead of the other 100,000-
through the 82K-ohm resistor.
ohm resistor from terminal 6and resolder
it to terminal 7.
Touch the positive battery lead to
Touch the positive battery lead to
terminal 10. Read the meter on the

1
30-volt scale. Remove the positive battery
6
lead from terminal 10 after recording

:
12
your reading in the space provided for
Step 4in Fig. 8-3.

14 R3
R1 100K
Discussion: In this experiment, you
82K 7 have measured the total current flowing
R2
100K
in a circuit, and also the current flowing
in the individual branch circuits. Since
10 you used two 100,000-ohm resistors, you
should have found that the current flow-
Fig. 8-5. Circuit for Step 3. ing through these resistors was the same.

67
In other words, the readings you obtained Statement No. 8: When I measured
in Steps 2and 3should have been equal. the individual branch currents flowing in
In actually taking this measurement, the circuit consisting of two 100K-ohm
you may have found a slight variation resistors and one 82K-ohm resistor, I
because the resistors have atolerance of found that the current was greatest
10%. Even though we call the resistor a
100K-ohm resistor, its actual resistance (1) through one of the 100K-ohm
may be as much as 10,000 ohms more or
less than 100,000 ohms. The resistance in (2) through the 82K-ohm resistor.
series with the meter, therefore, may be
any value between 90,000 and 110,000 This shows that maximum current will
ohms, which would account for the varia- flow through the branch in the parallel
tion in your measurements. The circuit having
82,000-ohm resistor can have any value
between 73,800 ohms and 90,200 ohms. )the lowest resistance.
Therefore, it is actually possible to have (2) the highest resistance.
little or no difference in reading between
the 82,000-ohm resistor and one or both EXPERIMENT 9
of the 100,000-ohm resistors. In most
electronics work, resistor values are not Purpose: To show that a micro-
critical, and it is much more economical ammeter can be used as avoltmeter if a
to use aresistor having a10% tolerance, suitable resistor is placed in series with
than it is to use aresistor having a 1% the meter.
tolerance.
To show that the total current flowing Introductory Discussion: You have
in the circuit is equal to that in the seen how amicroammeter can be used to
individual branch circuits, add your read- indicate the presence of current and to
ings for Steps 2, 3, and 4, and compare show if the current increases, decreases,
the result with the readings for Step 1. or remains constant when circuit condi-
The sum of the readings recorded in Steps tions are changed. We have not been able
2, 3, and 4 should be approximately to measure the current in microamperes
equal to the reading you have recorded in or milliamperes because the meter is not
Step 1. calibrated to read in microamperes. It
would be possible to calculate the current
Instructions for Statement No. 8: For from your scale readings, but since we are
this Statement, you do not need to take not interested in exact values, it is not
any additional measurements. You can necessary.
use the readings you took in the experi- Your meter is a0-200 microamineter.
ment to answer the statement. This means that acurrent of 200 micro-
Answer the statement and unsolder amperes must flow through the meter to
and remove the two 100,000-ohm resis- give a full-scale deflection. In other
tors and the 82,000-ohm resistor from words, when the pointer is at 30 on the
terminals 6, 7, and 10. Remove the red 30-volt scale, the current flowing through
wire from terminals 7and 14 and remove the meter is 200 microamperes. (Micro-
the black wire from terminals 6and 12. amperes is abbreviated µa.)

68
 If your meter had a200 microampere we will have to subtract the resistance of
(200 pa) scale printed on it, and we the meter itself from the resistance to be
inserted a resistance in series with the placed in series with the meter. However,
meter, and then connected the combina- the resistance of your microammeter is
tion-,across a voltage source, you could small compared to 15,000 ohms, so we
read the current through the meter. The will simply connect the 15,000-ohm resis-
current would depend upon two things: tor in series with the meter to give us a
the voltage of the source, and the re- voltmeter that will read 3 volts on full
sistance we placed in series with the scale. The error introduced by disre-
meter. If we knew what the resistance garding the meter resistance will be un-
was, we could read the current from the important in this experiment.
meter, and then calculate the voltage by As mentioned earlier, the scales on the
using Ohm's Law. Ohm's Law states that meter are labeled 0 to 12 and 0 to 30.
E = IX R. So we would multiply the For the 3-volt scale, read the 0to 30 volt
current in amperes by the resistance in scale but mentally divide the reading by
ohms to get the voltage of the source. 10, or place a decimal point before the
This arrangement has one drawback, last digit. For example, for a full scale
however. It takes quite a bit of time to reading, the pointer will point to 30.
make the mathematical calculations. Dividing this by 10 gives us 3.0. Similarly,
Actually, it is not necessary to do this, a reading of 20 is actually 2.0 on the
because as long as the resistance remains 3-volt scale, just as 15 is 1.5 volts, 5is 0.5
unchanged, the current will depend only volts and so on.
on the voltage. Therefore, we can cali-
brate the meter to read directly in volt- Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
age. Now let us see how we can find out periment, in addition to your meter and
what resistor we need in order to use the chassis with parts mounted, you will need
3-volt range on the meter. the following parts:
To do this, we again turn to Ohm's
Law. One form of Ohm's Law states that 1 I5,000-ohm resistor
the resistance is equal to the amount of Hookup wire
voltage divided by the amount of current.
In other words, R = E ÷ I. We want the Prepare 1' lengths of red and black
meter to read full scale when the voltage hookup wire. Remove about 1/2" of
applied is 3 volts; therefore E will be insulation from each end of the wires.
equal to 3. We know that the meter is a
200 microampere meter; it takes 200 Step 1: To convert your micro-
microamperes (200 µa) of current to ammeter to avoltmeter.
make the meter read full scale. Con-
verting this value to amperes, we get Unsolder the red meter lead from
.0002 ampere. Now, to get the value of terminal 14 and reconnect to terminal 13.
resistance needed, we divide 3 by .0002. Connect the 15,000-ohm resistor from
This will give us 15,000. Therefore, the terminal 13 to terminal 14. Solder termi-
resistance value that should be added to nal 13. Solder one end of the length of
the circuit is 15,000 ohms. red wire to terminal 14. Leave the other
If we want to build an accurate meter, end free.

69
 Solder one end of the 1' length of about 3.1 volts which would make your
black hookup wire to terminal 12. The meter read slightly above full scale.
meter can now be used as a 0 to 3volt
voltmeter. The black wire connected to Step 3: To measure the voltage of a
terminal 12 is your negative voltmeter single flashlight cell.
lead and the red wire connected to
terminal 14 is your positive voltmeter Touch the positive voltmeter lead to
lead. the positive terminal of one cell, and
touch the negative meter lead to the
Step 2: To measure the voltage of the negative terminal of the same flashlight
two flashlight cells connected in series. cell. Note the reading on the meter. The
reading should be about center scale,
The cells should still be connected in indicating avoltage of approximately 1.5
series as they were in the last experiment. volts. Check the voltage of the other
Touch the negative meter lead (the black flashlight cell in the same way.
wire connected to terminal 12) to the
negative terminal of the 3-volt battery, Discussion: The meter that you con-
and touch the positive meter lead to the structed in this experiment is often re-
positive terminal of the 3-volt battery. ferred to as a 5,000-ohms per volt volt-
Fig. 9-1 shows the circuit used in this meter. We usually write this as 5,000
step. Note the reading on the 3-volt scale ohms/volt. Notice that to convert the
on your meter. The reading should be meter to a 3-volt voltmeter, we use a
approximately full scale, indicating avolt- 15,000-ohm resistor. If we wanted to
age of about 3 volts. The reading might convert the meter to a 12-volt meter, we
be alittle higher or lower than full scale, would have used a60,000-ohm resistor. If
depending upon the tolerance of the we wanted to convert the meter to a
15,000-ohm resistor and the actual volt- 30-volt meter, we would have used a
age of your battery. In general, new 150,000-ohm resistor. In all cases, to find
flashlight cells have aterminal voltage of the resistance needed, we multiply the
1.55 volts which drops to about 1.5 volts required full scale voltage by 5,000.
when the cells are heavily loaded (are In the early days of electronics, meters
supplying large current). In this circuit with sensitivities of 1,000 ohms/volt and
there is hardly any load so the battery 5000 ohms/volt were the only types
voltage should be 2 times 1.55 volts or available. Today most meters have sensi-
tivities of 20,000 ohms/volt to 150,000
RED
14
ohms/volt.
15K The sensitivity of the meter used in
- 3V

g,
service work is important. If the meter
13 has a sensitivity of only 5,000 ohms per
volt, it is quite possible that you will not
I, 115 8, get an accurate indication of the voltage
/. 46 e
BLAC 2
in a circuit. In the next experiment we
12 will show you exactly how this can
happen and why the sensitivity of the
Fig. 9-1. Circuit to measure battery voltage. meter is important to the serviceman.

70
 15 4
14
they are connected in parallel. To do this,
unsolder the red wire from the positive
terminal of cell B1 which is on the left

f
side of your chassis. This wire should still
1 be attached to the negative terminal of
cell B2. Solder the free end of this wire to
terminal 6. Solder the free end of the
positive battery lead (the wire soldered to
the positive terminal of B2)to the posi-
Fig. 9-2. Circuit for Statement 9. tive terminal of B1.Check your work
against Figs. 9-2 and 9-3.
Another type of meter, the vacuum
Touch the positive voltmeter lead to
tube voltmeter or the transistor volt-
the positive terminal of battery B1 or B2
meter, has an even higher sensitivity than
and the negative meter lead to terminal 6.
the meters previously discussed. For this
Note the reading on your meter, and
reason most electronics technicians prefer
answer the statement.
this type to the simple voltmeter of the
Unsolder the red wire from the positive
type you have just constructed. You will
terminal of battery B1 and push the free
build a sensitive transistor voltmeter in
end out of the way. Unsolder the red wire
the next Training Kit.
from terminal 6 and solder the free end
Instructions for Statement No. 9: In to the positive terminal of flashlight cell
this statement, you are to measure the B1.Leave the 15,000-ohm resistor con-
voltage of the two flashlight cells when nected to terminals 13 and 14, and the

SLACK

To
METER
2(

RED

o o o

Fig. 9-3. Chassis used for Statement 9.

71
 red and black voltmeter leads connected 1 1,000-ohm resistor
to terminals 12 and 13. 2 100,000-ohm resistors
1 82,000-ohm resistor
Statement No. 9: When I measured 2 Flashlight cells
the voltage of the two parallel-connected
flashlight cells, I found that it was Your flashlight cells should still be
approximately connected in series to form a 3-volt
battery.
(1) 3volts. Construct the circuit shown in Fig.
(- (2) 1.5 volts. 10-1. Solder one lead of a 1,000-ohm
(3) 0. resistor to terminal 6. Push the free lead
through the slot in terminal 4. Connect
EXPERIMENT 10 the 680-ohm resistor between terminals 3
and 4 and solder terminal 4. Connect the
Purpose: To show that in a series 470-ohm resistor between terminals 2and
circuit, there is avoltage across each part, 3. Solder terminal 3. Solder the resistor
that the sum of the voltages is equal to lead and the free end of the positive
the source voltage, and that avoltmeter battery lead to terminal 2.
can upset the voltage division.
Step 1: To measure voltages in alow-
Introductory Discussion: You already resistance series circuit.
know that if you connect your voltmeter
across the battery, you get an indication You will use your 3-volt meter to
of the voltage produced by the battery. measure the voltages in the circuit shown
When the battery is connected to a in Fig. 10-1.
series circuit, the battery voltage drives To measure the source voltage, hold
electrons through the circuit. The elec- the negative voltmeter lead on terminal 6,
trons, in moving through each part of the and touch the positive meter lead to
circuit, set up avoltage across each part. terminal 2. Observe the meter on the
If you accurately measure the voltage 3-volt scale and place your reading in the
across each part and add these voltages, space for the source voltage in Fig. 10-2.
you will find that the sum of these Next, while holding the negative volt-
voltages is equal to the source voltage. meter lead on terminal 6, touch the
In this experiment, you will construct positive lead to terminal 4 and measure
a simple circuit and measure the voltage
2 470
across each of the individual parts in the "VV\.•
circuit to prove that the sum of the R3

voltages is equal to the battery voltage.

3V
R2
Experimental Procedure: In this ex- 680

periment, in addition to the meter and

R
chassis, you will need:
Vs/s.
6 IK 4

1 470-ohm resistor
1 680-ohm resistor Fig. 10-1. Circuit for Experiment 10.

72
 1,35

READINGS Construct the circuit shown in Fig.

R1 1. 35 VIO-3. Solder one lead of a 100,000-ohm
R2 ,5suesistor, R I,to terminal 6. Connect the
R3 other lead to terminal 4. Connect one
RI + R2+ R3 Q . lead of the 82,000-ohm resistor to ter-
SOURCE 6, minal 4 and solder. Connect the other
lead of this resistor to terminal 3. Con-
Fig. 10-2. Record your reading for Step
nect and solder the other 100,000-ohm
1here.
resistor, R3,from terminal 3 to terminal
the voltage across resistor R I.Record this 2. To complete the circuit, solder the
voltage in the space provided for R1 in positive battery lead to terminal 2.
Fig. 10-2. Measure the voltage applied to the
Move the positive meter lead to termi- circuit by holding the positive voltmeter
nal 3 and the negative meter lead to lead on terminal 2 and touching the
terminal 4 and measure the voltage across negative voltmeter lead to terminal 6.
resistor R2.Record your reading jn the Read your meter on the 3-volt scale and
space provided for R2 in Fig. 10-2. record your reading in the space reserved
To measure the voltage across resistor for the source voltage in Fig. 10-4.
R3, touch the positive meter lead to
terminal 2 and the negative meter lead to READINGS
terminal 3. Read the voltage on the 3-volt RI .2 .5
scale on your meter and record your R2 • ...
reading in the space provided for resistor R3
•2
R3,in Fig. 10-2. Now add together the RI + R2+ R3 .15
three voltages you recorded for RI,R2, SOURCE 2, ,
9
and R3 and put this value in place labeled
R1 +R2 + R3 in Fig. 10-2. Fig. 10-4. Record your readings for Step 2
Unsolder the positive battery lead from here.
terminal 2, to open the circuit. Unsolder
Using the same technique you used in
and remove the 470-ohm, the 680-ohm
Step 1, measure the voltages across each
and the 1,000-ohm resistors.
of the three resistors. Record these volt-
ages in the spaces provided for it in Fig.
Step 2: To measure voltage in ahigher
10-4. Now add together the three voltages
resistance series circuit.
you recorded for R I,R2,and R3 and put
this value in the place labeled R1 + R2 +
R3 in Fig. 10-4.
When you have made your readings,
disconnect the positive battery lead from
terminal 2.

Discussion: In Step 1, you measured

the source voltage applied to the circuit
4 and you measured the voltage across each
resistor. You found that the source volt-
Fig. 10-3. Circuit used in Step 2. age was about 3volts. This is the voltage

73
across the three series-connected resistors. is the negative meter lead. The negative
The voltage drop across R1 was about battery terminal is the most negative
1.4 volts, across R2 it was about .95 volts point in the circuit. In Fig. 10-1, the
and across R3 about .7 volts. When you voltage at terminal 4is more positive than
added the voltage drops across resistors the voltage at terminal 6. Similarly, the
RI,R2 and R3, you should have found voltage at terminal 3is more positive than
the sum to be approximately equal to the the voltage at terminal 4 and the voltage
source voltage. at terminal 2 is more positive than the
The voltage across a resistor is deter- voltage at terminal 3.
mined by the current in the resistor and You must always connect your volt-
the value or resistance of the resistor. As meter so the positive lead is connected to
you would expect from Ohm's Law, the the more positive terminal. Otherwise,
largest resistor has the largest voltage your meter will read backwards and may
across it while the smallest resistor has be damaged.
the smallest voltage. In Step 2, you also found that the
Another important point that you supply voltage is about 3volts. However,
should learn from the experiment is how when you add the three readings taken
to connect the voltmeter to measure for Step 2, you will find that the three
voltage. A voltmeter is always placed in voltage drops do not add up to 3volts. At
parallel with or across the voltage you are first glance, you might think that some-
interested in measuring. thing is wrong.
To measure the battery voltage in the Actually, the error is due to your
circuit in Fig. 10-1, you measure between meter resistance. The circuit you have
terminals 2 and 6, which are directly when you connect the meter across R1 is
across the battery. To measure the volt- shown in Fig. 10-5.
age across resistor RI,you measure the Since the resistance of the voltmeter,
voltage between terminals 4 and 6. In which consists of the 15,000-ohm resistor
every case, the positive meter lead is and the resistance of the 0 to 200
connected to a more positive point than rnicroanuneter, is only slightly more than
R3
100K

R2
82K
_
R1
100K

Fig. 10-5.Circuit for Experiment 10 with meter connected across RI.

74
 15,000 ohms, the total resistance of R1 will build atransistorized voltmeter. This
and the meter in parallel with it is much meter has a resistance of several meg-
less than the 100,000-ohm value of R1 ohms. Thus, when you use this meter to
alone. The resistance of the combination measure the voltage in high resistance
is very close to 15,000 ohms. Therefore, circuits, you will get a more accurate
most of the voltage will be dropped voltage indication than you would using a
across resistor R2 and R3,and very little simple voltmeter such as that which you
will appear across the combination of R1 used in this experiment.
and the meter circuit in parallel with it.
Instructions for Statement 10: For this
The same thing is true when you
statement, you are to measure the voltage
connect your meter across R2 and R3.
drop across two resistors. R1 and R2 in
Each time you connect the meter across a
Fig. 10-3. Solder the positive battery lead
high resistance, the parallel combination
to terminal 2. Touch your negative meter
of the meter and the resistor across which
lead to terminal 6 and the positive meter
you are measuring voltage forms a re-
lead to terminal 3. Observe your meter
sistance that is much lower than the
indication on the 3-volt scale and write
original resistor value. The entire circuit,
the reading in the margin on this page.
therefore, is upset and the voltage you e
measure is not the true voltage that is Statement No. 10: When Imeasured
across the resistor when the meter is not the voltage across resistors R1 and R2,I
connected to it. found that the voltage was
To prevent such erroneous readings,
you need a meter with a very high 1)less than 1volt.
resistance. If your meter had asensitivity (2 approximaleT5 volts.
of 100,000 ohms per volt on the 3-volt (3) approximately 3volts.
scale, you would have atotal resistance of
300,000 ohms in the voltmeter circuit. After you have answered the state-
Then, when you make your measure- ment, unsolder the positive battery lead
ments, you would be placing 300,000 from terminal 2 and push it out of the
ohms in parallel with 100,000 ohms. way. Unsolder and remove the red and
Although the meter resistance is still low black meter leads and all other parts and
enough to upset the circuit you used in wires connected to terminals 12, 13, and
this experiment, it would not upset the 14. Straighten and clean the leads of the
circuit nearly as much as the 15,000-ohm 15,000-ohm resistor and set it aside.
resistance did. You should still have the two flashlight
The resistor values used in the first step cells connected in series and attached to
were much less than the combined value the chassis. You should also have the two
't of the meter and its series resistor. For 100K-ohm and one 82K-ohm resistors
this reason, the meter resistance has very soldered to terminals 2, 3, 4and 6. These
little effect on the readings you made in resistors and the 3 volt battery will be
the circuit in Step 1. used in the first experiment of the next
In your next set of experiments, you training kit.

75
 Looking Ahead
This completes the experiments in Kit In the next kit, you will build a
IT. One of the most important things transistorized voltmeter (tvom). You will
you should have learned is how to solder find this work extremely interesting, and
correctly. As we pointed out, you will at the same time you will be building an
make soldered connections in all your instrument that will be useful to you in
electronics work, and one poorly soldered the rest of your experiments, and later
connection can cause you hours of un- when you start work in any branch of the
necessary work. electronics field. In addition to building
In later kits you will have further the tvom you will continue with your
experience in reading the meter. Of studies of basic circuits.
course, you will use the meter throughout Check to see that your training Kit
your Practical Demonstration Course. Report sheet is completed and send it to
You should have learned how to read the NRI for grading.
0 to 30 volt and 0to 12 volt scales in this While waiting for the return of this
group of experiments; in the next kit, Report and for your next kit, prepare the
you will learn how to read the ohmmeter parts you have left over for use in later
scale. You also demonstrated anumber of kits. The parts left over are shown in
important basic circuit actions. It is much Table I. Remove the meter from its box
easier to study and understand the more and unsolder and remove the diodes and
advanced circuits that you will encounter wires from the meter terminals. Also,
later if you understand how the simple remove the solder lugs. Clean the meter
circuits work, and what changes in the terminals, and place the meter back in its
circuit will do to voltage distribution and box. Since the meter is adelicate instru-
current flowing in the circuit. ment, be sure to put it in asafe place.

TABLE I

1 Pot mtg. bracket 2 4700-ohm resistors

I Chassis plate 1 6800-ohm resistor
1 Etched circuit board Ns ith tube socket 1 15,000-ohm resistor
1 Marking crayon 1 22,000-ohm resistor
I Meter 1 1/4" X 6-32 machine screw
1 6-32 hex nut 2 1/4" X 4-40 machine screws
2 4-40 hex nuts 2 Large solder lugs
1 1000-ohm potentiometer 2 Silicon diodes
1 470-ohm resistor Hookup wire
1 680-phm resistor Solder
3 1000-ohm resistors

IMPORTANT: Be sure to save ALL PARTS from this Kit, including screws and nuts,
because you will need them later. Keep small parts in individual envelopes or boxes.

76
 The following parts are attached to the chassis plate:

2 Flashlight cells 1 Small solder lug

1 3-lug terminal strip 5 1/4" X 6-32 machine screws
1 4-lug terminal strip 5 6-32 hex nuts
1 7-lug terminal strip 2 100,000-ohm resistors
1 82,000-ohm resistor

Fig. 4-6. Examples of how you could have wired the circuit used in Ex penmen 4.

Important Notice
As you use your soldering iron, ascale will accumulate on it. Eventually this scale will
keep the iron from heating properly, and you will have to remove it. To do so, remove
the tip from the barrel. Remove the scale from the tip and tap the end of the barrel
against the workbench to loosen and remove the scale in the barrel. Refile the tip, if
necessary, and put it back in the barrel.
If you have asoldering gun, poor contact may develop between the tip and the metal
terminals of the gun. This can be eliminated by loosening and then tightening the nuts
holding the tip in place. Make sure the nuts are tightened securely. Clean and re-tin the
tip when it gets dirty, and replace it when it gets pitted.

Warning

You are expected to make a grade of A, B, C, or D for each group of ten

experiments in this Practical Demonstration Course. If any of your reports
come back to you marked "Low," you are to repeat the experiments and
report statements marked "X" and then send in a complete new set of
answers, using the new report blank we will send you. Since this procedure
may mean that you will have to dismantle equipment that is to be used as a
unit in succeeding experiments, do not begin work on the next Kit until you
have received agrade of A, B, C, or D.

77
 L

Each Day Counts ...

Each day of our life offers its own reward for work

well done, its own chance for happiness. These

rewards may seem small, and these chances may seem

petty in comparison with the big things we see ahead.

As aresult, many of us pass by these daily rewards

and daily opportunities, never recognizing that the

final goal, the shining prize in the distance, is just a

sum of all these little rewards we must win as we go

along.

r
lc

1
Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-KM-201
 TRAINING KIT MANUAL

eaddli9elelle
qj rig] 1T

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

.8.-
TRAINING KIT MANUAL 1T
PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATIONS

IN BASIC ELECTRONICS
A Plan For Studying The Experiments
As you know, these Experimental Kits are intended to come to you on adefinite
schedule. This arrangement is so that you will study the necessary theory in your
regular lessons before you carry out any corresponding experiments. This permits you
to adopt either of the following plans of study:

1. You may wish to complete one or two experiments in akit, do alesson, and
then return to the kit for one or two more experiments. This plan permits the
experiments in one kit to be finished about the time the next kit is due. Thus, the
lessons and experiments run along together, and provide you with avaried program of
study.
2. You may prefer to break away from your lessons and to complete all the
experiments in akit at one time before going back to your lessons. This plan has the
advantage that you do not waste any time getting out and putting away materials, but
it can be followed only if you can leave your equipment set up long enough to finish.
Whichever plan you follow, you can begin NOW with the experiments in this kit.
However, be sure to read the preliminary information on pages one through sixteen
before you begin, so you will know just how the experiments are to be carried out. In
asimilar manner, begin on future kits as soon as you receive them.

NOTICE

NR1 has set up the CONAR Division of the National Radio Institute to handle
the sale of professional test equipment and other electronic equipment. NRI has
had unsurpassed experience in the design of quality kits. All CONAR kits are
designed and produced by the National Radio Institute. The transistorized
volt-ohrnmeter you will build as part of your training is the CONAR Model 212.
This is the same professional tvom you will see advertised nationwide. Several of
the parts you received in this kit, including the meter, will be used in the assembly
of your tvom.

COPYRIGHT 1970 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

KLIOM67 I 1973 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING
EXPERIMENTS 1THROUGH 10
LECTURE-ROOM DEMONSTRATIONS fidence in your own ability and will
iiii. YOU PERFORM IN YOUR OWN HOME provide what you need to become a
practical technician.
, How many times have you heard the The experiments will help you to solve
expression, "Seeing is believing"? Prob- technical problems you will encounter in
ably many times, because it is human your work. You will see for yourself what
nature to doubt something you cannot happens when a particular part is defec-
see or touch. tive, and you will learn how to detect and
Although you can learn how apiece of correct errors and how to adjust circuits.
equipment works from pictures and Every experiment in every manual is
words, the average person understands important, because it is an actual working
better if he can actually set up equipment demonstration. Do not pass over any of
and make tests himself to see how it them hurriedly, even though you may
works. feel that you already know the results.
You must have aknowledge of theory If you look underneath the chassis of
before you can work successfully in the any modern piece of electronic equip-
radio-TV-electronics field. However, un- ment, you will see that the connections
less you know how to apply theory and are soldered. A soldered connection is the
make tests, your knowledge is useless. most reliable type of connection to make
Theory and practical application must go in commercial production because it will
hand-in-hand. not deteriorate much during the entire
The NR! Course of training is awell- life of the electronic equipment.
balanced combination of theory and When you repair defective equipment,
practical instruction. Practical demon- you must be able to find the defective
strations and experiments are given in this stage and then the defective part. How-
manual and the following manuals. ever, the ability to find what is wrong is
Doing these experiments will give you of little use unless you also know how to
actual experience in handling parts and take out the defective part and how to
making measurements, and will help you solder the connections for a new part.
understand explanations of more ad- Furthermore, you may often have to
vanced circuit actions. This type of ex- unsolder one or more connections during
perience is more valuable to you than your tests in order to find the defective
class or lecture-room demonstrations by part.
an instructor in which you take no active In the first section of this manual, you
part, and you can do the experiments at will study the fundamentals of soldering
your own convenience. and learn how to make a good soldered
This practical work with experimental connection using actual electronic parts.
equipment will help you develop con- You will make these connections in ex-

1
 î
BR I P07

CUM LIM I121=

ME2I STIO ST28 ST17

_ e RESISTORS
HA6 S076
I.

CH65
NUTS SCREWS LUI LU7 SRI2

EC24
MS4
CO) WR7 WR78
1
BAI

Fig. 1. Parts used in this Experimental Manual are shown here and listed below.

Part Price
Part Price
Quan. No. Description Each Quan. No. Description Each

2 BA1 Size D flashlight cell .20 2 RE36 100,000-ohm resistor .15

1 BR! Pot mounting bracket .05 1 RE50 6800-ohm resistor .15
1 CH65 Chassis plate .93 1 RE52 82,000-ohm resistor .15
1 EC24 Etched circuit board 1.10 2 RE56 680-ohm resistor .15
1 HA6 Solder .41 1 RE165 15,000-ohm, 5%
1 LU1 Solder lug, small 12/.15 resistor .24
2 LU7 Solder lug, large 12/.15 6 SCI 1/4" X 6-32 machine
1 ME21 Meter 10.92 screw 12/.15
1 MS4 Marking crayon .05 2 SC6 1/4" X 4-40 machine
6 NUI 6-32 hex nut 12/.15 screw 12/.15
2 NUS 4-40 hex nut 12/.15 1 S076 7-pin tube socket .12
1 P07 1000-ohm pot 2 SR12 Silicon diode .67
w/lockwasher/nut .75 1 STIO 3-lug terminal strip .05
1 RE28* 470-ohm resistor .15 1 ST17 7-lug terminal strip .12
2 RE29 4700-ohm resistor .15 1 ST28 4-lug terminal strip .10
3 RE30 1000-ohm resistor .15 1 WR7 25' red hookup wire .50
2 RE33 22,000-ohm resistor .15 1 WR78 6' black hookup wire .12

*All resistors are 1/2-watt, 10% tolerance unless otherwise specified.

2
actly the same way that you would in ment 6. If there are any figures that do
working on commercial equipment. The not apply to one particular experiment,
solder, hookup wire, and other parts that they will be numbered consecutively in
are included in this kit are standard items, each manual, starting with Fig. 1.
just like those that you might use in
working on any piece of electronic equip- CONTENTS OF THIS KIT
ment. In later experiments, you will have
practice in working from schematic dia- The parts included in your first kit are
grams. You will also assemble anumber pictured in Fig. 1and listed below. Each
of simple circuits to demonstrate some part that you receive in your kits is
basic electrical laws. assigned apart number. The part number
and description appears below Fig. 1.
HOW THE MANUALS ARE ARRANGED When you need a part for the experi-
ments, you will be given the part value, a
The manual for each kit in your description, and in some cases the part
Practical Demonstration Course contains number.
the instructions for performing ten Now check the parts that you receive
experiments. These experiments are against this list to make certain that you
numbered consecutively throughout the have all of the parts. Do not lose or
whole series; Experiments 1-10 are in the discard any of these parts because you
first manual, 11-20 in the second, etc. At will use many of them again in later
the end of each experiment is a State- experiments.
ment that you are to complete, so that For your convenience, most of the
you can check your work as you go parts are packed on cardboard under a
along. When the ten statements have been clear plastic film. This protects the parts
answered, be sure to submit the training during shipment and also makes it easy to
Kit Report to NRI for grading. inventory your parts. To remove the
In each manual, the figures are num- parts, cut around them with asharp knife
bered to correspond to each experiment. or arazor blade.
Each figure number has two parts. The IMPORTANT: If any part of this kit is
first part is the number of the experiment obviously defective or has been damaged
in which it appears, and the second part is during shipment, please return the de-
the number of the figure within the fective part to NRI for replacement,
experiment. For example, Fig. 1-3 would following the procedure given on the
be the third figure in Experiment 1; Fig. "Packing and Returned Material Slip"
6-2 would be the second figure in Experi- enclosed in this kit.

3
 Preparing For The Experiments
Before you start the experiments, there TOOLS YOU WILL NEED
are several things you will need to do.
You will need aplace to work and tools The tools you need to do these experi-
to work with. ments are the same as those you will use
You do not need an elaborate work- in all kinds of electronic work. They are
bench. A folding card table set up near an pictured in Fig. 2, and listed under the
electrical outlet will be satisfactory. Do figure. None of these tools are supplied
not use a metal-top table, because it with this kit. Probably you already have
could cause short circuits that might some of these tools, since the average
damage the equipment. If you have to use home usually does have a few tools for
a metal-top table, cover the top with a simple repair work.
nonconductor, such as cardboard or li- You can get those tools you do not
noleum. have from hardware stores, radio-supply

Fig. 2. These are the tools you will need to do these experiments. You probably already
have many of them. Get the best ones you can afford; you will be using them throughout
your course as well as when you do service work. These tools are not supplied with your
kits. From left to right, all-purpose pliers, longnose pliers, diagonal cutters, small screw-
driver, medium size screwdriver, Phillips screwdriver, metal-cutting file, and pocket knife.
Below the tools is asoldering iron.

4
houses, or mail-order firms. Since you screws. Because the average person uses a
will use the tools in all of your electronic screwdriver as a can opener, a pry or
work, they are aworthwhile investment. pinch bar, and even as a chisel, the
Select good quality tools that "feel right" screwdriver is one of the most abused
in your hand. tools.
Pliers. The technician needs three The technician needs three screw-
types of pliers: longnose pliers, diagonal drivers - one with a small blade for
cutters, and ordinary slip-joint pliers. loosening setscrews in dial and control
Each type has its own purpose and should knobs and one with amedium blade for
be used for that purpose only. Pliers are general purpose work. He also needs a
designed primarily for holding, bending, Phillips screwdriver because screws with a
and cutting. Many people use them for special head known as a "Phillips head"
other purposes so they often ruin them or are often used in electronic equipment.
mar the material on which they are Screwdrivers with plastic handles are best
working. because the plastic is a good insulator.
Perhaps the pliers most often used in Later on you will need aspecial type of
electronics are the longnose type. Al- screwdriver, known as an "alignment
though you may use longnose pliers to tool." This is a non-metallic tool for
hold a nut in position so that it can be special uses, but you won't need it now.
started on ascrew, you should never use Files. There are more than twenty
them to tighten nuts. You may spring the types of files. Each type comes in sizes
jaws so the points will not meet or you from three to eighteen inches. They may
could actually break one of the jaws. Use be either single or double cut and are
your longnose pliers to hold wires in classified according to the different
position for soldering, to remove wires, or grades of coarseness or fineness, de-
for hard-to-reach places. pending upon the size and spacing of the
Diagonal cutting pliers, or "side teeth.
cutters" as they are often called, are used The type most often used in elec-
for most cutting operations. Because the tronics is a10-inch second-cut mill file. It
cutting jaws are at an angle, these pliers is used to keep the tip of the soldering
are ideal for cutting wires close to termi- iron in good condition by removing small
nals. amounts of metal, leaving the filed sur-
Combination slip-joint pliers, often face smooth. This type of file is also
called "combination pliers," are also in useful in brightening lugs for easier sol-
common use. Because of the slip joint, dering.
the jaws can be opened wider at the hinge Knife. A good knife is useful when
pin so that larger diameters can be preparing wires for connection to other
gripped. These pliers come in 5, 6, 8, and parts; asturdy pocket knife is fine.
10-inch sizes. The thin-type, 6-inch size is Soldering Iron. The soldering iron is
best for electronics work. used more often by servicemen than any
Screwdrivers. Practically everyone is other tool. Since you will use it often and
familiar with the standard screwdriver. it is so important, you should choose it
The screwdriver is intended for one carefully. A number of soldering irons
principal purpose -to loosen or tighten suitable for electronics work are shown in

5
 Fig. 3. Several soldering irons suitable for electronics work.

Fig. 3. It is best to buy asoldering iron "pencil" type irons. These types have
from afirm that specializes in electronics replaceable heating elements and tips.
parts. You should obtain your iron from They are available with various wattage
your local wholesaler, from amail-order ratings, usually 25 to 40 watts, suitable
wholesaler, or from the CONAR Instru- for general electronic soldering, and 40 to
ments Division of NRI. 50 watts, for heavier duty work. These
Hardware stores sometimes carry sol- "pencil" irons are the types most suitable
dering irons in stock, but they may have for the beginner as they are lightweight
only the large type that is used for heavy and easy to handle. Perhaps the most
work, such as automobile radiator repair suitable iron for the beginner would be
or roofing work. These irons are too one like the third iron from the left in
heavy for easy handling and too big to be Fig. 3. A 37-1/2 element and a chisel-
used where small parts are crowded to- shaped tip make an ideal choice of
gether. element and tip.
From left to right in Fig. 3, the first At the right in the photo is asoldering
iron is called a medium duty iron. This gun. A gun of this type has the advantage
type of iron generally has arating of from over the iron in that it heats and cools
50 to 150 watts and is used where a very quickly. Thus, it is excellent for a
relatively large amount of heat is needed, serviceman making house calls or atech-
such as when soldering to the chassis. nician working on equipment in aplant.
The two irons in the center are He plugs the gun in when he arrives at

6
the job and it is ready for use immedi- it is ready for use. If the tip is anatural
ately. Everyone going into electronics, copper color, you must tin it before using
whether on apart-time or full-time basis, it.
will find agun useful. However, it is not
TINNING A SOLDERING IRON
quite as easy to turn out well-soldered
connections with a gun as it is with an
You cannot solder properly unless
iron. Therefore, the beginner should start
your soldering iron is properly tinned.
with a conventional soldering iron and
Therefore, your first step in learning how
learn to use it correctly and later, if he so
to solder is to learn how to tin asoldering
desires, he can use asoldering gun.
iron.
As mentioned previously, the most
The tip of the soldering iron is made of
suitable single iron for general service
copper. When an untinned soldering iron
work and for use in your kits is an is heated, the copper combines with the
electric iron with atip about an inch long
oxygen in the air, forming adark coating
and 1/8" to 1/4" in diameter. The tip of copper oxide on the tip of the iron. If
should be of the chisel type with two flat
you try to use an untinned iron, the
surfaces. The wattage rating should not
copper oxide coating will act as a heat
be more than 50 watts, because a high-
insulator and keep the heat of the iron
wattage iron is bulky, and if its barrel
from the parts you are trying to solder. It
touches parts, it may damage them.
will be practically impossible to heat the
When you buy an iron, be sure you get
part sufficiently to melt the solder
asoldering iron stand with it, to rest the
properly.
hot iron on when it is not in use. Or get
You can prevent this by covering the
an iron that is designed so that the handle
tip of the iron with solder. This is called
is heavier than the tip end. Then the iron
"tinning" the iron. The solder will form a
will balance when it is laid down with the protective layer over the copper tip so
tip off the bench.
that the oxygen cannot get at the copper
The average electric soldering iron will and corrode it. The tinned tip will be a
operate on ac or dc at 117 volts. Power- good conductor of heat, and you will be
line voltages may vary between 110 and able to heat the parts enough to solder
120 volts; an iron designed for 117-volt them properly.
operation may be used on any voltage Preparing the Tip. The first step in
between 105 volts and 130 volts. tinning asoldering iron is to examine the
Although the modern soldering iron is tip. A photograph of the tip of a new
a rugged tool, it should never be abused. soldering iron that has not been tinned is
Do not use it as a hammer, drop it, or shown in Fig. 4A, and aphotograph of a
attempt to cool it quickly by plunging it soldering iron that has been used and
into water. When properly cared for, an needs re-tinning is shown in Fig. 4B.
iron will last for years. Notice that the tip of the new iron is
Although some irons have pre-tinned reasonably smooth, whereas the tip of the
tips, most tips must be tinned before use. iron that has been used is pitted, dirty,
If your iron has a bright, shiny tip or a and uneven.
dull gray tip, it has been pre-tinned, and If your soldering iron is in good condi-

7
 like the one shown in Fig. 4B. You will
have to go through this procedure to
re-tin it.
To file the tip of the iron, rest the iron
on a vise or a similar metal support, as
shown in Fig. 5. Grasp the iron in one
hand and proceed to file one of the
surfaces flat as shown. Try to file the
surface at approximately the same angle
as that of the original tip. Do not remove
any more metal than is necessary, but
make sure that you file the surface until
all of the dark spots and holes in the
Fig. 4. If your soldering iron is new and surface are gone. When you have com-
has not been tinned as at (A), or if it has pleted the operation, the tip of the iron
been used and is pitted as at (B), it will should look as it does in Fig. 6.
need tinning. After you have filed one surface of the
tip, turn the iron over. In other words,
tion, like the one shown in Fig. 4A, you rotate the iron 180°,and file the surface
can plug it into an electrical outlet and flat on the opposite side of the tip. Again,
start heating it. On the other hand, if you remove no more metal than is necessary,
have an iron that has been used and looks but make sure you file the surface until it
like Fig. 4B, you should file the tip is clean. Try to file at the same angle as
smooth before you start to heat it. Even the first surface, as shown in Fig. 7.
though your iron may be in good condi- If your iron has apyramid-shaped tip,
tion, read the following instructions care- turn the iron aquarter turn and file one
fully, because after your iron has been of the other surfaces. Then turn the iron
used for some time, it will become pitted over and file the last surface. When you

Fig. 5. To file the tip of your iron, hold it Fig. 6. When you have filed one surface,
against avise as shown here. your iron should look like this.

8
 Fig. 7. File the opposite surface at the Fig. 8. Your iron should look like this
same angle as the first surface, as shown. after filing all four surfaces on its tip.

have filed all tip surfaces, the tip of the Move the solder around the tip until the
iron should look like the one shown in entire surface is tinned, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 8. Notice that the sides are approxi- 9. After you have tinned one surface of
mately even. the tip, turn the iron and go through the
Before you start to heat the iron, same procedure of lightly filing the other
examine the edges of the flat surfaces on surfaces, and then applying solder.
the tip. If the edges are rough, smooth After you have tinned the surfaces of
them by careful rubbing with apiece of the tip, use aclean cloth to wipe off any
sandpaper. excess solder. Hold the cloth loosely as
Tinning the Iron. After you have pre- shown in Fig. 10 to avoid burning your
pared the surface for tinning, or if you hand. When you have your iron tinned, it
are tinning a new iron that is in good is ready for use. Unplug it, and set it aside
condition, plug the iron in and wait for it until you are ready to start soldering.
to heat. As the iron heats, periodically
touch the end of the solder to the tip so
you will know when the iron is hot
enough to melt the solder. You should tin
it as soon as it reaches a high enough
temperature, because the longer an un
tinned iron is heated, the more copper
oxide will form on the tip.
When the iron has reached operating
temperature, again rest it on avise and
lightly file one surface as shown in Fig. 5.
Once you have filed die surface lightly so
that it is shiny, quickly set the file down,
pick up the roll of solder, and touch the Fig. 9. How to apply solder to tin the tip
end of the solder to the tip of the iron. of the iron.

9
 MOUNTING THE PARTS

Most of your experiments will be

carried out on your experimental chassis
plate which is shown in the parts photo,
Fig. I. You will mount several parts on
the chassis plate before you begin the
experiments.
The parts supplied with this kit are
Fig. 10. Wiping excess solder from the shown in Fig. 1and identified in the list
iron with a piece of cloth. below the photograph.
Gather the following parts and place
Notice that the solder you received in them on your worktable. Then they will
this kit contains arosin core that acts as a be handy when you are ready to use
cleaning agent and prepares the metal them:
surface to receive the solder. It is difficult
to make agood soldered connection using 1 Chassis plate (CH65)
plain solder alone; another material called 1 7-lug terminal strip (ST17)
flux must be applied along with the 1 3-lug terminal strip (STIO)
solder. Rosin flux is used in this case. 1 4-lug terminal strip (ST28)
Only rosin core solder should be used in 1 Potentiometer mounting bracket
soldering electronic equipment. (BR1)
Hardware and other stores sell some 1 1K-ohm potentiometer (P07)
solder with an acid core. Acid flux in any 1 Solder lug (LUI)
form should never be used in electronic 6 1/4" X 6-32 screws (SCI)
equipment. The acid will corrode the 6 6-32 hex nuts (NUI)
leads and terminals and may damage 1 Marking crayon (MS4)
some of the parts. Use only rosin core
solder in electronics work; do not use Notice that we have supplied two sizes
liquid or paste flux. Solder similar to that of screws and nuts. The size of amachine
which we have supplied in this kit should screw is given by its diameter and the
be used in all your electronics work. number of threads per inch. lba.-fie
number is the diameter. Thus, the 6-32
IMPORTANT NOTICE are larger in diameter -
than
the 4-40 screws TS-C6), but the 4-40
In checking students' problems, screws have afiner thread. The length Ze
NRI has found that poor soldering ascrew is giverriiiTietInns of an inch.
is more frequently the cause of
Follow the instructions as you mount
failure to get proper results than all
other troubles combined. There- the parts on your chassis and do not
fore, be sure to perform every attach any parts until instructed to do so.
step in each experiment to learn all Place the chassis upright on your work-
you can about soldering. table so that the holes are positioned as
shown in Fig. 11. The bent lip should be
DO NOT SKIP ANY STEPS
away from you and pointing upward. To

10
 oo o
G
N
A
0
i
o

o o
E

C „
CI Li 0 L2
0
o
0 o 0 0 °0
o P o o
L3

S
or ou
o

Fig. 11. Chassis hole identification.

help you locate the parts correctly, we you can put small pieces of tape near
have given the holes identifying letters. these holes and mark on the tape with a
You can use the marking crayon to label pen.
these holes on the chassis. If you prefer, Fig. 12 shows the chassis with the parts

o
o
o
o o

o o
B-4 o
o
12 °
3
o
13 w-4
14 1
o o O 15 o

Fig. 12. Parts mounted on the chassis and the terminal identification number.

11
 •••

,1••••

./

Fig. 13. (A) Mounting the potentiometer bracket; (B) mounting the potentiometer.

mounted on it. Be sure to mount the chassis. Attach the nut and tighten the
parts at the correct location and position screw.
them as shown in the drawing. Install the potentiometer in the po-
Mount the 3-lug terminal strip at hole tentiometer mounting bracket. As shown
C, as shown in Fig. 12. Pass a1/4" X 6-32 in Fig. 13B, slip the large lockwasher over
screw down through the mounting foot in the shaft and bushing of the potenti-
the terminal strip and through hole C in ometer and slip the bushing through the
the chassis. Attach a 6-32 hex nut. hole in the bracket mounted on the
Position the terminal strip as shown and chassis. Attach the large control nut, turn
tighten the screw. Hold the nut with the potentiometer so its terminals are
pliers as you tighten the screw. upward; then tighten the control nut.
Install the 7-lug terminal strip at holes Bend the solder lug at about a 45 °
D and K. Use 1/4" X 6-32 screws and angle, as shown in Fig. 14. Mount the
nuts. Position the strip exactly as shown solder lug at hole B, using a 1/4" X 6-32
in Fig. 12. Pass ascrew down through the screw and nut. Tighten the screw.
left mounting foot and hole D and attach The numbers appearing in Fig. 12 are
a nut. Pass a screw through the other the terminal identification numbers. They
mounting foot and through hole K. will be used throughout this kit for
Attach anut and tighten both screws. identifying the terminals when making
Mount the 4-lug terminal strip at hole connections.
U. Use a 1/4" X 6-32 screw and nut.
Position the terminal strip as shown in
o
BEND
-- - ABOUT
Fig. 12 and tighten the screw. HERE
ABOUT
Install the potentiometer mounting (2)
45*
ANGLE
bracket at hole W. See Fig. 13A. Use a
BEFORE AFTER
1/4" X 6-32 screw and nut. Pass the screw
down through the small mounting hole in Fig. 14. Before you mount the solder lug,
the bracket and through hole W in the bend it as shown here.

12
 Learning To Solder
Our experience in teaching students SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
has shown that over 75% of the troubles
encountered by students and technicians Perhaps the most important step in
is due to poor soldering! You might think making agood soldered connection is to
from this that good soldering is difficult, make sure that the parts you are at-
but this is not true. If you watch an tempting to solder together are clean. For
experienced man work with asoldering example, if you try to solder acapacitor
iron, it looks quite simple. The experi- lead to aterminal strip, and the capacitor
enced technician follows the two basic lead is not clean, you will find it practi-
rules given below to make good soldering cally impossible to get the solder to stick
easy. to the lead.
First: Have the materials to be joined All leads, whether they are resistor or
and the tip of the iron clean and free capacitor leads or merely wires to be
from grease. If the terminals or wires are soldered, should be tinned before you
not bright, scrape them with aknife or attempt to solder them. Most of the
with apiece of fine sandpaper until they resistors and capacitors that you will
are clean and bright. receive in your kits have been tinned by
Second: Have the sections to be joined the manufacturer. However, in the manu-
hot enough to melt the solder so that it facturing processes, the tinned surface
will run freely to all parts of the con- sometimes becomes covered with %VW( or
nection and form agood bond. other impurities. These leads should be
If you follow these two basic rules, cleaned and retinned whenever necessary.
you will never have soldering trouble. If You can use approximately the same
you ignore them, you may spend hours procedure to tin alead as you used to tin
looking for defective parts when the the tip of your soldering iron. The first
trouble is simply apoorly soldered con- step is to clean the lead. You can either
nection. scrape the lead carefully with aknife, as

Fig. 15. How to use aknife to clean aresistor lead.

13
Fig. 16. Using sandpaper to clean alead. Fig. 17. How to tin aresistor lead.

shown in Fig. 15, or you can use asmall entire lead. If you apply enough heat to
piece of fine sandpaper. Hold the lead in melt the solder thoroughly, the solder
the sandpaper, as shown in Fig. 16, and will flow smoothly over the lead, as
draw the sandpaper over the lead several shown in Fig. 18. Tin the other lead in
times. the same way.
After you have cleaned the lead, hold Lugs on terminal strips also should be
the part with your longnose pliers and cleaned and tinned before you attempt to
touch it to the tip of your soldering iron, solder awire or alead to the lug. Usually,
as shown in Fig. 17. Then touch the brushing over the terminal quickly with a
solder to the lead. Allow asmall amount piece of sandpaper will remove any dirt
of solder to melt onto the lead and onto or grease that may be on the terminal.
the tip of the iron. Move the lead back Sometimes it will be necessary to scrape
and forth through the solder to tin the the terminal with aknife or file.

Fig. 18. A tinned resistor lead. Fig. 19. Making aconnection to terminal.

14
 Fig. 20. Bending the lead. Fig. 21. Soldering aconnection.

The tube socket pins and lugs on the After they are hot enough, touch the
terminal strips that you will receive in end of the solder to the terminal and
your kits have been tinned. You should lead, so that the solder will flow freely
have no trouble in soldering to these over the resistor lead and the terminal.
terminals. However, before soldering to Do not use too much solder. You want
them, carefully examine them to be sure only enough to cover the resistor lead and
they are clean. If they are not, clean and hold it to the terminal. If you use too
tin them to avoid soldering difficulties much, the solder will flow down the
later. terminal strip and may short to the
To solder alead to aterminal strip or chassis. A properly soldered connection
solder lug, place the lead through the showing the correct amount of solder is
opening in the terminal lug, as shown in shown in Fig. 22, and aconnection with
Fig. 19. Bend the end of the lead slightly an excessive amount of solder is shown in
as in Fig. 20 so that the lead can be Fig. 23.
placed in contact with the metal part of
the lug. Do not wrap the lead around the
terminal strip lug unless you are told to
do so. This type of connection is too
difficult to remove. Later, when you
begin wiring equipment that you will
leave assembled permanently, you will
wrap the leads around the various termi-
nals in order to insure strong mechanical
and electrical connections.
When you have the lead in place, hold
your soldering iron against the terminal
and against the lead, as shown in Fig. 21,
to heat both of them to the solder-
melting point. Unless you heat them
both, you will not make agood connec-
tion. Fig. 22. Good solder connection.

15
 Usually, if you heat the terminal and lead
sufficiently, you will find that adrop of
solder will be all that is needed. Do not
hold the soldering iron in place and
simply melt more and more solder onto
the joint. Once you have one drop of
solder flowing around the joint, lift the
solder off the terminal, but continue to
heat the connection so that the solder
that you have on the terminal flows
around the leads and over the terminal.
Fig. 23. Poor solder connection (too much This may be all the solder you need. If
solder). not, add more solder and allow it to flow
into the joint. If you use too much, the
When soldering a connection, do not solder will flow between the pins and the
be in ahurry to get the soldering iron off chassis, and between the chassis and
the connection. In most cases, it is better terminal strip lugs.
to hold the iron on the connection alittle It is particularly important that you
too long than it is not to hold the iron on heat large wires thoroughly. You will
long enough. When you are starting to often find in your radio, TV, or elec-
solder, watch each connection carefully. tronics work that you must solder trans-
Hold the iron on the connection long former leads in place. Usually the leads
enough to allow the solder to flow freely. from atransformer, particularly the leads
Solder should melt and flow in, around, from the filament winding on a TV
and over all the leads you are attempting replacement power transformer, will be
to solder to aterminal. The solder should of afairly large size. In addition, they are
also flow freely over the terminal. If you made of copper, which is a good heat
hold the iron on the terminal only long conductor. As a result, they can carry
enough to melt the solder and have it away a substantial amount of heat. You
start to flow, you will find that you have will have to be sure that you have the
arough-looking joint, and the chances are iron in good contact with the lead when
that if you apply pressure to the leads, making this type of connection.
they will pull loose. On the other hand, if Etched Circuit Wiring. Etched or
you hold the iron on the joint long "printed" circuit boards are used in many
enough to allow the solder to melt radio and TV receivers as well as in other
completely and flow freely over the joint, types of electronic equipment. You can
you will have a smooth-looking connec- expect to have to wire and to repair
tion that will be mechanically strong. circuit boards. Therefore, you should
This is extremely important -make sure know how to do so.
that the solder flows freely over each Examine the etched circuit board in-
connection you make. cluded in your kit (NRI part EC24). This
Using Too Much Solder. Avoid using is fairly typical of the boards used in
too much solder. It takes very little solder commercial equipment. The board con-
to make a good electrical connection. sists of a sheet of phenolic, which is an

16
insulating material, with a pattern of into and around the joint. After the
copper foil strips bonded to one side. solder cools, cut off the lead flush with
Notice that the copper foil connects the top of the soldered connection. Fig.
together holes in the circuit board. When 25 shows an etched circuit board with
parts are mounted on the board with good soldered connections.
their leads extending through these holes As you go through these experiments,
and soldered to the copper, the copper pay particular attention to each soldered
foil provides the electrical paths which connection you make. Tin the part leads
connect the parts together to form cir- before attempting to solder them; heat
cuitry. each connection thoroughly; inspect each
We call them "etched" circuit boards connection and wiggle the leads after it is
because of the way the boards are made. soldered to make sure that it is agood
Each board is cut from alarge sheet of solid connection. Try to develop sound
phenolic to which asheet of copper foil soldering habits; they will save you a
has been bonded. The desired copper foil great deal of time and difficulty, not only
pattern is transferred to the board by a in your experiments, but all through your
photographic process. The board is then electronics career.
placed in a highly corrosive solution Performing the Experiments. To get
which etches away the unwanted copper the most benefit from the experimental
foil, leaving the desired foil pattern. course, you should follow a logical,
After the etching is completed, the planned procedure in each experiment.
board is cleaned and the holes are drilled When you start a new manual, always
or punched and the lettering and other study first the introduction at the be-
markings are printed on the phenolic. ginning of the book. Then perform the
Parts are usually mounted on the experiments one at atime, in the correct
phenolic side of the board and they are order, by observing the following pro-
supported by their leads, as shown in Fig. cedures:
24. The leads are passed through the
holes in the board and soldered to the I. Read through the instructions and
foil. When you install a part, bend the discussions for the entire experiment
lead outward slightly to hold the part once very slowly, and study any parts
until you can solder the leads. Place the that are not immediately clear to you. Do
tip of your iron in contact with the lead not touch asingle tool or part until you
and the foil and apply solder. Allow a make this preliminary study.
small amount of solder to melt and flow 2. Lay out on your worktable the

Fig. 24. Phenolic side of an etched circuit Fig. 25. Foil side of an etched circuit
board with the parts installed. board, showing the parts installed.

17
parts and tools needed for the experiment will mount parts and make several sol-
to be performed. dered connections. This experiment may
3. Carry out the experiments one step seem simple, but do not pass over it
at a time. Record your results whenever quickly. The points that will be brought
spaces are provided in the manual for this out are all very important.
purpose. Additional observations and Soldering ability is not hard to acquire
comments can be written in the margins and you should make this your first goal.
of the pages for future reference.
4. Study the discussion at the end of Experimental Procedure: Before you
the experiment very carefully, and start the experiment, make sure your
analyze your results. After finishing an workbench is cleared so you will not lose
experiment, you should be able to tell in any parts or have anything in your way.
your own words exactly what you proved Gather your tools and the parts you will
and how you did it. need in the experiment. At this time you
5. Complete the Report Statement by should have apotentiometer, asolder lug
writing the Statement Number on your and three terminal strips mounted on the
Training Kit Report sheet in the space chassis.
provided. Then enter the number of your In the experiment, you will need the
choice for completing the Statement in chassis with the parts mounted on it and
the next column. Use the additional the following parts:
columns to the right for Statements that
have more than one part. 3 1000-ohm resistors (RE30; brown-
6. When you have completed all ten black-red-silver)
experiments in the manual and have Rosin-core solder
answered all of the statements, send in
your Report Sheet for grading. Do not Step 1: To prepare the parts to be
send in the manual. soldered.

EXPERIMENT 1
If you have the parts mounted on the
Purpose: To mount parts in acircuit; chassis correctly, you are ready to wire
and to make soldered connections to the circuit by soldering resistors to vari-
these parts. ous terminals. Plug in your soldering iron
Introductory Discussion: Solder will so that it can be heating.
hold parts together mechanically and fuse Tin each lead of the three resistors
parts together so that they are, in effect, until they are bright and shiny.
a single unit. A good soldered joint has As you were instructed previously, you
little or no resistance and protects the can use a knife or a small piece of
surfaces of the parts from oxidation. sandpaper folded and held between the
Good soldered connections are aclue to thumb and forefinger to clean the leads if
the technician's ability. A man with an they will not tin easily.
average knowledge of theory who can Test the iron by touching the end of
make good soldered connections will have the solder to the tinned tip of the iron. If
less trouble than an expert on theory who the solder melts readily, the iron is ready
cannot solder! In this experiment, you for use.

18
 o

o o

o
100
o
I
1
:0 o

Fig. 1-1. Top view of the chassis, showing the resistors you will install in this experiment.

IMPORTANT: Do not cut the leads of the iron so that one flat surface of the tip
any parts you received in this kit unless is against the terminal. This permits maxi-
you are instructed to do so in the mum transfer of heat from the tip of the
experiment. You will use most of the iron to the connection.
parts again in future experiments. Touch the solder to the point where
Fig. 1-1 shows you where you are to the terminal and the lead meet, and allow
connect the resistors. The resistors are to the solder to melt. Notice that the rosin
be mounted so that the resistors and the flux flows out of the solder as the solder
leads are to be at least 1/2" above the
chassis. As we mentioned earlier, we have
given each terminal an identifying num-
ber. We will use these terminal numbers
- in this kit to indicate where the connec-
tions are to be made so as to simplify the
instructions.
Connect the lead of one of the resistors
to terminal 1, which is the solder lug
mounted at hole B. Push the end of the
lead through the hole in the solder lug
and solder, as shown in Fig. 1-2.

Bring the tip of your soldering iron

into contact with both the solder lug and Fig. 1-2. Soldering the resistor lead to the
the resistor lead, as in Fig. 1-2. Position terminal.

19
Fig. 1-3. Resistor R1 soldered to terminal L Fig. 1-4. Resistor Ri in place on chassis.

melts. Remove the roll of solder and moving the lead before the joint has
continue to heat the joint. cooled.
After the solder flows into the connec- Another problem which you might
tion and coats the terminal and lead, encounter is the "rosin" joint. This is a
remove the heat and allow the joint to connection having a layer of rosin be-
cool and harden. Do not disturb the tween the wire and the terminal. A rosin
connection until the solder hardens. joint is indicated by a brown crusty
If your solder joint is made correctly, appearance on the connection. You can
the lead will be covered with solder where correct a rosin joint by reheating the
it touches the terminal and the solder connection and allowing the rosin to boil
should have aclean smooth appearance. out. As you heat the joint, you will see
Fig. 1-3 shows agood solder connection. the vapor from the rosin rising from it.
The space between the resistor lead and With your longnose pliers, grasp the
the terminal is filled with solder and the free lead of the resistor and slip it
solder also seals the connection. through the slot in terminal 2. Position
It is agood idea to test each connec- the resistor as shown in Fig. 1-1. Twist
tion after it has cooled. To do this, grasp the resistor slightly so the lead stays near
the resistor lead you have just soldered the top of the slot in the terminal. Bend
between the connection and the resistor the end of the lead passing through the
body with your longnose pliers. Twist the terminal so the lead touches the terminal,
lead gently and move it back and forth. If as shown in Fig. 14. Do not solder the
the lead does not move, you probably connection at this time.
have agood soldered connection. If the
lead breaks loose, or if the connection has Step 2: To mount resistor R2.

a brown crust on it, re-melt the solder

with your iron and let it cool again. Now take another resistor and push the
If you did make apoor solder connec- end of one lead about 1/8 n through the
tion, it may have been due to insufficient slot in terminal 2. Bend the end slightly
heat or to dirt on the lead or terminal. A to bring it into contact with the terminal.
poor joint can also result from your Solder both leads to terminal 2. Place the

20
 tip of your soldering iron in contact with does not rely on the solder for physical
both leads and the terminal, with aflat strength. Usually the wire is twisted or
surface against the terminal. Touch your wrapped around the terminal for physical
solder to the connection and allow a strength before the connection is sol-
small amount of the solder to melt. dered.
Remove the roll of solder and allow the You will make only temporary sol-
molten solder to flow into the connec- dered connections in the experiments in
tion. Remove the heat and let the joint this manual. However, you will make
cool. permanent connections in later experi-
Test each connection by twisting and ments. The instructions on how to make
trying to move each lead. If the joint does them will be given at that time.
not break loose, and the solder looks Look over the connections you have
smooth, you probably have an acceptable made and examine them critically. Check
connection. If not, reheat the connection, to see if any solder has run down the
remelt the solder and allow it to cool and terminal where it may make contact with
test the connections again. the chassis and cause ashort circuit. This
Bend the leads of resistor R2 at aright condition is illustrated in Fig. 1-5. Also,
angle about 1/2" from the body of the look at each connection to see if solder
resistor and position the resistor as shown has flowed to all parts of the joints. Look
in Fig. 1-1. Connect the free lead of for big lumps of solder on the terminal.
resistor R2 to terminal 4. Do not solder it They indicate too little heat or too much
at this time, since another lead will be solder.
connected to the same terminal. Excess solder will do no harm, pro-
vided it does not short terminals together,
Step 3: To mount resistor R3. short aterminal to the chassis, or contain
excessive rosin. However, it looks messy
Connect another resistor, R3, from and is a waste of solder. Too little heat
terminal 4 to terminal 8. This time make means a poor connection; the cure is to
the connection without detailed instruc- hold the lead in position and reheat the
tions. Bend the leads as required and joint.
position the resistor as shown in Fig. 1-1. Next you will unsolder the connections
Note that the body of the resistor should in order to learn the proper techniques
be about 1/2" to 3/ 4 " from the 7-lug for doing this.
terminal strip. Solder and test both con-
nections.
If you have done your work correctly,
your chassis should look like Fig. 1-1.
You should have atotal of three resistors
and four temporary soldered connections.
We call them "temporary" because they
can be disconnected easily, as you will see
later. The solder provides both the
mechanical strength and the electrical
path between the leads and the terminals. Fig. 1-5. A terminal shorted to the chassis
By contrast, a permanent connection by excessive solder.

21
 Whenever you remove parts, clean the
leads, lugs, and terminals so that you can
use the parts again and connect other
parts to the same lugs and terminals.
To practice this technique, first use
your longnose pliers to straighten the
resistor leads. Then, wipe any excess
solder from the tip of your iron with a
piece of cloth, and place the iron on the
holder so that you can get to the tip
lib. I easily. In one hand, hold apiece of cloth
so that there are several thicknesses be-
Fig. 1-6. Removing R3 from terminal 8. tween your thumb and forefinger. With
your longnose pliers in your other hand,
grasp aresistor lead close to the body of
Step 4: To learn to unsolder con-
the resistor. Hold the end of the lead
nections.
against the tip of the iron until the solder
on the lead melts, and quickly pull the
Grasp the lead of R3 connected to
hot lead through the cloth, as shown in
terminal 8 with your longnose pliers. See
Fig. 1-7. This will remove all excess solder
Fig. 1-6. Then touch the tip of your
and leave the lead surface clean and
soldering iron to the connection. As soon
bright. Do this on all resistor leads that
as the solder melts, pull the lead out of
have been used in this experiment.
the terminal. Wipe the tip of your iron
There are several methods of removing
with acloth to remove the excess solder, the solder from terminal and solder lugs.
and then touch the tip of the iron to the
Probably the easiest and most efficient
connections to terminal 4. Grasp the lead
method to use on small pieces of elec-
of resistor R3 with your longnose pliers
and, as soon as the solder melts, pull that
lead free. Lay the resistor on your work-
bench. Grasp the lead of resistor R2
connected to terminal 4. Apply heat to
the terminal, and when the solder melts,
pull the lead free. Wipe the excess solder
from your iron with a cloth and then
apply heat to the second lead of resistor
R2 which is connected to terminal 2.
Remove the resistor and lay it on your
work surface.
Use the procedure which we have
outlined to unsolder the remaining con-
nections and to remove resistor RI.

Step 5: To clean parts so they will be Fig. 1-7. Removing the excessive solder
ready for reuse. from aresistor lead.

22
tronic equipment, such as the experi- tions. You have had practice in mounting
mental chassis you received in this kit, is actual electronics parts and soldering
to turn the chassis upside down so that them into place. You have been able to
the terminals are pointing downward. see how solder looks as it cools and
Apply the tip of the iron to the end of hardens. You should not expect to be an
the terminal, and when the solder melts expert at soldering at this time; it takes
most of it will run onto the tinned considerable practice. However, if you
surface of the iron. Wipe the excess solder carefully follow the procedures discussed
from the tip and repeat the procedure on in this experiment, you should have no
the other lugs on the terminal strip. If a trouble making good soldered connec-
thin film of solder remains in the terminal tions and you will soon become an expert
holes, wipe the excess solder from the tip with asoldering iron.
of the iron and reheat the lug. Push a You have also had practice in the
resistor lead through the hole to remove equally important task of unsoldering,
the solder. and you have learned how to clean the
In addition to removing the solder parts so they will be ready for reuse. This
from the terminals, this method will is important because often the serviceman
remove any excess solder that may be on must disconnect one part in order to
the terminal strip lugs near the chassis. check another. When you disconnect a
Removing excess solder from termi- part or lead, you should carefully prepare
nals, tube socket pins and other types of it and the terminal from which you
solder lugs in large pieces of electronic removed it before resoldering the lead
equipment that you cannot pick up and back into position.
turn upside down requires a slightly
different procedure. In this case, with the Instructions for Statement No. 1: In
terminals pointing upward, wipe the ex- this statement, there are two sentences to
cess solder from the tip of your iron and be completed, each having several choices
keep the cloth in one hand while you preceded by numbers. Only one of the
work. Touch the tip of the iron to the choices in each group correctly completes
side of the lug; when the solder melts, a sentence in the statement. Read the
some of it will run onto the tinned first sentence, and put acircle around the
surface of the iron. Wipe off the solder number preceding the choice that com-
and keep repeating the process until all pletes it. Do the same for the second
surplus solder has been removed. If you sentence.
have trouble getting the solder out of the Statement No. 1: In this experiment, I
hole in a lug, heat the lug and push a used
resistor lead through the hole. The solder
that accumulates on the resistor lead can (1) temporary
then be easily removed. (2) permanent
The same procedure should be used to
remove solder from tube socket pins and connections; and Ifound that as molten
terminal strip lugs. solder becomes hard, its appearance is
Discussion: In this first experiment,
you began acquiring one of the most (1) acopper color.
important skills atechnician must have -- (2) ashiny gray color.
the ability to make good soldered connec- (3) adull black color.

23
 SOLDERING TIPS

Always use aclean, hot, well-tinned iron. Never try to solder dirty or untinned leads
Always heat the junction to be soldered or terminals.
enough to melt the solder. Never melt solder on the iron tip and carry
Always use arosin-core solder. it to the junction.
Always tin part leads to be soldered. Never use acid-core solder or pastes for
Always test all leads in each joint after radio and electronic work.
solder cools. Never drip solder off iron on to joint.
Always keep iron on joint until the rosin has Never let leads move while solder is setting.
boiled out of the joint.

Turn now to the enclosed Training Kit circuit variations are important. The vast
Report sheet. Fill in the top part with majority of radio and TV receivers use
your name, address, student number and etched circuit boards. Thus, it is likely
Kit number, IT. Write the number 1 in that when you repair areceiver you will
the first box of the column with the have to make repairs on etched circuit
heading, "Statement No." This statement boards.
is in two parts. Therefore, place the Etched circuit boards are fragile. They
number of your choice for the first part can be damaged by rough handling or
in the second column and place the poor workmanship. The phenolic will
number of your choice for the second crack or break when subjected to ex-
part of the statement in the third column. cessive pressure. This results in breaks in
As an example, assume that the first the copper foil strips and produces open
statement was: circuits.
San Francisco is located in the The copper foil is glued to the circuit
(1) East board. When overheated, the glue will
(2) South weaken and the copper foil strips will pull
(3) West loose from the board. However, the board
And it is in the state of will withstand asurprisingly large amount
of heat before either the phenolic or the
(1) Nebraska.
foil becomes damaged.
(2) California.
In performing this experiment, you
(3) New York.
will develop skill in working on etched
The correct answers are (3) for the first
circuit boards. This will prepare you for
part and (2) for the second part. There-
work on your future experimental kits
fore, you would place the Statement
and for practical work as atechnician.
number in the first column, the number 3
Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
as your answer for the first part is the
periment, in addition to your chassis,
second column, and the number 2 in the
soldering iron and solder, you will need
third column.
the following:
EXPERIMENT 2
1 Etched circuit board (EC24)
Purpose: To learn how to wire and 2 22,000-ohm resistors (RE33; red-
repair etched circuit boards.
red-orange-silver)
Introductory Discussion: Etched cir- 1 7-pin tube socket (S076)
cuit boards are often used where com- Red hookup wire
pactness, ease of wiring or freedom from Solder

24
 Plug in your soldering iron so that it
can be heating. Inspect the tip. If the tip
is not clean, wipe it with a cloth and
apply a thin coating of solder. If you
wipe the tip frequently, it will last longer.
Also, you will seldom have to file and
retin the tip.
In this experiment, you will practice
soldering to the etched circuit board and
you will make repairs on the copper foil.
The foil near holes A through H is for
practice only. Do not be concerned if you
damage it in performing this experiment.
However, the remainder of the board will
be used in later experiments. Therefore,
you should exercise reasonable care in
working on the board.

Step 1: To wire acircuit on the etched

circuit board.
Fig. 2-2. (A) Measuring the resistor against
the mounting holes; (B) resistor leads bent
In order to become proficient at
to correct spacing.
working on circuit boards, you will have
to develop a feel for soldering to the
straight up with the tip at the edge of the
copper foil. Before mounting any parts,
hole, as shown in Fig. 2-1. Touch the end
you will determine how much heat the
of your solder to apoint where the tip
foil can withstand.
touches the foil. Allow about 1/4" of
Place your etched board on your work-
solder to melt and flow onto the foil.
table with the foil side up. Touch the tip
When the solder spreads out smoothly on
of your soldering iron to the foil near
the foil, remove the heat and allow the
hole B. Hold the soldering iron nearly
foil to cool. Do not be concerned if the
hole is covered with solder.
In asimilar manner, apply heat to the
foil surrounding hole A. Touch your
solder to the iron and the foil and melt
about 1/4" of the solder. Continue to
heat the foil until the foil begins to
loosen. This may take up to 15 seconds,
depending upon the wattage rating of
your iron and the condition of the tip.
Remove the heat from the foil.
Notice that the phenolic around the
overheated foil is charred slightly. Use a
Fig. 2-1. Applying heat and solder to the knife or your longnose pliers to peel the
foil. damaged foil off the board.

25
 In this case, the spacing between the
holes is about 1/4" greater than the
length of the body of the resistor, so
bend both leads at right angles about 1/8"
from the body of the resistor. Fig. 2-2B
shows the leads ready for insertion in the
holes.
Next, slip the leads through holes C
and D and push the resistor down against
the board. Bend the leads outward
slightly, as shown in Fig. 2-3, to hold the
resistor in place.
Turn the foil side of the circuit board
up to solder the connections. Position the
Fig. 2-3. Leads are bent outward to hold
soldering iron so that the tip is in contact
the resistor in place.
with both the foil and the lead. Touch
the end of your solder to the point where
The brief experience which you have the tip, lead and foil meet and allow
gained will give you some idea of how about 1/4" of the solder to melt. Con-
long it takes to make a connection and tinue to heat the connection until the
how long it takes to damage the circuit solder flows smoothly and completely
board. Next, you will mount and solder surrounds the lead. Then, remove the iron
parts to the circuit board. and allow the connection to cool.
Install one of the 22,000-ohm resistors Finally, use your diagonal cutters to
(red-red-orange-silver) on the phenolic cut off the lead flush with the top of the
side of the circuit board at holes C and D. solder connection.
Use the following procedure: First, Use the procedure outlined here to
"measure" the resistor against the spacing solder the other resistor lead to the foil.
between the holes, as shown in Fig. 2-2A. Fig. 2-4 shows typical poorly soldered

Fig. 2-4. Typical examples of poorly soldered connections.

26
 connections. At A, too little heat was
used; the solder adheres to the lead, but
not to the foil. This connection could be
improved by simply applying more heat.
In Fig. 2-4B, too little solder was used,
resulting in a minimum of strength and
reliability. To improve this connection,
you would apply both heat and solder.

Step 2: To demonstrate methods for

removing components from etched circuit
boards.

Wedge the blade of your small screw-

driver between the board and the body of Fig. 2-5. Cutting the foil to simulate e
the resistor near hole C. (If the resistor is crack in the board.
flat against the board, slip the screwdriver
blade under the lead at hole C.) Heat the can use your pocket knife. Fig. 2-5 shows
solder at hole C and lift the resistor how to make aclean cut safely.
enough to pull the lead from the hole. Heat the foil near the cut and melt a
Stand the circuit board on edge on small amount of solder onto the foil. Use
your worktable. On the phenolic side of the tip of your iron to "run" the solder
the board, grasp the lead of the resistor across the crack. The solder should ad-
connected at hole D. With your forefinger here to the foil on both sides and bridge
and thumb pressing against the board, the narrow gap. If necessary, apply alittle
apply a lifting pressure to the resistor more solder to make areliable repair.
lead. Heat the connection at hole D on A wider break, such as the one be-
the foil side and when the solder melts, tween holes F and G, requires aslightly
pull the resistor from the board and different repair. You solder ashort piece
discard it. of bare wire across the break in the foil.
Now you should clean the holes so that Remove about 2" of insulation from a
a new resistor can be installed. Heat the length of red hookup wire. There are
solder at one of the holes. While the several ways of removing the insulation.
solder is molten, insert a toothpick into You can peel the insulation off with a
the hole from the foil side of the board. knife, or you can cut the insulation with
. Remove the soldering iron and let the foil your diagonal cutters, knife or wire
and solder cool. When you remove the strippers and simply pull off the un-
toothpick, the hole will be left clear. wanted piece. Another technique is to
crush the insulation with pliers and then
Step 3: To demonstrate techniques for peel off the pieces. When stripping the
repairing etched circuit boards. insulation off wire, it is important to
avoid nicking or cutting the wire because
Cut through the foil between holes D this will weaken the wire and make it
and E to simulate acrack in the foil. You break easily.

27
 As you did previously for the narrow on the board by pushing firmly. When the
break, heat the foil on both sides of the socket is properly installed, the pins
break and tin the foil with solder. Lay the project about 1/16" on the phenolic side
bare wire across the break in the foil and of the board.
solder the wire to the foil. Run solder With the socket in position, you are
along the wire and foil for about 1/2" on ready to solder. Since the tube socket
each side of the break. Using your di- pins on the phenolic side of the board
agonal cutters, cut off the wire beyond will become quite hot as you solder them
the solder. This should leave about 1" of to the board, it would be agood idea to
wire bridging the break in the foil. lay the board on anewspaper to protect
your worktable. Hold the soldering iron
Step 4: To install parts on the foil side so the tip is at the junction of the foil and
of the circuit board. apin of the tube socket.
The flat surface of the soldering iron
Bend the leads of a 22,000-ohm re- tip should be turned toward the pin.
sistor (red-red-orange-silver) at right Apply solder to the foil and to the pin.
angles close to the body of the resistor, Melt about 1/4" of solder and let it flow
and insert the leads through holes C and around the pin. Solder should adhere to
D from the foil side of the board. one half or more of the perimeter of the
Position the resistor about 1/16" to 1/8" pin and to the foil. Remove the heat and
from the board. This will leave room for let the solder cool. In the same manner,
soldering the connections. Bend the leads solder the six remaining pins of the tube
outward slightly to hold tile resistor in socket. Do not try to solder the center
place. locating pin. Fig. 2-6 shows the socket
Solder one lead of the resistor to the soldered in place.
foil. Apply heat to both the foil and the
lead and apply solder. Allow the solder to
flow freely over the connection. Remove
the heat and let the joint cool. In a
similar manner, solder the other resistor
lead to the foil. You will use this resistor
in later experiments, so do not cut off the
leads! (Normally, after installing a part
from the foil side as you have just done,
you would clip off the excess lead length
on the other side of the board.)
Locate the 7-pin tube socket. The
socket has 7pin connections and acenter
locating pin. You will install the tube
socket on the foil side of the circuit
board instead of from the phenolic side.
Align the pins over the holes on the
circuit board. Notice that there is an open Fig. 2-6. Tube socket mounted on the
space between the pins. Install the socket etched circuit board.

28
 Discussion: In tus experiment, you attached will be used in later experi-
have experienced working on a typical ments.
etched circuit board. You learned that
Instructions for Statement No. 2: In
you can solder to the circuit board with a
order to answer the Report Statement for
moderate amount of heat. If the iron is
this experiment, you will have to make a
clean and tinned, a connection can be
few connections on your etched circuit
soldered in amatter of seconds; it takes a
board and trace the connections. You will
considerable length of time to overheat
need your red hookup wire.
and damage the circuit board.
Cut a 2" length of hookup wire and
In Step 2, you learned how to install
remove about 1/4" of insulation from
components on the circuit board. First,
each end. Push one end through hole E
you determined the lead spacing and bent
from the phenolic side of your circuit
the leads so you could insert the leads in
board. The holes are identified on the foil
the holes; then you pushed the part down
side of the board. Bend the wire and push
against the circuit board and bent the
the other end through hole F from the
lead to hold the part in place. Then you
same side of the board. Solder both
soldered the connection, allowed it to
connections.
cool, and cut off the excess lead length,
Cut a 3 length of hookup wire and
"

close to the soldered connection. In a remove about 1/4" insulation from each
good solder connection, the solder ad-
end. Push one end of the wire through
heres to both the lead and to the foil and
hole G and push the other end through
the solder has asmooth appearance.
the hole identified by the number 7from
You also learned how to remove parts
the phenolic side of the board. Solder
from the etched circuit board. This is
both connections.
important because frequently you will
Trace the connections on the circuit
have to disconnect apart to make tests
board and answer the Report Statement.
and when you determine which part is
After you have completed the Report
bad, you will have to replace it. Before
Statement, unsolder and remove the re-
replacing a lead, clean the hole in the
sistor and the pieces of hookup wire.
board. Otherwise, you may break the foil
Clean the holes which you used on your
loose when you try to insert the lead.
circuit board and clean and straighten the
In Step 4, you learned how to install
resistor leads.
parts on the foil side of the board. This is
useful because you will sometimes find it Statement No. 2: When Itraced the
easier to replace apart on the foil side of wiring, Ifound that the resistor
the board. Also, interconnecting jumper
wires are sometimes connected on the foil (1) was
side of the board in some pieces of (2) was not
equipment.
The circuit board with the tube socket electrically connected to the tube socket.

29
 Using Schematic Diagrams

To service any type of electronic —NV'se--

equipment, the technician must know
how the parts are connected in the 0 RESISTOR O CAPACITOR 0 GROUND

circuit.
The electrical connections in acircuit Fig. 26. Symbols often used in schematics.
can be shown by means of a schematic
diagram. In aschematic diagram, symbols
tions. Study these symbols so that you
are used to indicate the various parts, and
will be sure to recognize them the next
the connections between the parts are
time you see them. You will use them in
shown by lines.
these experiments.
You have already seen many of the
Connections and Crossovers. Often in a
symbols used in schematic diagrams in
schematic diagram, one lead crosses over
your lesson texts. You have also seen another. In some cases, there will be a
some simple schematic diagrams. It is connection between the two leads; in
extremely important for you to become other cases, there will be no connection.
familiar with the various symbols used,
There are three different systems in use
and also to learn how to read schematic
to indicate whether or not there is a
diagrams. You will have to use this type connection; the one that is used in any
of diagram throughout your career, be-
particular diagram depends on the prefer-
cause manufacturers of electronic equip-
ences of the person making the diagram.
ment seldom supply pictorial wiring dia-
You might think that this would be
grams. Even if you have a pictorial
confusing, but it is usually very simple to
diagram, it is far easier to work from a
see which system has been used.
schematic once you learn how to use it.
Fig. 27 shows the three systems. No-
In your experiments, you will start
tice that in System 1when there is adot
first with simple schematics, and gradu-
used on some crossovers and no dot used
ally work up to more complex ones. In
on the others, the dot indicates aconnec-
time, you will be as much at ease reading
tion, and the crossover without the dot
a complex schematic diagram as you are indicates that there is no connection.
reading your evening newspaper. You will
In System 2, a straight crossover is
soon learn the value of this type of
used to show aconnection, and aloop is
diagram and see how much easier it is to
used to show no connection. You can
use than the pictorial type.
easily tell when this system has been
used. If you notice some crossovers with
SYMBOLS USED the loop, and some without the loop, you
know that the straight crossovers repre-
Before you can read schematic dia- sent connections, and the crossovers with
grams, you must be able to recognize the the loop indicate no connection. Simi-
symbols used in them. Fig. 26 shows the larly, if you see some crossovers with dots
symbols commonly used to represent and others without, you will know that
resistors, capacitors, and ground connec- System 1has been used.

30
 SYSTEM I SYSTEM 2 SYSTEM 3

CONNECTION CROSSOVER CONNECTION CROSSOVER CONNECTION CROSSOVER

Fig. 27. Three systems used on schematics to show connections and crossovers on wires.

System 3 is acombination of the first Diodes. The symbol for a semi-

two. We will use this system in the conductor diode is shown in Fig. 29. The
drawings in the experiments. The cross- two elements of adiode are the cathode
over with a dot indicates a connection. and the anode. The "arrow" in the
The crossover with a loop indicates no symbol points toward the cathode termi-
connection. Study these three systems - nal.
become familiar with them now, and you
will have no trouble later. ANOD E D+—CATHODE
—
Tubes. The various symbols used to
represent the elements in a tube are
shown in Fig. 28. The symbol for the
heater is shown at A, the symbol for the
cathode at B, for the grid at C, for the Fig. 29. Schematic symbols for asemi-
plate at D, and for the whole tube at E. conductor diode.
This tube is called atriode -it has three
elements plus a heater. Notice the little Transistors. There are several types of
numbers beside each of the elements. transistors in wide usage. The symbols for
These tell you which pin each element is two types are shown in Fig. 30. At A and
connected to inside the tube. The tube B, we have bipolar transistors. As you can
we have shown is a6C4. In this particular see, the only difference between the NPN
tube, the plate is connected to pins 5and and PNP symbols is the direction of the
1; the grid to pin 6, the cathode to pin 7, arrow. The e, b, and clabels identify the
and the heater to pins 3and 4. Nothing is emitter, base and collector of both tran-
connected to pin 2. sistors.

Qe
1,5

Fig. 28. Symbols used to represent the elements in atube. Shown is tube type 6C4.

31
 nections. An example of this can be seen
in Fig. 32A. The schematic diagram
shows the capacitor C1 connected on the
left to resistor RI.From the junction of
these two components there is a line
C)1 PNP going to the plate of the tube VI.
NPN
In your work you will be interested
BIPOLAR only in the electrical connections. It will
be unimportant to know whether the
capacitor and resistor are first connected
9 4j-— s
d together and alead run from the junction
9
of the two to the tube socket, or whether
the two are connected directly to the
N- CHANNEL 0 P- CHANNEL tube socket. Electrically both connec-
tions are the same.
FIELD EFFECT
The other side of capacitor CI is
connected to the grid of the tube marked
Fig. 30. Schematic symbols for transistors. V2. The schematic diagram shows C1
connected to R2 and then a line going
The symbols for junction field-effect from the junction over to the grid. The
transistors (FET's) are shown in Figs. 30C pictorial wiring diagram shows that both
and 30D. You can see that the direction the capacitor and the resistor are con-
of the arrow is toward the junction for nected directly to the grid terminal on
the N-channel and away from the junc- the socket.
tion for the P-channel FET's. In both Notice on the schematic diagram that
cases, the s, gand drepresent the source, the lower end of resistor R2 is connected
gate and drain terminals. You will learn to ground. In the wiring diagram, we see
other transistor symbols later in your
course.
Meters. Fig. 31 shows symbols used to
represent meters on schematic diagrams.
In the symbols in Fig. 31A, the letters
inside the circle indicate the type of
meter: V for voltmeter, bfa for micro-
ammeter, ma for milliammeter, and ohm
for ohmmeter. Fig. 31B shows semi-
pictorial symbols that are sometimes
used.

READING A SCHEMATIC

When working with schematic dia-

grams, you must remember that the
schematic diagram shows the electrical Fig. 31. Symbols used on schematics to
connections, not the actual physical con- represent meters.

32
 VI Va
VI va
o

LUG
INSULATED
,•-'-' , FROM CHASSI
S
LUG WIRE BETWEEN INSULATED
PARTIAL SCHEMATIC INSULATED LUGS
FROM CHASSIS
WIRE TDB +

Fig. 32. (A) A schematic diagram; (B), actual wiring diagram of the same circuit.

that R2 connects to alug that is bolted to were connected between terminals 1and
the chassis. Any number of ground con- 2, avariable positive dc voltage would be
nections can be made in this way to the available between terminals 17 and 15.
chassis. When this is done, the chassis is In a simple circuit of this type a
used as part of the circuit; the chassis pictorial diagram may seem easier to
connects directly to B-. In some equip- follow than a schematic diagram. How-
ment the chassis is not used as part of the ever, a glance under the chassis of any
circuit. You will see later how to tell electronic device will show how complex
from aschematic diagram whether or not the pictorial diagram would become. In
the chassis is part of the circuit. This fact, it would be practically impossible to
information will be given to you on the show how the parts are connected with a
schematic diagram. photograph or pictorial drawing. On the
Study Fig. 32 carefully. Find an elec- other hand, it is easy to show the
trical circuit on the schematic diagram, connections with aschematic diagram.
and then trace out the circuit on the
pictorial wiring diagram. This will be Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
valuable practical experience for you and periment, in addition to the chassis with
will help you to become familiar with the terminal strips and potentiometer
schematic diagrams. mounted on it, you will need:

EXPERIMENT 3 3 1000-ohm resistors (RE30; brown-

black-red-silver)
Purpose: To obtain practical experi- 1 Silicon diode (SR12)
ence in wiring from aschematic diagram. Hookup wire
Solder
Introductory Discussion: Fig. 3-1 is a
pictorial diagram showing the actual As you can see in Fig. 3-1, the diode
physical location of the parts in the appears similar to aresistor and is some-
circuit you will wire in this experiment. what smaller. The diode is a semi-
Fig. 3-2 shows the same circuit in conductor device which passes current in
schematic form. The circuit is that of a one direction only. Current can pass from
simple power supply. If an ac voltage cathode to anode but not from anode to

33
 o
o
o
o o

o o
R3
o
o PI
16
o 12 1 0
(
)(
3 "o 17
4( 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 18 .7e
R2 14 1

o 15 o

Fig. 3-1. Pictorial diagram of the circuit used in Step 1.

cathode. Thus, the diode is capable of is connected between R3 and ground.

rectifying an ac voltage. Notice the ground symbols on the
The cathode and anode terminals of a diagram. The metal chassis forms the
diode are identified in one of several common connection between the ground
ways. You will usually find colored bands points.
or aplus sign near one end of the diode, Where possible, leads of the parts
or one end of the diode may be tapered. which are wired together are connected
The band, taper or other markings indi- to acommon terminal. For example, the
cate the cathode lead of the diode as cathode lead of DI,one lead of R2 and
shown in Fig. 3-3. one lead of R3 can all be soldered to the
same terminal.
Step 1: To determine what connec- When instructed to use hookup wire,
tions are to be made. cut alength of your red wire and remove
about 1/4" of insulation from each end
before making the connection. See that
First, carefully study Fig. 3-2. Resistor the insulation is about 1/16" back from
R1 is connected between terminal 2, the actual solder connection. Never try to
which is the "input" terminal, or the solder to the insulation.
terminal to which the ac voltage would be When we instruct you to use a short
applied, and the diode Di.The cathode length of bare wire, use your wire
lead of diode DI is connected to resistors strippers, diagonal cutters or long,nose
R2 and R3. One lead of R2 is grounded. pliers to remove the insulation from a
Resistor R3 is connected between the short length of hookup wire.
junction of diode DI and resistor R2 and In the next step, you will perform the
the potentiometer, P1.Potentiometer PI actual wiring.

34
INPUT

01 o 17

OUTPUT

Fig. 3-2. Circuit used in Experiment 3.

Step 2: To wire the circuits from the tween the junction of diode DI and
schematic diagram. resistor R2 and terminal 16 of the po-
tentiometer. For convenience, we con-
In this step, you will mount the parts nect the resistor between terminals 8and
and connect wires between them to form 10 and use hookup wire to complete the
the circuit shown in the schematic dia- connection.
gram in Fig. 3-2. Install the resistor and solder terminal
Connect resistor R1 to terminals 2and 8. Connect alength of hookup wire from
6 as shown in Fig. 3-2. You can choose
any of the three resistors since they are
I. «,

all the same value. Bend the leads so that

the ends are spaced properly to slip
through the slots in terminals 2 and 6.
Slip the leads through the terminals and
solder terminal 2.
Connect the diode to terminals 6and 8
ei
with the proper polarity. The cathode
and anode leads are identified in Fig. 3-3. w
The cathode lead of each diode is on the o
o
right. Connect the cathode lead to termi- z
e-
nal 8 and connect the anode lead to a
terminal 6. Solder terminal 6.
C)
On the schematic diagram, notice that
the cathode lead of the diode and one
lead of resistor R2 are connected to-
gether. Also, R2 is connected from the
junction with the diode lead to ground.
Therefore, connect R2 between terminals
8 and 11 as shown in Fig. 3-1. Solder mill,

terminal 11.
Next connect resistor R3. On the Fig. 3-3. Methods used to identify the
schematic, this resistor is connected be- leads of semiconductor diodes.

35
terminal 10 to terminal 16 and solder and diode leads and remove the excess
both connections. solder from all terminals. Use the tech-
The potentiometer is connected be- niques you learned in Experiment 1.
tween resistor R3 and ground. Thus, we Remove the 1000-ohm potentiometer
must ground terminal 18. Again, we from the mounting bracket and carefully
choose a convenient grounded terminal, clean the terminals. Remove the potenti-
which is terminal 15. Connect alength of ometer mounting bracket and put it with
hookup wire from terminal 18 to ter- the potentiometer. You will use these in a
minal 15 to complete the wiring. The later Training Kit.
center terminal of the potentiometer,
terminal 17, is the "output" terminal. Discussion: In this experiment, we
This completes your wiring. You have taken you step-by-step through the
should have made all of the connections wiring of a circuit from a schematic
shown in Fig. 3-1. To make certain, check diagram. You have checked your work by
your wiring as follows: comparing the actual parts layout with a
list of the connections and with a pic-
torial diagram. This layout is not the only
1. There should be a resistor, RI,be-
tween terminals 2and 6. one that could be made from the sche-
2. Diode DI should be connected be- matic of Fig. 3-1. The same electrical
tween terminals 6 and 8, with the circuit could have been made with the
cathode lead to terminal 8. leads routed along different paths.
3. Resistor R2 should be connected be- You should practice drawing schematic
tween terminals 8and 11. diagrams because such practice will help
4. Resistor R3 should be connected be- you to become more familiar with sche-
tween terminals 8and 10. matic symbols and will aid you later in
5. There should be hookup wire from tracing circuits. You need not start with
terminal 10 to terminal 16 on the elaborate diagrams; simple circuits like
potentiometer. those shown in this experiment will be
6. There should be a length of hookup satisfactory.
wire from terminal 18 on the potenti- The schematic diagram shows electrical
ometer to terminal 15. connections only. Therefore, additional
information is needed in order to wire
You should make a habit of checking more complex circuits. Experienced tech-
your connections in this way each time nicians usually sketch a layout before
you finish wiring a circuit. By checking wiring. However, once acircuit is wired,
your work, you may find and correct it is easy to trace the circuit by following
errors that could be serious or difficult to the schematic diagram.
find later. When you check your work,
pay particular attention to the soldered Instructions for Statement No. 3: This
connections. Be sure that all connections statement is a test of your ability to
are soldered properly. If not, resolder relate a physical parts layout to a sche-
them. matic diagram of that layout. Fig. 3-4
When you are satisfied with your work, shows a circuit wired on your experi-
unsolder all of the connections and re- mental chassis using resistors, adiode and
move the parts. Straighten the resistor apotentiometer.

36
 0 DI

,
l o
11

o
12
R3
I
3]
i

Fig. 3-4. Pictorial diagram of the circuit shown in Statement 3.

Study this circuit carefully and com- Statement No. 3: The schematic dia-
pare the arrangement with the four sche- gram of the circuit in Fig. 3-4 is Fig. 3-5:
matics in Fig. 3-5. When you are certain
you have the schematic which corre-
sponds to the circuit of Fig. 3-4, com-
plete the statement here and on your
Report Sheet.

01 R2

R 3

e-
R1 R3

0 = =

Fig. 3-5. Schematics for use with Statement No. 3.

37
 IDENTIFYING RESISTORS and the fourth band gives the tolerance of
the resistor (silver for ±10% tolerance,
As you go ahead with your experi- gold for ±5% tolerance). If the tolerance
ments, and when you work on your own, is ±10%, it means that the actual value of
you will need to be able to identify the the resistor may be as much as 10%
value of resistors. higher or lower than the value indicated.
Although the value is stamped on some If it is ±5%, the actual value may be up to
resistors, on most 1/2-watt, 1-watt, and 5% higher or lower than the value indi-
2-watt resistors the value is indicated by cated.
means of colored bands on the resistor. Some resistors may have a fifth color
You should learn to read this color code band. This band will follow the tolerance
so that you can identify resistors quickly. band (to the right) and is used to indicate
The colored bands on the resistor amilitary reliability level. The fifth band
usually are nearer to one end than the will be Brown, Red, Orange or Yellow
other. Thus, to read the color code, turn which indicate increasing percent of
the resistor so that the colored bands are reliability. In your work you can simply
toward the left end of the resistor as ignore the fifth band.
shown in Fig. 33. To find the value, you need to look
Each color represents anumber. These only at the first three bands. For ex-
are given in Fig. 33. The first band, ample, suppose you have aresistor color-
labeled A, gives the first figure in the coded red, red, and black. Referring to
value; the second band, labeled B, gives the chart, you see that red represents 2.
the second figure in the value; the third Therefore, the first two figures in the
band, labeled C, gives the number of value are both 2. As we have said, the
zeros after the second figure in the value, third band indicates the number of zeros
in the value. Since black represents 0,
when the third band is black, there are no
zeros in the value. So the value of the
resistor is 22 ohms.
GL•GA If the resistor had been color-coded
BROW,.
REO red, red, and brown, the first two figures
ORANGE
YELLOW would again be 2. Brown represents 1, so
GREEN
BLUE
there would be one zero, and the value
VIOLET
would be 220 ohms. Red, red, and red
GRAY
WHITE would indicate a value of 2200 ohms
(often written 2.2K ohms, where the K
COLOR A GIVES FIRST FIGURE OF RESISTOR VALUE. stands for 1000); red-red-orange, avalue
COLOR B GIVES SECOND FIGURE Of RESISTOR VALUE.
of 22,000 ohms (often written 22K-
COLOR C GIVES THE NUWBER OF CIPHERS
FOLLOWING THE FIRST TWO FIGURES. ohms); red-red-yellow, avalue of 220,000
COLOR D GIVES THE TOLERANCE ohms (or 220K ohms or .22 meg; a
GOLD RANO INDICATES 5%
megohm is 1,000,000 ohms); red-red-
SILVER BAND INDICATES T10%
NO BAND INDICATES T20% green, avalue of 2,200,000 ohms (or 2.2
megohms); and red-red-blue, a value of
22,000,000 ohms (or 22 megohms).
Fig. 33. Standard resistor color code. Look over the resistors you have re-

38
 ceived, and practice reading the color more complex circuits. The manu-
codes on them. You can check the values facturer's servicing information on any
by referring to the parts list given in Fig. equipment usually has a complete sche-
1. In the next experiment you will have matic diagram and the parts values. If you
some practice in picking out resistors of are servicing the equipment, you will have
different values. to find the defective part, determine its
value, and make the replacement.
EXPERIMENT 4 Usually connections between parts are
shown by aline that follows the shortest
Purpose: To construct a circuit using path between the two parts. However,
& this is not always true. The only sure way
only aschematic diagram for guidance.
to find the part is to trace the circuit.
Introductory Discussion: If you read Often it is more convenient to run alead
construction articles in any of the radio- over a somewhat longer path to avoid
TV-electronics magazines, you will see crowding a section of the diagram. An
that step-by-step wiring instructions are example of this is given in Fig. 4-1. We
rarely given; you work from aschematic could have drawn a horizontal line di-
diagram. Thus, if you wanted to build rectly from pin 4of V1 to pin 3of V2 to
some of this equipment, you would have show that they are connected. However,
to work out the placement of the parts the line would have had to cross a
and other details for yourself. number of other lines, thus crowding the
We want you to become so familiar diagram, and perhaps causing some con-
with schematic diagrams that you can fusion. Drawing the line as in Fig. 4-1
look at one and picture the arrangement avoids confusion.
of the parts. That is not hard if you start Tracing circuits on aschematic diagram
with simple circuits like those you have is in many ways like tracing a road
built so far, and gradually work up to between your home and another city on a

vI V2

§h
.e
.
3 3 4

I
- El+

Fig. 4-1. Typical schematic diagram showing atwo-stage tube circuit.

39
road map. You will seldom find aroad matic, the equipment you build will not
that goes in astraight line from one place work properly unless all connections are
to another. Instead, the road will turn properly soldered. Many people waste a
time and time again; you may have to go great deal of time because of careless
acertain distance on one road and then wiring and poorly soldered connections,
turn onto another. So it is in tracing the which could easily have been spotted if a
circuit on aschematic diagram. You start little extra time had been taken to check
at one point in the circuit and trace the work. Start right now by checking
toward another point. You may find a each circuit you wire against the sche-
direct circuit between the two points, but matic diagram and by checking each
more often you will find the circuits are soldered connection you make. These are
connected by something other than a good habits, and the sooner you acquire
direct connection. In addition, you may them the better.
find that to get from one point to the
other you have to trace the circuit to Experimental Procedure: For this ex-
some intermediate point, and then from periment, in addition to the chassis with
that point on through an additional cir- the solder lug and terminal strips, you
cuit to the point that you are interested will need the following:
in reaching.
Frequently in service work you will 1 1000-ohm resistor
have to trace out the actual wiring in a 1 22,000-ohm resistor
receiver and compare the wiring with a 1 100,000-ohm resistor
schematic diagram. We cannot stress too 2 1/4" X 4-40 screws
strongly how important it is for you to 2 4-40 hex nuts
learn to use this type of diagram. This is 1 Etched circuit board (EC24)
why we will concentrate on learning how Hookup wire
to use diagrams. Solder
When you work from a schematic
diagram in the experiments, there may be Use the resistor color code chart shown
several ways in which the various leads in Fig. 33 to help identify the three
can be run. In general, try to use the resistors used in this experiment.
shortest possible route. When we work on Check your experimental chassis and
the more complicated circuits, we will make certain that the terminals are clean
give detailed instructions on exactly and all excess solder has been removed.
where to place each important lead; but At the same time, check the tip of your
during these early experiments, we will soldering iron to be sure it is clean and
leave you on your own as much as well-tinned.
possible to give you all the practical For this experiment, you will use the
exper;ence we can. tube socket on your circuit board and the
When you build equipment from a terminals on your chassis. You will
schematic diagram, you should carefully mount the circuit board along the edge of
check each circuit you wire to make sure the chassis and connect "jumper" wires
it is wired correctly. Also make sure that from the tube socket terminals in the
each connection is properly soldered. copper foil to the 7-lug terminal strip on
Even if you learn to work from asche- the chassis.

40
 /
o o

o
o
o
o o

o o
o
o
o
o

o o 0 e
567 910 G
or-,
I
1 •—• rt
le
I-1 1—• ,
I
0
o

S1 F ,T

o 0 0 o o

Fig. 4-2. Mounting the circuit board on the experimental chassis.

Mount the circuit board over holes S from the top. As shown in Fig. 4-3, pin 1
and T in the chassis (the holes are is at the right of the blank space, pin 2is
identified in Fig. 11 and Fig. 4-2). Posi- next, and so on. Pin 7is to the left of the
tion the circuit board over the edge of the blank space. The pin in the center of the
chassis as shown in Fig. 4-2. Note that the socket is not numbered. We will be
tube socket is toward the chassis and the primarily interested in pins 1, 6, and 7of
foil side of the board is turned upward. the socket. Connections to these holes are
Attach the board with 1/4" X 4-40 screws labeled on the foil side of EC24.
through the mounting holes in the circuit Refer to Fig. 4-4 as you make the
board and chassis. Attach two 4-40 nuts following connections. Connect a short
and tighten. length of hookup wire from the hole in
The pins on the tube socket or tube are the foil which connects to pin 1of the
numbered from the blank space in a tube socket to terminal 8 on the 7-lug
counterclockwise direction when viewed terminal strip. Remove about 1/4" insula-

41
Fig. 4-3. Identifying the tube socket pins Fig. 4-4. Wiring connecting the tube
on the etched circuit board. socket to the terminal strip.

tion from each end of the wire. Slip the anything that is connected to the chassis
end of the wire through the hole in the electrically. As your chassis is presently
circuit board from the foil side and solder set up, you can use terminals 1, 5, 11,
to the foil. and 15 as ground connections.
Similarly, connect a short length of If you are connecting two or more
hookup wire from the hole in the foil at leads to agiven point, do not solder until
pin 7to terminal 9. all leads are in position.
In the same manner, connect a short In this experiment, you are to wire a
length of hookup wire from the hole in circuit directly from aschematic diagram.
the foil at pin 6to terminal 10. The diagram you are to use is shown in
We often refer to a terminal or a Fig. 4-5. The tube socket pins are indi-
conductor connected to atube socket pin cated by the open circles nearest the tube
by the tube pin number or even by the symbol. All of the other terminals, which
element of the tube connected to that pin are shown by black dots, represent termi-
when a tube is inserted in the socket. nals on the terminal strip.
Thus, the terminals on the chassis may be Before mounting apart, make atrial fit
identified by the tube socket pin num- to determine where the part should be
bers, or as the grid, cathode and plate located. Sometimes this technique is used
terminal of the 6C4 tube. by experienced technicians in order to get
When working from schematic dia- a neat layout and prevent undue crowd-
grams, remember that ground symbols ing of parts.
indicate connections to the common re-
turn point (the chassis in this case) and
that these connections can be made to Step 1: To mount resistor RI.

42
 terminal because you may want to make
other connections to it.

Step 2: To mount resistor R2.

Find resistor R2 on the schematic

diagram. You will see that it is a
22,000-ohm resistor (indicated by 22K
on the diagram). You can also see that R2
is connected from pin 1 of the tube
socket, which is the same as terminal 8on
the terminal strip to terminal 7. Terminal
7 is marked "B+" on the schematic.
Connect one lead of the 22,000-ohm
resistor and solder these connections.

Fig. 4-5. Circuit used in Step 1.

Step 3: To mount resistor R3.

First, find R1 on the schematic dia- R3 is a 1000-ohm resistor. On the

gram in Fig. 4-5. Notice that it is a schematic, R3 is between pin 7 of the
100,000-ohm resistor. Select a 100,000- tube socket and ground.
ohm resistor from among the parts you Install the resistor between terminal 9
have collected for this experiment. on the terminal strip (which is electrically
From the schematic, you can see that the same as pin 7) and ground. You will
R1 is connected between pin 6 of the have to choose aground terminal. There
tube socket and ground. Because these are no more connections to be made.
connections will be made on the terminal Thus, you can solder all connections
strip, the connection will be made to which you have not yet soldered.
terminal 10 and aground terminal.
As stated earlier, there are four places Step 4: To check your work.
where you can make your ground connec-
tion. The solder lug, terminal 1, and the After all wiring is in place, check your
mounting feet of the terminal strips, work against the schematic diagram. This
terminals 5, 11 and 15, are bolted di- check should now show:
rectly to the chassis. Thus, they make
electrical contact with the chassis and can I. A 100,000-ohm resistor between tube
be used for ground connections. socket pin 6and aground terminal.
Connect one end of the 100,000-ohm 2. A 22,000-ohm resistor between tube
resistor to terminal 10 and connect the socket pin 1and terminal 7.
other end to whichever ground point you 3. A 1000-ohm resistor between pin 7of
find to be most convenient. Bend the the tube socket and ground.
resistor leads so that they do not touch
the chassis. Also, they should not make Discussion: In this experiment, you
contact with any other terminals. Solder have gained experience in working from a
terminal 10. Do not solder the ground schematic diagram. You have practiced

43
reading resistor color codes, and you have Report Sheet. Then unsolder the connec-
again practiced making solder connec- tions and remove the resistors. Dis-
tions. You will use each of these skills connect the three jumper wires from the
every time you work on any electronic terminal strip and from the circuit board.
equipment. Remove the circuit board from the chas-
After you have looked over your work sis, clean the holes, and put the board
to be sure that it is electrically equivalent aside. Finally, clean the resistor leads and
to the circuit shown in Fig. 4-5, turn to terminals so that they will be ready for
the back of this manual. On page 77 you use in later experiments.
will see Fig. 4-6. This shows two ways in
which you might have arranged your
parts. However, these are not the only Statement No. 4: When I wired the
possible ways to mount the parts. As long circuit used in this experiment, Icon-
as your arrangement is electrically the nected the 22,000-ohm resistor to the:
same as Fig. 4-5, you have done the
experiment correctly. (1) plate
(2) cathode
Instructions For Statement No. 4: (3) grid
After carefully checking your work,
answer the statement here and on your terminal of the tube socket.

44
 Learning to Use A Meter
An electric current is invisible, odorless much more sensitive and will respond to
and tasteless. In other words, we cannot much smaller currents.
tell that awire is carrying current unless The meter you will use in your experi-
we use some special means of detecting it. ments has a range of 0 to 200 micro-
Although a bell or light bulb can be amperes. This means that a full scale
used to show the presence of current, reading on the meter indicates that 200
neither of these devices will indicate how microamperes are flowing through the
much current is flowing. The current in meter. When the meter pointer is at half
the circuit must be at a certain level scale, half of 200 microamperes or 100
before the bell will ring or the bulb will microamperes are flowing through the
light. For example, the light bulb will meter. When the meter pointer is at
light to full brilliance when its greatest 1/10th scale, 20 microamperes are flow-
current is flowing through it. As the ing through the meter.
current is decreased, the light will grow
dimmer. Finally, it will reach a point PREPARING THE METER
where the light will give no visual indica-
tion of current, even though current may The meter supplied in this kit is an
still be present in the circuit. Something extremely delicate instrument. It contains
is needed that will show not only whether ajewel movement similar to that of afine
there is current flowing, but also how watch. Therefore, the meter must be
much current is flowing. A meter will do handled with care at all times. We cannot
both of these jobs. replace any meter that has been damaged
through careless handling or improper
MEASURING CURRENT
usage. If you follow carefully the instruc-
tions given, you will have no trouble with
A meter that is used to measure cur- the meter. However, if you fail to follow
rent is known as an ammeter. An am- the instructions, you may damage your
meter indicates current in amperes. The meter and have to replace it.
ampere, however, is much too large aunit The meter case is plastic. It can easily
for most measurements in electronics, so be scratched with ascrewdriver or similar
we use a meter that indicates either tool, or by scraping it across your work-
milliamperes (ma) or microamperes (pa). bench. Also, the plastic can be perma-
A milliampere equals one-thousandth of nently damaged by heat. Be sure that you
an ampere and a microampere equals do not accidentally touch the soldering
one-millionth of an ampere. Such meters iron to the meter case.
are called milliammeters and micro- While you are performing these experi-
ammeters. They are made the same and ments, the meter will be left in its box.
operate in the same manner as an am- You will connect wires to the meter
meter. The only difference is that the terminals so that you will have easy
milliammeter and microanuneter are access to the meter.

45
 You will need the following: In a similar manner, attach two nuts
and a solder lug to the other meter
2 Large solder lugs (LU7) terminal and tighten the nuts.
1 Meter (ME21) Now you will identify the lugs on the
2 Diodes (SR12) back of the meter. The one on the left as
Hookup wire you face the back of the meter is the
Solder positive, or plus terminal of the meter;
the one on the right is the negative or
Your meter is supplied with mounting minus terminal. The terminals may be
hardware and two large nuts for each further identified by plus or minus signs
terminal. These parts are in an envelope stamped on the plastic or on the ends of
in the meter box. Save all of the hardware the screws or "POS" and "NEG" printed
as you will have need for it later. near the terminals.
To prepare the meter, place asoft pad Examine the two diodes supplied with
or towel on your workbench. Next, re- this kit. Refer to Fig. 3-3 to help you
move the meter from the box and place identify the cathode leads.
the meter carefully on the pad or towel, Connect the lead at the cathode end of
face down, and with the top of the meter one diode to the positive terminal of the
away from you. meter. This is diode DI in Fig. 34. Slip
Remove the wire from the meter ter- the end of the lead through the lug
minals. The terminals were shorted to- attached to the terminal. Do not solder at
gether to prevent damage to the meter this time. Slip the anode lead of DI
during shipment. If the meter is shaken or through the negative terminal lug.
dropped, the physical movement will Connect the second diode, D2, to the
cause the meter pointer to move. A meter terminals also, but with the oppo-
voltage is generated in the coil attached site polarity. Slip the cathode lead
to the pointer. The short circuit across through the negative terminal lug and the
the meter terminals permits the current anode lead through the positive terminal
to flow through the terminals and back lug. Do not solder at this time.
through the coil. This cancels the tend-
ency of the coil to move and protects the
meter from violent pointer swing.
You will now attach the large solder
lugs to the meter terminals. First, attach a
large nut to one of the terminals and run
it all the way down. Then slip a large
solder lug over the terminal and secure it
with another nut. Position the solder lug
so it points toward the bottom of the
meter case and tighten the nut. Hold the
lower nut with a small wrench or pliers
and tighten the outer nut. Do not allow
the terminal to turn, since this could
damage the connection inside the meter Fig. 34. Connections to the meter move-
case. ment.

46
 Prepare 2-foot lengths of red and black meter terminal" and we will call terminal
hookup wire. Remove about 1/4" of 12 the "negative meter terminal."
insulation from each end of each wire. Put the meter in its box, face up. Do
Connect the 2-foot length of red hook- not attempt to make any measurements
up wire to the positive meter terminal with your meter until instructed to do so.
lug. Check to see that all three leads are The diodes, which you connected to
through the hole in the terminal; then the meter, are used to help protect the
solder the connection. Be sure all three meter movement from excessive current.
leads are soldered. After the solder cools, When avoltage of about .6 volt is present,
test the connection. one of the diodes will conduct and
In asimilar manner, connect and solder provide alow resistance path around the
the length of black hookup wire to the meter movement. We use two diodes
negative meter terminal lug. Compare connected with the opposite polarities to
your wiring with Fig. 34 to see that you provide protection regardless of the po-
have done the work correctly. larity of the excessive voltage.
Next, you will connect the meter leads In normal operation, the voltage across
to terminals on your chassis. Refer to Fig. the meter terminals will not exceed .15
35. Connect the red lead from the meter volt. Therefore, the diodes have no sig-
to terminal 14. Connect the black lead nificant effect on the operation of the
from the meter to termiiial 12. meter unless excessive voltage is applied.
Connect a 6" length of hookup wire
from terminal 14 to terminal 10. Solder
SETTING THE METER
terminal 14.
POINTER TO ZERO
In order to simplify the instructions,
we will call terminal 10 the "positive The meter pointer should rest directly

Fig. 35. The meter leads connected to terminals 12 and 14 with ajtunper from 10 to 14.

47
 Fig. 36. The 0-12 and 0-30 volt scales on your meter.

over zero as shown in Fig. 36 when the and that it will be difficult to read. As a
meter is not in use. To set the pointer to matter of fact, it is no more difficult to
zero, use ascrewdriver blade that fits in read a meter than it is to tell time on a
the plastic screw slot on the meter face. clock. Of course, a meter may be some-
Too small or too large ablade can damage thing new to you, and it will take some
the screw. Turn this screw, and notice practice to learn how to read it quickly.
that the meter pointer can be placed to However, it will not be long before you
the right or to the left of zero. Leave the will be able to read it at aglance.
screw adjusted so the meter pointer is At this time we will concentrate on the
over the zero mark. It is unlikely that you 0 to 12 and 0 to 30 volt scales. As you
will have to make this adjustment again. will see, the two scales may often be used
together to help you obtain precise read-
READING THE METER ings. These two scales are shown in white
in Fig. 36. The 0 to 12 volt scale is the
The first time you look at the face of upper scale and has the numbers 0, 2, 4,
the meter you received in this kit, you 6, 8, 10 and 12 printed in black. The 0to
may think that the meter is complicated 30 volt scale is the lower scale and has the

Fig. 37. A meter reading of 25 or 10.

48
 Fig. 38. A meter reading oí 10 or 4.

numbers 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 Look at the scale shown in Fig. 39.
printed in black. Notice that the 0to 12 Now the pointer is over one of the short
volt scale has several short marks as well marks of the 0 to 12 volt scale, but is
as some longer unnumbered marks. The 0 between two short marks on the 0to 30
to 30 volt scale has four short un- volt scale! To read this value, note that
numbered marks between each number. on the 0 to 12 volt scale there are nine
Now look at the meter shown in Fig. marks (or ten spaces) between 6 and 8;
37. In this case the pointer is indicating eight short marks and one long mark. The
10 on the 0to 12 volt scale and shows 25 long mark represents 7 volts, and each
on the 0 to 30 volt scale. If the pointer is short mark represents 0.2V. The pointer
as shown in Fig. 38, the reading would be in Fig. 39 is on the third short mark
10 on the 0to 30 volt scale and 4on the following the 6 volt mark. Since each
0 to 12 volt scale. These readings are short mark is 0.2V, the pointer shows a
quite easy to determine, as you can see, reading of 6.6 volts.
but what happens if the pointer is some- Now, what is the reading of Fig. 39 on
where between the numbers on the scale? the 0 to 30 volt scale? First, notice that

Fig. 39. Another sample meter reading.

49
 •
'I . .4.knwiceiji)

Fig. 40. Study this meter reading and see if you can tell what it is.

between 15 and 20 there are four short the reasoning that we applied in the
marks. Each mark, therefore, represents previous examples, can you tell what the
one volt. The pointer is halfway between reading would be on the 0to 12 and 0to
the first and second marks following 15 30 volt scales? If you have trouble, go
so the reading is 16.5 volts. You can tell back and reread the material in the
that the pointer is exactly halfway be- previous paragraphs. After careful study
tween the two marks by looking at the you should have no difficulty in seeing
upper (0 to 12 volt) scale. On this scale, that the readings are 9.4 volts and 23.5
every other mark falls exactly halfway volts respectively on the 0to 12 and 0to
between the one volt marks on the 0 to 30 volt scales.
30 volt scale. This means that while the 0 There is always the possibility that the
to 30 volt scale is marked in one volt pointer will not fall precisely on one of
steps, you can determine readings to one the short marks of the 0 to 12 volt scale.
half avolt by looking at the divisions on How are these values read? Take alook at
the 0to 12 volt scale. Fig. 41. Notice here that the pointer is
Let's look at another example. Take a halfway between the second and third
look at the scale shown in Fig. 40. Using short marks after 4 on the 0 to 12 volt

Fig. 41. Here is another meter reading for you to practice on.

50
 .

Fig. 42. What is the indication on this meter?

scale. This would be a reading of 4.5 the question. The pointer falls about
volts. On the 0to 30 volt scale it is just as halfway between 5.4 and 5.6 volts so we
easy. The pointer falls one fourth of the would call it 5.5 volts. There is, of course,
way between the first and second mark some uncertainty in this reading. For the
after 10, so the reading is 11.25 volts. purposes of your experiments, you would
As a final example, try your hand at read it as 5.5 volts.
reading the two values indicated in Fig. What reading does Fig. 42 represent on
42. Again, the pointer does not fall on the 0 to 30 volt scale? Well, it is
any of the scale marks of either scale. Let somewhere between 10 and 15 volts.
us see how close we can come to reading Each short mark represents one volt, so
the meter by applying what we have the reading would be between 13 and 14
already learned. On the 0to 12 volt scale, volts. Remember that the short mark on
the pointer is between 5and 6. We can be the upper scale (0 to 12 volts) is exactly
more exact than that; it appears to be halfway between the 13 and 14 volt
halfway between the second and third marks, or in other words represents 13.5
marks following the (unmarked) 5 volt volts. The pointer falls to the right of this
mark. The first mark is 5.2 volts, the mark so the reading must be between
second mark is 5.4 volts and the third 13.5 and 14.0 volts. We would probably
mark is 5.6 volts. Therefore the reading is call this 13.75 volts; any value from 13.7
between 5.4 and 5.6 volts. How much, is to 13.8 volts would be sufficient.

51
 Building A Simple Series Circuit
You have already studied Ohm's Law Inspect the tip of your soldering iron.
and you know that there is a definite If necessary, file and retin tbe tip.
relationship between the voltage, current You will connect the three resistors to
and resistance in acircuit. In Experiment terminals 7, 8, 9 and 10 on your chassis.
5, you will see just what happens to the The chassis with the resistors in place is
current when you change either the re- shown in Fig. 43. Begin by connecting
sistance in the circuit or the voltage one lead of a 4.7K-ohm resistor to
applied to the circuit. Before you begin terminal 10. (There should already be a
Experiment 5you will prepare the chassis red wire connected to terminal 10.)
by installing some parts on it. Then, when Temporarily solder the lead and the red
you begin Experiment 5 you will add wire to terminal 10. Bend the resistor
some more parts and perform the Experi- leads near the body of the resistor and
ment. push the free lead through the slot in
In addition to your meter and chassis, terminal 9. Connect one lead of another
you will need: 4.7K-ohm resistor to terminal 9. Solder
terminal 9. Connect the other lead of this
2 4.7K-ohm resistors (yellow-violet- resistor to terminal 8. Connect one lead
red-silver) of the 6.8K-ohm resistor from terminal 8
1 6.8K-ohm resistor (blue-gray-red- to terminal 7as shown in Fig. 43. Solder
silver) terminal 8.
1 1.5-volt flashlight cell Remove 1/4" of insulation from each
Black hookup wire end of a 10" length of red hookup wire.
Red hookup wire Connect and solder one end to terminal
Solder 7. Leave the other end free.

Fig. 43. Experimental chassis wired for Experiment 5.

52
 Be sure that your soldering iron tip is
clean and hot. Then, hold the end of your
roll of solder on the negative terminal of
the cell and touch your soldering iron to
the solder. Rub the iron around so that
the terminal becomes well-tinned.
Now cut a10" length of black hookup
wire and remove 1/4" of insulation from
each end. Place one end of the 10" length
black hookup wire on the tinned area of
the negative terminal of the cell. Touch
Fig. 44. How to clean the center of the the tip of your soldering iron to the wire
bottom of aflashlight cell with apiece and the tinned portion of the cell. The
of sandpaper. solder should melt and run over the wire.
Remove the heat and allow the joint to
You should now have three series- cool. If the solder does not flow
connected resistors going from the posi- smoothly over the wire, add alittle more
tive meter terminal (terminal 10) to solder as you heat the connection.
terminal 7. The total resistance between If you like, you can use a piece of
terminal 7 and the positive meter termi- hookup wire to secure the cell in place
nal is the sum of the values of the three along the bend in the chassis as shown in
resistors; a total of about 16,000 ohms. Fig. 43. Note that the negative terminal is
toward the left side of the chassis.
You now have a 0-200 microampere
meter with approximately 16,000 ohms
in series with it. ---1111111
In order to measure current, your
meter must be connected to asource of Fig. 45. Schematic symbol for abattery.
voltage with the proper polarity. The
positive terminal of the voltage source The symbol we use on schematic dia-
must always be connected to the lead or grams to represent abattery is shown in
circuit point that goes to the positive Fig. 45. Each pair of lines represents one
meter terminal. cell of the battery. The short wide line
At first, we will use a flashlight cell represents the negative terminal and the
which produces 1.5 volts dc as asource of longer thin line represents the positive
voltage. To do this, you are to connect a terminal. To represent one cell, we use
wire from the negative meter terminal, only one pair of lines; but to represent
terminal 12, to the negative battery several cells, we do not try to show the
terminal. Notice that one end of your exact number, as two or more pairs are
flashlight cell has araised portion while sufficient.
the other end is flat. The negative battery
terminal is the end with no raised section. EXPERIMENT 5
Clean aspot in the middle of the bottom
of the cell with apiece of fine sandpaper, Purpose: To show that current flowing
as shown in Fig. 44. in a series circuit will change when the

53
 1,
1 1.5-volt flashlight cell
Hookup wire

4.7K The first circuit you will use is shown

in Fig. 5-1. When you read the meter, use
the 30-volt scale which you practiced
4.1K 6.8 K reading previously.
9 e 7
Step 1: To connect 1.5 volts across
Fig. 5-1. The circuit you will use in
the meter and series resistor combination.
Step 1of Experiment 5.

resistance in the circuit or the voltage Touch the red wire from terminal 7to
applied to the circuit is changed. the positive terminal of the flashlight cell.
This closes the circuit and causes current
Introductory Discussion: Although the to flow.
circuit you will use in this experiment is a Observe the pointer on your meter. It
simple circuit, it will act in the same way should be slightly below one-half scale. If
that a more complex circuit would act you get no reading, look for a bad
when either the resistance or voltage is connection or ashort circuit. Check to be
changed. sure that your circuit is wired as shown in
This experiment will demonstrate Fig. 5-1. Trace the wiring from terminals
Ohm's Law, which is one of the most 12 and 10 back to the terminals on the
important laws you will study. Do each meter. Also check for a short circuit
step of the experiment carefully and between the meter terminals or leads.
make sure you understand exactly what The meter scale which you are using in
you are doing and what the changes in this experiment (Fig. 5-2) is the 0 to 30
current that you observe mean. volt scale. However, in this experiment
you are using this scale only as arelative
Experimental Procedure: In this ex- indication of the amount of current in
periment, in addition to the meter, chas- the circuit. The meter indicates acurrent
sis and the circuit you have just wired, of about 100 microamperes, since you
you will need the following: know that afull scale reading (30) repre-

Fig. 5-2. The meter reading of Step 1 should be approximately 13 on the 0-30 scale.

54
 STEP READING Step 2: To determine the effect of
increasing the voltage in a series circuit.
I 1 Li A -?
2
To do this, you will connect another
3 flashlight cell in series with the cell you
used in Step 1. This is shown in the
Fig. 5-3. Record your reading for Experi- schematic diagram in Fig. 5-4.
ment 5here.

sents acurrent of 200 microamperes.

In later experiments you will learn that
the 0 to 30 volt scale will also be used to
indicate 0 to 3volts, and 0 to 300 volts.
The 0 to 12 volt scale will also be used to
indicate ranges of 0to 1.2 volts, 0to 120
volts and 0 to 1200 volts. For the time
being, however, you need only be con-
cerned with relative scale indications on
the 0 to 30 volt scale. Read the meter Fig. 5-4. Circuit to use for Step 2.
carefully and write the reading of the
meter in the space provided for Step 1in Clean the positive terminal of the
Fig. 5-3. Remove the red wire from the second flashlight cell with apiece of fine
positive terminal of the flashlight cell to sandpaper. Hold your soldering iron on
open the circuit. the terminal and apply solder. Melt

Fig. 5-5. Series resistor with 3-volt battery.

55
enough solder on the terminal to tin it. Touch the free end of the red wire to
Rub the tip of the iron around so that the the positive terminal of the flashlight cell
terminal is well-tinned. on the chassis. You now have atotal of
Place the free end of the red wire about 9,400 ohms in the circuit with a
connected to terminal 7 on the tinned source voltage of 1.5 volts. Read the
area of the positive terminal of this meter and record your readings in the
flashlight cell and apply heat to solder the space for Step 3in Fig. 5-3.
wire to the terminal. Use additional sol-
der if necessary. Discussion: In this experiment, you
Now, to complete the circuit, hold the have seen what happens in aseries circuit
positive end of the first flashlight cell when the voltage or resistance is changed.
against the negative terminal of the sec- You should have areading of something
ond flashlight cell, as shown in Fig. 5-5. less than 15 for Step 1. When you
This places the two 1.5-volt cells in series, doubled the voltage in the circuit by
thus forming a3-volt battery. adding a second flashlight cell, you
The meter pointer should swing to the should have obtained areading of about
right to just under 30 on the 30-volt two times the original reading. In other
scale. Look at the meter carefully, read words, when you double the voltage
the value as closely as you can, and write supplied to the circuit, the current in the
the reading in the space reserved in Fig. circuit doubles. From this, you can see
5-3. that there is a definite relationship be-
tween voltage and current in a series
circuit.
Step 3: To show that the amount of
current will change when the resistance is In Step 3, when you reduced the
changed. resistance in the circuit, you should have
found that the current was greater than in
The circuit you will use is shown in Step I. This shows that if you reduce the
Fig. 5-6. Unsolder the red wire from the resistance in a series circuit, the current
positive terminal of the second flashlight will increase. We could have shown that
cell and from terminal 7and set the cell increasing the resistance will cause the
to one side. Solder one end of the red current to decrease, but this should have
wire you just removed to terminal 8. been obvious from the steps that you
have already carried out in this experi-
ment.

Instructions For Statement No. 5: In

order to complete this statement you
must obtain one additional reading. You
will find the current through aresistance
of approximately 7,500 ohms connected
across a voltage of 1.5 volts. To get this
reading, wire the circuit shown in the
schematic in Fig. 5-7. Connect a short
length of hookup wire from terminal 7to
Fig. 5-6. Circuit you use for Step 3. terminal 9. Solder both connections. Fig.

56
 leads so they will be ready for reuse.
Also, disconnect and remove the short
length of wire connecting terminals 7and
9 and remove the 10" length of red wire
from terminal 8. Do not discard this wire
as you can reuse it in later experiments.
Do not remove any of the other wires.

Statement No. 5: When Itouched the

Fig. 5-7. Connect the free end of the resis-
free end of the lead from terminal 8 to
tors to the junction of the first and
the 1.5-volt cell, Iobtained areading of
second resistors to get Statement answers.
approximately

5-8 shows the chassis wired according to

Fig. 5-7. This places a4,700-ohm resistor (1) 15
in parallel with the 6,800-ohm resistor. Di' 30
(3) 10
This combination is in series with the
other 4,700-ohm resistor. Next, touch the
red wire from terminal 8 to the positive EXPERIMENT 6
•terminal of the flashlight cell on the
chassis. Purpose: To show how to connect
Observe the meter reading on the resistors in parallel; and to show that the
30-volt scale and answer the statement. net resistance of a group of parallel-
Remove the three resistors connected connected resistors is less than that of the
to terminals 7, 8, 9and 10 and clean their smallest resistor in the group.

Fig. 5-8. Chassis arrangement for Statement 5.

57
 Introductory Discussion: In the last 2 100,000-ohm resistors
experiment, you learned how to connect 1 82,000-ohm resistor
resistors in series with asource of voltage. 2 Flashlight cells
When resistors or any other parts are Red hookup wire
connected across a voltage source, they
are called aload. In acircuit of this type, Since good connections will be re-
each resistance, including that of the quired, we will solder leads to the bat-
meter, can be considered as part of the teries. To do this, clean the battery
total load resistance. Thus, the total load terminals (that you have not yet used)
resistance is the sum of the individual with a piece of sandpaper and tin them,
resistances. as you learned to do in the last experi-
In this experiment we will show that ment.
loads can also be connected to the source Remove 1/2" of insulation from each
voltage so that the entire source voltage is end of an 8" length of red hookup wire.
connected to each load. We will also show Place one end of one wire on the tinned
that when loads are connected in this area of the positive terminal of the cell
manner, the net resistance of the com- connected to terminal 12. Touch the
bined load is less than the resistance of soldering iron to the junction. The solder
the smallest resistance in the group. on the tinned areas should melt and run
over the wire. If necessary, add solder to
Experimental Procedure: In making get agood connection. Remove the heat,
these tests, you will use the following and let the joint cool. Solder the other
parts: end of the wire lead to the tinned area on

Fig. 6-1. Chassis wired for Step 1.

58
 Complete the circuit shown in Figs. 6-1
and 6-2 by soldering a 100,000-ohm
resistor between terminals 7and 10.

Step 1: To get an indication of the

current flowing with a100,000-ohm resis-
tor in the circuit.

Fig. 6-2. Schematic diagram for Step 1. Touch the free end of the positive
battery lead, which is soldered to the
the negative terminal of the second bat- positive terminal of B2, to terminal 7.
tery. Read the meter indication on the 30-volt
Secure the second battery to the right scale. The meter pointer should be in
side of the chassis as shown in Fig. 6-1. about the position shown in Fig. 6-3.
You can pass apiece of string or hookup Your reading may be somewhat higher or
wire through the hole in the chassis and lower than the value shown in Fig. 6-3
around the battery. because of normal tolerances in resistor
We will call the cell on the left side of values and the output voltages of differ-
the chassis B1 and we will call the cell on ent cells. Read the meter carefully and
the right B2. then remove the free end of the positive
Locate the 10" length of red hookup battery lead from terminal 7 to open the
wire you used in the last experiment. circuit. Record your reading in the space
Solder one end of this wire to the positive provided for Step 1in Fig. 6-4.
terminal of the flashlight cell, B2. Leave
the other end free. Step 2: To connect a 100,000-ohm
You now have a 3-volt battery. The resistor in parallel with the resistor used
negative terminal of the 3-volt battery is in Step 1.
the negative terminal of B1 and is con-
nected to terminal 12. The red wire Clean the leads of the second
connected to the positive terminal of B2 100,000-ohm resistor and connect it in
is the "positive battery lead." parallel with the resistor used in the last

Fig. 6-3. Meter reading for Step 1.

59
 STEP READING Discussion: In this experiment you
have demonstrated what happens to the
current in a circuit when resistors are
connected in parallel. You should have
3
/1 zi , 7_Ç discovered that as you added the second
100,000-ohm resistor to the circuit, your
Fig. 6-4. Record your reading for Experi- reading on the meter was about twice
ment 6here. what it was with only one resistor in the
step. You may solder the leads to termi- circuit. When you added the third resis-
nal 7 and 10 or, if you prefer, you may tor, you should have found that the
solder the leads to the leads of the current increased still more.
resistor already in the circuit. The circuit
for this step is shown in Fig. 6-5.
Touch the positive battery lead to
terminal 7 and read the meter on the
30-volt scale. Remove the positive battery
lead after recording your reading in the
chart in Fig. 6-4.

Step 3: To add an 82,000-ohm resistor

Fig. 6-5. Schematic diagram for Step 2.
to the parallel connected 100,000-ohm
resistor.
You know from Ohm's Law that the
Clean the leads of the 82,000-ohm amount of current that will flow in a
resistor and solder it either to terminals 7 circuit depends on the voltage applied to
and 10 or to the leads of one of the the circuit and the resistance in the
resistors used in Step 2. The schematic circuit. In other words, I= E ÷ R. The
diagram of the circuit for this step is value of E did not change; it was 3volts
shown in Fig. 6-6. Touch the positive throughout the entire experiment. There-
battery lead to terminal 7 and note the fore, the change in current must have
reading on the meter. Open the connec- been entirely due to the change in re-
tion after recording your reading in Fig. sistance. In fact, the total resistance in
6-4. the circuit decreased as you added more

Fig. 6-6. Schematic diagram for Step 3.

60
 resistors in parallel to produce the in- Introductory Discussion: You already
crease in the circuit current. know that current in acircuit is the flow
Of the three resistors used in this of electrons through the circuit. Electrons
experiment, the 82,000-ohm resistor has flow from the negative terminal of the
the lowest resistance, and we will use this voltage source, which is the battery in
resistor by itself in the statement for this this experiment, through the load, and
experiment. back to the positive terminal of the
battery. Inside the battery, electrons flow
Instructions for Statement No. 6: Re-
from the positive terminal to the negative
move all three resistors from terminals 7 terminal.
and 10. Separate the resistors and re- In any series circuit, the current is the
connect the 82,000-ohm resistor to termi- same throughout the entire circuit. In
nals 7and 10. other words, if you connect a current-
Touch the positive battery lead to measuring instrument into the circuit to
terminal 7 and note the reading on the measure the current, it will not make any
7 >3_ meter. Open the circuit, and write the difference where you connect the instru-
' reading in the margin of this page. ment — you will always get the same
Answer the statement, and then dis- current reading. In this experiment you
connect the 82,000-ohm resistor. Clean will demonstrate this. You will even show
and straighten its leads so that it will be that the current flowing in the battery
ready for re-use. Leave all other connec- itself is the same as the current flowing in
tions alone as they will be used in the the external circuit.
next experiment. Leave the two flashlight
cells connected together and the lead Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
from the negative terminal of the battery
periment, in addition to the meter, chas-
connected to terminal 12.
sis and flashlight cells you will need the
Statement No. 6: When Iconnected following parts:
an 82,000-ohm resistor in place of the
parallel group, the reading was: I 100,000-ohm resistor
1 82,000-ohm resistor
gher 1 22,000-ohm resistor
lower Hookup wire

than the reading obtained in Step 3.

Fig. 7-1 shows the circuit you will use
This indicates that the resistance of the
for Step I. This is the same setup used in
parallel group was:

C more than
r? less than
10
•
I
4

that of the 82,000-ohm resistor by itself. 22K/

70
EXPERIMENT 7

Purpose: To show that the current is

the same at every point in aseries circuit. Fig. 7-1. Schematic of circuit for Step 1.

61
 STEP READING Step 2: To measure the current re-
turning to the battery.
I
`-- C, • 5--
2 (---- 9, 5 — Rewire the circuit as shown in Fig. 7-3.
To do this, first unsolder and remove the
red wire from terminal 10 to terminal 14.
Unsolder the black negative battery lead
Fig. 7-2. Record your reading for Experi-
from terminal 12. Solder the free end of
ment 7here.
the black wire to terminal 10. Connect
the last experiment. To construct the and solder alength of hookup wire from
circuit, solder the leads of the 22,000- terminal 7to terminal 12.
ohm resistor to terminals 7and 10. When Notice on the schematic in Fig. 7-3
you have made these connections you that the meter is now between the resis-
should have: tor and the positive battery terminal.
Touch the free end of the positive
(I) a wire from the negative battery battery lead to terminal 14 to complete
terminal (negative terminal of B1)to
the circuit. Read the meter on the 30-volt
terminal 12,
scale. Open the circuit after recording the
(2) a wire connecting terminal 14 and
reading for Step 2in Fig. 7-2.
terminal 10,
(3) a 22,000-ohm resistor connected 10

from terminal 10 to terminal 7,

(4) a wire from the positive terminal of
B1 to the negative terminal of B2,
and
5) a wire soldered to the positive bat-
(
tery terminal with the other end free.
There should be no wire soldered to
terminal 7. Fig. 7-3. Circuit for Step 2.

If your circuit is properly wired, you

may proceed with the first step. Step 3: To show that the current
flowing inside the battery itself is the
Step 1: To measure the current leaving same as the current flowing in the ex-
the battery. ternal circuit.

Touch the free end of the positive The battery you are using in this
battery lead to terminal 7. Read the experiment consists of two flashlight
meter on the 30-volt scale and record the cells. Large batteries of the type used in
reading in the space provided for Step 1 earlier tube-type portable radios have
in Fig. 7-2. On the schematic in Fig. 7-1, voltages of 45 and 90 volts and are made
you can see that the battery current flows up of groups of 1.5-volt cells, similar to
from the negative battery terminal, flashlight cells. These are connected in
through the meter to the resistor. It then series to get the required voltage. The
flows through the resistor and back to more cells that are connected in series,
the positive battery terminal. the higher the voltage.

62
 82
+ -
the positive terminal of 13 1.Solder the
10
free end of the wire to terminal 12.
Solder the negative battery lead to
terminal 7.
22K Connect and solder alength of hookup
wire from terminal 14 to the positive
terminal of B1.Check to see that your
circuit is wired correctly.
Touch the positive battery lead (from
Fig. 7-4. Circuit for Step 3. B2) to terminal 10 to complete the
circuit. Read the meter carefully and
With an external circuit connected to open the circuit after recording your
the battery, you can measure the internal reading in the space provided for Step 3
current in the battery by inserting a in Fig. 7-2.
meter between any two adjacent cells.
To illustrate this in the experiment, Discussion: In Step 3 of this experi-
wire the circuit shown in the schematic in ment, the circuit is connected as shown in
Fig. 7-4. Fig. 7-5 shows apictorial dia- Fig. 7-4. Here the meter is actually placed
gram of the wiring. Unsolder and remove between the two flashlight cells, and is
the short length of hookup wire con- measuring the current flowing from one
nected from terminal /to terminal 12. cell into the second cell. Compare your
Locate the wire connecting the two readings for this step with your readings
flashlight cells. Unsolder this wire from in Steps 1and 2.

Fig. 7-5. Chassis wired for Step 3.

63
 Notice that the readings are the same To carry out the experiment for this
in all three steps. This demonstrates an statement, you will need one 100,000-
extremely important fact. The value of ohm resistor and one 82,000-ohm re-
the current is the same throughout the sistor. Wire the circuit as shown in Fig.
entire circuit. This means you— aiicon- 7-6. Connect a 100,000-ohm resistor
nect a iieter at any point in a simple from terminal 10 to terminal 13. Solder
series circuit to measure the current; the both connections. Check your circuit to
reading will be the same regardless of see that it is wired according to Fig. 7-6.
where the meter is connected. Solder the positive battery wire to termi-
It is easy to see why the current in a nal 13.
series circuit is the same throughout the Note the reading on the meter on the
entire circuit. When you close the circuit 30-volt scale. Bend the leads of the
by touching the battery wire to the :.y 82,000-ohm resistor so that you can
circuit, electrons begin to leave the nega- conveniently bridge the resistor across
tive terminal of the battery. They strike either the 100,000-ohm or the 22,000-
other electrons and cause them to move. ohm resistor. Bridge the 82,000-ohm re-
These electrons, in turn, strike additional sistor first across the 100,000-ohm re-
electrons, and so on throughout the sistor and note the meter reading on the
entire circuit. This, of course, occurs margin. Next move the 82,000-ohm re-
instantaneously; as soon as the circuit is sistor over and bridge the 22,000-ohm
completed, electrons start moving resistor. Again, read the meter and note
through the entire circuit. the reading in the margin.
At the same instant that electrons Compare the two meter readings and
begin to leave the negative terminal of the answer the Report Statement.
battery, pushing other electrons before Unsolder the positive battery lead from
them, other electrons begin entering the terminal 13. Unsolder and remove the
positive terminal of the battery, because 100,000-ohm resistor connected between
the electrons are attracted by the positive terminals 10 and 13 and the 22,000-ohm
potential. The number of electrons resistor connected between terminals 7
moving in one part of the series circuit is and 10. Unsolder and remove the short
exactly equal to the number of electrons red wire between the positive terminal of
moving in any other part of the series B1 and terminal 14. Unsolder the red
circuit. wire from terminal 12. (The other end of
Instructions for Statement No. 7: In 82K
the preceding experiment, you demon-
strated that when resistors are connected
in parallel, the total resistance of the
r
.
combination is lowered. If the applied
voltage does not change, this results in an 82K

increase in current. For this Report State-

ment, you will connect alow resistance in
series with a high resistance. Then you
will shunt each resistance with an
82,000-ohm resistor and note the effect
on the total circuit current. Fig. 7-6. Circuit for Statement 7.

64
this wire is soldered to the negative sum of the currents flowing in the
terminal of B2.) Solder the free end of branches.
this wire to the positive terminal of B1 to
connect the two cells in series again. Introductory Discussion: In any piece
of electronic equipment, there are usually
Clean and straighten the leads of the
several tubes or transistors connected
resistors you removed and clean all un-
across asingle power supply. Each circuit,
used terminals.
or stage, as they are usually called,
generally draws a different current. The
Statement No. 7: When Ishunted the
total current that the power supply must
100K-ohm resistor with an 82K-ohm re-
provide is equal to the sum of the
sistor, and then shunted the 22K-ohm
currents drawn by the individual stages.
resistor with the 82K-ohm resistor, I
Each stage acts as a separate load con-
found that the effect on the current was:
nected across the power supply. If a
defect develops in one stage so that the
(1) greater when the 22K-ohm resis-
stage draws more current than it should,
- tor was shunted.
not only will that stage be overloaded,
(2)'greater when the 100K-ohm re-
but also the total current that the power
sistor was shunted.
supply must furnish will increase. As a
(3) the sanie in both cases.
result, the power supply may be over-
loaded. It is important for you to remem-
EXPERIMENT 8 ber this when you start doing repair
work. If apower transformer overheats, it
Purpose: To show that the total cur- does not necessarily indicate that the
rent flowing in a parallel circuit is the transformer is defective; it often indicates

Fig. 8-1. Chassis for Step 1.

65
 solder the other end to terminal 7. Do
not connect the positive battery lead at
this time.
Before you go to Step 1, carefully
check your work with the schematic of
Fig. 8-2 and the pictorial drawing of Fig.
10 8-1. Make sure you have made all of the
connections correctly.
Fig. 8-2. Schematic of circuit for Step 1.
Step 1: To measure the total current
that adefect in some stage other than the flow in aparallel circuit.
power supply is causing the transformer
to overheat. Touch the positive battery lead (con-
In this experiment you will prove that nected to the positive terminal of B2)to
the sum of the individual branch currents terminal 10. Observe the readings on the
in a parallel circuit is equal to the total 30-volt scale on your meter. Remove the
circuit current. positive battery lead from terminal 10
after recording your reading in the space
Experimental Procedure: In addition provided for Step 1in Fig. 8-3.
to the parts already on the experimental
chassis you will need the following parts: STEP READING

2 100K-ohm resistors
1 82K-ohm resistor 2

Hookup wire 3
Ç 0 °

You should have the two flashlight

cells connected to form a 3-volt battery
Fig. 8-3. Record your reading for Experi-
on your chassis. For this experiment, you
ment 8here.
must wire your circuit as shown in Figs.
8-1 and 8-2. With the arrangement shown in Fig.
Solder the two 100,000-ohm resistors 8-2, the three resistors are in parallel and
and the 82,000-ohm resistor to terminals the current which you measured is the
10 and 7. You should then have two total current flowing in the circuit.
100,000-ohm resistors and the 82,000-
ohm resistor connected in parallel. Con- Step 2: To measure the current
nect the black wire from the negative through a100,000-ohm resistor.
terminal of B1 to terminal 6. Next strip
1/4" of insulation from each end of a5" You will use the circuit shown in the
length of black hookup wire and solder schematic diagram in Fig. 8-4. To change
this wire to terminals 6 and 12 as your wiring to make this circuit, unsolder
indicated in Fig. 8-1. the lead of the 82,000-ohm resistor and
Remove about 1/4" of insulation from the lead of one 100,000-ohm resistor
each end of an 8" length of red hookup from terminal 7. Solder these two leads
wire. Solder one end to terminal 14 and to terminal 6.

66
 terminal 10 and observe the meter indica-
tion on the 30-volt scale. Remove the
R1 battery lead from terminal 10 after re-
82K cording your reading in the space for Step
3in Fig. 8-3.

10 Step 4: To measure the current

through the 82,000-ohm resistor.
Fig. 8-4. Circuit for Step 2.
Modify the circuit as shown in the
As you can see in the schematic, when schematic in Fig. 8-6. Unsolder the
the circuit is completed, current will flow 100,000-ohm resistor lead from terminal
through all three resistors. However, only 7 and resolder it to terminal 6. Unsolder
the current through R3 the 100,000-ohm the lead of the 82,000-ohm resistor from
resistor connected to terminal 7will flow terminal 6 and resolder it to terminal 7.
through the meter. This places the meter in the 82,000-ohm
Touch the positive battery lead to resistor circuit only.
terminal 10. Read the meter on the
30-volt scale and record your reading for
Step 2in Fig. 8-3.

Step 3: To measure the current

through the second 100,000-ohm resistor,
R2.

Fig. 8-5 shows the circuit. To make the

necessary changes, unsolder the
10
100,000-ohm resistor lead from terminal
7 and resolder it to terminal 6. Then
unsolder the lead of the other 100,000- Fig. 8-6. Circuit for measuring the current
ohm resistor from terminal 6and resolder through the 82K-ohm resistor.
it to terminal 7.
Touch the positive battery lead to
Touch the positive battery lead to
terminal 10. Read the meter on the
30-volt scale. Remove the positive battery
lead from terminal 10 after recording
12
your reading in the space provided for
Step 4in Fig. 8-3.

RI
14 R
e3
100K Discussion: In this experiment, you
82K 7 have measured the total current flowing
Re
100K in a circuit, and also the current flowing
in the individual branch circuits. Since
10 you used two 100,000-ohm resistors, you
should have found that the current flow-
Fig. 8-5. Circuit for Step 3. ing through these resistors was the same.

67
In other words, the readings you obtained Statement No. 8: When I measured
in Steps 2and 3should have been equal. the individual branch currents flowing in
In actually taking this measurement, the circuit consisting of two 100K-ohm
you may have found a slight variation resistors and one 82K-ohm resistor, I
because the resistors have atolerance of found that the current was greatest
10%. Even though we call the resistor a
100K-ohm resistor, its actual resistance (1) through one of ¡he 100K-ohm
may be as much as 10,000 ohms more or resistors.
less than 100,000 ohms. The resistance in ( ')through the 82K-ohm resistor.
series with the meter, therefore, may be
any value between 90,000 and 110,000 This shows that maximum current will
ohms, which would account for the varia- flow through the branch in the parallel
tion in your measurements. The circuit having
82,000-ohm resistor can have any value
between 73,800 ohms and 90,200 ohms. (JjJ,)the lowest resistance.
Therefore, it is actually possible to have (2) the highest resistance.
little or no difference in reading between
the 82,000-ohm resistor and one or both EXPERIMENT 9
of the 100,000-ohm resistors. In most
electronics work, resistor values are not Purpose: To show that a micro-
critical, and it is much more economical ammeter can be used as avoltmeter i fa
to use a resistor having a 10% tolerance, suitable resistor is placed in series with
than it is to use aresistor having a 1% the meter.
tolerance.
To show that the total current flowing Introductory Discussion: You have
in the circuit is equal to that in the seen how amicroarnmeter can be used to
individual branch circuits, add your read- indicate the presence of current and to
ings for Steps 2, 3, and 4, and compare show if the current increases, decreases,
the result with the readings for Step I. or remains constant when circuit condi-
The sum of the readings recorded in Steps tions are changed. We have not been able
2, 3, and 4 should be approximately to measure the current in microamperes
equal to the reading you have recorded in or milliamperes because the meter is not
Step 1. calibrated to read in microamperes. It
would be possible to calculate the current
Instructions for Statement No. 8: For from your scale readings, but since we are
this Statement, you do not need to take not interested in exact values, it is not
any additional measurements. You can necessary.
use the readings you took in the experi- Your meter is a0-200 microanuneter.
ment to answer the statement. This means that acurrent of 200 micro-
Answer the statement and unsolder amperes must flow through the meter to
and remove the two 100,000-ohm resis- give a full-scale deflection. In other
tors and the 82,000-ohm resistor from words, when the pointer is at 30 on the
terminals 6, 7, and 10. Remove the red 30-volt scale, the current flowing through
wire from terminals 7and 14 and remove the meter is 200 microamperes. (Micro-
the black wire from terminals 6and 12. amperes is abbreviated µa.)

68
 If your meter had a200 microampere we will have to subtract the resistance of
(200 µa) scale printed on it, and we the meter itself from the resistance to be
inserted a resistance in series with the placed in series with the meter. However,
meter, and then connected the combina- the resistance of your microammeter is
tion across a voltage source, you could small compared to 15,000 ohms, so we
read the current through the meter. The will simply connect the 15,000-ohm resis-
current would depend upon two things: tor in series with the meter to give us a
the voltage of the source, and the re- voltmeter that will read 3 volts on full
sistance we placed in series with the scale. The error introduced by disre-
meter. If we knew what the resistance garding the meter resistance will be un-
was, we could read the current from the important in this experiment.
meter, and then calculate the voltage by As mentioned earlier, the scales on the
using Ohm's Law. Ohm's Law states that meter are labeled 0 to 12 and 0 to 30.
E = I X R. So we would multiply the For the 3-volt scale, read the 0to 30 volt
current in amperes by the resistance in scale but mentally divide the reading by
ohms to get the voltage of the source. 10, or place a decimal point before the
This arrangement has one drawback, last digit. For example, for a full scale
however. It takes quite a bit of time to reading, the pointer will point to 30.
make the mathematical calculations. Dividing this by 10 gives us 3.0. Similarly,
Actually, it is not necessary to do this, a reading of 20 is actually 2.0 on the
because as long as the resistance remains 3-volt scale, just as 15 is 1.5 volts, 5is 0.5
unchanged, the current will depend only volts and so on.
on the voltage. Therefore, we can cali-
brate the meter to read directly in volt- Experimental Procedure: In this ex-
age. Now let us see how we can find out periment, in addition to your meter and
what resistor we need in order to use the chassis with parts mounted, you will need
3-volt range on the meter. the following parts:
To do this, we again turn to Ohm's
Law. One form of Ohm's Law states that 1 15,000-ohm resistor
the resistance is equal to the amount of Hookup wire
voltage divided by the amount of current.
In other words, R = E ÷ 1. We want the Prepare 1' lengths of red and black
meter to read full scale when the voltage hookup wire. Remove about 1/2" of
applied is 3 volts; therefore E will be insulation from each end of the wires.
equal to 3. We know that the meter is a
200 microampere meter; it takes 200 Step 1: To convert your micro-
microamperes (200 pa) of current to ammeter to avoltmeter.
make the meter read full scale. Con-
verting this value to amperes, we get Unsolder the red meter lead from
.0002 ampere. Now, to get the value of terminal 14 and reconnect to terminal 13.
resistance needed, we divide 3 by .0002. Connect the 15,000-ohm resistor from
This will give us 15,000. Therefore, the terminal 13 to terminal 14. Solder termi-
resistance value that should be added to nal 13. Solder one end of the length of
the circuit is 15,000 ohms. red wire to terminal 14. Leave the other
If we want to build an accurate meter, end free.

69
 Solder one end of the 1' length of about 3.1 volts which would make your
black hookup wire to terminal 12. The meter read slightly above full scale.
meter can now be used as a 0 to 3volt
voltmeter. The black wire connected to Step 3: To measure the voltage of a
terminal 12 is your negative voltmeter single flashlight cell.
lead and the red wire connected to
terminal 14 is your positive voltmeter Touch the positive voltmeter lead to
lead. the positive terminal of one cell, and
touch the negative meter lead to the
Step 2: To measure the voltage of the negative terminal of the same flashlight
two flashlight cells connected in series. cell. Note the reading on the meter. The
reading should be about center scale,
The cells should still be connected in indicating avoltage of approximately 1.5
series as they were in the last experiment. volts. Check the voltage of the other
Touch the negative meter lead (the black flashlight cell in the same way.
wire connected to terminal 12) to the
negative terminal of the 3-volt battery, Discussion: The meter that you con-
and touch the positive meter lead to the structed in this experiment is often re-
positive terminal of the 3-volt battery. ferred to as a 5,000-ohms per volt volt-
Fig. 9-1 shows the circuit used in this meter. We usually write this as 5,000
step. Note the reading on the 3-volt scale ohms/volt. Notice that to convert the
on your meter. The reading should be meter to a 3-volt voltmeter, we use a
approximately full scale, indicating avolt- 15,000-ohm resistor. If we wanted to
age of about 3 volts. The reading might convert the meter to a 12-volt meter, we
be alittle higher or lower than full scale, would have used a60,000-ohm resistor. If
depending upon the tolerance of the we wanted to convert the meter to a
15,000-ohm resistor and the actual volt- 30-volt meter, we would have used a
age of your battery. In general, new 150,000-ohm resistor. In all cases, to find
flashlight cells have aterminal voltage of the resistance needed, we multiply the
1.55 volts which drops to about 1.5 volts required full scale voltage by 5,000.
when the cells are heavily loaded (are In the early days of electronics, meters
supplying large current). In this circuit with sensitivities of 1,000 ohms/volt and
there is hardly any load so the battery 5000 ohms/volt were the only types
voltage should be 2 times 1.55 volts or available. Today most meters have sensi-
tivities of 20,000 ohms/volt to 150,000
ohms/volt.
The sensitivity of the meter used in
service work is important. If the meter
has a sensitivity of only 5,000 ohms per
volt, it is quite possible that you will not
get an accurate indication of the voltage
in a circuit. In the next experiment we
will show you exactly how this can
happen and why the sensitivity of the
Fig. 9-1. Circuit to measure battery voltage. meter is important to the serviceman.

70
 14
they are connected in parallel. To do this,
unsolder the red wire from the positive
terminal of cell B1 which is on the left
r side of your chassis. This wire should still

1
be attached to the negative terminal of
cell B2 .Solder the free end of this wire to
terminal 6. Solder the free end of the
6
positive battery lead (the wire soldered to
the positive terminal of B2)to the posi-
Fig. 9-2. Circuit for Statement 9. tive terminal of B1.Check your work
against Figs. 9-2 and 9-3.
Another type of meter, the vacuum
Touch the positive voltmeter lead to
tube voltmeter or the transistor volt-
the positive terminal of battery B1 or B2
meter, has an even higher sensitivity than
and the negative meter lead to terminal 6.
the meters previously discussed. For this
Note the reading on your meter, and
reason most electronics technicians prefer
answer the statement.
this type to the simple voltmeter of the
Unsolder the red wire from the positive
type you have just constructed. You will
terminal of battery B1 and push the free
build a sensitive transistor voltmeter in
end out of the way. Unsolder the red wire
the next Training Kit.
from terminal 6 and solder the free end
Instructions for Statement No. 9: In to the positive terminal of flashlight cell
this statement, you are to measure the B1.Leave the 15,000-ohm resistor con-
voltage of the two flashlight cells when nected to terminals 13 and 14, and the

Fig. 9-3. Chassis used for Statement 9.

71
red and black voltmeter leads connected 1 1,000-ohm resistor
to terminals 12 and 13. 2 100,000-ohm resistors
1 82,000-ohm resistor
Statement No. 9: When I measured 2 Flashlight cells
the voltage of the two parallel-connected
flashlight cells, I found that it was Your flashlight cells should still be
approximately connected in series to form a 3-volt
battery.
(1).. 3volts. Construct the circuit shown in Fig.
_12)) 1.5 volts. 10-1. Solder one lead of a 1,000-ohm
(3) 0. resistor to terminal 6. Push the free lead
through the slot in terminal 4. Connect
EXPERIMENT 10 the 680-ohm resistor between terminals 3
and 4 and solder terminal 4. Connect the
Purpose: To show that in a series 470-ohm resistor between terminals 2and
circuit, there is avoltage across each part, 3. Solder terminal 3. Solder the resistor
that the sum of the voltages is equal to lead and the free end of the positive
the source voltage, and that avoltmeter battery lead to terminal 2.
can upset the voltage division.
Step 1: To measure voltages in alow-
Introductory Discussion: You already resistance series circuit.
know that if you connect your voltmeter
across the battery, you get an indication You will use your 3-volt meter to
of the voltage produced by the battery. measure the voltages in the circuit shown
When the battery is connected to a in Fig. 10-1.
series circuit, the battery voltage drives To measure the source voltage, hold
electrons through the circuit. The elec- the negative voltmeter lead on terminal 6,
trons, in moving through each part of the and touch the positive meter lead to
circuit, set up avoltage across each part. terminal 2. Observe the meter on the
If you accurately measure the voltage 3-volt scale and place your reading in the
across each part and add these voltages, space for the source voltage in Fig. 10-2.
you will find that the sum of these Next, while holding the negative volt-
voltages is equal to the source voltage. meter lead on terminal 6, touch the
In this experiment, you will construct positive lead to terminal 4 and measure
a simple circuit and measure the voltage
2 470
across each of the individual parts in the
circuit to prove that the sum of the R3

voltages is equal to the battery voltage.

3V
R2
Experimental Procedure: In this ex- 680

periment, in addition to the meter and

chassis, you will need:
6 IK

1 470-ohm resistor
1 680-ohm resistor Fig. 10-1. Circuit for Experiment 10.

72
 READINGS Construct the circuit shown in Fig.
R1 /•J Z. k 10-3. Solder one lead of a 100,000-ohm
Rz resistor, RI,to terminal 6. Connect the
R3 . other lead to terminal 4. Connect one
RI+ R2+R3
lead of the 82,000-ohm resistor to ter-
SOURCE e, /v minal 4 and solder. Connect the other
lead of this resistor to terminal 3. Con-
Fig. 10-2. Record your reading for Step
nect and solder the other 100,000-ohm
1here.
resistor, R3,from terminal 3 to terminal
the voltage across resistor RI.Record this 2. To complete the circuit, solder the
voltage in the space provided for R1 in positive battery lead to terminal 2.
Fig. 10-2. Measure the voltage applied to the
Move the positive meter lead to termi- circuit by holding the positive voltmeter
nal 3 and the negative meter lead to lead on terminal 2 and touching the
terminal 4 and measure the voltage across negative voltmeter lead to terminal 6.
resistor R2.Record your reading in the Read your meter on the 3-volt scale and
space provided for R2 in Fig. 10-2. record your reading in the space reserved
To measure the voltage across resistor for the source voltage in Fig. 10-4.
R3, touch the positive meter lead to
terminal 2 and the negative meter lead to READINGS
terminal 3. Read the voltage on the 3-volt RI e
scale on your meter and record your R2 ..
reading in the space provided for resistor R3 ,
R3,in Fig. 10-2. Now add together the R1+ R2+R3 1 •
three voltages you recorded for 12 1,R2, .-,
SOURCE
and R3 and put this value in place labeled
R1 + R2 +R3 in Fig. 10-2. Fig. 10-4. Record your readings for Step 2
Unsolder the positive battery lead from here.
terminal 2, to open the circuit. Unsolder
Using the same technique you used in
and remove the 470-ohm, the 680-ohm
Step 1, measure the voltages across each
and the 1,000-ohm resistors.
of the three resistors. Record these volt-
ages in the spaces provided for it in Fig.
Step 2: To measure voltage in ahigher
10-4. Now add together the three voltages
resistance series circuit.
you recorded for RI,R2,and R3 and put
this value in the place labeled R1 + R2 +
R3 in Fig. 10-4.
When you have made your readings,
disconnect the positive battery lead from
terminal 2.

Discussion: In Step 1, you measured

the source voltage applied to the circuit
and you measured the voltage across each
resistor. You found that the source volt-
Fig. 10-3. Circuit used in Step 2. age was about 3volts. This is the voltage

73
across the three series-connected resistors. is the negative meter lead. The negative
The voltage drop across R1 was about battery terminal is the most negative
1.4 volts, across R2 it was about .95 volts point in the circuit. In Fig. 10-1, the
and across R3 about .7 volts. When you voltage at terminal 4is more positive than
added the voltage drops across resistors the voltage at terminal 6. Similarly, the
RI,R2 and R3, you should have found voltage at terminal 3is more positive than
the sum to be approximately equal to the the voltage at terminal 4 and the voltage
source voltage. at terminal 2 is more positive than the
The voltage across a resistor is deter- voltage at terminal 3.
mined by the current in the resistor and You must always connect your volt-
the value or resistance of the resistor. As meter so the positive lead is connected to
you would expect from Ohm's Law, the the more positive terminal. Otherwise,
largest resistor has the largest voltage your meter will read backwards and may
across it while the smallest resistor has be damaged.
the smallest voltage. In Step 2, you also found that the
Another important point that you supply voltage is about 3volts. However,
should learn from the experiment is how when you add the three readings taken
to connect the voltmeter to measure for Step 2, you will find that the three
voltage. A voltmeter is always placed in voltage drops do not add up to 3volts. At
parallel with or across the voltage you are first glance, you might think that some-
interested in measuring. thing is wrong.
To measure the battery voltage in the Actually, the error is due to your
circuit in Fig. 10-1, you measure between meter resistance. The circuit you have
terminals 2 and 6, which are directly when you connect the meter across R1 is
across the battery. To measure the volt- shown in Fig. 10-5.
age across resistor RI,you measure the Since the resistance of the voltmeter,
voltage between terminals 4 and 6. In which consists of the 15,000-ohm resistor
every case, the positive meter lead is and the resistance of the 0 to 200
connected to a more positive point than rnicroammeter, is only slightly more than
R3
100K

Fig. 10-5.Circuit for Experiment 10 with meter connected across RI.

74
15,000 ohms, the total resistance of RI will build atransistorized voltmeter. This
and the meter in parallel with it is much meter has a resistance of several meg-
less than the 100,000-ohm value of R1 ohms. Thus, when you use this meter to
alone. The resistance of the combination measure the voltage in high resistance
is very close to 15,000 ohms. Therefore, circuits, you will get a more accurate
most of the voltage will be dropped voltage indication than you would using a
across resistor R2 and R3,and very little simple voltmeter such as that which you
will appear across the combination of R1 used in this experiment.
and the meter circuit in parallel with it.
Instructions for Statement 10: For this
The same thing is true when you
statement, you are to measure the voltage
connect your meter across R2 and R3.
drop across two resistors. R1 and R2 in
Each time you connect the meter across a
Fig. 10-3. Solder the positive battery lead
high resistance, the parallel combination
to terminal 2. Touch your negative meter
of the meter and the resistor across which
lead to terminal 6 and the positive meter
you are measuring voltage forms a re-
lead to terminal 3. Observe your meter
sistance that is much lower than the
indication on the 3-volt scale and write
original resistor value. The entire circuit,
the reading in the margin on this page.
therefore, is upset and the voltage you
measure is not the true voltage that is Statement No. 10: When Imeasured
across the resistor when the meter is not the voltage across resistors R1 and R2 ,I
connected to it. found that the voltage was
To prevent such erroneous readings,
you need a meter with a very high ess than 1volt.
resistance. If your meter had asensitivity (2) approximately 1.5 volts.
of 100,000 ohms per volt on the 3-volt (3) approximately 3volts.
scale, you would have atotal resistance of
300,000 ohms in the voltmeter circuit. After you have answered the state-
Then, when you make your measure- ment, unsolder the positive battery lead
ments, you would be placing 300,000 from terminal 2 and push it out of the
ohms in parallel with 100,000 ohms. way. Unsolder and remove the red and
Although the meter resistance is still low black meter leads and all other parts and
enough to upset the circuit you used in wires connected to terminals 12, 13, and
this experiment, it would not upset the 14. Straighten and clean the leads of the
circuit nearly as much as the 15,000-ohm I5,000-ohm resistor and set it aside.
resistance did. You should still have the two flashlight
The resistor values used in the first step cells connected in series and attached to
were much less than the combined value the chassis. You should also have the two
of the meter and its series resistor. For 100K-ohm and one 82K-ohm resistors
this reason, the meter resistance has very soldered to terminals 2, 3, 4and 6. These
little effect on the readings you made in resistors and the 3 volt battery will be
the circuit in Step 1. used in the first experiment of the next
In your next set of experiments, you training kit.

75
 Looking Ahead
This completes the experiments in Kit In the next kit, you will build a
IT. One of the most important things transistorized voltmeter (tvom). You will
you should have learned is how to solder find this work extremely interesting, and
correctly. As we pointed out, you will at the same time you will be building an
make soldered connections in all your instrument that will be useful to you in
electronics work, and one poorly soldered the rest of your experiments, and later
connection can cause you hours of un- when you start work in any branch of the
necessary work. electronics field. In addition to building
In later kits you will have further the tvom you will continue with your
experience in reading the meter. Of studies of basic circuits.
course, you will use the meter throughout Check to see that your training Kit
your Practical Demonstration Course. Report sheet is completed and send it to
You should have learned how to read the NRI for grading.
0 to 30 volt and 0to 12 volt scales in this While waiting for the return of this
group of experiments; in the next kit, Report and for your next kit, prepare the
you will learn how to read the ohmmeter parts you have left over for use in later
scale. You also demonstrated anumber of kits. The parts left over are shown in
important basic circuit actions. It is much Table I. Remove the meter from its box
easier to study and understand the more and unsolder and remove the diodes and
advanced circuits that you will encounter wires from the meter terminals. Also,
later if you understand how the simple remove the solder lugs. Clean the meter
circuits work, and what changes in the terminals, and place the meter back in its
circuit will do to voltage distribution and box. Since the meter is adelicate instru-
current flowing in the circuit. ment, be sure to put it in asafe place.

TABLE I

1 Pot mtg. bracket 2 4700-ohm resistors

1 Chassis plate 1 6800-ohm resistor
1 Etched circuit board with tube socket 1 15,000-ohm resistor
1 Marking crayon 1 22,000-ohm resistor
1 Meter 1 1/4" X 6-32 machine screw
1 6-32 hex nut 2 1/4" X 4-40 machine screws
2 4-40 hex nuts 2 Large solder lugs
1 1000-ohm potentiometer 2 Silicon diodes
1 470-ohm resistor Hookup wire
1 680-phm resistor Solder
3 1000-ohm resistors

IMPORTANT: Be sure to save ALL PARTS from this Kit, including screws and nuts,
because you will need them later. Keep small parts in individual envelopes or boxes.

76
 The following parts are attached to the chassis plate:

2 Flashlight cells 1 Small solder lug

1 3-lug terminal strip 5 1/4" X 6-32 machine screws
1 4-lug terminal strip 5 6-32 hex nuts
1 7-lug terminal strip 2 100,000-ohm resistors
1 82,000-ohm resistor

Fig. 4-6. Examples of how you could have wired the circuit used in Experiment 4.

Important Notice
As you use your soldering iron, ascale will accumulate on it. Eventually this scale will
keep the iron from heating properly, and you will have to remove it. To do so, remove
the tip from the barrel. Remove the scale from the tip and tap the end of the barrel
against the workbench to loosen and remove the scale in the barrel. Refile the tip, if
necessary, and put it back in the barrel.
If you have asoldering gun, poor contact may develop between the tip and the metal
terminals of the gun. This can be eliminated by loosening and then tightening the nuts
holding the tip in place. Make sure the nuts are tightened securely. Clean and re-tin the
tip when it gets dirty, and replace it when it gets pitted.

Warning

You are expected to make a grade of A, B, C, or D for each group of ten

experiments in this Practical Demonstration Course. If any of your reports
come back to you marked "Low," you are to repeat the experiments and
report statements marked "X" and then send in a complete new set of
answers, using the new report blank we will send you. Since this procedure
may mean that you will have to dismantle equipment that is to be used as a
unit in succeeding experiments, do not begin work on the next Kit until you
have received agrade of A, B, C, or D.

77
Each Day Counts ...

Each day of our life offers its own reward for work

well done, its own chance for happiness. These

rewards may seem small, and these chances may seem

petty in comparison with the big things we see ahead.

As aresult, many of us pass by these daily rewards

and daily opportunities, never recognizing that the

final goal, the shining prize in the distance, is just a

sum of all these little rewards we must win as we go

along.
_
;

••>.

• ' ••:-,:;ekeiràà•àa;
Innovation in learning
by a McGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-KM-201
 TRAINING KIT MANUAL

FJiii *1 WI WI WI urfl 2T

NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE • WASHINGTON, D. C.

 TRAINING KIT MANUAL 2T
PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATIONS
IN BASIC ELECTRONICS

ià
&
 INDEX OF SECTIONS

D I. Introduction Pages 1-5

lil 2. Assembling Your TVOM Pages 6-17

D 3. Balancing and Calibrating the TVOM Pages 18 -21

E 4. Instructions for Performing the Experiments Pages 21 -48

D 5. Putting Your Ohmmeter Into Operation Pages 49 -65

COPYRIGHT 1970 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

JP2M772 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 INSTRUCTIONS FOR ASSEMBLING
YOUR TVOM AND PERFORMING
EXPERIMENTS 11-20

In the first part of this training kit you The parts supplied with this kit are
will build a modern, battery-operated, shown in Fig. 1 and are listed below.
transistorized volt-ohmmeter (abbreviated Examine the parts you received to make
tvom), which you will use in working the certain they are all there and that no
experiments in the second part of this parts are obviously damaged. If any part
training kit as well as in later training kits. is missing or damaged, be sure to let us
This instrument is a professional quality know right away; we will supply the
meter and you should do the very best replacement part as quickly as possible so
work that you can in assembling it. If you that you can begin construction of your
follow the instructions carefully and ex- tvom.
actly, and use the soldering practices you Before you start the actual assembly of
learned in your first training kit, you your tvom, we want to bring to your
should have no trouble at all in doing an attention certain facts about the resistors,
excellent construction job. capacitors and other parts supplied with
Most of the parts for the tvom are this kit and others. This information will
assembled on the large etched circuit help you identify the various parts and
board. Be very careful when soldering to ensure that you use the correct part for
the circuit board to follow the procedures each step of the assembly.
given in the first training kit. If you have
forgotten these procedures, or are in
CAPACITORS
doubt in any way about how much heat
or solder to use, go back and review the
section in Training Kit IT on soldering. There are four types of capacitors used
The finished etched circuit board repre- in the assembly of your tvom: ceramic
sents afairly large amount of money, and disc, polystyrene, tubular, and electro-
any damage which you do to it may lytic. The disc capacitors are round and
require replacing the entire circuit board, thin with lead wires coming from one
at your expense. We do not say this to edge. The value of the capacitor, type,
frighten you, but merely to try to impress and working voltage are stamped on the
you with the importance of doing good body of the capacitor. The value will be
work and of following the instructions either in picofarads (pf) or microfarads
exactly! (mfd). If the number is awhole number,

1
 = • CNIII
Mle

CN82 POLY CN269

BA6 BA7 CN 86 CAPS.

BIB ---
CL3 * CL8 IN9 KN47
CL45 KN46

dim

çegge
•
EC23
P065 P096 P0101
P0102 PR I

n •
eau
I% 5% 10% TS20
I/2W RESISTORS SW6 4-1 SW65 SV/66 SW67

Liu 0,110
ST43 NUI SC42 WAI5 WAI8
WR5I WR282 WR283

*Experimental Parts

Fig. 1. Parts supplied with this kit are shown above and listed below.

Part Price Part Price

Quan. No. Description Each Quart. No. De›,cription Each

1 BA6 9V battery .68 2 KN47 Small knobs .32

1 BA7 1.5V "C" cell battery .23 1 LUI No. 6solder lug 12/.15
1 CL3 Alligator clip .14 5 NUI 6-32 hex nuts 12/.15
1 CL45 Battery clip .26 1 PA3I Panel 3.00
I CN82 .01 mfd, 2KV disc cap .22 1 P096 10K-ohm trimmer pot .45
3 CN86 .01 mfd, 1KV disc cap .18 1 P0101 100K-ohm trimmer pot .23
3 CNIII 5-mid elect. cap .35 2 P0102 10K-ohm pot .42
1 CN151 56 pf disc cap .08 1 PR! Probe 1.05
1 CN263 22 pf poly cap .12 1 RE! 10-ohm, 5% res. .24
1 CN264 27 pf poly cap .12 1 RE3 100-ohm, 5% res. .24
1 CN265 200 pf poly cap .12 1 RE9 51K-ohm, 5% res. .24
1 CN266 390 pf poly cap .12 1 RE10 100K-ohm, 5% res. .24 •
1 CN267 2000 pf poly cap .15 1 RE25 10-megohm, 5% res. .2,4
1 CN268 3900 pf poly cap .18 1 RE33 22K-ohm res. .15
1 CN269 .012-mfd tubr. cap .25 1 REM 27K-ohm res. .15
1 EC23A Etched circuit board 4.17 1 RE39 1-megohm res. .15
1 IN9 2" spaghetti tubing .15 1 RE44 2.2-megohm, 10% res. .15
2 KN46 Large knobs w/pointer .40 2 RE50 6.8K-ohm res. .15

2
 Part Price Part Price
Quan. No. Each Quan. No. Description Each

1 11E73 1-megohm, 5% res. .24 1 ST43 2-lug terminal strip .06

1 RE74 10K-ohm, 5% res. .24 1 SW64-1 Function switch with nut 1.75
1 RE94 10K-ohm, 1% res. .78 and flat washer
1 RE95 30K-ohm, 1% res. .78 I 1 SW65 Range switch 1.76
1 RE96 60K-ohm, 1% res. .78 1 SW66 DPDT slide switch .16
1 RE97 300K-ohm, 1% res. .78 1 SW67 SPST slide switch .21
1 RE98 600K-ohm, 1% res. .78 2 TS20 N channel FETs 1.00
1 RE99 3-megohm, 1% res. .78 5 WA 15 No. 6lockwashers 12/.15
1 RE162 6-megohm, 1% res. .78 4 WA18 No. 10 flat washers 12/.15
1 RE163 2.2-megohm, 1% res. .78 1 WR51 Ground wire .30
1 RE164 1K-ohm, 5% res. .24 1 WR2,82 Stranded black wire, 2' .15
5 SC42 6-32 X 3/8" Phillips 1 WR283 Stranded red wire, 2' .15
head screws 12/.25

All resistors are 1/2-watt, 10% tolerance unless otherwise specified.

2T EXPERIMENTAL PARTS

Part Price
Quan. No. Description Each

1 CL8 Alligator clip .07

1 P065 500K-ohm pot
w/switch .95
1 RE31 10K-ohm res. .15
1 RE32 18K-ohm res. .15
1 RE33 22K-ohm res. .15
1 RE36 100K-ohm res. .15
1 RE37 220K-ohm res. .15
1 RE38 470K-ohm res. .15
1 RE39 1-megohm res. .15
2 RE42 10-megohm res. .15
1 RE45 3.3K-ohm res. .15

All resistors are 1/2-watt, 10% tolerance unless otherwise

specified.
•

3
such as 120, the value is in pf. If the memorize this color code, it will be to
number has adecimal, such as .01 or .1, your advantage to do so, as it will speed
the value is in microfarads. The type may up your work to be able to identify
be any of several numbers or letters and resistors at aglance.
for our purposes will be unimportant. The fixed, color-coded resistors sup-
Likewise, the voltage rating is also rela- plied in this kit are of 10% and 5%
tively unimportant in this kit. You should tolerance. It is very important that you
r
be certain, however, that the voltage use the correct resistor in the correct ...
1

rating is at least as great as that indicated circuit. While we might possibly substi-
for the part in the parts list. tute a 5% (gold) tolerance resistor for a
The polystyrene capacitors are tubular 10% (silver) tolerance resistor, you should
in shape and have athin lead wire coming not use a 10% tolerance resistor where a
from each end. These capacitors have a 5% tolerance resistor is called for.
clear plastic outer covering through which There are other fixed resistors in this
you can see the aluminum foil of the kit that may or may not be color-coded.
capacitor plates. As with the disc capaci- These are the 1% precision resistors used
tors, the value of the capacitor is stamped in the input divider chain of the tvom. It
on the outside of the capacitor in pf or is very important that these resistors be
mfd. The largest polystyrene capacitor, used only where called for in the instruc-
CN268, may be stamped "3900" or tions. If these resistors are not color
".0039"; either indicates avalue of .0039 coded, then the value will be printed right
mfd. on the body of the resistor. On these
There is only one tubular capacitor, resistors, the letter "K" stands for 1000,
CN269, a.012-mfd capacitor. This capac- and "M" stands for one million; thus,
itor will have its value stamped on the "10K" means a 10,000-ohm resistor, and
outside of the case. "2.2M" means a 2,200,000-ohm or
Electrolytic capacitors have polarity. 2.2-megohm resistor. If these resistors are
They must be put into the circuit exactly color coded the fourth or tolerance
as indicated, otherwise they may be band will be brown.
damaged. The positive lead of the electro-
lytic, CN Ill, can be identified by a"+"
OTHER PARTS
mark printed at one end, or by the fact
that one end will be colored red. The
value and voltage rating are printed on The other parts you receive in this kit
the side of the capacitor. should be fairly easy to identify. For
example, the two rotary switches, SW64-1
RESISTORS and SW65, are similar in appearance but
the SW64-1 switch has two switch wafers
while the SW65 switch has only one
Many of the resistors used in this kit switch wafer. You can also note that the
are similar to the ones you used in the SW64-1 has 11 clips coming from the rear
first training kit. They are 1/2-watt resis- of the switch, while the SW65 has only 8
tors and are identified by their color clips.
code. Although you do not need to The two slide switches, SW67 and

4
 SW66, do not have the part number fying the remaining parts in this kit, using
stamped on them. They may be identified Fig. 1and the various descriptions of the
by counting the number of lugs they parts in the parts list under Fig. I.
have; SW67 has two and SW66 has six. Figs. 2, 3 and 4 and a schematic
The potentiometers all have their part diagram of the complete tvom are on the
number and value stamped on them. Be two pages in the center of this manual.
particularly careful not to confuse the You can loosen the staples and remove
i'
two small trimmer potentiometers, P096 these pages when you assemble the tvom.
and P0101. They both look alike; how- When you have finished assembling the
ever, the P096 has avalue of 10K ohms tvom, replace the pages in the center of
and the P0101 has avalue of 100K ohms. the manual so you will have the sche-
You should have no difficulty identi- matic handy if you should ever need it.

t
,

5
 Assembling Your TVOM

The assembly of your tvom is divided ETCHED CIRCUIT BOARD ASSEMBLY

into several stages. In each stage you will STAGE I
perform only a few simple steps. In this
way you can stop at frequent intervals Before you begin the first assembly
and check to make certain that you have stage, check to make certain that your
done what was expected for each stage. soldering iron is clean and well tinned. If
Or, if you are interrupted for any reason, it is not in good condition, plug it in and
there are very convenient stopping points. clean and retin it as described in the first
Just note where you stopped so that you training kit.
can pick up your work conveniently. Clear a space on your worktable and
Before you begin the assembly of any put aclean, soft cloth down on which to
stage, read over the entire list of instruc- place the circuit board as you work on it.
tions and make sure you know exactly This will protect both the circuit board
which parts you will need. Then select and the table. Identify and gather the
the required parts and perform the assem- following parts:
bly steps indicated.
When you install parts on the etched 1 Etched circuit board (EC23A)
circuit board, the assembly steps are given 1 Battery clip connector (CL45)
as numbered blocks around a picture of 1 56 pf disc capacitor (CN151)
the board with arrows going from the 1 .01 mfd, 1KV disc capacitor (CN86)
block to the location on the board where 2 10K-ohm pots (P0102)
the part is to be placed. Use the skills you 1 10K-ohm trimmer pot (P096)
learned in the first kit to install, solder 1 100K-ohm trimmer pot (P0101)
and cut off leads for each step. 2 6.8K-ohm, 10%, 1/2-watt resistors
Some parts are installed from the foil (RE50, blue-gray-red-silver)
side of the board. Be careful not to let 1 22K-ohm, 10%, 1/2-watt resistor
solder bridge from one place to another (RE33, red-red-orange-silver)
when you work on the foil side of the 1 27K-ohm, 10%, 1/2-watt resistor
board, and remember to clip off leftover (RE34, red-violet-orange-silver)
lead lengths on the phenolic side of the 1 51K-ohm, 5%, 1/2-watt resistor
board. (RE9, green-brown-orange-gold)
After you have assembled the etched 1 1-megohm, 10%, 1/2-watt resistor
circuit board you will install the meter (RE39, brown-black-green-silver)
and other parts on the panel. Then you 2 N channel FETs (TS20)
will wire the battery, probe and switches. Red stranded wire
Finally you will fasten the circuit board Black stranded wire
to the panel and meter and perform the Hookup wire (from Kit 1T)
calibration procedure. Solder

6
 01 OR 56 PF
combination. Wrap each capacitor lead
WRAP LEADS one time around each resistor lead close
AND SOLDER
CUT OF F to the body of the resistor. Solder both
RESISTOR
LEADS
of these connections, then clip off the
resistor leads as shown. Insert the capaci-
tor leads into the 6.8K-ohm location on
68 IC OHM
the circuit board and solder as you would
any other component. The 56 pf disc
capacitor and the second 6.8K-ohm resis-
tor used in Step 12 are installed in the
same manner.
The two potentiometers installed in
Steps 1and 2may have alarge nut on the

Fig. 2. Detail A. bushing. Remove and set aside these nuts,

if present, as they will not be needed to
hold the potentiometers in place. The
potentiometers are installed by passing
the shaft through the hole from the
phenolic side of the board. Rotate the
body of the control so that the three
BEND SLIGHTLY
solder pins of the potentiometer line up
with the corresponding holes in the cir-
Fig. 2. Detail B. cuit board as shown. With the holes lined
up, push the control fully forward so the
The assembly instructions are given in pins go through the board and the front
Fig. 2(centerfold). of the control is tight up against the
Prepare a 7-1/2" length of red strand- board. Turn the board over, making sure
ed wire and a 7-1/2" length of black that the control stays tight up to the
stranded wire for use in Steps 5 and 6. board, and solder the three pins to the
Remove 1/4" of the insulation from each foil. Do not try to cut off the ends of the
end of both wires, and twist the strands pins.
at the end of each wire tightly together. Detail B for Fig. 2 shows two possible
Tin all four ends with solder to hold the types of TS20 you may have received
strands together. When you install these with this kit. The bottom side (lead side)
wires in Steps 5and 6, the other end of of the transistors is shown. The transistor
each wire will remain free. on the left in Detail B has around case
The red lead of the 9V battery con- and the three leads come from the bot-
nector installed in Step 11 goes to the tom of the case in atriangular configura-
"+9V" location while the white lead goes tion. The gate (g), source (s), and drain
to the "-9V" location. (d) leads are identified in Detail B. These
In Step 8 of Fig. 2 you will install a symbols (g, s, d) correspond to the holes
parallel combination of a6.8K-ohm resis- marked g, s, d on the circuit board at
tor and a.01 mfd disc capacitor. Detail A locations Q1 and Q2 (Steps 9 and 10) of
of Fig. 2 shows how to make this Fig. 2.

7
 The transistor on the right in Detail B 1 390-pf polystyrene capacitor (CN266)
has a black plastic body which is "D" 1 2000-pf polystyrene capacitor (CN267)
shape in cross section. The three leads, g, 1 3900-pf polystyrene capacitor (CN268)
s, d, are "in-line" on this transistor and 1 .012-mfd tubular capacitor (CN269)
the middle lead will have to be bent 3 5-mfd electrolytic capacitors (CN111)
outward slightly in order to have the
There are no special precautions to
leads fit the holes in the circuit board. I.
observe in this stage of the assembly,
When you are sure you have identified
other than the polarity of the three
the leads correctly and are ready for
electrolytic capacitors installed in Steps
Steps 9and 10, push the three leads into 4
5, 6, and 11. The one used in Step 5has
the corresponding holes of the circuit
its "+" end to the left, the one used in
board so that they protrude about 1/8"
Step 6 has its "+" to the right, and the
from the foil side of the board. Turn the
one used in Step 11 has its "+" end
board over, and while holding the transis-
down.
tor in place, quickly solder each of the
You will notice that the hole spacing
three leads to the foil.
for some of the capacitors is much greater
As mentioned earlier, be certain you
than the length of the capacitors. Simply
use the correct trimmer potentiometers in
Steps 13 and 15. center the body of the capacitor between
the holes and bend the leads to fit.
When you are certain you understand
Now proceed to install the parts in
all of the steps, proceed to install the
accordance with Fig. 3, which is in the
parts for Stage 1, shown in Fig. 2. As you
centerfold of this manual.
complete each step, place acheck mark in
the space ( )provided.
ETCHED CIRCU7 BOARD ASSEMBLY
AGE Ill
ETCHED CIRCUIT BOARD ASSEMBLY
STAGE II
In this stage of the assembly of your
In this stage of the a9embly you will circuit board you will install components
install the 1% resistors and the capacitors on the foil side of the board as shown in
on the circuit board. Gather the following Fig. 4(centerfold). You will need:
parts:
Range switch (SW65)
1 2.2 meg, 1/2W, 1% resistor (RE163) Function switch (SW64-1)
1 6meg, 1/2W, 1% resistor (RE162) .01 mfd, 1KV disc capacitor (CN86)
1 3meg, 1/2W, 1% resistor (RE99) 10-ohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor (RE1,
1600K, I/2W, 1% resistor (RE98) brown-black-black-gold)
1 300K, 1/2W, 1% resistor (RE97) 100-ohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor (RE3,
160K, 1/2W, 1% resistor (RE96) brown-black-brown-gold)
1 30K, 1/2W, 1% resistor (RE95) 1K-ohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor
1 10K, I/2W, 1% resistor (RE94) (RE164, brown-black-red-gold)
1 .01-mfd, 2KV disc capacitor (CN82) 10K-ohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor
1 22-pf polystyrene capacitor (CN263) (RE74, brown-black-orange-gold)
1 27-pf polystyrene capacitor (CN264) 100K-ohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor
1 200-pf polystyrene capacitor (CN265) (RE10, brown-black-yellow-gold)

8
I 1 megohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor lugs to the foil. To do this, make sure
(RE73, brown-black-green-gold) your soldering iron is clean and hot. Melt
1 10 megohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor asmall amount of solder on the tip of the
(RE25, brown-black-blue-gold) iron to "wet" it (this promotes good heat
Hookup wire from last training kit transfer) and touch the tip to the solder
lug and the foil at the same time, just as
The two rotary switches, SW64-1 and you did when you soldered the tube
SW65, can only fit into the holes in the socket to the circuit board in the first kit.
circuit board one way — the right way. Add enough solder so that it flows
Examine SW65 carefully. Notice that it smoothly around the solder lug and also
has eight solder lugs pointing back (away adheres to the foil. Remove the iron and
from the rear of the switch wafer) and allow the joint to cool. When you are
eight solder terminals on the front side of satisfied that you have a good connec-
the switch wafer. When the switch is tion, proceed to solder the remaining lugs
correctly positioned, the eight lugs on the to the foil.
rear of the wafer will fit into the corres- SW64-1 is installed in exactly the same
ponding holes of the circuit board; the manner. This switch has eleven lugs to be
flat locating lug on the front of the soldered to the foil and only one solder
switch will be to your left (see Fig. 4); terminal on the front of the rear switch
and the two nuts which hold the switch wafer. (This terminal is not shown in Fig.
together will fall into two larger holes of 4 as it is not used.) There are also two
the circuit board. terminals on the front switch wafer.
If any of the lugs on the rear of the Position the SW64-1 as indicated in Fig. 4
switch wafer are out of line, they must be and solder all eleven lugs to the foil as
straightened or it will be impossible to you did for the range switch.
install the switch correctly. With the lugs In Step 1, install the .01 mfd capacitor
correctly lined up, you should be able to by cutting both leads to 1/2" and solder-
push the switch firmly up against the ing them to the circuit board foil, as
board so that the shoulder of every lug is shown in Fig. 4and Detail A. First tin the
in firm contact with the foil and pro- circuit board foil in the areas shown and
trudes the same distance from the phe- press the capacitor leads as close as
nolic side of the board. The switch shaft possible against the circuit as you melt
will then be perpendicular to the surface the solder on the board. Avoid shorting
of the circuit board. the leads to any of the adjacent foils; the
Be very certain that each switch is blue solder mask material is a good
properly installed before you solder it to insulator but is easily cut, so be careful.
the foil. If even one lug misses its hole, or
if the switch is at a slight angle, your
meter will not operate properly and you
probably will not be able to install the
board into the cabinet.
When you are absolutely certain that
you have the range switch, SW65, prop-
erly positioned, solder each of the eight Fig. 4, Detail A.

9
 The only remaining parts to install are MOUNTING PARTS ON THE PANEL
the seven 5% resistors and three lengths
of hookup wire. The first piece of hook- At this point in the assembly of your
up wire goes from hole number 8 of the tvom you have almost completed your
circuit board to solder terminal 8 of wiring. All that remains to be done is to
SW65 as indicated in Step 9of Fig. 4. mount the meter, two slide switches,
In Step 10, connect a5-1/4" length of assemble the probe and ground lead, s
hookup wire from lug 2 of the front install the batteries and connect the
wafer of the Function switch to the hole etched circuit board to the panel wiring.
marked "J" on the foil. Solder both You will now install the meter, prewire .
connections. Similarly, in Step 11 con- and mount the two switches, and as-
nect a7-1/2" length of hookup wire from semble and install the probe and ground
lug 1of the Function switch to hole "H". leads. You will need the following parts:
Solder both connections, then dress both
leads close to the board, as shown in Fig. 1 Panel (PA31)
4. 1 Meter (ME2I) and hardware
The 5% resistors go from the numbered (from Kit IT)
holes to the solder terminals of SW65. 1 .01 mfd, 1KV disc capacitor
Position each resistor as shown and bend (CN86)
one lead at right angles so it will go 1 2.2 megohm, 10% resistor (RE44)
through the numbered hole in the board. 1 Probe (PR1)
The body of the resistor should be 1 Ground wire (WR51)
parallel to the circuit board and at a 1 Alligator clip (CL3)
distance from the circuit board as deter- 1 SPST slide switch (SW67)
mined by the location of the solder lug 1 DPDT slide switch (SW66)
on SW65. As each resistor is soldered in 5 6-32 X 3/8" Phillips head screws
place, cut off the excess lead length from (SC42)
both ends. 5 No. 6lockwashers (WA15)
When you are sure you understand 5 6-32 hex nuts (NUI)
how to install the resistors and the 1 2-lug terminal strip (ST43)
hookup wire, proceed to do the steps 2 Large knobs with pointer (KN46)
indicated in Fig. 4. 2 Small round knobs (KN47)
This completes the preliminary as- 1 2" length of insulating tubing (spa-
sembly of the tvom. You will notice that ghetti, IN9)
there are several places on the circuit 1 No. 6soldering lug (LUI)
board where parts are indicated, but you Red stranded wire
have not installed the parts. These parts Black stranded wire
are installed in the next training kit to Hookup wire (from Kit IT)
enable you to measure ac voltages. The Solder
instrument you construct in this training
kit will enable you to measure dc volts in Locate the panel and put it on your -
seven ranges, 1.2 volts to 1200 volts, and work area, face up in the position shown
to measure ohms in seven ranges, R X 1 in Fig. 5. You will use the panel as a
to R X 1megohm. temporary support to hold the two slide

10
 SPST switch. Bend the hook closed and
solder terminal 1

In asimilar manner prepare both ends

of a9" black stranded wire. Solder one
switch
end of the wire to terminal 2of the SPST
j

Remove the SPST switch and set i

aside

Mount the 6-terminal DPDT slide

switch as shown. Use one 6-32 screw and
nut. NOTE: The switch can be mounted
in either of two positions, both arç

BLACI
correct feeis
6-1/2
Prepare a 6-1/2" length of black
Fig. 5. Prewirkag the slide switches. stranded wire as you did above and solder
one end to terminal 5
switches as you wire them. As you work
on the front of the panel, be very careful In a similar manner prepare a 5-1/4"
not to scratch or mar it with your length of red stranded wire and solder
screwdriver. Be very careful not to drip one end to terminal 2
any solder onto the panel or touch the
panel with your soldering iron. Strip 2-1/4" of insulation from apiece
Temporarily fasten the SPST slide of solid hookup wire (left over from the
switch as shown in Fig. 5. Position the last kit). Cut off the bare wire and
switch so the two lugs are to the left. One permanently solder one end to terminal 3
screw and nut are all you need to hold of the DPDT switch Á-f
the switch temporarily in place.
Cut off a 1/2" length of the insulating
Prepare a 9" length of red stranded tubing (spaghetti) and slip it over the bare
wire by removing 3/8" of the insulation wire soldered to terminal 3
from one end of the wire. Twist the
strands tightly together and tin them with Feed the free end of the bare wire
your soldering iron and solder to hold the coming from terminal 3through terminal
wires together 4, leaving all the extra wire on the other
side of terminal 4. The spaghetti should
Do the same thing for the other end of be between terminal 3 and terminal 4.
the red wire /4 Solder terminal 4 /(

Bend a hook in one end of the wire In a similar manner prepare a2-1/4"
and pass it through terminal 1 of the length of bare wire and a 1/2 " length of

11
 o

®
Fig. 6. Mounting parts on the panel.

12
spaghetti, and connect terminals 1and 6, fore you mount the terminal strip,
leaving the extra wire to the left of use aknife or screwdriver to scrape away
terminal 1as shown in Fig. 5 the paint from around the mounting hole.
Scrape off the paint on the inside
After you have the wires in place on
the DPDT switch, remove the switch an Install the 2-lug terminal strip and
set it aside solder lug as shown in Fig. 6A with the
6-32 X 3/8" Phillips head screw, a No. 6
Refer to Fig. 6 for the following steps. lockwasher and a6-32 hex nut. Place the
No. 6 solder lug between the terminal
Position the ME21 meter over the large strip and the lockwasher rT-
cutout in the panel. The four mounting
screws should line up with four of the Referring to Fig. 6B, connect the 2.2
holes in the panel, as shown, with the megohm resistor from terminal 7 to the
barrel of the meter passing through the ground lug. Keep the resistor leads short
large cutout in the panel. With the meter and do not solder either connection 4-3-'
firmly up against the panel, install a
lockwasher and nut (meter hardware) on Connect the .01 mfd disc capacitor
each of the four mounting screws. Save from terminal 7 to the ground lug. Keep
the four large nuts (meter hardware) as the leads short and solder only the
they will be used later ground lug

CAUTION: With the meter now installed Examine the red test probe with the
on the panel, be especially careful not to coaxial cable attached (PR!). You will
scratch or otherwise damage the meter notice that the end of the probe lead
face. Always place aclean, soft cloth on looks like Fig. 7 with a bare wire sur-
your work area to protect the meter as rounded by a length of insulation, a
you work behind the panel. braided shield wire and an outer covering.
To install the probe lead, pass the end of
Position the SPST slide switch as the lead through the bushing in hole T
shown in Fig. 6with the red wire to your from the front of the panel
left. Une up the two mounting holes with
those in the panel and secure the switch Rotate the lead wire so that the bare
with two 6-32 X 3/8" Phillips head wire can be connected to terminal 8 of
screws, two No. 6 lockwashers and tw the 2-lug terminal strip and the braid lead
6-32 hex nuts

Position the DPDT switch as shown in BRAIDED

Fig. 6 with the bare wires from terminals SHIELD

1 and 4 to your left. Une up the two

mounting holes with those in the panel BARE
OUTER r e INSULATION WI RE
and secure the switch with two 6-32 X INSULATION
3/8" Phillips head screws, two No.
lockwashers and two 6-32 hex nuts F. 7. End of probe lead.

13
 Fig. 8. Connections to terminals 7and 8of the 2-lug terminal strip.

can be connected to terminal 7as shown Cover the bare wire coming from ter-
in Fig. 8. Make these connections but do minal 1 of the switch with alength of
not solder spaghetti. Connect and solder this wire to
terminal 7 of the 2-lug strip. Be sure to
Remove 1/2" of the rubber insulation solder all the leads at this terminal. You
from each end of the 3' ground wire will probably have to heat this connec-
tion for quite a long time before the
(WR51), twist the strands and tin tile
solder will flow smoothly over all five
wire
leads

Pass one .end of this wire through the In a similar manner, cover the bare
small bushing at hole G, and tie aknot in wire coming from terminal 4 of the
the wire approximately 2" from the end. switch with a length of spaghetti and
Bring the end of the wire over to terminal solder the wire to terminal 8of the 2-1u
7and connect but do not solder ....( ) strip

14
FLEXIBLE LOOP
COMPLETING AND CALIBRATING
WIRE \ THE TVOM

BLACK You will need the following parts:

INSULATION
1 1.5-volt "C" size flashlight cell
(BA7)
Fig. 9. how to attach the flexible wire to the
1 9-volt battery (BA6)
alligator clip.
2 Control nuts
2 Large flat washers
Now take the alligator clip with the
4 No. 10 washers (WA18)
plastic handle (CD) and pass the free end
4 10-32 nuts (meter hardware)
of the 3' ground wire through the plastic
Solder
handle and the solder loop as shown in
Fig. 9. Solder the ground wire to the With the panel and etched circuit
solder loop board in the positions shown in Fig. 10,
take the red and black wires which are
This completes the panel assembly. fastened to terminals 1and 2of the SPST
You will next fasten the etched circuit switch, and twist them together loosely.
board into position, complete the wiring Insert the black lead into the upper hole
and then calibrate your tvom. of the etched circuit board labeled "SW"

Fig. 10. Connecting the wires from the panel to the circuit hoard.

15
and the red lead into the lower hole should pass through the two large holes
labeled "SW" as shown. Solder both leads of the etched circuit board. Make certain
and clip off any excess lead length .( that the wires from the two slide switches
on the panel are free and not pinched
Place the free end of the red lead from between the switch bushings and the
terminal 2 of the DPDT switch into the panel. The locating lugs of the two
hole labeled "R" near the function switches should pass through the small
switch. Solder this lead and clip off any slots in the panels.
excess lead length from the phenolic side
of the board When you are sure the switches are
correctly seated, place alarge flat washer
In a similar manner, solder the blac over each of the switch bushings and
wire from terminal 5of the DPDT switch lightly fasten the switches with the two
to the hole labeled "B" on the foil side of large control nuts. Tighten these nuts
the board only "finger tight" for now

Take two of the 10-32 nuts supplied Now sight along the etched circuit
with the meter and run one down on each board from the end near the meter. The
meter terminal stud so the top of the nut board should be straight and resting on
is 5/16" from the end of the stud as the two washers on the meter studs. If
shown in Fig. 11
e
e) f the board is "bowed" out or must be
pushed in to rest on the washers, adjust
Place one No. 10 flat washer on eac the position of the 10-32 nuts on the
meter stud meter studs so the board rests on the
washers without bowing
Now carefully rotate the etched circuit
board into position so that the two Place the remaining No. 10 flat washers
switch shafts will come through the upper over the meter studs and fasten lightly
holes in the panel and the two potentiom- (finger tight) with the remaining 10-32
eter shafts will come through the lower nuts. Be careful not to strike Q1 or Q2 as
holes in the panel. The two meter studs you tighten the nuts

METER TERMINAL STUD

Fitt. II. Put Ill-32 nuts on meter terminal studs 5/ 16" from end.
 Now look at the two potentiometer battery clip (connected to the "9V"
shafts coming from the front of the location on the circuit board) and snap
panel. They should be fairly well centered the connector onto the terminals of t
in the panel holes. If they are not, slightly 9-volt battery hi
loosen the two control nuts, which secure
the two rotary switches and the two If you look into the end of your tvom
meter stud nuts. With these four nuts where the "C" cell is mounted, you will
loosened, you can move the etched cir- see that there is a small shelf of metal
cuit board around enough to center the directly below the barrel of the meter.
potentiometer shafts. With the shafts This shelf forms aspring clamp which will
centered, hold the circuit board in place hold the 9-volt battery securely. To in-
and tighten securely the two control nt.1 t
6./y stall the 9-volt battery, bend the shelf up
of the rotary switches very slightly with your finger and slide
the 9-volt battery under the shelf so that
Now tighten securely the two nuts that it rests on one side of the battery, holding
fasten the circuit board to the meter it between the shelf and the inside wall
studs, being careful not to damage Q1 or the panel
Q2 kA
Take one of the large knobs, with
Now take the 1.5-volt "C" flashlight pointer, and check to see that the set
cell and tin aspot in the center of the screw does not protrude into the shaft
bottom of the cell. Also tin the positive opening. Place this knob on the shaft of
terminal of the cell the range switch so that the set screw will
bear on the flat part of the shaft. Tighten
Slip the "C" cell into the curved clamp the set screw )
beside the meter barrel, so that the
positive terminal is toward the top of the In a similar manner install the other
panel pointer knob on the function switch

Now locate the red and black wires There are no flats on the ZERO adjust
which go to the +and -I.5V locations on and OHMS adjust potentiometer shafts so
the circuit board. Bring the black wire install the two small round knobs on
over to the battery and solder to th these shafts in any position you like .
negative battery terminal

In asimilar manner solder the red wi This completes the assembly of the DC
to the positive battery terminal .. and OHMS portion of your tvom. Before
you can use it, you must balance the
Make sure that the SPST slide switch is circuit and calibrate it. These procedures
in the "off" position, then take the are covered in the next section.

17
 Balancing and Calibrating
the TVOM
To balance and calibrate the tvom, clip MECHANICAL ZERO ADJUST
the ground lead to the probe tip and set
the controls as indicated: Place the tvom on your work area so
that the meter and controls are facing up.
Look carefully at the pointer of the
meter. It should be resting squarely over
FRONT PANEL
the "zero" marks at the left side of the
scales. If the pointer is not over the zero
Range Switch 3V -X10
Function Switch marks, turn the plastic screw in the lower
DC
center of the meter with a screwdriver,
Polarity Switch NORM
until the pointer is over the zero marks as
ON-OFF Switch OFF
shown in Fig. 13. Use ascrewdriver which
Zero Control Fully Clockwise
fits the plastic screw slot or you may
Ohms Control Fully Counter-
damage the screw. You will seldom have
clockwise
to make this adjustment, as the mechani-
cal zero will not usually change. However,
if you do need to do it at some later time,
CIRCUIT BOARD

Balance Pot Mid-position

DC Cal Pot Mid-position KIK DC
•20V AC

3v 300V
e
x ,00,

, 2v ,200V

Fig. 12 shows the settings of the front Xn ImEG

panel controls. The two potentiometers

on the circuit board can be adjusted
either by using your fingers on the edge
of the adjusting disc or by using ascrew-
driver with a small blade through the
access holes in the edge of the panel. ZEROO ()OHMS

These holes are identified by "DC" and NORM REV OFF ON

"BAL" stamped in the metal over the

iirt ir 0 UM 0
holes. For ease of adjustment, it is sug-
gested that you use the small-blade screw-
driver to make these adjustments. You
can practice finding the potentiometer
slot with your screwdriver before you
start the actual adjustments. Fig. 12. Setting of the front panel controls.

18
4.

F. 13. Adjusting the meter pointer to zero.

remember that the tvom must be OFF following instructions through first and
when you make the adjustment. then, when you are sure you know what
to do, carry them out to balance the
BALANCING THE TVOM
circuit.
The two field-effect transistors used in With the tvom facing up in front of
your tvom in all likelihood have slightly you, insert your screwdriver through the
different characteristics even though they hole marked BAL and into the slot of the
are both the same type of transistor. balance potentiometer. When you turn
Since the basic principle of the tvom is the power on with the panel switch, the
one of abalanced bridge circuit, we must meter pointer will, in all probability, go
adjust the operating voltages of the two upscale past the highest marking on the
transistors so that the bridge circuit is right or, it may possibly move violently
truly balanced. There are two controls to the left, past zero. In either case,
which affect the balance of the circuit. quickly adjust the balance potentiometer
The first control is the zero adjust control with your screwdriver to bring the point-
on the front panel. This control is used er approximately to midscale (15). Now
on a day-to-day basis to insure correct turn the zero adjust knob to the left
balance. It could be considered a"fine (counterclockwise) to see if you can bring
tuning" adjustment. The other control is the pointer back to zero with the zero
the balance potentiometer on the circuit adjust. Readjust the balance potentio-
board. This control is used to compensate meter slightly, if necessary, so that you
for the difference in transistor character- can zero the meter with the zero adjust
istics, as mentioned earlier. control. This provides the preliminary
With all the controls adjusted and set balance of the tvom, and after you carry
as previously indicated, you are now out the calibration procedure you may
ready to balance the circuit. Read the have to readjust the balance control.

19
 CALIBRATING THE TVOM you obtain with the zero a_4:15ust control
fully clockwise here: Z 7
With the tvom on and in the position This reading will serve as acheck of the
used in the balancing procedure, unclip battery condition later on. As the battery
the ground lead from the probe tip. The voltage decreases, the reading you obtain
range switch should be set to 3V -X10, with the zero adjust control fully clock-
the function switch to DC and the polar- wise will change. It may go higher or
ity switch to NORM. lower, depending upon the characteristics
Touch the tip of the probe to the of the particular transistors in your tvom.
positive terminal of the "C" cell and the In any case, if this reading changes more
meter pointer should swing upscale, to than 0.5 wilt on the 3-volt range, you
the right. Now, while holding the probe es
-hould replace the 9-volt battery.

on the positive terminal of the "C" cell, If you should ever have occasion to
insert your small-blade screwdriver replace one or both of the transistors,
through the hole labeled "DC" and en- you will have to go through the entire
gage the slot of the DC CAL potentiom- balance/calibration procedure again.
eter. Slowly adjust this control until the However, if you use your tvom intelli-
pointer indicates exactly 1.55 volts on gently and observe the operating pro-
the 3-volt scale. The pointer will then be cedures which follow in your second
just 1/2 division to the right of the center experimental manual, you should not
mark on the 3-volt scale. This is halfway need to replace atransistor.
between the 1.5-volt marking and the
next (1.6-volt) marking and can be pre- IN CASE OF DIFFICULTY
cisely located by using the short mark on If you are not able to calibrate your
the other (12-volt) scale as you learned in tvom according to the preceding instruc-
the last training kit tions, one or more of the parts may be
defective, there may be an error in the
When you have made this adjustment, wiring of the instrument, or you may
remove the probe from the "C" cell and have a poor solder connection. If you
touch it to the ground clip. Readjust the have trouble calibrating the tvom, read
zero adjust control for zero and repeat the following before writing to us.
the procedure If you get no meter reading whatever,
check to be sure that the two meter
Now turn the zero adjust knob fully terminal nuts are tight and that the 9-volt
clockwise and note the scale reading. If it battery is good. Check to be certain you
is not indicating at least 2 volts on the have installed the two transistors cor-
3-volt scale, readjust the balance control rectly as well as the leads from the two
with your screwdriver to bring it to about slide switches. Check all soldered con-
2 volts. If you had to adjust the balance nections and if you are in doubt about
control, you will have to check the any of them, reheat with your soldering
calibration procedure you just went iron and resolder. Beware of letting solder
through, following each step exactly. run over from one terminal to another,
When you have completed the calibration particularly in the area around the 1%
and balancing, record the scale reading resistors.

20
 After checking your soldered connec- how the tvom behaves, and the results
tions, attempt to balance and calibrate you obtained when you attempted to
the tvom again. If you still have no calibrate the instrument, and the results
success, go back to the beginning of the of any tests you may have made (such as
manual and check your work in each the battery voltage). Be sure to give us
assembly stage with the various figures. enough information so that we will have a
Be certain always that the correct part clear picture of your difficulty and can
was installed in the correct position on help you get your tvom in proper opera-
the circuit board. ting condition.
If you still cannot get your tvom to When you have your tvom operating
operate satisfactorily, write to us on a properly, you are ready to go ahead with
Consultation Sheet, giving full details of your second set of experiments.

Instructions for Performing

the Experiments
The experiments in this manual and in teach you what to do with this infor-
the following ones will familiarize you mation.
with the mechanical operation of your The parts to be used in the experi-
tvom — how to set the knobs, read the ments are listed in the parts list on page 3.
scales, and connect the test leads. At the You should have checked them when you
same time, you will learn the causes of checked your other parts.
incorrect voltage and resistance measure- In doing the experiments in this manu-
ments in electronic circuits. al, you will also use some of the parts left
You are now ready to begin learning over from Kit 1. All of the parts you will
how to troubleshoot with a tvom. Re- need for each experiment will be listed at
member, taking measurements is only the the start of the Experimental Procedure
beginning; it is what you can do with the for each experiment.
results of your measurements that counts. In carrying out your experiments, be
You cannot get abetter tvom of the sure to follow these steps:
service type than your CONAR Model
212 TVOM. It was designed by service 1. Read the entire experiment, paying
engineers for the service expert. Learn to particular attention to the discussion of
use it understandingly, and it will be your the experiment.
most powerful tool. It will give you 2. Carry out the experimental proce-
information quickly and accurately; your dure, and perform each step of the
regular lessons and these experiments experiment exactly as directed. Record

21
your results in the charts or tables pro- Introductory Discussion: The sensitiv-
vided for that purpose. ity of avoltmeter consisting of acurrent
3. Study the discussion of the experi- meter with aseries multiplier resistor is
ment and analyze your results. If they do given in ohms-per-volt. This is necessary
not seem to be right, repeat the measure- because the meter usually has several
ments to make sure you did not make a different ranges, and the technician needs
mistake. Do not go ahead with the next to know the total meter resistance he is
experiment until you get the desired connecting across the voltage source
results. being measured. To determine the resis-
4. Follow the instructions for carrying tance, multiply the ohms-per-volt rating
out the Statement that accompanies each by the full-scale value for the particular
experiment. Fill in the correct answer in range being used.
the blank space provided at the end of In the 3-volt meter you constructed in
each experiment, and again on the Report Kit 1, the sensitivity was 5000 ohms-per-
Sheet you received with this manual. volt; the total meter resistance was 3 X
5000, or 15,000 ohms. If the meter range
You will notice instructions to turn off had been extended to 30 volts, a
the tvom at the end of many of the 150,000-ohm multiplier resistor would
experiments. However, it is not necessary have been used, and the total meter
to turn off the instrument if you are resistance would have been 150,000
going to perform more than one experi- ohms. These figures are true regardless of
ment without stopping. These instruc- the amount of voltage being measured on
tions were given as areminder, and they aparticular range.
should be used as such. When you have A tvom uses avoltage divider; aswitch
performed all of the experiments that mechanism is used to connect the input
you are going to do at one time, then of the bridge circuit to the proper point
turn off the tvom. on the divider for the scale in use. The
bridge circuit must be adjusted, or bal-
WARNING anced, so that when no voltage is applied
to the input, the meter reads zero, regard-
Failure to follow the instructions given less of the setting of the voltage divider.
in the experiments may result in serious In your tvom, approximately 1volt is
damage to your meter. Be sure that you used to give maximum meter deflection.
carefully read and fully understand the If you are using the 1200-volt range, the
instructions before proceeding with the
selector switch connects the input of the
experiments. bridge to the lowest tap on the divider;
and although 1200 volts is applied to the
probes, only 1 volt is applied to the
EXPERIMENT 1I bridge. The same thing happens with the
lower ranges. The selector switch con-
Purpose: To show that the tvom will nects the bridge to the proper tap on the
give more accurate readings than the divider for the range in use, and when
1000 ohms-per-volt meter in high- maximum voltage for that range is mea-
resistance circuits. sured, Ivolt is fed to the bridge.

22
 Because of this arrangement, the resis- 1 6-32 hex nut
tance across the source being measured is 2 10-megohm resistors
always constant, and for this reason 1 1/4" X 6-32 screw
transistor voltmeters are not rated in Turn the tvom "on" and set the
ohms-per-volt. Instead, they are rated function switch to dc, the polarity switch
according to the voltage-divider network to normal.
resistance, which is called the input resis- In the first part of this experiment you
tance. In your tvom, the eut resistar3ce will repeat the measurements made in
is app-r""oxii
...TW 12.2 me ohms. When
Experiment 10 of Kit 1, using your
you make ameastiment, you are con- completed tvom instead of the 5,000
necting 12.2 megohms across the source ohms-per-volt meter of Kit 1. The experi-
being measured. Since this is such avery mental chassis used in Kit 1should still
high resistance, the original circuit values have the two 1.5-volt flashlight cells, the
in a low-resistance circuit change only three terminal strips and the three series
slightly, and you measure the true oper- connected resistors in place, as shown in
ating voltages. Only in extremely high Fig. 11-1.
resistance circuits will there be an appre- Install the potentiometer mounting
ciable change, and then the measured bracket at hole W, using a 1/4" X 6-32
values will be somewhat different from screw and a 6-32 nut. Then install the
the true values that exist when the 500K-ohm potentiometer with on-off
voltmeter is not connected. switch (P065) in the potentiometer
mounting bracket. Position as shown,
Experimental Procedure: In this exper- attach acontrol nut and tighten.
iment, in addition to your experimental Terminals 19 and 20, on the back of
chassis and tvom, you will need: the potentiometer, are the on-off switch
1 500K potentiometer with switch terminals. Terminals 16, 17 and 18 are
1 Potentiometer mounting bracket the potentiometer terminals.

o
o o

o o 500K POT WITH

SWITCH S1

o o
R2 5 6 7 8
C\I2
Jo
113 20
7

18
82K R1
100K 14

o o o o 15 rre o

Fig. II-I. Circuit for Experiment I1.

3
 scale. This is the scale you used in the
experiments in your first kit. Record the
reading in the space provided opposite
Step 1in Fig. 11-3. This may be slightly
over 3volts. If so, mark the value 3+.

Step 2: To measure the voltage across

R I.

Fig. 11-2. Schematic diagram of circuit for Turn on switch S1 by rotating the
Experiment 11. potentiometer shaft clockwise. With the
ground lead of the tvom still connected
to the chassis, touch the probe to the
Turn the shaft of the potentiometer junction of the 100K-ohm and 82K-ohm
fully counterclockwise to insure that the resistor leads, terminal 4. Observe your
switch is off. Then, proceed to wire the reading on the 3-volt dc scale, and record
circuit shown in Figs. 11-1 and 11-2. it in the space provided for Step 2in Fig.
Solder the lead from the +terminal of the 11-3.
3-volt battery to terminal 19 of the
on-off switch. Disconnect the negative Step 3: To measure the voltage across
battery lead from terminal 6and solder it R2.
to the solder lug, terminal I. Disconnect
the lead of the 100K-ohm resistor from Move the ground lead of the tvom to
terminal 6 and solder it to terminal 5. terminal 4and touch the probe to termi-
Finally, connect alength of hookup wire nal 3. Record the voltage measured across
from terminal 2 to terminal 20 of the resistor R2 beside Step 3in Fig. 11-3.
on-off switch.
The circuit becomes acomplete series Step 4: To measure the voltage across
circuit when you turn the switch on, the R3.
return path from the 100K-ohm resistor,
R I ,to the negative battery terminal being Move the ground lead of the tvom to
made through the chassis (ground) from terminal 3and touch the probe to termi-
terminal 5 to terminal 1. This arrange-
ment of using the chassis as part of the
circuit is quite common and will be used STEP READ I
NG
frequently from now on in your experi- I 4-
-- 7
ments.
2
e7 •,
Step 1: To measure the source voltage. 3 t

Clip the "ground" test lead of the

tvom to the chassis. Touch the probe of
the tvom to the positive battery terminal, Fig. 11-3. Record your readings for Experiment
and read the meter on the 3.0-volt dc 11 here.

24
 na! 2. Again read the voltage on the 3-volt normal indicate trouble that should be
dc scale, and record your reading in the located and corrected.
space provided in Fig. 11-3. Turn off You have used the tvom just as you did
switch Si. the 5,000 ohms-per-volt meter; you con-
nected the positive meter probe to the
end of the resistor nearest the positive
Discussion: Since the circuit in Fig. battery terminal and the ground lead to
11-2 is exactly the same as the circuit you the end of the resistor nearest the nega-
constructed in Experiment 10, the volt- tive battery terminal.
age distribution across the resistors is the Because you have areversing switch on
same. You should have noticed, however, the meter, you could have put the selec-
that the measured values in Experiment tor switch in the reverse position and
11 are considerably different from those connected the ground terminal of the
you measured in Step 2 of Experiment tvom to the positive terminal of the
10. When you connected the tvom across battery and the hot probe to the junction
aresistor, the resistance value in that part of resistors R2 and R3, moving around
of the circuit did not change appreciably, the circuit in the opposite way. The
because the parallel resistance of the results would have been almost identical
tvom was extremely high compared to with those taken with the switch in the
the value of the resistor. positive voltage position.
With the 15,000-ohm meter resistance In later experiments, you will see just
connected across aresistor, the resistance how the positive and negative dc voltage
value was lowered, which changed the settings of the polarity switch are used.
entire voltage distribution throughout the
circuit while the meter was connected.
The readings you recorded in Fig. 11-3 Instructions for Statement No. II:
are for all practical purposes the same as Although, as we have shown, the sensi-
the voltage drops across the resistors with tivity of the tvom is far superior to that
the meter disconnected. If you add them, of the 5,000 ohms-per-volt meter, you
they will be quite close to the source should remember that the tvom does have
voltage you measured in Step 1. a definite amount of resistance, and
This means that in measuring voltages under some conditions can upset the
in fairly high resistance circuits, the meter operating voltages.
will not affect the voltage appreciably, To obtain data for your statement,
and you will get an accurate idea of the solder one lead of a 10-megohm resistor
true operating conditions. to terminal 2 of Fig. 11-1. Solder one
t
In service work, the fact that the lead of the other 10-megohm resistor to
measured value may be slightly lower terminal 1 (ground) of Fig. 11-1. Now
• than the actual value is relatively un- tack-solder the free ends of the two
important. Many manufacturers of elec- resistors together to form a 20-megohm
tronic equipment list the voltages that voltage divider.
should be measured with a tvom. These Clip the ground lead of your tvom to
may be taken as the actual operating the chassis and measure the battery volt-
values, and variations above and below age at terminal 19. Enter this value in Fig.

25
 SOURCE _ Introductory Discussion: Many of the
VOLTAGE expressions used in radio and TV ser-
VOLTAGE ACROSS vicing do not seem to have any sensible
FIRST 10 MEG meaning to the beginner until he uses
RESISTOR them himself in practical work.
VOLTAGE ACROSS One expression that causes confusion is
SECOND 10 MEG
"positive or negative with respect to".
RESISTOR
This means that apoint in acircuit is at a
SUM OF VOLTAGES
ACROSS THE TWO positive or negative potential if the volt-
10 MEG RESISTORS meter probes are touched to it and to
some other point in the circuit.
Fig. 11-4. Record your readings for the State-
For example, we may say that the
ment for Experiment 11 here.
plate of atube is 250 volts positive. This
11-4 on the top line. Turn S1 on and statement has no real meaning since a
measure the voltage at the junction of the point by itself cannot have a voltage.
two 10-megohm resistors. Enter this value Voltage means apotential difference be-
on the second line of Fig. 11-4. Finally, tween two points. Thus, when we say
reconnect your tvom to read the voltage there is 250 volts on the plate of atube,
across the other 10-megohm resistor and we mean there is apotential difference of
enter your reading on the third line of 250 volts between the plate and the
Fig. 11-4. Now add the voltages across cathode. Another way of saying this is
the two resistors and compare this sum that the plate is positive with respect to,
with the battery voltage. or with regard to, the cathode.
Turn off S1 and your tvom and un- It follows that if the plate is positive
solder and remove all 5resistors. with respect to the cathode, the cathode
Answer the Report Statement here and is negative with respect to the plate. At
on the Report Sheet. the same time, the grid may be negative
with respect to the cathode or, what is
Statement No. 11: Ifound that the the same thing, the cathode may be
sum of the voltages across the two 10- positive with respect to the grid.
megohm resistors was: Thus, the cathode can be both positive
and negative at the same time, depending
greater than
on the reference points we have in mind.
less than
approximately equal to
PLATE
GRID
the voltage measured across the battery
terminals.
CATHODE

EXPERIMENT 12

Purpose: To show that acertain point

in acircuit may be positive with respect Fig. 12-1. A typical triode tube with batteries
to one point, and negative with respect to for the plate-to-cathode and grid-to-cathode
another point. supplies.

26
 IICRED

11 10 11
R4
0 22KR3 010K

Fig. 12-2. Circuit for Experiment 12.

Fig. 12-1 shows a typical triode tube you will need the experimental chassis
with batteries for the grid-to-cathode and with parts previously installed and:
plate-to-cathode supplies. When the volt-
1 18K-ohm resistor
age between the grid and the cathode is
measured, the positive meter probe 2 22K-ohm resistors
should be connected to the cathode, and 1 10K-ohm resistor
the negative probe should be connected
For this experiment, you will construct
to the grid. When the plate-to-cathode
the circuit shown in Fig. 12-2. The
voltage is measured, the negative meter
schematic of this circuit is shown in Fig.
probe should be connected to the cath-
12-3. Connect an 18K-ohm resistor from
ode, and the positive probe to the plate.
terminal 5 to terminal 7, connect a
From this you can see that the cathode
22K-ohm resistor from terminal 7 tó-
can be either positive or negative, de-
terminal 9, connect a22K-ohm resistor
pending on whether we are referring to
between terminals 6and 9and connect a
the cathode and the grid or to the
10K-ohm resistor from terminal 6 to
cathode and the plate. In later kits we
will measure grid-to-cathode and plate-to-
- I8K+ 7
- 22K+ j22K 6 -10K+ ic,
cathode voltages many times in actual
tube circuits.
In this experiment, however, we will
use resistors and our 3-volt battery sup-
ply. Just remember that aplate or any
other point cannot correctly be called
positive or negative by itself.
-.
Experimental Procedure: To perform Fig. 12-3. Schematic diagram of the circuit used
the experiment, in addition to your tvom, in Experiment 12.

27
terminal 10. Disconnect the length of GROUND PROBE UP - DOWN-
LEAD TO TO SCALE SCALE
hookup wire from terminal 2and connect
it to terminal 10. Solder all connections. CHASSIS 7
C.•--
Fig. 12-3 is aschematic of the circuit 7 CHASSIS
you have just constructed. With S1
7 9 e:,/
closed, acurrent Iwill flow as indicated
in Fig. 12-3. You know that current goes 9 7
..------
from minus to plus through a resistor, 9 6
i'-.----
therefore we have indicated the polarity
6 9
of the voltage appearing across each (\ _..,-

resistor in the divider. The left end of

Fig. 12-4. For each step, make a check in the
each resistor is negative with respect to
proper box to indicate whether your meter
the right end. It is this fact that you will
pointer moves upscale or downscale.
establish in this experiment.
With your tvom in the dc position and
the polarity switch in the normal posi- Connect the ground lead of the Worn
tion, the ground lead is the negative to the chassis, and the probe to terminal
meter lead, while the probe is the positive 7. Make acheck mark in the proper box
lead. When the ground lead is connected in Fig. 12-4 to indicate whether the meter
to one point and the probe is connected pointer moves upscale or downscale. We
to a second point that is positive with will not record the exact readings since
respect to the first point, the meter will they are not important in this part of the
read upscale in a normal manner. If the experiment.
probe is connected to a point that is Now reverse the connections of the
negative with respect to the point to tvom by connecting the ground lead to
which the ground lead is connected, the terminal 7, and the probe to the chassis.
meter pointer will move downscale, to Record the meter pointer movement in
the left of zero. the space provided in Fig. 12-4.
To prove this, turn the tvom on and An upscale reading on the meter indi-
zero it, and then turn Si on. With the cates that the meter is connected with the
tvom set to dc, normal, clip the ground proper polarity. A downscale reading
lead of the meter to the chassis and touch means that the meter is connected with
the probe to the positive terminal of the the wrong polarity. Since the meter read-
battery. The meter will read upscale. Now ing was upscale when the negative lead
connect the meter ground lead to the was connected to the chassis and down-
positive' terminal of the battery and mo- scale when the negative lead was con-
mentarily touch the probe to the chassis. nected to terminal 7, the chassis must be
Note that the meter pointer deflects negative with respect to terminal 7.
sharply downscale, to the left past zero,
showing that the meter probe is negative Step 2: To show whether terminal 7is
with respect to the ground lead. positive or negative with respect to termi-
nal 9.
Step 1: To show that terminal 5 is
negative with respect to terminal 7. Connect the ground lead of the tvom

28
to terminal 7 and touch the probe to function switch in the dc position and the
terminal 9. Record the direction of the polarity switch in the normal position,
meter pointer movement in Fig. 12-4. making the ground clip of the tvom the
Connect the ground lead of the tvom negative terminal and the probe the posi-
to terminal 9, and touch the probe to tive terminal. The probes had to be
terminal 7. Again record the meter point- connected in a certain way in order to
er indication. give an upscale reading.
In actual practice, this is not done. The
function switch is placed in the dc posi-
Step 3: To show whether terminal 9is
tion and the polarity switch is set to
positive or negative with respect to termi-
normal or reverse -- whichever one will
nal 6.
give an upscale reading —and by looking
at the polarity switch you can tell wheth-
Connect the ground clip to terminal 9 er the voltage at the probe is positive or
and touch the probe to terminal 6, and negative with respect to the ground clip
reference point. You will do this many
record the meter pointer indication.
times in later experiments.
Connect the ground clip to terminal 6
For the present, remember that when
and touch the probe to terminal 9, and
we speak of a point as positive or
again record the indication. Open the
negative, we mean with respect to an-
circuit temporarily by turning S1 off.
other point. On a plate, we mean with
respect to the cathode of the tube.
Discussion: If your experiment was
conducted successfully, you should have
had upscale readings on the first, third, Instructions for Statement No. 12: To
and fifth measurements, and downscale answer the Statement, we will make use
readings on the others. This means that of the polarity switch of the tvom to get
the chassis is negative with respect to an upscale reading and to show that
terminal 7, terminal 7 is negative with terminal 9 in Fig. 12-3 can be positive
respect to terminal 9, and terminal 9 is with respect to the chassis and negative
negative with respect to terminal 6. with respect to terminal 10.
You will notice that terminal 7 is Turn on SI,and connect the ground
positive with respect to the chassis. How- clip of the tvom to terminal 9. Touch the
ever, terminal 7 is negative with respect probe to the chassis. If the meter reads
to terminal 9. downscale, slide the polarity switch to
We can also say that terminal 9 is the reverse position, and record the actual
positive with respect to terminal 7 and voltage reading between terminal 9 and
negative with respect to terminal 6. the chassis in volts on the margin of this
Thus, in a series circuit consisting of _ilepage. Now touch the probe to terminal
two or more parts, one point may be 10, reset the polarity switch for an
either positive or negative, depending upscale reading, and again record the
upon what other point it is compared ctual voltage measured on the margin of
with. .fr--, 34 this page. Turn off S1 and answer State-
In this experiment, we have left the' ment 12.

29
 Statement No. 12: I found that the Ohm's Law (E = I X R) gives the
polarity of the voltage at terminal 9with answer. If the voltage E is lower than
rert to the chassis was: expected, then I, the current through the
(( (
-1 positive part, or R, the resistance of the part, has
2) negative decreased. You would look for achange
in the resistance of the part or for some
and the value was defect in another part that has decreased
the circuit current.
(1
pgreater than
Ç2) If the voltage is higher than expected,
less than
you know that Ior R has increased. In
(3) the same as
this case, you would check for an increase
that measured from terminal 9 to termi- in the part resistance or for adecrease in
nal 10. resistance elsewhere in the circuit that
would increase current flow through the
EXPERIMENT 13 entire circuit.
In this experiment you will demon-
Purpose: To show that achange in the strate these facts so you will know what
resistance of one part of a series circuit to look for when you find similar ab-
will cause a change in the voltage drops normal voltage readings in your mainte-
across all of the series-connected parts. nance work.
Remember, it is not enough to know
Introductory Discussion: This experi- how to take readings -- the important
ment proves one of the basic facts that thing is to know what to do with the
you as a technician will use time and results of your readings.
again in your work.
The way aset is working may lead you Experimental Procedure: In this exper-
to suspect that the voltage is too low at iment you will use your tvom and the
some point in a circuit or perhaps the parts already in place on your experi-
voltage is too high at some point. You mental chassis.
will use your tvom to see if the voltage is To construct the circuit in Fig. 13-1,
too high or too low. Then, you will look remove the 10K resistor, R4, from termi-
at the circuit diagram to see what could nals 6 and 10 and resolder the resistor
have happened to cause the abnormal
R1 R2 9 R4 12
readings. After deciding what the prob-
able cause is, you will check the part you I
8K 22k 0K

suspect of causing the trouble. Your

R3
regular lessons and your work on these 22 K
kits will teach you to do this.
Let us take an example. Suppose you 3V SI

have a voltage divider with the correct

source voltage applied to it. What will 19 20

cause the voltage drop to be too high

across some sections of the divider and Fig. 13-1. This is the first circuit you will use
too low across others? in Experiment 13.

30
 R1 R2 R4
from terminal 9 to terminal 12. Terminal
I8K 7 22K 9 10K 12
12 is on the strip near the switch, SI.
Disconnect the switch lead from terminal
JUMPER
10 and connect it to terminal 12.
After you have constructed the divider R3
22K
circuit of Fig. 13-1, turn on S1 and set
your tvom to read dc normal. 3V

Step 1: To measure the voltages in the 19 20

'cre

circuit.
Fig. 13-3. Circuit for Step 2.

To measure the source voltage, connect

the ground clip of your tvom to the Step 2: To show that decreasing the
chassis, and the probe to terminal 12. resistance of one section of a voltage
Read your meter on the 3-volt scale and divider reduces the voltage drop across
record your reading in Fig. 13-2 in the that section, and increases the voltage
column for normal resistance (the first drop across the other sections.
blank column) beside "source."
You are to decrease the resistance of
R2 by adding another 22K-ohm resistor
VOLTAGE
MEASURED
RESISTANCE R2 R4 in parallel with it, as shown in Fig. 13-3.
NORMAL DECREASED INCREASED
ACROSS To do this, simply solder a short
SOURCE 3-r .. 3-71-
"r ..._/ jumper wire from terminal 6 to terminal
7as indicated in Fig. 13-3.
R1
j.es" .1.2 • .P" As you have learned, the resistance of
R2
1, 17 .9 1 i.0 5
- two equal resistors in parallel is equal to
R4 Rs-6 .2.. I. IS"
half the resistance of one alone. There-
L J.De
fore, we now have 11,000 ohms for R2
and R3 in parallel instead of 22,000.
Fig. 13-2. Record your readings for Experiment
Measure the voltages as you did in Step
13 here.
1, and record your readings in Fig. 13-2
in the column for decreased resistance in
To measure the voltage across RI,
R2.
move the probe to terminal 7. Record
your reading beside R1 in the first blank Step 3: To show that increasing the
column of Fig. 13-2. resistance of one section of a voltage
To measure the voltage across R2, divider increases the voltage drop across
move the ground clip to terminal 7and that section, and decreases the voltage
the probe to terminal 9. Record your drop across the other section.
reading beside R2 in Fig. 13-2.
To measure the voltage across R4 , Rewire the circuit as shown in Fig.
move the ground clip to terminal 9 and 13-4. To do this, remove the jumper from
the probe to terminal 12. Again record between terminal 6 and terminal 7 and
your reading in Fig. 13-2. unsolder the switch lead from terminal

31
 voltage drop across the other components
must change in the opposite direction.
There is one thing to keep in mind.
Although it is absolutely true that the
sum of the voltage drops always equals
the source voltage, the sum of the mea-
sured voltage drops may not exactly
equal the source voltage for two reasons.
Fig. 13-4. Circuit for Step 3.
First, a good servicing type of tvom,
such as your CONAR Model 212, has an
12. Resolder this lead to terminal 6 to accuracy of about 5% of the full scale
complete the circuit of Fig. 13-4. The reading. Although more accurate hand-
22K-ohm resistor is now R4. calibrated meters can be made, they are
Again measure the source voltage and not used in servicing equipment, because
the voltages across RI,R2, and R4 as you such accuracy is not necessary, they are
did in Steps 1 and 2. Record your costly, and they cannot stand up under
readings in Fig. 13-2 in the column for rough treatment. Therefore, measured
increased resistance of R. Turn off values can be .15V higher or lower than
switch SI. the true values, indicated on the 3V range
(.15 =.05 X 3.0).
Discussion: Look at the voltages you Second, you may not be able to read
have recorded in Fig. 13-2. In Step 2, you the actual values on the meter. For
decreased the resistance of R2. What example, the actual voltage drops across a
happened to the voltage across R2? It three-section voltage divider with a3-volt
should have decreased. However, the volt- source might be: .752 volt, 1.527 volts,
age drops across R1 and R4 should have and .721 volt. The closest you could read
increased, since the source voltage is the these values on your meter would be .75
same, and the sum of the voltage drops is volt, 1.5 volts, and .7 volt. When you add
always equal to the source voltage. these, you get 2.95 volts instead of the 3
Now let us look at the readings for volts you would actually have. This is
Step 3. Here we increased the resistance close enough. Even if the measured volt-
of R4. What happened to the voltage? ages added up to only 2.8 volts, it would
The voltage across R4 should have in- be considered entirely normal. A vari-
creased. Since the source voltage is still ation of as much as 25% is usually
the same and the sum of the voltage considered normal in most circuits. Thus,
drops must equal the source voltage, the if you read your meter scale to the 1
other voltage drops should have been nearest division, the reading will be accu-
lower than they were in Step 1. Here you rate enough.
have seen a practical application of b
Kirchhoff's voltage law. The sum of the Instructions for Statement No. 13: For
voltage drops in a closed circuit must the Statement, you will use the same
equal the source voltage. From this we circuit used in Step 3. Connect the
can see that, if the voltage drop across ground clip of your tvom to terminal 9
one part in a series circuit changes, the and the probe to terminal 6. Turn on S1

32
 S. a.

(4) 1I (5) (6) 1 171

- '

22K-OHM, 1/2W RED STRANDED BLACK STRANDED 51K-OHM, 112W, 5%

RED-RED-ORN WIRE TO - .1.5V - WIRE TO "- 1.5V" GRN-BRN-ORN-GLD

(3) I
27K-OHM, 1/2W
RED-VIO-ORN
• 1.5V

o—eo3e-o c)--.012-0 + 0— 5-0

0-3 0 K- 0 0-10 14-0
0---5 + 0-
0-.002-0
121 , I (8)
10K-OHM .01 MFD ANO
SW I c2 0-60K-0 4- 0-5
POTENTIOMETE 4/ 6.8K-OHM, 1/2W
FUNCTION 0-390-0
EIWGR A-RED
6 (SW 64) (SW UM 0-300K-0 SEE DETAIL A
0-200-0
0-600K-0 0'4-- 0-4 - 0

0-22M-0 0-22 • 27--0 0. tht

0-3 •--O
01-0 0-661--0 191
PET 01
SEE DETAIL B

NRI
EC 23A

1101
PET 0 2
SEE DETAIL B

(12) (11)
1I (14) (I (13) 1I
56 PF AND _ 9V BATTERY
M TRIMMER 1MEGOHM, 1/2W 100K-OHM,TRIMMER
6.81 1- /2W CONNECTOR '
(P096) BR N-BLK-GRN POT 4-Pef 01)
BLU-GRA-RED RED TO
(SEE DETAIL AI

Fig. 2. Stage IAssembly.

 (2) 1I 141 11
START 151
3900 PF, 5% POLY 012 MFD, 1 10K-OHM, 1% 5MFD ELECT

1191 11
22 PF, 5% POLY 161 .
5MFD ELECT

1181 11 SW I SW2
2.2 MEGOHM, 1% FUNCTION RANGE (7) 1I
• (SW64) (SW 65) 20002, 5% POLY

1171 181 , /
.01 MFD DISC
c41113( 60K-OHM. 1%

NRI
EC 23A

191 1/
(16) 11 100K 390 PF, 5% POLY
6 MEGOHN71, 1% OHMS

BALANCE

--a
(10)
D.C. 300K OHM. 1%
CAL.
(15) I1
27 PF, 5% POLY

(14) 11 1131 1I (12) 11 1111

3MEGOHM, 1% 600K-OHM, 1% 200 PF, 5% POLY 5MFD ELECT

Fig. 3. Stage II Assembly.

 131 (41
ei
(5) I1 (61 11 171 II
100-OHM, 1K OHM, 5$ 10K-OHM, 5% 100k OHM, 5% 1MEGOHM, 5%
BRN BLK-BRN GLD BRN BLK,RED OLD BRN•BLK-ORN-GLD BRN-0 LK:YE L-GLD BRN•BLK-GRN-GLD

NR1
EC23A
121
10-OHM, 5% (81
BRN-BLK-BLK-GLD 10lL46 HM, 5%
BAN 81K BLU GLD

SW64-

.01 MPG DISC

(9) I1
SEE DETAIL A
3" JUMPER WIRE

(10)
1,2 JUMPER WIRE
5-1/4" JUMPER WIRE

Fig. 4. Stage III Assembly.

 Q
PROBE AC CAL
S2D AC 5mf 100K
o o--ma DC
o— ofl
NORMAL REVERSE
IM AC
o
CLIP SZE
DC

2A

AC
o—
o
DC
100K •
BAL/,
S4

2.2 M 27K

10K
DC CAL 5mf +
10K
6M — 22 pf ZERO :
• *ews. 100

27pf 200po
3 111 9V
IK
2
200
600 Pf
4 10K 4
•—"vW--o
3 0 5 3A 5 S3B
300K
7 100K 0
6 7

POSITIONS FOR S3A AND S3B

60K
IM I• I. 2V 1• X I
• Nov% 5mf
2• 3V 2 • X10
30K
3.12V 3. X100
10M 4. 30V 4 • X IK
5 • 120V 5 • X 10K
10K 6 • 300V 6 • X 100K
I.5V 7 •1200V 7. X IMEG

Schematic diagram of the Model 212 TVOM.

 R1 R2 R4
I8K 7 22K 22K Introductory Discussion: As you have
seen in preceding experiments, if any
resistance in aseries circuit is changed in
value, the voltage across each resistor
changes. In some circuits we will want to
have a changing resistance and yet have
the voltage remain fairly steady as the
3V
resistance changes. The changing resis-
tance is often referred to as a"load".
19 20
As you have previously learned, when a
large resistor and a small resistor are in
Fig. 13-5. Circuit for Statement 13. parallel, the combined resistance is essen-
tially that of the smaller resistor. This
and note the reading in the margin of this means that even though the larger resis-
page. tance may vary, it will still be enough
1./y For the statement you are to see what higher than the smaller resistance so that
happens to the voltage across R4 when the combined resistances will remain es-
you shunt R1 and R2 with a 10K-ohm sentially the same. This very important
resistor. To do this, simply short terminal fact is put to good use where we wish to
12 to the chassis with ascrewdriver or a stabilize the voltage across aload whose
piece of wire as indicated in Fig. 13-5. resistance varies. By properly designing
Measure the drop across R4 between the voltage divider, these voltage vari-
terminal 9 and terminal 6 with terminal ations can be kept quite small.
12 shorted to the chassis. Compare your In this experiment you will see how
two voltage readings, and answer the this is done. You will build a circuit in
2. 7
/ statement here and on the Report Sheet. which the load resistance can be varied
Turn off your tvom and SI. and in which the load requires consider-
ably less than the source voltage of 3
Statement No. 13: When Ishunted RI volts. You will see how the voltage across
and R2 with a 10K-ohm resistor Ifound the load changes when the load resistance
the voltage across 124: is changed. Then, you will change the
circuit so that the effects of the variations
GPincreased. in a load resistance are reduced to a
(2) decreased. minimum.
(3) remained the same. As atechnician you will not be particu-
larly interested in being able to design
voltage dividers, but you certainly will
EXPERIMENT 14
want to know how they work. If you find
that a particular circuit is not operating
Purpose: To show the effects of resis-
satisfactorily, you must rely on your
tance variations in series-type voltage
voltage measurements to tell you what
dividers; and to show how the resultant
could have happened in the circuit. A
voltage variations can be kept to amini-
knowledge of how voltage dividers oper-
mum by using aresistor, called ableeder.
ate will go along ways.

33
 Experimental Procedure: In this exper- S1 R2
470K
iment you will need your tvom, most of
13
the parts on the experimental chassis and 220K
the following parts: 3V —
18
17
500K
1 220K-ohm resistor 15

1 470K-ohm resistor 16

1 Slip-on alligator clip

Hookup wire
Fig. 14-2. Schematic of the circuit of Step 1.

If you have not done so recently,

check the tip of your soldering iron. It wire from terminal 20 to terminal 6 in
may have become covered with the typi- place (although it is not shown in Fig.
cal black insulating oxide that prevents 14-1) as it will be used in later steps of
heat from flowing from the iron to the this experiment.
parts, or the tip may have become pitted. Now construct the circuit shown in
If so, file and retin it as described in Kit Fig. 14-2 and detailed in Fig. 14-1.
1. Check the tip frequently throughout Terminals 16, 17 and 18 are the three
all your experiments, and don't let it potentiometer terminals.
become dirty. Slip the alligator clip over the tvom
Begin by removing the 22K-ohm resis- probe as shown in Fig. 14-3 so you can
tor connected between terminals 6and 9 clip both leads of the meter to the circuit
and the 10K-ohm resistor connected be- under test. It may be necessary to bend
tween terminals 9and 12, leaving in place down the solder loop in the clip so that
the 18K-ohm and 22K-ohm resistors the clip will slip easily onto the probe. If
shown in Fig. 14-1. You may leave the the clip is too loose, squeeze the clip with

Fig. 14-1. Chassis connections for the circuit of Step I.

34
 across the load at this time in the space
provided for voltage with minimum load
in Step 1of Fig. 14-4.
Now rotate the potentiometer shaft
fully clockwise, reducing its resistance
practically to zero. The load resistance
then consists of only the 220K-ohm
resistor. This decreased load resistance is
alarger or heavier load because the circuit
Fig. 14-1 How to slip the alligator clip onto draws more current and dissipates more
the positive probe. power. Note the meter reading, and re-
cord it in the space for voltage with
your combination pliers so it is tightly maximum load in Step 1of Fig. 14-4.
clamped on the probe tip.
You are now ready to see how the VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
circuit works. WITH MINIMUM WITH MAXIMUM
LOAD LOAD
_
Step 1: To show how a variation in -
STEP I (,
load resistance affects the load voltage. _
STEP 2 ) ,: , ,. _
Clip the ground lead of the tvom to the
chassis. Now measure the load voltage by
Fig. 14-4. Record your readings for Experiment
clipping the probe to terminal 13 in Fig.
14 here.
14-2. In taking measurements, it is some-
times easier to clip it on and leave it Step 2: To show how the load voltage
there. In this step, it will be easier to clip can be kept fairly constant even though
the lead in place so that you will have the load resistance varies.
both hands free. The meter is now con-
nected across the 220K-ohm resistor and Turn S1 off and remove the 470K-ohm
part of the 500K-ohm potentiometer. resistor from between terminals 13 and
These two parts make up the load resistor 20. Rewire the circuit to conform to Fig.
R1 in Fig. 14-2. 14-5. You will need to reconnect and
Turn the shaft of the potentiometer solder the lead from terminal 20 to
clockwise to turn on SI. Adjust the R2
potentiometer so that the meter reads 1.3 9 22K 13
volts. This can be considered to be the 19 2
normal resistance of RI. 220K
3V
With the red probe still clipped to
le R
terminal 13, turn the potentiometer shaft
all the way counterclockwise. This in- 500K
creases the resistance of the load and
15 16
increases the voltage across the load. This
increased load resistance is asmaller load
because the circuit draws less current and Fig. 14-5. Schematic diagram of circuit used in
dissipates less power. Record the voltage Step 2.

35
 Fig. 14-6. Chassis arrangement for Step 2.

terminal 9, and add a length of wire tional to its resistance. If there are two
between terminals 7 and 13 to make parts having equal resistances, the source
these changes as indicated in Fig. 14-6. voltage will divide equally between them.
Turn S1 on and adjust the potenti- Both will have the same voltage drop. If
ometer shaft fully counterclockwise, and one part is variable, some of the time it
measure the load voltage between the will have more than half the voltage
chassis and terminal 13. Record this as across it, and some of the time less than
the voltage with minimum load for Step 2 half.
in the space provided in Fig. 14-4. In Step 1, the difference between the
Now turn the potentiometer shaft voltages should have been large, because
clockwise as far as it will go to reduce the with the potentiometer set so that none
value of RI.Record the reading as the of its resistance was in the circuit, the
voltage with maximum load in Fig. 14-4. total load resistance was only 220K ohms
Turn off SI. -- less than half the 470K-ohm resistance
of R2 - so there would be much less than
half of the source voltage across the load.
Discussion: Look over the figures you With the potentiometer set so that its
have recorded in Fig. 14-4, and compare total resistance was in the circuit, the
the two sets of readings. There should be load resistance was 720K ohms -- more
a greater difference between the maxi- than one and ahalf times the resistance
mum and minimum voltages in Step 1 of R2 - so there would be much more
than in Step 2. than half the source voltage across the
In any voltage divider, the source load. The only time we would have the
voltage divides between the circuit parts, desired 1.3 volts across the load would be
the voltage across a part being propor- when the potentiometer was set so that

36
 the total load resistance of R1 was Statement No. 14: With the 18K-ohm
slightly less than 470K-ohms. bleeder resistor open, I found that the
In Step 2, the voltage difference should voltage applied to the load:
have been very small. Here you modified
the circuit and put in ableeder resistor.
When two resistors are in parallel, the increased.
combined resistance will be less than that (2) decreased.
of the smaller resistor. Therefore, the (3) remained the same.
combined resistance of R1 and the
18K-ohm bleeder resistor R3in Fig. 14-5
will be less than 18K ohms, whether R1 is EXPERIMENT 15
at its maximum of 720K ohms or its
minimum of 220K ohms. The combined
resistance will vary from about 16.5K Purpose: To show that the current
ohms to about 17.5K ohms. The voltage flowing in acircuit can be determined by
will divide almost equally between R1
measuring the voltage across a known
and R2, and, therefore, will always be resistance and applying Ohm's Law.
close to the desired 1.3 volts across R1.
In your work, be on the lookout for
bleeders. They can open or change in Introductory Discussion: Ohm's Law
value just like any other part, and they tells us that current in amperes is equal to
must be taken into consideration when voltage in volts divided by resistance in
the parts with which they are in shunt are ohms. Therefore, if we measure the volt-
checked. age drop across aknown resistor, we can
accurately determine the current through
it by dividing the voltage by the resis-
Instructions for Statement No. 14: For tance.
this Statement we will simulate aburned- In this experiment, you will see that
out bleeder resistor R3 in the circuit you can determine the current flowing in
shown in Fig. 14-5. Unsolder the 18K- a circuit by measuring the voltage across
ohm resistor R3 from terminal 5and turn any known resistor and applying Ohm's
on SI.Measure the voltage across load Law. You will also see that you can use
resistor R1 by connecting the ground lead the voltmeter scale to indicate current in
of your tvom to the chassis and the probe milliamperes if there is a1K-ohm resistor
to terminal 7. Compare the reading you in the circuit.
obtain with the voltage reading you have
recorded for Step 2 in Fig. 14-4. Answer
Z. ..the following Statement and mark your Experimental Procedure: For this ex-
answer on your Report Sheet. Turn off periment, you will need your tvom, the
-r7. S and your tvom, disassemble the circuit experimental chassis and the following
and clean the parts. Do not remove the parts:
leads from the positive and negative
terminals of the 3-volt battery going to 2 1K-ohm resistors
terminal 19 and terminal 1. 1 3.3K-ohm resistor

37
 Fig. 15-1. Parts placement for Experiment 15.

First construct the series circuit shown Now, to find the current, we use
in Fig. 15-1 and shown schematically in Ohm's Law, which tells us that the
Fig. 15-2. Make sure SI is off. current in amperes is equal to the voltage
in volts divided by the resistance in ohms,
SI 1 = E/R. By substituting the proper
numbers for the letters in the formula
(1000 for R, and the voltage you have
3 just measured and recorded for E), you
can find the current in amperes. To
change the answer to milliamperes, we
multiply by 1000, moving the decimal
point three places to the right.
Fig. 15-2. Schematic diagram for the circuit used
in Experiment 15.
VOLTAGE CURRENT
READING IN MA
Step 1: To find the current flowing
through the 1K-ohm resistor R I . R1
« Si
--ir
-
IK

R2
Turn on SI.Measure the voltage across
3 3K L i
?,5--V 4
the 1K-ohm resistor by clipping the
ground lead of your tvom to the junction S---7 V
R 3
IK a-
of R1 and R2 and touching the probe to
terminal 12. Record your reading in Fig.
15-3 in the space for the voltage reading Fig. 15-3. Record your readings for Experiment

across R I . 15 here.

38
 Here is how to figure the current. Step 3: To find the current through
When we measured the voltage across the resistor R3.
1K-ohm resistor, we obtained avoltage of
about 0.6 volt. Using this figure we get: Measure the voltage across R3 by
connecting the ground lead to the chassis
I= E R and the probe to the junction of R2 and
R3 (terminal 7). Figure the current as
0.6 before, again using the last voltage mea-
I= — .0006 amp
1000 sured for E and 1000 for R. Record this
in Fig. 15-3, after multiplying by 1000.
Turn off SI.
To change this to milliamperes we multi-
ply by 1000 which gives us:
Discussion: Now let us compare your
results for Steps 1, 2, and 3. The three
.0006 X 1000= .6 milliamperes current values should be approximately
the same, because the same current flows
through all components in aseries circuit.
Notice that in performing the operation Actually, the current is exactly the same
we simply had to move the decimal point anywhere in the circuit, but because of
three places to the right. parts tolerances and the difficulty in
Now you determine the current reading the meter accurately, your figures
through the 1K-ohm resistor from your may show slight differences.
experimental results. Remember that be-
Notice the voltage value you measured
cause of normal parts tolerances, you may across the 1K-ohm resistor R1 and the
not get exactly the same result that we current you calculated for R1.The num-
got. Record your current in Fig. 15-3. ber of volts across R1 and the number of
milliamperes flowing through it should be
Step 2: To find the current through the same, because you divided the voltage
the 3.3K-ohm resistor R2. by 1000 to find the current, and then
multiplied by 1000 to change it to
milliamperes. This means that when the
Measure the voltage across R2 by resistance equals 1000, the voltage across
connecting the tvom with the ground lead it in volts is equal to the current through
to the junction of R2 and R3 (terminal it in milliamperes. Because of this fact,
7), and the probe to the junction of R1 you can read the current directly on the
and R2 (terminal 9). Record the reading voltmeter scale if you are measuring
in Fig. 15-3. Figure the current through across a 1K-ohm resistor. If the voltmeter
R2 just as you did for R1 in Step 1. This indicates .2 volt, you have .2 milliampere
time substitute 3300 for R in the for- of current. If it indicates 1.5 volts, you
mula, and the second voltage measure- have 1.5 milliamperes of current, etc.
ment for E. Record the current in Fig. If you wanted to measure current with
15-3, after multiplying the answer by a voltmeter and there was no 1K-ohm
1000 to change amperes to milliamperes. resistor in the circuit, you could add a

39
 determine the current in the series circuit
composed of R1 and R2.To do this,
connect your tvom to read the voltage
across RI,turn on SI,and short terminal
7 to the chassis with a wire or ascrew-
driver. Since R1 is a1K-ohm resistor, the
voltage across it will be equal to the
circuit current in milliamperes. Write this
value down in the margin of this page.
Now turn off Si and answer the Report
Statement. You will use the circuit al-
ready connected for the next experiment,
so do not dismantle the experimental
pleted. Also, the busy technician will not chassis.
use Ohm's Law each time he wants to'
know something about the current in a
circuit. In practical work, you seldom Statement No. 15: When Ishorted R3

want to know the amount of current. All Ifound that the circuit current was:
you want to know is whether the amount
is correct, and it will be if the voltage is greater than
correct. )less than
Circuit current values are not given for (3) the same as
most electronic equipment. However,
voltage values are generally given. If the the circuit current measured in Steps 1, 2,
correct voltage drop appears across apart, and 3.
you can assume that the amount of
current is correct for that circuit. EXPERIMENT 16
The technician is interested in three
possibilities as far as current is concerned.
These are: Purpose: To show that continuity can
be checked by taking voltage measure-
ments.
1. Is the current normal?
2. Is the current too high?
3. Is the current too low? Introductory Discussion: The word
"continuity" as used in electronics refers
to the completeness of the path through
Voltage measurements give all three which current is to flow. If there is no
answers without the use of Ohm's Law or continuity, in other words, if the path is
the necessity of unsoldering and re- broken at some point, current cannot
soldering connections. flow.
You know from studying your lessons
Instructions for Statement No. 15: For and from the experiments you have al-
the statement, you will short out R3 and ready performed, that current flows only

40
 in a complete circuit, and that when through the part. Since the resistance is
current flows through aresistance, there essentially zero through the short, there is
is always avoltage drop across the resis- no voltage drop to measure.
tance. These two facts are of utmost If you measure the full source voltage
importance to a technician, because he across a part in a series circuit, you can
uses them constantly in troubleshooting. assume the part is open (will not pass
A complete circuit has a voltage current). The full source voltage across a
source, connecting wires, and one or part indicates there is no voltage across
more parts through which current can the other parts in the circuit, and no
flow. The parts in the circuit do not current is flowing through them. The
necessarily have to be resistors -- all parts break, as you will prove, is in the part
through which current can flow have across which you measure the source
some resistance. Examples of these parts voltage.
are coils, transformers, series tube fila- We will investigate these conditions in
ments, and connecting wires. The fact this experiment so that when you run
that such parts have some resistance across them in service work, you will
means that there is avoltage drop across know what to expect.
each part. Here, of course, we are working with
You cannot measure a voltage drop low voltages and simple circuits that show
across the connecting wires in a circuit only the desired effects. In later kits you
because the resistance of the wire is so will apply the same tests to circuits using
close to zero that the voltage drop across the voltage from your power line. You
it is essentially zero. You can get apretty will work with circuits that amplify, that
good idea of what the voltage drop across detect, that rectify, and that produce
each part in a circuit should be by signals of their own. In short, you will
looking at the schematic diagram. For learn all you need to know about the
example, if there are three resistors circuits.
having approximately the same resistance
in a series circuit, you should find that
the voltage drop across each of the
Experimental Procedure: To perform
resistors is equal to about one-third of the this experiment you will need the tvom,
source voltage. On the other hand, if one
the circuit you constructed in the last
very high resistance is in series with one
experiment, and the following parts:
or more low resistances, the voltage drop
across the high resistance will be very
nearly equal to the source voltage, and 1 10K-ohm resistor
the voltage drop across the low resistance 1 10-megohm resistor
will be almost zero. Hookup wire
If there is no voltage drop across one
part in a circuit and there is avoltage For this experiment you will use the
drop across the other parts, there must be circuit shown in Fig. 16-1. As you can
a complete short circuit across the part see, all you need to do is add the
with no voltage drop. Then the current 10K-ohm resistor from terminal 5 to
flows through the short rather than terminal 8to make the circuit.

41
Fig. 16-1. The chassis layout is shown at (A)
and the schematic diagram of the circuit for
Experiment 16 is shown at (B).

Step 1: To show that there is avoltage this resistor, there will be no voltage drop
drop across each part in a complete across it.
circuit. Turn on S1 and clip the negative
terminal of your voltmeter to the chassis.
Examine Fig. 16-1. You can see that Touch the probe to terminal 8. Although
there is acomplete circuit consisting of there may be amomentary quiver of the
RI,R2,and R3 in series across the 3-volt meter needle, there will be no steady
source. Electrons will be pulled through reading. This shows that there is no
the circuit into the positive terminal of voltage drop across Rs. Now touch the
the battery and pushed out into the probe to terminal 7. Here there will be
circuit from the negative terminal of the voltage, which will be less than the source
battery. Electrons cannot be pushed into voltage. Touch the probe to terminal 9.
resistor R4 because the electrons have no You will get a voltage reading greater
place to go. Unless electrons are removed than the one you measured at terminal 7.
from terminal 8, none can enter from Move the probe to terminal 12 and you
ground. Since there is no current through will measure the full source voltage. This

42
 indicates that there is continuity through-
out the complete circuit. The fact that
the voltage increased from terminal 7 to
terminal 9 showed that there was a
voltage drop across each part.
Fig. 16-2. how to make a dut lllll open part
Previously, we have measured the volt-
with two pieces of wire.
age across individual resistors. We could
have done so in this case, but in actual
electronics work you usually make all Let us assume that R3 has burned out.
your measurements with respect to one Rather than ruin agood resistor, we will
point in the equipment. make up a dummy part to simulate the
effect of an open resistor. To do this, cut
two pieces of hookup wire each about
Step 2: To show that the lack of a
1-1/2 inches long. Remove the insulation
voltage drop across only one part in a
from only one end of each wire. Wrap the
complete circuit shows that that part is
insulated ends of the wires over each
shorted.
other so you will have an "open part"
with two leads. It should look something
Cut apiece of hookup wire about two like Fig. 16-2.
inches long and strip the insulation from Unsolder R3 from terminal 7 and
it. Solder this lead from terminal 7 to solder one lead of the dummy resistor to
terminal 5. R3 is now shorted. terminal 5(leave R3 and R. connected to
With the negative voltmeter lead this point). Solder the other lead of the
clipped to the chassis, touch the probe to dummy resistor to terminal 7and imagine
terminal 7. You should not get areading that this is R3 after it has burned out and
because, although current flows through become open.
this part of the circuit, there is no Clip the ground lead of the tvom to the
appreciable resistance between these chassis. Touch the probe to terminal 12.
points. The current takes the easy path You should measure the full source volt-
through the bare wire instead of the high age. Now touch the tvom probe to
resistance path through R3. Touch the terminal 9. Again you should measure the
probe to terminal 9; this should give you full source voltage, showing that there is
a reading -- showing that current is no voltage drop across RI.Now move the
flowing through R2 and also through RI. probe to terminal 7. Again you should
Move the probe to terminal 12. You will measure the full source voltage, showing
measure the full source voltage here. that there is no drop across resistor R2

Remove the bare wire shorting R3, and and that all of the source voltage is across
you are ready to go on to the next step. the dummy open resistor. To further
prove that there is no voltage drop across
the good parts, connect your ground clip
Step 3: To show that an open part in to terminal 7 — the junction of R2 and
an otherwise complete circuit has the full dummy resistor R3. Touch the probe to
source voltage across it and that there are terminal 9. Except for a momentary
no voltage drops across the other parts. flicker of the meter pointer, you will get

43
no reading. Now move the ground clip to measurements that terminals 5and 8are
terminal 9and touch the probe to termi- at the same ground potential. Turn on Si
nal 12. Again you should get no reading, and clip the ground lead of your tiom to
showing that there is no voltage drop the chassis, and touch the probe to
across the parts. terminal 8. You will not get areading.
This method of testing across each part Now clip the ground lead to terminal 8
individually is amore certain check than and touch the probe to the chassis. Again
measuring from a fixed point such as you will not get a reading. With the
ground. ground clip on terminal 8, touch the
Now remove the dummy resistor and probe to terminal 7. This time there will
resolder the free end of R3 to terminal 7, be areading. Note its value carefully, and
completing the original circuit. jot it down on the side of the page. Now
•.517 connect the ground clip to the chassis,
Step 4: To show that acheck of the and touch the probe to terminal 7. You
source voltage does not indicate the should measure the same voltage between
presence of continuity in the circuit /J.7 the chassis and terminal 7 as you did
connected to it. between terminals 8 and 7. Terminals 5
(chassis) and 8 are both negative with
Connect the ground clip of the tvom to respect to terminal 7.
the chassis. Touch the probe to terminal
19 of switch S1 in Fig. 16-1. Note the Discussion: The facts that this experi-
exact reading. Now open the circuit by ment brings out are of such importance
turning Si off. Repeat the measurement that they are listed here. Refer to this
by touching the probe again to terminal listing whenever you need refreshing on
19. You will note that there is no these points. Eventually, you will become
difference in voltage at this point whether so familiar with all of these facts that you
the circuit is open or closed. Because of will know at once what to look for when
this, acheck of voltage across a part or you run across similar conditions in your
across a series of parts directly at the service work.
source does not show if current can flow
through the circuit or the part. Such a 1. If current can flow through acircuit
measurement only checks the condition there will be a voltage drop across all
of the voltage supply and not the parts unshorted parts in the circuit.
connected to the source. 2. If one part in acomplete circuit has
no voltage drop across it, but there are
Step 5: To show that both ends of a voltage drops across all other parts, the
part having no voltage drop are at the one with no voltage drop is shorted. The
same potential, and that the continuity of short may be in the part itself or in some
the part can be checked by voltage other part shunting it.
measurements. 3. If in acircuit that should be com-
plete, you find full source voltage across
In Step 1 of this experiment, you one part and no voltage across the other
found that there was no voltage drop parts, the part with full source voltage
across resistor R4. Let us prove by across it is open.

44
 4. If only one part is connected across EXPERIMENT 17
a source, the presence of voltage across
the part is meaningless, since full source Purpose: To show that the sum of the
voltage will be across it whether or not currents flowing away from a point is
the part is open. equal to the current flowing to that
5. If there is no voltage drop across point.
the part, but one lead of the part con-
nects to an operating circuit, both ends of Introductory Discussion: In this exper-
the part will be at the same potential with iment we will construct the series-parallel
respect to all other points in the circuit. circuit shown in Fig. 17-1. Current
flows through the branch consisting of
Instructions for Statement No. 16: If R1 and R4, and current 1 2 flows through
the resistance of a part being checked is the branch consisting of R2 and R3. Both
fairly large compared to the resistance of of these currents, which together make
your tvom, you will not get the expected up the total current drawn from the
voltage measurements when you check battery, flow through resistor R.
the continuity of the part. We will prove Since R, R I , and R2 are 1K-ohm
this point in this statement experiment. resistors, we can measure the three cur-
We will substitute the 10-megollm resistor rents in terms of milliamperes. As you
for R. To do this, solder one end of the have learned, the voltage drop ill volts
10-megohm resistor to terminal 15 across a 1K-ohm resistor is equal to the
(chassis). Leave the other end free. Clip current in milliamperes flowing through
the tvom ground clip to the free end of It.
this resistor and touch the probe to The accuracy of the measurements will
terminal 7. A reading here indicates that depend on the tolerances of the three
...py continuity exists through the 10-megohm resistors. If each is exactly 1K ohm, timen
resistor. Now touch the probe to terminal the current measured for Iwill exactly
/,
;_ri2. Jot down the approximate reading,
‘ equal 11 plus 1 2. However, since the

and answer the Statement. Turn off S1 resistors have atolerance of plus or minus
and your tvom, unsolder the 10-megohm 10 percent and therefore may not be
resistor but leave the batteries as well as exactly 1K ohm each, the readings may
R I , R2, and R3 connected. Save the be off alittle.
dummy resistor for later use.
SI
Statement No. 16: When Imeasured 12 13
the voltage between the free end of the 19 20
R1 R2
10-megohm resistor and terminal 12, 1 1K 1K
found that the meter pointer was closest 91, 10
to: F
24 .: II 12
- R3
33K 10K
(1) zero
e 1.5 volts
IK
(3) 3volts

on the 0-3 volt dc scale. F. 17-1. Circuit for Experiment 17.

45
 Fig. 17-2. Chassis arrangement for Experiment 17.

Experimental Procedure: For this ex- Clip the ground lead of your meter to
periment, you will need your tvom, the the chassis and touch the probe to termi-
chassis with parts installed, and the fol- nal 7. Record your reading on the 3-volt
lowing parts: scale in Fig. 17-3 as the current I in
milliamperes. As you can see from exam-
1 1K-ohm resistor ining the schematic in Fig. 17-1, all the
Hookup wire electrons making up the current drawn
from the battery flow through resistor R.
Fig. 17-2 shows the parts arrangement
needed to perform this experiment. To Step 2: To measure current l.
construct this circuit, unsolder the 10K.
ohm resistor lead from terminal 5 and Current II flows through resistors R1

resolder it to terminal 10. Then install the and R4. Since this is aseries circuit, the
1K-ohm resistor from terminal 10 to
CURRENT YOUR
terminal 13. MEASURED READING
Finally, connect terminals 7and 8with
CURRENT I
a2" length of hookup wire, and connect o ''-'1-%- •
THROUGH R
terminals 12 and 13 with another 2"
CURRENT Ii /
-
length of hookup wire. These jumpers are
THROUGH RI
purposely made longer than necessary so
CURRENT I2
that the circuit can be changed easily
THROUGH R2 6 z
later. Turn on SI and your tvom and
CURRENT
proceed with Step I. 1
1+1 2 - 9 )1f-et
Step 1: To measure current Ithrough Fig. 17-3. Record your readings for Experiment
resistor R. 17 here.

46
 same current flows through both resis- scale division so that you could read them
tors. By measuring the voltage drop exactly. This is extremely unlikely, al-
across R1 we can interpret this as current though possible. If the difference be-
II in milliamperes through both resistors. tween the sum of I I and 12 and current I
To make the measurement, clip the is not greater than ±20%, your results are
ground lead of the tvom to terminal 9, good.
the junction of R1 and R4, and touch the The current flowing to point A in Fig.
probe to the end of R1 going to terminal 17-1 is the current I. The current flowing
12, the positive battery terminal. Record away from point A is the sum of II and
your reading in Fig. 17-3 as the current I
I 12. You should have found that this sum
in milliamperes. was approximately equal to 1. In other
words, the current flow to point A is
Step 3: To measure current 1
2. equal to the current flowing away from
it. This is an important law known as
Since R2 and R3 are in series, the same Kirchhoffs Current Law. You will see
current flows through each. Measuring applications of it time and time again in
the voltage drop across the 1K-ohm resis- your electronics career.
tor R2 gives us the current in milli-
amperes. To make the measurement, clip Instructions for Statement No. 17: For
the ground lead of the tvom to terminal the Statement we will change the circuit
10, the junction of R2 and R3, and touch in Fig. 17-1 by placing resistor R between
the probe to terminal 12 or 13, the end the positive battery terminal and the
of R2 going to the positive battery junction of R1 and R2. The new circuit
terminal. Record in Fig. 17-3 the voltage will be like Fig. 17-4. With the circuit
across R2 as the current 1
2 in milli- changed, we will see if the currents
amperes. Turn off SI. flowing to point B add up to the current
flowing away from this point.
Step 4: To find the sum of li and I
2. By simply reconnecting the two jump-
ers used in Fig. 17-2, we can change the
Add the values you obtained for 11 and circuit to that of Fig. 17-4. Resistors R
12 and record their sum in the space and R1 become interchanged. That is,
provided in Fig. 17-3. resistor R in Fig. 17-4 was RI in Fig. 17-2
and resistor RI in Fig. 17-4 was R in Fig.
Discussion: Compare the current you
S1
measured for I with the sum of the
I
K 9 3
currents you measured for II and 12.
19 20 4--
They should be approximately equal.
However, you must remember that be-
3V —
cause of parts tolerances, the measured
values may not be exactly equal. If these
values are equal, it means that the three
1K-ohm resistors that you have are exact-
ly equal and that the measurements in
each case happen to fall on a marked Fig. 17-4. Circuit for Statement 17.

47
 Fig. 17-5, Parts arrangement of Fig. 17-4.

17-2. Both resistors are 1K-ohm, so all is Turn Si off and unsolder and remove
well. the resistors and jumper wires. Leave the
To change the circuit, unsolder the battery connected to terminals 1and 19.
jumper wire going to terminal 7 and
resolder it to terminal 5. Unsolder the
Statement No. 17: I found that the
jumper lead going to terminal 12 and
sum of I and 1
2 was:
resolder it to terminal 9 as shown in Fig.
17-5. With the circuit changed, we will
pproximately equal to
see if the currents flowing to point Badd
(2) considerably greater than
up to the current flowing away from this
point. (3) considerably less than
Turn on S1 and measure the current
current I.
through R by connecting the meter clip
to terminal 9 and the probe to terminal
12. Record your reading for 1in Fig. CURRENT YOUR
MEASURED READING
17-6. Now measure the current through
R1 by connecting the meter ground clip CURRENT I
THROUGH R
to the chassis and touching the probe to
CURRENT II
terminal 7. Record this reading as l in
THROUGH RI • 5-51
Fig. 17-6. Finally, measure 1 2 by con-
CURRENT I2
necting the meter ground clip to terminal THROUGH R2 2-2,
. -

10 and the probe to terminal 13. Record CURRENT

your reading in Fig. 17-6. Add up the 1

1.1 2 s> 6
currents I
I and 12 and enter the sum in

Fig. 17-6. Now you can answer the Fig. 17-6. Record the readings for Statement
statement. No. 17 here.

48
 Putting Your Ohmmeter
Into Operation
The ohmmeter section of your tvom probe tip. The meter will indicate a
should be ready to operate. You assem- fraction of an ohm. This reading is
bled it and installed the battery when you normal and is due to the small resistance
constructed the unit. If your tvom has in the ground lead and the probe cable.
been operating properly up to this point, Turn the range switch to the R X 1M
you should have no difficulty with the position. The meter pointer will swing to
ohmmeter. the left, coming to astop approximately
at zero on the ohms scale. This indicates
TRYING OUT THE
there is zero resistance between the clip
OHMMETER
and the probe. The fraction of an ohm of
Turn on the tvom and set the function resistance in the ground lead and cable is
switch to dc, and the range switch to R X not indicated with high range switch
1. Carefully adjust the zero set knob on settings. When you separate the clip and
the front panel. Look to see that the test the probe, the meter pointer will swing all
leads from the meter are not touching, the way to the right to the last mark on
and rotate the function switch to the the ohmmeter scale.
"ohms" position. The meter pointer It is important that you know the
should move upscale. If it moves down- meaning of these two marks. The one at
scale, you have the flashlight cell installed the right means that the resistance be-
backwards. tween the test leads is too high to be
Bring the meter pointer over the last read, and the zero mark at the left means
mark on the right on the ohmmeter scale that the resistance between the two
(the red scale on the meter) by adjusting probes is too low to be read.
the front panel ohms set knob. Let us see how the ohmmeter works.
If you cannot get it to the last mark,
the flashlight cell voltage is too low, and HOW YOUR OHMMETER WORKS
you should install another cell. You An ohmmeter does not measure the
should check the calibration adjustment resistance of a part directly. It measures
of the voltmeter when the flashlight cell either the current flowing through the
is replaced. part or the voltage drop across the part.
Turn the range knob through its vari- Your Model 212 and most commercial
ous positions. The meter pointer should tvom's use the latter method.
remain in approximately the same posi- As you already know from the discus-
tion for any position of the range switch. sion in Experiment 11, the bridge circuit
If there is much variation, the meter in your tvom when balanced gives azero
reading can be brought back to the last reading on the meter scale. When a
mark on the ohmmeter scale by means of voltage is applied to the bridge, unbal-
the ohms set knob. ancing it, there is a reading which de-
Turn the range switch to the R X 1 pends upon the amount of the voltage.
position and clip the ground lead to the A schematic diagram of your ohm-

49
 + 9V

F. 14. Ohms circuit of TVOM.

meter circuit is shown in Fig. 14. When 10K-ohm resistor; on the R X 10K, a
the ohmmeter is in use, the additional 100K-ohm resistor; on the R X 100K, a
parts consist of the 1.5-volt cell, aresis- I-meg resistor; and on the R X 1M, a
tor, and the ohms set rheostat in series 10-meg resistor. Since all of these ranges
with the meter. When the probes are are multiples of 10, we can use the same
separated, there is no voltage drop across ohmmeter scale for each range. On R X 1,
the resistor, and the 1.5 volts is applied the scale can be read directly. On the R X
directly to the bridge circuit. When the 10 range, we multiply the scale reading
ohmmeter is to be used, the ohms set is by 10. On the R X 100 range, we
adjusted so the meter pointer moves all multiply the scale reading by 100. On the
the way to the right. When the test R X 1K range, we multiply the scale
probes are held together, no voltage is reading by 1000. On the R X 10K range,
applied to the bridge circuit, and the we multiply the scale reading by 10,000.
meter pointer goes all the way to the left On the R X 100K range, we multiply the
on the ohms scale. scale reading by 100,000, and on the R X
If a resistor is connected between the 1M range, we multiply the reading by
ground clip and the probe, the 1.5-volt 1,000,000. On this range we simply read
source voltage divides between the resis- the scale directly in terms of megohms
tor built into the tvom and the external (million ohms) rather than ohms.
resistance under test. The voltage drop The scale is arranged so that 10 falls in
across the resistor being tested is applied the center of the scale. If we measure a
to the bridge circuit. The meter is cali- 10-ohm resistor on the R X 1range, the
brated to give readings in ohms, corre- resistance in the tvom and the external
sponding to these voltage drops. Thus, resistance will be equal, and the meter
the meter is actually measuring the volt- will read half-scale. The cell voltage di-
age chop, but the scale is marked in ohms vides equally between the resistance in
to give adirect resistance reading. the tvom and the external resistance. The
For each ohmmeter range position a meter will read half-scale on each range
definite resistor value is switched into the when the resistor under test equals the
circuit. On the R X 1range, we have a internal resistance of the ohmmeter. If a
10-ohm resistor; on the R X 10, a resistance higher than the internal resis- ,
100-ohm resistor; on the R X 100, a tance is measured, more of the voltage
IK-ohm resistor; on the R X 1K, a will be dropped across it and applied to

50
 the bridge circuit, and ahigher value will
be indicated. If aresistor lower than the
4 % 4
one in the ohmmeter being tested, less of
1 • C
44.•

.44.
the voltage will be dropped across it, and ..

a smaller voltage will be applied to the

bridge circuit, giving asmaller deflection
and alower resistance reading.
The values that can be read on any
range are the ones included between the
first mark on the ohmmeter scale to the RANGE SETTING VALUE INDICATED

right of zero and the 1K mark. R X1 19

Thus, on the R X 1scale, we can read RXIO 190

values from .2 ohm to 1000 ohms. On the
RX100 1,900
R X 10 scale, we can read values from 2
R X1K 19,000
ohms to 10,000 ohms. On the R X 100
scale, we can read values from 20 ohms to RXIOK 190,000

100K ohms. On the R X 1K range, we R XIOOK 1,900,000

can read values between 200 ohms and 1 R X IM 19 MEG

megohm. On the R X 10K range, we can
read values between 2000 ohms and 10
Fig. 16. When the meter points to the fi rs tli ne
megohms. On the R X 100K range, we before 20 on the ohms scale, the va l
u ei
ndi ca t ed
can read values between 20,000 ohms and depends on the setting of the range switch.
100 megohms. On the R X 1M range, we
can read values between 200,000 ohms in-between markings clearly illustrated.
and 1000 megohms. Study this and the scale on your meter
These are the maximum extremes that until you are able to identify the values
can be measured on the various ranges. of the unmarked divisions quickly.
Actually, arange should be used that will For practice assume that the meter
give adeflection as near the center of the pointer rests at a certain position and
scale as possible. Avoid using arange that then figure out what value this position
gives areading on the extreme right. would indicate on the various ranges.
Assume that the meter pointer points
READING THE METER SCALE to the division just before 20. Write down
the value this would indicate for each
An expanded view of the meter scale is range of the ohmmeter. Then compare
shown in Fig. 15 with the values of the your reading to the ones in Fig. 16.

P
2 1
2 7,n
). NW, 40,A
e. 0#1 4,
,„,
Obee ew s

&et See l \ It
51
,6 i
tg
,

,
,,
\\\\.. \ 4
101 1 115/
\ \\ \l„\\, ,
 Remember that the R X 1scale is read turning the switch on while checking the
directly in ohms, and the R X 1M scale is volume control, which may be part of the
read directly in megohms. switch.
Although, as we have said, your ohm- If the equipment is battery operated,
meter works by voltage division, you all the batteries should be disconnected,
must remember that some current is because the on-off switch might discon-
drawn from the cell. With the range nect only one battery terminal, leaving
switch in the R X 1position and the test the other terminal connected to the
leads shorted together, you have a 10- circuits. In making tests with your ohm-
ohm resistor connected directly across meter, you might complete the battery
the cell and considerable current is drawn circuit through your meter. If there is
from the cell. Do not leave the probes voltage across the part being tested, the
together for any length of time on the resistance measurement is meaningless
two lowest ohmmeter ranges. Make the and if the voltage is high, the ohmmeter
readings quickly so you can disconnect might be damaged. We will show what
the test probes and prolong the life of happens when voltage is present across a
your flashlight cell. However, since re- resistor being checked with an ohmmeter.
placement cells are inexpensive and are 2. Use the correct range of the ohm-
easy to install, you should take enough meter. As you will demonstrate, if you
time to get satisfactory readings. use the wrong range, the ohmmeter may
indicate agood part is open or shorted.
EXPERIMENT 18 3. Keep your fingers off the parts
under test when measuring high resis-
Purpose: To show how practical mea- tances. The resistance of your body can
surements on individual resistors are affect the results of your measurements.
made with an ohmmeter; and to show the On low resistances it does not matter. Do
precautions necessary for satisfactory re- not touch the probes when checking
sults. iron-core devices, such as transformers or
chokes, or you may receive a serious
Introductory Discussion: In checking shock.
parts with an ohmmeter there are three
important rules to bear in mind. These As you continue working with your
are: ohmmeter, you will learn other valuable
tricks of the trade that will enable you to
1. Make sure the equipment in which get the greatest use from the ohmmeter
the part under test is used is turned off. If section of your tvom.
it is supplied from the power line, turning
the equipment power switch to the off
position is usually sufficient. Many tech- Experimental Procedure: In this exper-
nicians, however, make it a rule to re- iment you will need your tvom, the 3-volt
move the power line plug of the equip- battery, and the following parts:
ment from the wall socket. Then there is
no question that the power has been 1 10-megohm resistor
disconnected, and there is no chance of 1 1-megohm resistor

52
 1 100K-ohm resistor 10-megohm resistor. Note the change in
1 22K-ohm resistor the meter reading. The large reduction in
I 18K-ohm resistor the reading shows that your body resis-
I 10K-ohm resistor tance is in parallel with that of the
1 3.3K-ohm resistor 10-megohm resistor. You might measure
3 1K-ohm resistors 2 megohms, 4 megohms, or 6 megohms,
1 Alligator clip depending upon the moisture on the
surface of your skin and the pressure you
Turn the tvom on and turn the func- exert in touching the test leads. In any
tion switch to the dc position. Carefully event, you can see that such atest of the
adjust the zero set control. Now turn the resistor gives meaningless results.
function switch to the ohms position, and Lay the 10-megohm resistor to one
the range switch to the RX 1M position. side, and set the range switch to the R X
Adjust the ohms set control so that the 10K position. Connect the ground clip to
meter pointer is over the last division at one lead of the 100K-ohm resistor, and
the right on the ohms scale. Now hold the the probe to the other end, and note the
test leads together; the pointer should reading. Grasp one test clip in each hand,
move to zero on the left of the scale. You placing yourself across the resistor. Again
are now ready to demonstrate the first note that there is a reduction in the
step in the experiment. Slip the alligator resistance reading, although considerably
clip over the tvom probe as you did in less than in the case of the 10-megohm
Experiment 14. This will make it easier to resistor. The reduction is less because the
connect the ohmmeter to the circuits resistance of your body across the
used in this experiment. 100K-ohm resistor causes less of achange
in the resistance between the ohmmeter
leads.
Step 1: To show the effect of touch-
Now disconnect the 100K-ohm resistor
ing the circuit under test when measuring
and lay it to one side. Place the range
large resistance values.
switch in the R X 1K position. Connect
the ground clip to one lead of a10K-ohm
In this step you will first use the resistor, and the probe to the other end.
10-meg resistor. With the resistor on your Your reading will be somewhere near 10
workbench, clip the ground lead of the on the ohms scale. Multiplying this by
tvom to one lead of the resistor and the 1000 will give you the approximate value
probe to the other resistor lead. You will of the resistor. Now touch the ground
get a reading of approximately 10 meg- clip with the fingers of one hand, and
ohms. Let us see how we read this. The touch the probe with your other hand.
meter pointer should point to about 10 Note that there is only aslight change in
on the ohms scale and this, of course, the resistance value.
means 10 megohms on this range. This step showed you that touching
Now with the ground lead and the the ohmmeter leads with your hands is
probe clipped to the 10-megohm resistor, not very important when measuring low
grasp one test clip in each hand. This resistances, but is extremely important
places your body in parallel with the when measuring high resistances. You

53
should make it a habit to keep your NO. OF PLACES TO
RANGE COVERAGE RIGHT TO MOVE
hands off the circuit under test. DECIMAL POINT

.2 OHM TO 0
RXI IK OHMS
Step 2: To show that using the incor-
2OHMS TO
R X 10 I
rect ohmmeter range may give misleading 10K OHMS

results. 20 OHMS TO 2
R X100 100K OHMS
200 OHMS TO 3
R X IK IMEGOHM
Connect the ground clip to one lead of
2K OHMS TO
the 100K-ohm resistor, set the range R XIOK 10 MEGOHMS
4

switch to the R X 1position, and touch 20K OHMS TO

R X 100K 5
the probe of the tvom to the free lead of 100 MEGOHMS

the resistor. Note that there is no appre- 200K OHMS TO 6

R X IM 1000 MEGOHMS
ciable movement of the meter pointer,
indicating, as far as this range is con- Fig. 18-1. The resistance values covered by each
cerned, that the resistor is open. Now,
range of the ohmmeter.
remove the probe from the resistor, and
switch the range switch to the R X 1M move the decimal one place to the right,
position. Again touch the probe against which gives you 100, the value of the
the free lead of the resistor. The pointer resistor under test.
will move almost to zero, and you might To find the ohmic value when the
conclude that the resistor was either meter reads 30 using the R X 100K range,
completely or partially shorted. Now, move the decimal point five places to the
remove the probe from the 100K-ohm right, which gives 3,000,000 or 3 meg-
resistor, and change the range switch to ohms.
the R X 10K position. Touch the probe When the readings fall on unmarked
to the resistor again and you will find values to the left of 6, the meter value
that the meter pointer swings to 10. will end with a decimal. Thus the line
Multiplying this by 10,000 gives us between 5 and 6 is 5.5. On the R X 10
100,000 for the value of the resistor. range, ameter reading of 5.5 is 55 ohms.
From this demonstration you can see Also notice that the long mark between 6
how important the choice of range is. Let and 8 is not numbered and it represents
us learn how to choose the right range. 7. Likewise, the long mark between 8and
10 is not numbered and it represents 9.
Step 3: To show how to choose a The short marks between 6 and 7, 7and
suitable ohmmeter range. 8 and 8and 9 indicate avalue ending in
.5.
A suitable ohmmeter range is one that Suppose you are using the R X 10K
is easily read. Before demonstrating this range, and the meter pointer is on the
statement, examine Fig. 18-1. This chart third mark past zero. This is .6. To get
lists the resistance values covered by each the reading in ohms, multiply .6 by
range. It also shows how many places to 10,000 or move the decimal point four
move the decimal point for each multi- places to the right. The answer is 6000
plying factor. For example, if the meter ohms.
reads 10 when using the R X 10 range, With practice you will be able to read

54
values quickly and easily. Many times you anywhere from 1.6 to 2; on R X 100K, it
can tell the range to use by reading what will move past the first scale division on
the value is supposed to be on the the left, .2; and on the R X 1M range,
schematic diagram. there will be no perceptible reading.
Let us see which range to use for your From these, you know that the resis-
18K-ohm resistor. First, put the range tance you are measuring will be more
switch in the R X 1 position. Clip the than 1000 ohms, and less than 20,000
ground lead to one lead of the resistor, ohms. You could read it on the R X 100,
and the probe to the other lead. Record the R X 1K or the R X 10K range. You
your reading in Fig. 18-2. Now, move the will get amore accurate reading on the R
range switch to each of the other posi- X 1K range, because at that part of the
tions, and watch the meter. Record your scale, each division represents 1, and the
meter readings in the spaces marked reading is near the center of the scale. On
"Reading" in Fig. 18-2. Figure out the the R X 100 range the reading is way over
value in ohms by multiplying each read- to the right, and each division represents
ing by the multiplying factor for each 50 or 100. On the R X 10K range the
range setting. Write these under "Value" reading is way over to the left, and each
for each range. division represents 2.
When you use the R X 1 range, the The readings you obtain might be
pointer will be all the way over to the closer together or even farther apart than
right, so you know the resistance is more those shown in Fig. 18-2. Exact agree-
than 1000 ohms, so you switch to the ment is very unusual and, as you will
next range. On R X 10, the pointer still learn, unnecessary. Since the readings are
stays all the way over to the right, so taken on different parts of the scale, the
again you switch to ahigher range. On R error introduced by the meter itself and
X 100, the pointer should be between by the resistors in the instrument may
150 and 200, so switch to ahigher range. vary. For service and general electronic
On R X 1K, the pointer should be at work such an error is unimportant.
about 18; on R X 10K, it will be Now check each of your resistors on

RX I R X10 RX100 R X IK R X 10K R X 100K

o
READING

READING

e lài
READING

READING

w
READING
VALUE

VALUE

RANGE
VALUE

VALUE

8 g ..>
D
-1

cc
_

SAMPLE LESS LESS

IK + IK + IK + 10K+ 150+ I5K+ 18 18K 16 + 16K +
FIGURES THAN THAN
,. 2 _ 20K

YOUR
FIGURES 1/ ..- //,. 7-.
— i5 et jP0,4-
-.'..<e4 J(, /6& I,%. /»
---

Fig. 18-2. Record your reading for each range setting under the column headed "Reading". Record the

value that reading indicates on each range under the heading "Value".

55
each range, recording your scale readings tance on the R X 1range, the pointer will
in Fig. 18-3, and the value this reading move between 200 and 300 at the right-
indicates. Clip the ground lead to either hand side of the scale, but that is about as
lead of the resistor being measured, and close as you can read it. On the R X 1K
the probe to the other lead. Turn the range, it will move between .2 and .4, so
range switch to the positions indicated on you know the value is between 200 and
the top of the table, and enter the meter 400. However, on the R X 100 range, it
reading you obtain under the heading will move to the first division past 3, so
marked "Reading." Compute the ohmic you know the value is between 300 and
value of the resistor, and enter it in the 350. This is the best scale to use for this
space marked "Value." particular resistance value.
For the 1K-ohm reading, use any one
of the 1K-ohm resistors. For the 330-ohm
Step 4: To show that power must not
resistance you are to measure, connect
be applied to acircuit when ohmmeter
the three 1K-ohm resistors in parallel. To
tests are made.
do this, clip the tvom ground lead to one
end of all three 1K-ohm resistors, and the
probe to the other ends. Connect a1K-ohm resistor, a10K-ohm
Practice working out the ohmic value resistor and a22K-ohm resistor in series.
of each reading you record in Fig. 18-3. If Connect the free lead of the 1K-ohm
you find one range is as easy to read as resistor to terminal 15 and connect the
another, it does not matter which range 22K-ohm resistor to terminal 20, as
you use. shown in Fig. 18-4. Make sure S1 is off.
If you want the greatest accuracy, use To make the connections to the 10K-ohm
the range that gives an indication nearest resistor, simply twist the resistor leads
the center of the scale. For example, together for this temporary connection.
when you measure the 330-ohm resis- Note that the circuit is not completed,

RXI R X IO RX100 R X IK R X 10K R X 100K R X IIAEG

RESIS
READING VALUE READING VALUE READING VALUE READING VALUE READING VALUE READING VALUE READING VALUE

MEG
>tet >,itt ,1k >/c» h( >/e.a0>
IR »Z >e >/e, /do ,ffl,
MEG
I ›/K >ik >11( >zes >/& 4,\ ,eie >ke Aeo
./ lei /0 /Ar 1. e /bede

/reie > 11( ) /K Y/k )4.t it /4',K ic, kre f...e.3.re / /6b,k-,/ /..4
22K ,Pe ›
,,,k 2,,fdt>i« _lev 35i. 2z zzez-V 2re _i_s° A-i, e o,r
i
0IC

3.3K

IK

330

Fig. 18-3. Record the reading and the indicated value on each range for each of the resistances listed.

56
 Fig. 18-4. Circuit for Step 4.

since S1 is off and the 22K-ohm resistor range might indicate that agood resistor
is not connected to the positive terminal is open or that it is shorted. Also, you
of the battery. Consequently, there will must choose asuitable range so that the
be no voltage drops across the resistors, value can be read easily and accurately.
and no current flow through the circuit. You have seen that if power is applied
Measure the resistance of the 1K-ohm to acircuit in which aresistance measure-
resistor by clipping the ground lead to the ment is being made, the measurement will
chassis. Set the range switch of the tvom be so far off as to be meaningless.
to the R X 1K position, and clip the You have found that the ohmmeter is
probe to the junction of the 1K-ohm and not 100% accurate. However, in service
10K-ohm resistors. The meter needle will work, this is unimportant. When making
indicate approximately 1; multiplying resistance measurements on equipment
this by 1000, you get 1000 ohms for the you have been called upon to repair, you
resistance of the resistor. are looking for an open, for ashort, or
Clip the probe to the junction of the for aradical change in resistance value. If
two resistors and turn on SI.Note that a part has changed sufficiently in resis-
there is a marked increase in the resis- tance so that the equipment operates
tance reading, so much so, in fact, that improperly, the change will be large. You
you might suspect that the resistor was would not expect a change of 25% to
defective. Turn off Si but do not dis- cause trouble in most circuits. In general,
mantle the circuit. You will use it again the change, if that is what the trouble is,
to answer the statement. will be 50% or more. For example, you
might find that the plate load resistor of
Discussion: In this experiment you an amplifier had changed from its normal
have learned that you must choose a value of 100,000 ohms to 20,000 ohms.
suitable ohmmeter range. The wrong This would cause amarked loss in gain,

57
and cause excessively high plate voltage. EXPERIMENT 19
When a technician has improperly
operating equipment, he does not check Purpose: To show how circuit conti-
the value of each and every resistor with nuity can be checked with an ohmmeter;
his ohmmeter. He localizes the trouble to and to show that the presence of conti-
a section and then to astage. Then he nuity does not indicate the condition of
decides whether to make ohmmeter mea- all parts in the circuit.
surements or other measurements accord-
ing to the symptoms he discovers. You Introductory Discussion: You have
will be taught how to localize trouble to a seen how circuit continuity can be
stage, and from the symptoms, to decide checked with avoltmeter and that con-
what type of test should be made. tinuity indicates only that the circuit will
There are, of course, many uses for an carry current. Parts may be shorted or
may have changed in value without
ohmmeter besides just checking individ-
ual resistor values. We will describe other affecting the ability of the circuit to carry
current. If a circuit has continuity, it
uses in later experiments.
simply means that the circuit is not open.
Mqst technicians prefer the ohmmeter
Instructions for Statement No. 18: In
for continuity testing, since it can easily
Step 4, you saw that if voltage was
be shifted to various points in the circuit
applied to the resistor under test, the
to measure their actual resistance. When
reading was incorrect. We are now going
making continuity tests, the ohmmeter is
to see if the polarity of this voltage has
not used to measure the total resistance
any effect on the reading by reversing the
of the circuit, although it does show the
ohmmeter connections.
approximate sum of the resistances. The
Make sure the tvom polarity switch is
true purpose is to show that the circuit is
set to normal. Connect the ground clip of
complete. In making continuity measure-
your tvom to the junction of the
ments, technicians seldom bother to de-
10K-ohm and 1K-ohm resistors. Set the
termine the resistance of the circuit. They
range switch to R X 1K, and touch the
simply check to see if there is areading
probe to the chassis. You are again
showing continuity.
measuring the 1K-ohm resistor. While
In this experiment, you will demon-
holding the probe against the chassis, turn
strate that in a circuit containing large
on SI.Note the new ohmmeter reading.
and small resistances, a small resistor
You now have sufficient information to
could be shorted without materially
answer the statement. Take the circuit
affecting the resistance measurement. To
apart, but leave the batteries connected
find such ashort, acheck of the individ-
and in place on the chassis.
ual resistors would be required. This
Statement No. 18: When Iturned on would be done only if the symptoms
SI,the ohmmeter reading: indicated that it was the cause of the
difficulty.
(1) increased.
4.2;5 decreased. Experimental Procedure: In this experi-
(3) remained unchanged. ment, you will need your tvom, the

58
 dummy resistor you built in Experiment Measure the value of each resistor in
16 and the following parts: the divider, and record the resistance in
ohms in the spaces provided in Fig. 19-2
1 10-megohm resistor for Step 1. Now add up the values of all
1 1-megohm resistor five resistors and record this as the total
1 100K-ohm resistor resistance in the space provided.
1 22K-ohm resistor
1 10K-ohm resistor
Step 2: To measure the resistance be-
1 1K-ohm resistor tween terminals A and B of the voltage
divider.
In this experiment, you will make up a
voltage divider using five resistors in Connect the ground clip to the end of
series, and check the continuity. You will the divider marked A in Fig. 19-1. Touch
not use the chassis for this experiment, the probe to the end of the divider
simply solder the 10-megohm, the 1- marked B, adjust the range switch to give
megohm, the 100K-ohm, the 1K-ohmreig a reasonable indication, and record the
and the 10K-ohm resistors together as value in Fig. 19-2. Your reading should be
shown in Fig. 19-1. You are now ready to approximately the same as the sum of
conduct the first step in this experiment. your individual resistance measurements.

IOMEG I
MEG 100K IK 10K
A D C e Step 3: To show the effect on the
•—•%A.n,—ivw-.~,-..-^iv
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
total resistance of shorting a relatively
small resistance.
Fig. 19-1. Voltage divider you will use in Ex-
periment 19. To simulate ashort across resistors R4

and R5, solder ashort piece of wire from

Step 1: To determine accurately the point C to point B. Connect the ground
resistance between terminals A and B of clip to point A, and the probe to point B.
the voltage divider. Record your reading in the space pro-
vided in Fig. 19-2. The value should be
STEP
almost the same as that obtained in Step
MEASUREMENT VALUE
2, showing that the two resistors could be
R I P .
), completely shorted without materially
R2 affecting the ohmmeter measurements.
i R
3
R4 •9 cvl ,
k- Step 4: To show that an increase in a
n5 .ey-te relatively small resistor in a circuit will
TOTAL
Jr -
.7 4 -
;>4% have no noticeable effect on the total
2 ATOO II et,
resistance of the circuit.
R4 AND R5 t friv
3 // .
SHORTED
4 R4 .22K Remove the 1K-ohm resistor, R4, from
the circuit, and replace it with the 22K-
Fig. 19-2. Record your readings for Experiment ohm resistor. A change in resistance value
19 here. ' from 1000 ohms to 22,000 ohms is
?.4
59
perfectly apparent, if you check the ohmmeter test probes directly across it,
individual resistors. Let us see how it proving that there is an open.
affects the total resistance. Check the
resistance from A to B, and record your Discussion: In this experiment, you
result in Fig. 19-2. have seen that continuity can be checked
with an ohmmeter. If the battery in the
Step 5: To show how lack of continu- ohmmeter can force even an extremely
ity is indicated in aresistance circuit. small amount of current through the
circuit, there will be an indication on the
Remove the 22K-ohm resistor, and in proper ohmmeter range. If there is no
its place substitute the dummy resistor continuity, the meter needle will not
you made in an earlier experiment, be- move at all or will move only slightly,
tween 12 3 and Rs. Now measure the giving an extremely high resistance read-
resistance between A and B. You will find ing. By examining the diagram of the
that the circuit is either open, indicated circuit whose continuity you wish to
by no movement of the meter needle efneasure, you can, by adding the values of
from the open position at the extreme the resistors as marked on the diagram,
right, or that the resistance is extremely determine what the approximate total
high. You might read avalue such as 1K, resistance will be. This will show you
which would mean 1000 megohms. This what to expect and help you to choose an
would be through the resistance of the appropriate resistance range if you want
insulation around the wires of the to check the resistance. However, if you
dummy resistor where they are wrapped simply wish to check for continuity, you
together. A value of 1000 megohms, can use any range that gives areasonable
however, would be interpreted as an open meter pointer movement.
in a circuit with an original total resis- You have seen that we can reduce the
takce of approximately 11 megohms. resistance of the divider in Fig. 19-1 by
completely shorting out R4 and Rs with-
Step 6: To find the open part in a out changing the measured total resis-
circuit having no continuity. tance.
Because of this fact, it is apparent that
To find the open in the voltage divider to check this condition of individual
consisting of RI,R2, R3, the dummy resistors in acircuit having ahigh resis-
resistor, and Rs, connect the ground clip tance, you must connect the ohmmeter
to point A. Now touch the probe to point directly across each resistor in question.
B. Notice that there is no continuity. You have also seen that aradical increase
Move the probe to the junction of the in resistance of one of the low resistance
dummy resistor and Rs.Again note that parts will have no apparent effect on the
there is no continuity reading. Move the total measured resistance. These are
probe to point C, the junction of R3 and points to remember when troubleshooting
R4. Here there is continuity, showing electronic equipment. You make continu-
that in making your measurements, you measurements when you suspect acircuit
just passed over the defective part. You is open. This does not show the value of
can check the part by connecting the the individual parts.

60
 Instructions for Statement No. 19: In of the smallest resistor in the group.
working with the voltage divider shown in However, the serviceman may want to
Fig. 19-1, you saw that there was no know what the exact combined resistance
change in the total resistance when re- should be so he can measure the com-
sistors R4 and Rs were shorted. These, bined resistance and decide if the parts
however, have arelatively low value. Now are in good condition.
we will see what happens when R3, R4, In Experiment 18, you connected
and R5 are shorted. First, remove the three 1K-ohm resistors in parallel to get a
dummy resistor from the circuit, and resistance of approximately 330 ohms.
reconnect the 1K-ohm resistor so that the When the parallel-connected parts have
circuit again is like that shown in Fig. the same resistance, it is easy to decide
19-1. Recheck the resistance between A what the combined resistance should be.
and B, and jot down your reading. Then, The rule is as follows: The combined
solder a piece of wire between point D resistance of equal parts in parallel is
and point B on the divider to simulate a equal to the resistance of one of the
short across R3, R4, and R5. Again resistors divided by the number of resis-
measure the resistance from A to B and tors in the group.
note the reading. You now have sufficient Thus, if we connect three 1K-ohm
information to answer the statement. resistors in parallel, the combined resis-
Unsolder the resistors. tance is 1000 divided by 3, or 333 ohms.
Three 3.3K-ohm resistors in parallel have
Statement No. 19: When measuring the aresistance of 1000 ohms; two 22K-ohm
divider resistance with R3, R4, and R5 resistors in parallel have a combined
shorted, Ifound that this value was: resistance of 11,000 ohms.
Parallel-connected resistors are not
he same as necessarily equal in value. The combined
noticeably more than resistance, R, can be found by using the
noticeably less than formula,

R X R2
the value measured between A and Bwith R=
R1 + R2
all of the resistors in the circuit.

EXPERIMENT 20 For example, if we have a 1K-ohm

resistor and a3.3K-ohm resistor in paral-
Purpose: To show how to find the lel,
combined resistance of resistors con- R = 1000 X 3300
nected in parallel; and to show that the 1000 + 3300
resistance of one cannot be measured
without being disconnected from the _ 3,300,000
others. 4300

= 769 ohms
Introductory Discussion: You already
know that parts connected in parallel It is not important for you to be able
have acombined resistance less than that to do these computations, because as a

61
busy technician you won't waste time on
them. Instead, if you cannot tell the
combined resistance at aglance, you will
unsolder one end of each one of the
resistors and check the resistors individ-
ually. If you have the time to spare, and
find the computations easy to do, then
you do not need to go to the trouble of
unsoldering a component to find out
whether or not the combined resistance is
correct.
When resistors do not have any shunt- Fig. 20-1. How to measure two resistors in

ing (parallel connected) parts, the resis- parallel.

tance value is checked without un-

You can then adjust the range selector
soldering the leads, by connecting the test
probes directly across the resistor. switch for areasonable reading.
In this experiment you will connect
resistors in parallel and check their mea- Step 1: To find the combined resis-
sured combined resistance against their tance of a 1K-ohm and a 3.3K-ohm
computed resistance to prove that the resistor in parallel.
computed value is correct and to note the
variations to be expected between the As we have already shown, the com-
computed and measured values. puted resistance of a 1K-ohm and a
3.3K-ohm resistor in parallel is 769 ohms.
To measure the combined resistance, con-
nect the 1K-ohm and the 3.3K-ohm
Experimental Procedure: In this exper- resistors in parallel. Clip one lead of your
iment you will need your tvom and the
tvom to one end, and the other lead to
following parts: the other end of the combination as
shown in Fig. 20-1. Record the reading in
1 1K-ohm resistor the space in Fig. 20-2.
1 3.3K-ohm resistor
1 10K-ohm resistor
PARALLEL COMPUTED MEASURED
2 22K-ohm resistors COMBINATION VALUE VALUE
.,
1 100K-ohm resistor
IK AND 3.3K 769 OHMS
1 10-megohm resistor
IK AND 10K 909 OHMS p`
c c:.
)

In connecting the parts in parallel, it is 10K AND 22K 6875 OHMS

•
not necessary to use your soldering iron. IOMEG AND10011 99K OHMS C
-17A-
Hold the two resistors so two of their
22K AND 22K II K OHMS it )/6
leads cross as shown in Fig. 20-1. Clip the
ground lead directly to the point where
the leads cross each other. Bend the free Fig. 20-2. Record your readings for Experiment
leads together and clip the probe to them. 20 here.

62
 Step 2: To find the combined resis- unless it is disconnected. For example,
tance of a 1K-ohm and a 10K-ohm when you measured the 10-megohm and
resistor in parallel. the 100K-ohm resistors in parallel, their
combined resistance should have been
Again we can compute the resistance close to 100,000 ohms, the resistance of
of the combination from the formula: the smaller resistor. Even with the 10-
megohm resistor completely removed, the
R — R1 X R2
resistance would still be close to the
R1 + R2
parallel value.
When there is only aslight difference
Substituting the values of the resistors, in the values of the parallel resistors, if
we have: one is disconnected or is defective, there
will be considerable change in measured
R = 1000 X 10 '000 — 909 ohms
1000 + 10,000 value across the combination.
22K

Now let us measure the resistance of the

combination. Clip the ground lead to one
lead of each resistor, and the probe to the
other end of each resistor. The correct
way to do this is shown in Fig. 20-1.
Record the reading in Fig. 20-2.

Fig. 20-3. Series-parallel circuit for Statement

Step 3: To find the combined resis- No. 20.
tance of other parallel combinations of
resistors.
Instructions for Statement No. 20: To
Following the same procedure, mea- answer this statement, you are to build
sure the combined resistance of the other the series-parallel circuit shown in Fig.
20-3. You do not need to solder the
parallel combinations listed in Fig. 20-2.
In each case, the computed value is given resistor leads. Twisting them together is
enough. Twist one end of a 10K-ohm
so that you can check your measured
value with it. resistor and two 22K-ohm resistors to-
gether. Twist the other ends and one end
of a3.3K-ohm resistor together as shown
Discussion: Now compare your mea-
sured values with the computed values in Fig. 20-4.
given in the chart. They should be fairly
close in most cases. However, because of
the tolerances of the resistors, you may
find that they differ quite abit in some
cases.
When two resistors are in parallel, and
one is much larger than the other, the Fig. 20-4. How to arrange the parts for the cir-
resistance of the larger cannot be checked cuit shown in Fig. 20-3.

63
 Before you measure the combined re- LOOKING AHEAD
sistance, examine the circuit carefully and
see if you can decide in advance what the
total resistance will be. As a matter of This completes the experiments in Kit
interest to yourself, jot down what you 2T. When you have completed the second
think it is on aseparate sheet of paper. kit, remove the resistors and the potenti-
Now, connect the ground clip to one lead ometer and clean the terminals. Leave the
of the circuit and the probe to the other. terminal strips, solder lugs, and battery
Choose an appropriate range on your connected. Make sure you have answered
ohmmeter, and read the resistance value. all the statements on the Report Sheet,
Compare this with the value you chose by fill in the top of the Report Sheet, and
inspecting the circuit. You now have mail it to NRI for grading. While waiting
enough information to answer the state- for your graded answers to return, place
ment. Separate the resistors. your tvom in asafe place where it will
not be damaged. Place all the left-over
Statement No. 20: When Imeasured parts, listed in Table I, in abox and store
the resistance of the circuit shown in Fig. them where they will not be lost. You
20-4, Ifound that the resistance was: can leave the two flashlight cells, the
potentiometer and the terminal strips on
1 approximately 5500 ohms. the chassis plate. You may also leave the
approximately 8500 ohms. wires to the flashlight cells in place. Be
approximately 13,000 ohms. sure to clean all excess solder from all of

1 Chassis plate 2 10,000-ohm resistors

1 Alligator clip 1 15,000-ohm resistor
1 Etched circuit board with 1 18,000-ohm resistor
tube socket 2 22,000-ohm resistors
/ Large solder lugs 1 82,000-ohm resistor
1 Marking crayon 3 100,000-ohm resistors
2 4-40 hex nuts 1 220,000-ohm resistor
1 1000-ohm potentiometer 1 470,000-ohm resistor
1 470-ohm resistor 1 1-megohm resistor
1 680-ohm resistor 2 10-megohm resistors
3 1000-ohm resistors 2 1/4" X 4-40 machine screws
1 3,300-ohm resistor 2 Silicon diodes
2 4700-ohm resistors Hookup wire
1 6,800-ohm resistor Solder

Table I. Left-over parts to be stored for use later.

64
the terminals. The following parts are kit until you have received apassing grade
attached to the chassis plate: on the experiments in Kit 2.
In the next kit you will add parts to
2 Flashlight cells the circuit board of your tvom so you can
1 3-lug terminal strip measure ac. You will begin your study of
1 4-lug terminal strip ac circuits and see that many of the laws
1 7-lug terminal strip that you have verified for dc circuits can
1 Small solder lug also be applied to ac circuits. You will
6 1/4" X 6-32 machine screws also see how capacitors and coils act in ac
6 6-32 hex nuts circuits. Both audio signals and radio
1 Potentiometer mounting bracket frequency signals are ac signals. Your
1 500K-ohm pot. with switch next kit will be a big step forward for
you. The experiments are designed to
While you are waiting to start on the show how ac signals behave. The funda-
next kit, clean the leads on the parts you mentals you will study in Kit 3 will be
have left over so you'll be ready to start used in later kits in your study of more
your experiments when your graded an- complex circuits using vacuum tubes and
swers are returned. Do not start the next transistors.

65
HEADING TOWARD SUCCESS
You have every reason to expect real success in your
Electronics career. Ibase this statement on the following facts:

...you like Electronics and have much natural ability in

this science.

...you are willing to work to increase your knowledge of

Electronics, as proved by the progress you have made with
your NRI course.

The above qualifications make for success, in the opinion of

most experts. As Mark Sullivan once put it: "To find acareer
to which you are adapted by nature, and then to work hard at
it, is about as near aformula for success and happiness as the
world provides."
P
reri
Ago
rÁril Innovation in learning
by aMcGraw-Hill
Continuing Education School 139-KM-202
TRAINING KIT
a.

*
40i•

TRAINING KIT MANUAL 3T

PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATIONS

OF BASIC ELECTRONICS

4
 ,

The completed tvom being used lo make at. measurements.

INDEX OF SECTIONS

I. Introduction Pages 1-5

2. Performing the Experiments Pages 6-15

3. Building an AC Voltage Divider Pages 16 -34

u 4. Using Vectors to Combine AC Quantities Pages 35 -61

COPYRIGHT 1970 BY NATIONAL RADIO INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20016

JP2M1075 1975 EDITION Litho in U.S.A.

 INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING
EXPERIMENTS 21 THROUGH 30

Now that you have experimentally capacitance exists between the center
proved Ohm's Law, ICirchhoffs Voltage conductor and the outer shield braid,
Law, and Kirchhofrs Current Law for dc which is covered by an insulated coating.
circuits, you are ready to prove that the With this low capacitance cable, it is
laws also hold for ac circuits. It is possible to measure ac voltages with
extremely important for you to become frequencies up to several thousand kilo-
thoroughly familiar with ac circuits, be- hertz. The outer braid shield is necessary
cause they are the ones through which all when using your tvom on the low ac
radio and television signals pass. These ranges to prevent stray capacitive pick-up.
experiments, in which you will see for
yourself how ac circuits work, are avery CONTENTS OF THIS KIT
valuable part of your training.
To perform these experiments, you The parts included in this kit are
will have to measure ac voltages with illustrated in Figs. 1and 2, and listed in
your tvom. As you already know, your the captions. Check the parts you re-
tvom is capable of measuring dc and ceived against this list to be sure that you
resistance. You demonstrated this in the have all of them.
previous experiments. In the experiments If any part of this kit is obviously
you are about to perform, most of the defective or is damaged in shipment,
measurements to be made are ac measure- return it to NRI immediately for replace-
ments. ment, as directed on the packing slip
You have probably been wondering accompanying this kit.
why one of the test leads is very much Gather the parts left over from the
heavier than the other. It is aspecial type previous kits and put them in some
of low capacity cable known as coaxial convenient place. You will need them in
cable. It is so designed that avery low your experiments.

1
 o eee.
gab

NU3 NUI GRI CN6I CNI2 CN9

4 1110) I/2W
CO26 WAI6 SC43 SCI3 RES

O TR30 PCI
•ii

CH66

Fig. 1. The experimental parts for this training kit are shown above and listed below.

Part Price Part Price

Quan. No. Description Each Quan. No. Description Each

1 CI166 Chassis rail .79 1 PC1 Power cord .40

2 CN9 .25 mfd tubular cap. .25 1 RE27 220-ohm, 1/2W res. .15
1 CN12 .1 mfd tubular cap. .18 1 RE35 47K-ohm, 1/2W res. .15
2 CN61 20 mfd, 150V 1 RE93 1.8 megohm, 1/2W res. .15
elect. cap. .65 1 RE102 3K-ohm, 1/2W res., 5% .24
1 CO26 Iron core choke coil 1.30 2 SC13 3/8 X 6-32 screw 12/.15
2 GRI 3/8" grommet 12/.25 4 SC43 1/4" X 8-32 screw 12/.25
1 NU1 6-32 hex nut 12/.15 1 TR30 Power transformer 2.50
4 NU3 8-32 hex nut 12/.15 4 WAI6 No. 8lockwasher 12/.15

All resistors are 1/2-watt, 10% tolerance unless otherwise specified.

Before you begin your experiments in ADDING THE AC FUNCTION

this Training Kit you will install compo- TO YOUR TVOM
nents on the etched circuit board of your
tvom to enable you to read ac voltages. The parts needed to add the ac func-
You will also calibrate the ac portion of tion to your tvom are shown in Fig. 2 and
your tvom, recheck the dc calibration, listed under the figure. Gather together
and install the tvom in its cabinet. those parts shown in Fig. 2.

2
 •
9
CNI04 CNIII CN227 CR4 NUI2 P0101

1/2 W RES SC4 SC58 WAI6 WA5

CB23 HA 79

Fig. 2. The ac parts for your tvom are shown above and listed below.

Part Price Part Price

Quan. No. Description Each Quan. No. Description Each

1 CB23 Cabinet 2.95 1 RE39 Imegolim, 1/2W res. .15

1 CN104 .1 tied disc cap. .36 1 RE48 2.7K-ohm, 1/2W res. .15
2 CN 11 1 5mfd elect. cap. .35 2 SC4 3/8" X 8-32 screw 12/.15
1 CN227 120 pf disc cap. .15 4 SC58 3/8" X 6-32 thread
4 CR4 1N60 diode .45 cutting screw 12/.25
1 HA79 Handle 2.18
2 NU12 8-32 cap nut 2 WA5 No. 8flat metal
12/.25
1 P0101 100K-ohm trimmer washer 12/.15
pot. .23 2 WA16 No. 8lock washer 121.15

All resistors are 1/2 watt, 10% tolerifice unless otherwise specified.

To add the parts to the circuit board, Range and Function switches and the two
you must first remove the circuit board round knobs from the Zero and Ohms
from its installation behind the panel. Adjust controls
First, make sure the meter is "off," then
remove the 9V battery and the battery Loosen the two nuts which secure the
connector circuit board to the meter terminals. Be
careful not to damage Q1 and Q2 •••tf,--K
Remove the two bar knobs from the Remove the two nuts that secure the

3
Range switch and Function switches to After completing the assembly, rein-
the panel "-(--)---stall the circuit board to the panel and
meter. Replace the battery, battery con
Remove the two meter terminal nuts nector and the knobs

andThe
the etched
two washers
circuit board is now free of Before proceeding with the ac calibra-
the panel and may be carefully pulled to tion, turn the meter on and recheck the
the rear of the panel. You may remove Balance and DC calibration. Follow the
the 1.5V "C" cell from its holder to give procedure given in the last training kit to
a little more working room. You do not perform these adjustments
have to disconnect any of the wires / 4-1
The assembly instructions are given in AC CALIBRATION
Fig. 3. The four glass diodes have colored
bands at the cathode end and must be After you have checked the dc calibra-
installed as shown in Fig. 3. Be very tion and balance, you will calibrate the ac
careful when you bend the diode leads portion of the tvom. You will use the
not to bend them too close to the body voltage at your wall outlet to calibrate
of the diode or you may break the glass your tvom, so you must exercise extreme
seal and ruin the diode. caution when carrying out the calibration
Also, be sure to observe the polarity of procedures.
the two electrolytic capacitors, as you did Commercial ac voltage, while nomi-
in the last kit. nally 117 volts, varies from one part of
When you are sure you know how to the country to another, and, indeed, from
mount all the parts, proceed with the hour to hour at any given location. These
assembly instructions in Fig. 3. variations are due to the varying demand

(1) I3)
IMOO
DIODE 0100E (
t )

100
MOPE. 10.1/2 W . TOISAIS Poi
DISC -OL II •OWN
I )

Fig. 3. Steps used for assembling your tvom.

4
 on the power company generators. Dur- Remove the probe from the ac outlet
ing high usage times the voltage may drop and switch to the 120V range. Again
as low as 95 volts and at other times may insert the probe into the "hot" opening
rise to 125 volts. The high usage times are and adjust the AC Calibrate control for
around mealtimes (morning, midday, and exactly full scale.
6-7 p.m.) and during hot, humid days
when many air conditioners are in use. It ASSEMBLING THE CABINET
would be best to perform your calibra- AND HANDLE
tion at some time other than these high
(" usage times. To assemble the handle to the cabinet,
For purposes of calibrating your tvom first place aNo. 8lockwasher over one of
you can assume the line voltage to be 120 the 3/8" X 8-32 screws. Pass the screw
volts and use this value as your calibra- through one of the holes in the center of
tion reference. To calibrate your tvom, one end of the cabinet from the inside to
place the meter face up so that you have the outside. While holding the screw head
access to the AC Calibrate trimmer poten- and lockwasher against the inside of the
tiometer through the hole labeled "AC." cabinet, place a No. 8 flat metal washer
Set the Range switch to "1200V", the over the screw, then position the handle
Function switch to "AC", the Polarity so that the screw can also pass through
switch to "Norm." and turn the meter one of the holes in the handle. Secure this
"ON". Short the probe tip to the ground assembly temporarily with one of the cap
clip and zero the meter with the Zero nuts. Tighten only finger-tight for now.
adjust control. Following exactly the same procedure
With a thin bladed screwdriver, turn just described, secure the other end of the
the AC Calibrate control fully clockwise handle to the cabinet with a3/8" X 8-32
(to the right). Now touch the ground clip screw, No. 8 lockwasher, No. 8 flat
to the screw head which holds the cover washer and acap nut.
of a wall outlet in place, and insert the With both ends of the handle fastened,
probe tip into one of the openings of the tighten both screws as much as possible.
ac outlet. If you get no reading at all on This will secure the handle and yet allow
your meter, try the probe in the other you to move it around to serve as astand
opening of the ac outlet. When you have for the completed tvom.
found the "hot" opening, remove the To fasten the cabinet and tvom
probe and ground clip and switch the together, lay the tvom face down on a
meter to the "300V" range. You can clean, soft surface such as atablecloth or
loosen the screw holding the cover of the bedspread. Put the cabinet into place,
ac outlet slightly so that you can clip the being sure that the four small holes in the
ground clip in place without having to back of the tvom panel line up with the
hold it. With the ground clip in place, holes in the cabinet. Now fasten the
insert the probe tip into the "hot" ac cabinet to the tvom with the four 3/8" X
opening and watch the meter. The point- 6-32 thread-cutting screws. DO NOT
er should move upscale. Adjust the AC OVERTIGHTEN THESE SCREWS. The
Calibrate control until the meter reads tvom panel is aluminum, and if you
120 volts. (This is the second division overtighten the screws they will probably
after "10" on the 0to 30 range.) pull out of the aluminum.

5
 Performing The Experiments
The experiments you are to do will (5) Read the Discussion of the experi-
demonstrate many of the basic facts you ment. If your experimental results don't
should know about resistance, induc- seem to be right, repeat the experiment.
tance, and capacitance, and their effect in IMPORTANT: If you cannot do an
ac circuits. Do not skip any of the experiment successfully, don't just give
experiments; each of them is vitally im- up and go on to the next one. Reread the
portant to your training. Follow the same experiment carefully to be sure you are
procedure for carrying them out that you performing it correctly. Look for loose
used in the previous manuals. solder joints, incorrect connections, or
(1) Check the condition of the tip of wrong parts. If you cannot find the
your soldering iron. Clean it or retin it, if trouble, write to us on the special consul-
necessary. tation blank you received with this kit.
(2) Read the experiment through com- Give an accurate and complete descrip-
pletely, paying particular attention to the tion of the action that takes place and
Introductory Discussion and the Experi- include the results of any measurements
mental Procedure to get an idea of what you have made that have adirect bearing
is to be accomplished. on the problem. Be sure to tell us exactly
(3) At the beginning of each section which experiment you are working on
describing the procedure to be followed, and the step or steps in the experiment
we will give you alist of the parts you that you can't carry out successfully so
will need. We will not, however, list the that we can help you as quickly as
tools, solder, or hookup wire you will possible.
need. Just remember to keep them handy (6) Read the instructions for each
and to have your soldering iron ready. Statement carefully. Carry out any exper-
We will not give the color code of the imental procedures required. Read the
various resistors you will need. By this Statement carefully, and put a circle
time you should be familiar enough with around the choice that best completes the
the resistor color code to select the Statement according to your findings.
correct ones. Gather the parts listed at Then, on the Report Sheet, write the
the start of each experimental procedure statement number and your choice(s) for
from the parts you received in this kit the Statement. When you have finished
and those left over from earlier kits. all the Statements, fill in the rest of the
(4) With the parts at hand, and with spaces as instructed on the Report Sheet,
your soldering iron hot and ready for use, and send in the Report Sheet to NRI for
read the experiment again, this time grading.
carrying out the instructions exactly as At this point, you should have asolder
given and in the order listed. Record all lug, three terminal strips, a 500K-ohm
data in the tables provided, make the potentiometer with on-off switch, and
necessary computations, and prepare any two series-connected flashlight cells
graphs that are required. mounted on your chassis (Fig. 4).

6
 Fig. 4. Chassis before Experiment 21.

EXPERIMENT 21 that move the electron beam in the

picture tube of aTV receiver is apractical
Purpose: To show that the period of example of the charging and discharging
time required to charge or discharge a of acapacitor.
capacitor through a resistance depends In this experiment, we will show that
upon the values of the resistance and the the rate at which acapacitor charges or
capacitance.
discharges depends upon the amount of
resistance in the circuit as well as on the
capacitance. Thus, with any given capaci-
Introductory Discussion: As you learn- tor value, we can control the rate of
ed in your regular lessons, amomentary charge and discharge by changing the
surge of current takes place when the resistance in the circuit. The time in
terminals of acharged capacitor are con- seconds required for acapacitor to charge
nected together. The period of time that up to 63% of the applied voltage, or
this current flows is usually too brief to discharge to 37% of the applied voltage, is
have any practical value, except when equal to the firoduct of the resistance in
high currents over short periods of time megohms and the capacitance in micro-
are required, as in some forms of electric farads. This is known as the "time-
welding. However, if the rate of charge constant" of the combination.
and discharge can be controlled, the In this experiment, you will show the
practical applications are almost unlim- effect on the time-constant of changing
ited. The operation of the sweep circuits the resistance in the circuit.

7
 Experimental Procedure: To perform ME TER
19r -i12
this experiment, in addition to your 12 MEG
experimental chassis and your tvom, you
will need the following parts. 3V — .5
MFD

5
2 .25-mfd paper capacitors
1 1.8-megohm resistor

Step 1. To charge a .5-mfd capacitor Fig. 21-1. Charging a capacitor through a

through a12-megohm resistance. resistance.

tance of the individual capacitors. There-

The circuit we will use is shown in Fig. fore, two .25-mfd capacitors in parallel
21-1. The 12-megohm resistance is the will give us .5 mfd.
internal resistance of your tvom. For the First, connect the two .25-mfd capaci-
3-volt source, you will use the series- tors in parallel from terminal 5 to termi-
connected flashlight cells. nal 12, as shown in Fig. 21-2. Solder both
To get the .5-mfd capacitance, we will connections.
use two .25-mfd capacitors. As you have Arrange the capacitors so their leads do
learned in your regular lessons, when two not touch the chassis. Then short-circuit
capacitors are connected in parallel, the their leads for a few moments with a
total capacitance is the sum of the capaci- screwdriver to be sure they are fully

Fig. 21-2. Record results for Experiment 21 here.

8
discharged. Touch the screwdriver blade YOUR COMPUTED
STEP MEASUREMENT TIME IN TIME
to terminal 12 and the chassis at the same SECONDS IN SECONDS
time. Do not touch the capacitor leads CHARGING
while doing this experiment or the resis- I .5 MFD THROUGH 6
12 MEGOHMS
tance of your body will affect your DISCHARGING
reading. 2 .5 MFD THROUGH 6
12 MEGOHMS
Now, be sure you still have the flash-
CHARGING
light cells connected in series with the 3 .5MFD THROUGH / .75
1.5 MEGOHMS
negative terminal grounded to terminal 1,
DISCHARGING
and the positive lead connected to termi- 4 .5 MFD THROUGH / .75
1.5 MEGOHMS
nal 19 of the ON-OFF switch, as shown
in Fig. 21-2. The battery connects to the
capacitor leads at terminal 5 through the Fig. 21-3. Record results of Experiment 21
chassis ground. here.

Turn your tvom on to dc; turn the

range switch to 3V, and set the polarity know there must be 2 volts across the
switch to normal. Then clip the ground capacitor, so you count the number of
lead to terminal 12, and touch the probe seconds it takes for the meter pointer to
to the positive battery terminal (or termi- move from 3to 1on the 3-volt scale.
nal 19), and watch the meter pointer. You can estimate the time in seconds
The meter pointer will move rapidly to by counting at anormal speaking rate as
the extreme right-hand end of the 3V follows: "one hundred and one," "one
scale, and then move gradually back hundred and two," etc. The length of
toward O. time it takes to speak the words will be
To find the time-constant, you will very close to one second. If you practice
count the number of seconds it takes for counting while watching the second hand
the capacitor to reach 63% (approxi- of awatch or clock, you can do this very
mately two-thirds) of full charge. Since accurately. Record in Fig. 21-3 the num-
the full voltage is 3volts, two-thirds will ber of seconds it takes the meter pointer
be 2volts. to move from 3to 1.
Here, the meter is actually indicating We can compute the time-constant
the voltage across the 12-megohm input mathematically by multiplying the resis-
resistance of the tvom. As you have tance in megohms by the capacitance in
learned, the sum of the voltage drops in a microfarads. This would be 12 X .5, or 6
series circuit is equal to the source volt- seconds. Compare the time you estimated
age. Therefore, when you first connect with this computed time.
the circuit, the voltage across the resis-
tance of the tvom will be the full 3volts, Step 2. To discharge the .5-mfd capaci-
making the meter pointer swing all the tance through the 12-megohm resistance.
way over to the right. Then, as the
capacitor charges, the voltage across the Leave the circuit as it was in Step 1,
resistance gradually decreases. When the and hold the meter probe on terminal
voltage across the resistance is 1volt, you 19 until the meter pointer swings all

9
 19 12
of the smaller resistor. In this case, the
total resistance will be approximately 1.5
megohms. (You can place an alligator clip
on your tvom probe for convenience in
.5 making the measurements.)
MFD Connect the positive tvom lead to
terminal 20. Set the polarity switch to
normal. Connect and solder the 1.8-
megohm resistor from terminal 12 to
terminal 20. (See Fig. 21-2.) Then, clip
the negative test lead of your tvom to
Fig. 21-4. Measuring the voltage across the terminal 12.
capacitors as they discharge through the meter Turn the switch on by rotating the
resistance. 500K-ohm potentiometer shaft clockwise
and watch the meter. As in Step 1, the
the way to zero. At that point the meter pointer will swing over to 3, and
capacitors will be fully charged. then move back toward 0. This time
Remove the probe from terminal 19. notice that the meter pointer moves from
Switch the polarity switch on your tvom 3 to 1 so rapidly that it is difficult to
to reverse and touch the probe to the estimate the time.
chassis ground. You should have the To compute the time-constant, we
circuit shown in Fig. 21-4. multiply 1.5 megohms times .5 micro-
With the meter connected this way, farad, which gives us .75, or less than one
you are measuring the voltage across the second for the time-constant. Estimate
capacitors. As they discharge, the metei the time-constant of the combination you
pointer will move from 3down to 0. You have, and record your result in Fig. 21-3.
want to know how long it takes for the
capacitors to discharge to 37% of full Step 4. To discharge the .5-mfd capaci-
charge. This is approximately two-thirds, tor through the 1.5-megohm resistance.
so you count the number of seconds it
takes for the pointer to reach 1on the
3-volt dc scale. Record your reading in
Fig. 21-3.

Step 3. To charge the .5-mfd capaci-

tance through alower resistance.
.5
MFD
We will use the circuit shown in Fig.
5
21-5, in which we have a 1.8-megohm
resistor in parallel with the resistance of
the meter. As you have learned, when
two resistors are connected in parallel, Fig. 21-5. Charging the capacitor through a
the combined resistance is less than that lower resistance.

10
 If you had increased the resistance, the
time-constant would have increased.

Instructions for Report Statement No.

21: In this experiment you showed that
decreasing the resistance in the dis-
charging circuit of acapacitor reduces the
time-constant of the circuit. It can also be
shown that decreasing the capacitance of
the capacitor without changing the resis-
tance reduces the time-constant.
Fig. 21-6. Circuit for discharging the capacitor For the Statement you will prove this
through alower resistance. by reducing the capacitance to .125 mfd
by connecting the two .25-mfd capacitors
With the circuit as in Fig. 21-5, leave in series. When two capacitors having the
the switch on until the capacitors are same value are connected in series, the
fully charged (until the meter pointer combined capacitance is equal to half the
moves all the way to 0). Then, turn the capacitance of one alone.
switch off and set the polarity switch on Unsolder and lay aside the 1.8-megohm
your tvom to reverse. The circuit for this resistor and unsolder one end of one
step is shown in Fig. 21-6. To see how capacitor from terminal 5, but leave the
long it takes the capacitors to discharge other capacitor lead connected to termi-
to one-third, short terminal 20 to the nal 12. Solder the free lead to terminal
chassis with ascrewdriver to complete the 20.
circuit shown in Fig. 21-6 and count the Set the polarity switch on your tvom
time it takes the pointer to move from 3 to normal, and clip the negative test lead
to 1. Again, record the time in Fig. 21-3. to terminal 5. Clip the probe of your
It should be the same as the time for Step meter to terminal 20. Turn the switch on
3— less than one second. to complete the circuit shown in Fig.
21-7. When the meter pointer goes all the
Discussion: In Steps 1 and 2 of this way to 3, the capacitors are fully charged.
experiment you saw that for a given
19 20
capacitance and resistance in acircuit, the
time it takes the capacitor to charge to 25
63% of full charge is the same as the time MFD

it takes it to discharge to 37% of full 3V —

_ 25
charge. This time, in seconds, is called the MFD
time-constant. It can be computed by
multiplying the capacitance in micro-
farads and the resistance in megohms.
In Steps 3 and 4, you demonstrated
that decreasing the resistance in the cir- Fig. 21-7. Circuit for connecting capacitors
cuit caused the time-constant to decrease. in series.

11
 Turn the switch off, but leave the At best, the dielectric in an electrolytic
probe clipped to the capacitor lead. capacitor is not a perfect insulator, so
Count the time it takes for the meter there will always be some current flow
pointer to move from 3down to 1. Then, through the dielectric whenever voltage is
answer the Statement below and on the applied to the capacitor. In a good
Report Sheet. capacitor, this current flow will be small
Turn off the tvom, and unsolder and if the voltage is applied with the proper
remove the capacitors from your chassis polarity (the negative terminal of the
and store them for future use. voltage source connected to the negative
terminal of the capacitor and the positive
Statement No. 21: When Idischarged terminal of the source connected to the
the .1 25-mfd capacitance through the positive terminal of the capacitor). If the
12-megohm input resistance of the tvom, voltage is applied with the wrong polar-
I estimated that the meter pointer ity, the oxide film will break down. The
dropped from 3volts to Ivolt unit will then cease to act as acapacitor
and will instead act as a very low resis-
(1) instantly. tance. Pure ac voltage is constantly
je in about two seconds. changing in polarity. Therefore, it should
(3) in about ten seconds. never be applied to an electrolytic capaci-
tor.
EXPERIMENT 22 The oxide film will also be destroyed if
too high a voltage is applied to an
Purpose: To show that when a de electrolytic capacitor, even if the polarity
voltage is applied to an electrolytic capac- of the voltage is correct. An electrolytic
itor, the connections must be made with capacitor always has adc working voltage
the proper polarity to prevent excessive rating that shows the maximum voltage
leakage. that can be continuously applied to the
capacitor without causing it to break
Introductory Discussion: As you learn- down. Whenever you find it necessary to
ed in your lesson on capacitors, an replace such a capacitor, make sure that
electrolytic capacitor is quite different in the voltage rating of the replacement is at
many respects from paper or mica capaci- least as high as that of the original.
tors. One very important difference is In this experiment, you will prove that
that the dielectric in an electrolytic is a an electrolytic capacitor passes direct
very thin film of aluminum oxide that has current, and that the amount of current
been formed on the anode by electro- passed depends on the polarity of the
chemical action during manufacture. The applied voltage. Because the dc source
insulating properties of this oxide depend voltage you have available is low, the
on the amount of voltage used to form it current may be rather small when the
initially, the amount of voltage applied to voltage is applied with the correct polar-
the capacitor in use, the temperature, the ity. In fact, the current may be too low
type of material used for the electrodes, to be detected with the equipment you
and the kind of electrolyte used. have. The characteristics of your partic-

12
ular electrolytic will also affect the 19 20 47K 12

amount of current. Some capacitors have

higher leakage currents than others, even
though they are normal in all other 3V= 20
MED
respects. What we want you to observe in
this experiment is that reversing the 5

polarity of the source voltage changes the

current through the capacitor.
Each of the electrolytic capacitors sent
Fig. 22-1. Schematic showing an electrolytic
to you in this kit is made in dry form
capacitor in series with aresistor and abattery.
(that is, it contains a paste electrolyte).
Its schematic symbol is the same as the
symbol for any other capacitor except Turn your tvom on; set the polarity,
that it has a+ sign near the positive lead. range and function switches to measure
+3V dc.
Experimental Procedure: For this ex- It is desirable to make as many mea-
periment, you will need your experi- surements as possible in any given experi-
mental chassis, tvom, and the following ment on the same range of your test
parts: instrument to avoid errors due to differ-
ences between ranges. For example, adc
2 20-mfd electrolytic capacitors source may produce exactly full-scale
1 47K-ohm resistor deflection on the 3V range, but ameter

Fig. 22-2. Pictorial of the circuit in Fig. 22-1.

13
reading of 2.5 to 3.5 volts on the 12V STEP CIRCUIT USED VOLTAGE

range. Such variations are well within + CAPACITOR LEAD

I TO + BATTERY e ≥ '
i
normal tolerances, and for ordinary pur- TERMINAL
poses could be overlooked. However, 2
+ CAPACITOR LEAD i -,

TO—BATTERY
they may prove troublesome when you TERMINAL
/ d ‘
-'
1,i,/

are performing experiments that require

accurate readings. Remember, the maxi- Fig. 22-3. Results of Experiment 22.
mum tolerance of the meter movement
alone is about 2 or 3 percent of the rent flows through the electrolytic capaci-
full-scale value. Also, the resistors in the tor when it is connected with the reverse
voltage divider network of the tvom have polarity.
a 1% tolerance, so a slight difference in
reading on two ranges could occur even Reverse the capacitor connections by
with everything normal. Using a single unsoldering and interchanging them, so
range whenever possible removes this that the positive lead of the capacitor
cause of error. goes to terminal 5and the negative lead is
The capacitor leads are identified by a connected to the 47K-ohm resistor at
+ sign or by both + and — markings on terminal 12.
the body of the capacitors. Solder the Again, turn the switch on and measure
negative lead of one electrolytic capacitor the voltage drop across the 47K-ohm
lead to terminal 5. Connect the positive resistor. Leave the tvom connected to
capacitor lead to terminal 12. Connect a terminal 12 and to terminal 20 as in the
47K-ohm resistor from terminal 12 to previous step. Enter the voltage reading
terminal 20. Solder the connections. on the second line of Fig. 22-3. Turn the
The circuit for this step is shown in switch off to open the circuit.
Fig. 22-1. The wiring is shown in the
pictorial diagram in Fig. 22-2. Discussion: The voltage drop across the
resistor is produced by the current flow-
Step 1. To determine how much cur- ing through the capacitor and the resistor.
rent flows through the electrolytic capaci- The amount of current can be found by
tor when it is connected with the correct dividing the measured voltage by 47,000.
polarity. To do this, you will measure the The current is very small.
voltage drop across the 47K-ohm resistor. Do not conclude from this experiment
that the direct current passed by an
Connect the probe of your tvom to electrolytic capacitor is negligible, how-
terminal 20. Connect the ground clip to ever. Remember, you have asource volt-
terminal 12. Turn the switch on and age that is far less than the voltage that is
observe the meter. When the pointer usually applied to acapacitor in apracti-
becomes stationary, read the meter. Enter cal circuit. With the normal circuit volt-
the voltage measured on the top line in age applied to the capacitor, you could
Fig. 22-3. Turn off the switch. measuré the current directly with amilli-
ammeter, instead of using the indirect
Step 2. To determine how much cur- method you have followed here.

14
 47K ,2
The amount of voltage drop across the 19 20

resistor in Step 1will vary with different

capacitors. Some of the capacitors that
we tried in the NR1 laboratory had so
little leakage that we were unable to
measure any voltage drop at all across the
resistor. Do not be concerned, therefore,
Fig. 22-4. The two capacitors are connected in
if your voltage reading for Step 1is 0.
parallel and placed in series with the resistor.
You should, however, find a definite
voltage drop across the resistor after you capacitors in parallel. Solder the positive
have reversed the capacitor connections leads of both capacitors to terminal 5.
to carry out Step 2. Here again the exact Then, solder the negative capacitor leads
voltage depends on the characteristics of to terminal 12. This puts the two capaci-
your capacitor, but the voltage should be tors in parallel, giving a capacitance of
greater than that measured in Step I. This about 40 mfd. The circuit for this state-
increase in voltage represents a corre- ment is shown in Fig. 22-4.
sponding increase in the current in the To measure the voltage drop across the
circuit; therefore, you have shown that 47K-ohm resistor, connect the probe of
the amount of current through the capac- your tvom to terminal 20, and the ground
itor depends upon the polarity of the clip to terminal 12. Turn the switch on
capacitor. and take avoltage reading. Compare this
Because of this characteristic of elec- reading with the voltage for Step 2.
trolytic capacitors, be sure that you r,, Choose the answer to the Statement
connect them with the proper polarity below, and also on the Report Sheet that
(positive terminal of the capacitor to most nearly corresponds to the results of
positive terminal of the voltage source) your comparison. Turn the switch off and
when you install them in a circuit. disconnect the tvom leads.
Furthermore, you mit_irj_apply an ac Unsolder and remove the 47K-ohm
voltage to an electrolytic capacitor unless resistor and the electrolytic capacitors.
the ac is superimposed on a larger dc Leave the flashlight cells in place, but
voltage so that the total voltage applied unsolder the positive lead from terminal
to the capacitor never reverses itself. 19.

Instructions for Statement No. 22: In Statement No. 22: When Iconnected
the experiment for this Statement, you the two capacitors in parallel, the leakage
are to find out whether or not the current (as indicated by the voltage drop
capacitance of an electrolytic capacitor across the resistor):
has any effect on the leakage current
produced by connecting the capacitor (
J_L remained unchanged.
with the wrong polarity. (12pncreased.

Connect the two 20-mfd electrolytic (3) decreased.

15
Building An AC Voltage Divider
To do the rest of the experiments in The transformer and potentiometer
this kit, you must have a source of ac will be mounted on the chassis. The
voltage with some way of adjusting the transformer will be mounted in its perma-
output. You will use the 117 volts sup- nent location on the underside of the
plied by the ac power line and a trans- chassis plate. Fig. 5 shows where to
former to produce about 12 volts across a mount the parts. Fig. 11 of your IT
potentiometer. By adjusting the potenti- Manual shows the hole locations. The
ometer, you will be able to get the exact power transformer is represented by the
voltage needed for the experiments. broken lines.
To build this assembly, you will need: Install the rubber grommets in holes E
and J, which are the large holes near the
1 Power transformer (TR30) middle of your chassis plate. Squeeze one
1 Chassis rail (CH66) of the grommets into an oblong shape
I 1K-ohm potentiometer (P07 from and push it into one of the holes so that
Kit 1) the hole in the chassis fits into the groove
2 3/8" rubber grommets (GR I) in the grommet. Install the second grom-
2 1/4" X 8-32 screws (SC43) met in the same manner.
2 3/8" X 6-32 screws (SC13) Place the power transformer on your
2 8-32 hex nuts (NU3) worktable with its mounting feet up.
1 6-32 hex nut (NU1) Push the two green leads and the green/
2 No. 8lockwashers (WA16) yellow lead of the transformer through
1 5' power cord (PC1) the grommet (shown in Fig. 5) in hole J

8-32 X 1/
4• SCREW 3iii "GROMMET

POWER
TRANSFORMER' GREEN AND
GREEN/YEL

o
TRANSFORMER
LEADS

IK POT

e e e
--- e

Ga, •• G:3,
-7 CHASSIS
RAIL

Fig. 5. Mounting the parts.

16
 f o o o o o

Fig. 6. Mounting the chassis rail.

from the underside of the chassis. Line up During the remainder of this kit, the
the mounting holes in the chassis, holes G chassis will be supported by the chassis
and H, over the mounting feet in the rail and the power transformer.
transformer. Attach the transformer to
the chassis with two 1/4" X 8-32 screws, WIRING THE AC CIRCUIT
two No. 8 lockwashers and two 8-32 hex
nuts. Connect the power cord to the BLACK
Remove the 500K-ohm potentiometer power transformer leads. Separate the
with On-Off switch and replace it with two conductors at the end of the power
the 1K-ohm potentiometer (P07). cord. Connect each conductor to ablack
Position the 1K-ohm potentiometer so transformer lead. Solder both connec-
that its terminals are pointing upward, tions and wrap them with electrical tape.
and tighten the mounting nut. Carefully wrap the bare ends of the
Mount the chassis rail along the front two red and the red/yellow power trans-
edge of the chassis. Turn the rail so that former leads with tape. Do not connect
the lip having six holes in it is up. These these leads together. Coil them up near
six holes mate with the six holes in the the chassis as these leads will not be used
• edge of the chassis, as shown in Fig. 6. in this kit.
Remove the screw holding the 4-lug On the top of the chassis, make the
terminal strip and replace it with the 3/8" following temporary connections which
• X 6-32 screw. Pass the screw through the are shown in Fig. 7. Connect and solder
mounting foot in the terminal strip, the one green power transformer lead to
hole in the chassis and the mating hole in terminal 11. Connect the other green
the chassis rail. Attach anut and tighten. transformer lead to terminal 12. Connect
Pass a 3/8 X 6-32 screw through the and solder the green/yellow transformer
second hole from the left side of the lead to terminal 9.
chassis and the mating hole in the chassis
rail. Attach anut and tighten. Cut a 3" length of hookup wire and

17
 Fig. 7. Wiring the ac voltage divider.

remove 1/4" of insulation from each end. your experiments in the basement, be
Using temporary connections, connect sure that you always stand on adry board
this wire from terminal 12 to terminal 18 while working on the ac supply.
on the 1K-ohm potentiometer. Be sure to disconnect the plug from
Prepare a 4" length of hookup wire. the ac line before making changes in your
Connect it from terminal 15 to terminal circuit or before moving the meter lead
16. Solder both connections. Check to clipped to aterminal or lead.
see that your circuit is wired according to
BLACK RED

I
Fig. 7.
The schematic of the circuit you have
wired is shown in Fig. 8. NOT USED
RED/YEL
Caution: It is extremely important that
you perform all ac experiments on an RED
insulated work surface. An ordinary 12 16
BLACK •
wooden table, either bare or covered with GREEN
.9 17
•
linoleum or oilcloth, is ideal. A porcelain- GREEN/ YEL.
top table is unsatisfactory, because the GREEN 16
porcelain is applied over ametal base. For 15
safety's sake, you should perform all
experiments where you will not be able
to touch any grounded object, such as a
radiator, awater pipe, or adamp concrete Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the ac voltage
basement floor. If you must carry out divider circuit.

18
 EXPERIMENT 23 tor, the dielectric breaks down, causing
leakage between the capacitor plates.
Purpose: To show that acapacitor will
However, an electrolytic capacitor can be
block dc but will pass ac.
safely used to pass ac if we also apply a
dc potential of the correct polarity to the
Introductory Discussion: A capacitor is capacitor. By doing this, we no longer
a device for storing electrical energy. It have pure ac. Instead, we have dc with an
cannot do this, however, unless the di- ac component superimposed on the dc.
electric used to separate the plates has The voltage across the capacitor plates
certain characteristics, the most impor- does not reverse polarity and the dielec-
tant of which is that it must electrically tric does not break down.
insulate the plates from each other. To demonstrate a circuit condition
It might seem that insulating the plates having ac superimposed on dc, you will
so that there is no conductive path connect the 3-volt battery into acircuit
between them would block the flow of an with the electrolytic capacitor and mea-
electric current completely. However, as sure the dc and ac voltages.
you have learned from your course, this is You will determine the peak-to-peak
not true. Although acapacitor does block value of the ac voltage applied to the
direct current, it passes ac in the circuit. capacitor. Knowing the peak-to-peak
You are going to demonstrate these ca- amplitude of the ac waveform enables
pacitor actions experimentally. you to compare the ac component with
To demonstrate the insulating prop- the dc component. From your studies in
erties of a capacitor with a solid dielec- the regular lessons, you know that the ac
tric, you will measure the current through scales on your tvom indicate the effective
the capacitor for each type of voltage. or rms value of the ac waveform.
Your tvom will not measure current To refresh your memory, examine the
directly. You must determine the current ac waveform shown in Fig. 23-1A. It
in a circuit indirectly by measuring the shows one cycle of an ac voltage having
voltage across aresistor in the circuit, and an effective value of 1volt. Notice that
then dividing the measured voltage by the the waveform rises to apeak value of 1.4
resistance across which you measured the
volts above zero on the positive half-cycle
voltage. The result will be the current in and to -1.4 volts on the negative half-
amperes. This is the same method you
cycle. The total height of the waveform
used to determine the current in the last from the negative peak to the positive
experiment.
peak is twice the peak value, or 2.8 volts
You learned that pure ac should not be peak-to-peak.
applied to an electrolytic capacitor. The Now let's superimpose this ac wave-
reversing ac voltage will either put a
form on a dc voltage as shown in Fig.
positive potential on the negative plate of 23-1B. The figure shows +2 volts dc with
the capacitor or a negative potential on a 1volt ac waveform varying above and
the positive plate of the capacitor. When below the 2volt level. Notice that with 1
this wrong polarity is applied to the oxide volt ac superimposed on 2 volts dc, the
film dielectric of an electrolytic capaci- resultant voltage never goes to zero. When

19
 1.4 V the I volt ac waveform is zero, the
IV- -
f resultant voltage is 2volts, or the value of
PEAK PEAK-TO-PEAK
VALUE VALUE
the dc voltage alone. When the ac wave-
o form rises to a peak of 1.4 volts, the
resultant voltage is 3.4 volts, or the sum
of the peak voltage plus the dc value.
-1.4V When the waveform falls to its lowest
value, the resultant voltage is the differ-
ence between the peak value and the dc
value, or 2 — 1.4 = 0.6 volt. From this
you can see that the voltage never goes to
anegative value.
A large ac waveform superimposed on
a de voltage can cause the voltage to
reverse if the peak of the ac value is
greater than the dc voltage. Fig. 23-1C
shows a3-volt ac waveform superimposed
on +2 volts dc. Again the instantaneous
values of the ac voltage combine with the
dc voltage to produce the resultant volt-
age. The peak value (one-half the peak-to-
peak value) of a3-volt ac waveform is 4.2
volts. When the ac waveform reaches its
maximum negative peak, the resultant
voltage goes to a negative value, or -2.2
+6.2V -
volts. Thus, the resultant voltage reverses
3VAC
WAVEFORM
its polarity for asmall portion of the ac
cycle.
From this discussion you can see that
if we apply a dc potential of the proper
+2V polarity to the plates of the electrolytic
capacitor we can prevent an ac voltage
from reversing the polarity on the plates
O of the capacitor. Also you can see that we
know what válue of dc will be needed to
prevent a given ac waveform from re-
-2.2V
versing the polarity on the capacitor
plates.
In these experiments, we have placed
resistors in the circuits where current
Fig. 23-1. Waveform of 1 volt (effective) with
peak value and peak-to-peak value indicated (A); values must be determined. However, in
1 volt ac superimposed on +2 volts de (B); actual service work, if there is no suitable
3 volts ac superimposed on +2 volts de (C). resistance in the circuit, one can be

20
inserted. If you do this, you must be 13 14
•
careful to choose a suitable value. Too 1(

low a resistance will not develop amea- +I 25MFD

surable voltage when a small current I8K

flows through it, and too high aresistance
will change the total impedance of the Il
circuit enough to cause a significant
decrease in the amount of current.

Experimental Procedure: For this ex- Fig. 23-2. Schematic of circuit used to measure
periment, you need your experimental current through the capacitor.

chassis, your tvom, and:

.25 mfd capacitor from terminal 14 to
1 18K-ohm resistor terminal 13. Solder all three connections.
1 .25-mfd capacitor
1 1K-ohm resistor Step 1. To measure the dc voltage drop
1 20-mfd electrolytic capacitor across the 18K-ohm resistor.

Wire the circuit shown in Fig. 23-2. First set up your tvom for use as adc
The chassis layout is shown in Fig. 23-3. voltmeter. Set the function switch to dc,
Connect the 18K-ohm resistor from ter- the range switch to 3V and set the
minal 11 to terminal 14 and connect a polarity switch to normal. Connect the

2(

______ 111111111111111111(

o o

o GREEN- GREEN
YELLOW

e
16

o10 3
2- ,

5 6 7 8 9 10 II 1
14
I8K
o 15

Fig. 23-3. Circuit wired for Step L

21
 Unsolder and disconnect the lead of
VOLTAGE ACROSS RESISTOR
the .25-mfd capacitor from terminal 13.
STEP I DC Solder the capacitor lead to terminal 17,
/I
which is the center terminal of the
STEP 3 AC
1K-ohm potentiometer.
Position the resistor and the capacitor
F. 23-4. Results of Steps 1and 3. so that their leads cannot touch any of
the exposed terminals or the metal chas-
sis. The circuit is shown in schematic
ground clip of your tvom to the chassis form in Fig. 23-5.
and clip the probe to terminal 14. Touch Now, prepare your tvom for making ac
the positive battery lead to terminal 13 measurements. Set the function switch to
and read the voltage. The reading will ac and the range switch to 12V. When
depend upon the characteristics of your measuring ac or dc voltages on this range,
particular capacitor. Ideally, it should be read the meter scale that is numbered
zero, but an imperfect dielectric or leak- from 0 to 12. The reading is given
age along the outside of the capacitor directly in volts.
case may allow enough current through Clip the ground lead of your tvom to
the circuit to give you some small read- the chassis. Plug the power cord from
ing. Record your reading on the top line your experimental chassis into an ac
of Fig. 23-4. receptacle.
Remove the positive battery lead from Hold the probe by the insulated handle
terminal 13 and disconnect your tvom so as not to touch the metal tip. Touch
from terminal 14. the meter probe to the center terminal
(terminal 17) of the potentiometer, and
Step 2. To apply an ac voltage to the rotate the control shaft of the potenti-
resistor-capacitor network that you used ometer with your fingers until the meter
in Step I. pointer indicates less than 3 volts. Now
turn the range switch on the tvom to the
3V position, and carefully adjust the
potentiometer to give you a reading of
GREEN 18
exactly 3volts.
Your voltage divider will now have an
25MFD
17 ii 14 output voltage that is equivalent to the dc
TO
TRANSFORMER
voltage you used in Step 1 of this
experiment.
16 I8K

Step 3. To measure the voltage across

15 11
the 18K-ohm resistor.
GREEN

Leave the ground clip of the tvom

clipped to the chassis. Touch the probe to
Fig. 23-5. Schematic of the circuit in Fig. 23-4.
terminal 14, and read the 3-volt scale of

22
the meter. Record the meter reading in PEAK
TO
Fig. 23-4 as the voltage across the resistor DC AC PEAK
in Step 3. BATTERY
Remove the plug from the ac outlet. VOLTAGE

Disconnect the tvom test probes from the VOLTAGE ACROSS

circuit. Unsolder and remove the .25-mfd I8K- OHM RESISTOR :'

capacitor. Unsolder and remove the lead

.,..._.
VOLTAGE ACROSS
of the 18K-ohm resistor from terminal 11 CAPACITOR

and connect this lead to terminal 8.

Fig. 23-7. Record the values measured in Step 4.
Step 4. To apply both ac and de to a
circuit containing the electrolytic capaci- Clip the ground lead of the tvom to the
tor. chassis. Set the function switch to dc and
the range switch to 3V. Touch the probe
You will use the circuit shown in Fig. to the positive terminal of the battery.
23-6. Solder the negative lead of the Record the voltage in the space provided
20-mfd electrolytic capacitor to terminal in Fig. 23-7. Move the ground clip to
17 of the ac voltage divider. Solder the terminal 14. Touch the probe to the
positive lead of the electrolytic capacitor other lead of the 18K-ohm resistor at
to terminal 14 and the lead of the terminal 8. Record the reading in the
18K-ohm resistor. space provided in the dc column in Fig.
Solder the positive battery lead to 23-7. This reading should be very nearly
terminal 8. If necessary, splice apiece of zero and indicates the amount of leakage
hookup wire to the lead. Check your through the electrolytic capacitor.
work against Fig. 23-6. Clip the ground lead of your tvom to
terminal 17 of the ac voltage divider.
Touch the probe to the junction of the
capacitor lead and the 18K-ohm resistor
GREEN at terminal 14. Record your reading in
e
the dc column of Fig. 23-7 for the voltage
20MFD
TO IT _ 14 across the capacitor.
TRANSFORMER BLACK )1 RED Set the function switch to ac and the
range switch to 12V. Plug the power cord
18K
into the ac receptacle. Touch the probe
16 to the chassis. Adjust the potentiometer
— 3V until the meter indicates less than 2volts
on the 12V scale. Switch the range switch
15 to 3V and adjust the potentiometer for
GREEN
exactly IV. Move the probe to terminal
14. Read the meter and record the
voltage across the capacitor in the ac
column of Fig. 23-7. Compute the peak-
F. 23-6. Schematic of the circuit for Step 4. to-peak value by multiplying the meter

23
reading by 2.8. Record this in the peak- ln Step 2 you obtained some valuable
to-peak column. experience using your tvom. Notice we
Next, measure the ac voltage across the first set the instrument on the 12-volt
resistor. Unplug the power cord and clip range, adjusted the potentiometer to less
the ground lead of the tvom to terminal than 3 volts, and then switched to the
8. Plug the power cord in and touch the 3-volt range. When you measure an un-
probe to terminal 14. Read the ac voltage known voltage, you should always begin
across the 18K-ohm resistor. Record the by turning the range switch to one of the
reading in the space provided in Fig. 23-7. higher ranges. Then, when you are sure it
Compute the peak-to-peak value of the ac is safe to do so, switch to alower range to
voltage across the resistor. Put the value get more accurate readings.
also in Fig. 23-7. Unplug the power cord The voltage you measured across the
and disconnect your meter leads. Also resistor in Step 3 with ac applied to the
unsolder the positive battery lead from test circuit is clear evidence that acapaci-
terminal 8. tor with asolid dielectric will pass ac. As
we pointed out in your regular lesson on
Discussion: The voltage you measured capacitors, the electrons do not actually
across the series resistor in Step 1 de- pass through the dielectric of acapacitor;
pends on the quality of the dielectric and instead, they move to and from the
the amount of leakage along the outside capacitor plates, thus permitting a back
of the capacitor case. You probably will and forth or ac flow in the circuit
not measure any voltage drop across the connected to the capacitor. As far as the
resistor. If you had more sensitive mea- rest of the circuit is concerned, the effect
suring equipment and the dc voltage had of this back and forth movement is the
been considerably higher, you would have same as if the current actually passed
measured avoltage drop across the resis- through the dielectric of acapacitor.
tor as the result of adc flow through the You can consider that the readings you
dielectric of the capacitor, because no obtain in Steps 1, 2 and 3 are correct if
dielectric is aperfect insulator. you find that the voltage across the
Of course, if we exceed the voltage resistor is greater when ac is applied to
rating of adielectric, it will break down, the circuit than when dc is applied.
and we no longer have a capacitor. A In Step 4 you worked with a circuit
capacitor having a solid dielectric will having both ac and dc voltages applied to
block the flow of dc only if the applied the capacitor. The nearly 0 volt dc
voltage is kept below the rated working reading across the 18K-ohm resistor
voltage of the capacitor. shows that the electrolytic capacitor
In practical radio and TV circuits we blocks the dc current. This is to be
also have to consider the effects of expected because the dc voltage is applied
leakage along the outside of acapacitor. with the correct polarity to the plates of
Moisture, dirt, and grease form conduc- the capacitor. The 3-volt dc reading
tive paths and decrease the effectiveness across the capacitor shows that in this
of the capacitor. It is essential, therefore, circuit the battery potential appears
to keep equipment clean and dry. across the plates of the capacitor. When

24
 the ac voltage is applied to the circuit, the itor and the 18K-ohm resistor. Solder one
capacitor couples the ac voltage through lead of a 1K-ohm resistor to terminal 17
the capacitor and almost the entire of the 1K-ohm potentiometer. Connect
applied ac voltage appears across the the other lead to terminal 14. Solder a
18K-ohm resistor. The large 20-mfd elec- .25-mfd capacitor from terminal 14 to
trolytic capacitor offers almost no oppo- terminal 5. See Fig. 23-8.
sition to the flow of alternating current at Connect the ground clip of your tvom
e a frequency of 60 Hertz. Therefore, the to terminal 14 and plug the power
ac voltage reading across the capacitor is cord into an ac receptacle. With your
nearly zero. You will often find electro- tvom on the 3-volt ac range, touch
lytic capacitors used as coupling capaci- the probe to terminal 17, and adjust
tors in transistor circuits. The value of the potentiometer to give you a volt-
these electrolytic coupling capacitors is age of less than 1.2V across the 1K-ohm
frequently 5mfd or greater. resistor. Switch to the 1.2V range and
At low audio frequencies, asizable ac adjust for .5V. The current in the cir-
voltage develops across acapacitor of this cuit will now be .5 milliampere or .0005
size. You will find that the capacitors are ampere.
connected in the circuit in such a way Turn the range switch on your tvom to
that a dc bias potential is placed on the the 12V position, and touch the probe to
capacitor. The dc potential has the cor- the chassis. The reading on your tvom is
rect polarity to prevent the voltage on the the voltage across the capacitor with an
capacitor plates from reversing when an alternating current of .0005 ampere flow-
ac signal is applied to it. ing through it. Remember to read your
tvom on the 12V scale when you measure
Instructions for Statement No. 23: For this voltage.
the Statement in this experiment, you are To determine the impedance of the
to determine the opposition offered by capacitor, all you need do is apply Ohm's
your .25-mfd capacitor to the flow of Law. Divide the voltage that you mea-
60 Hertz ac.
When we speak of opposition to ac, we
12
actually mean impedance. However, if the
ac resistance of the capacitor is very low,
• as it is in a capacitor with a good solid
dielectric, the impedance is practically 17 1K 14
TO
the same as the reactance of the capaci-
TRANSFORMER
• tor. Therefore, although you will really
determine the impedance of your capaci- 16
tor for 60 Hertz ac in this experiment,
you can consider your result to be its 5
reactance at that frequency also.
To get the information you need to
calculate the impedance of the capacitor,
disconnect and remove the 20-mfd capac- Fig. 23-8. Circuit used for Statement 23.

25
 z

z
sured across the capacitor by the current.--2-e- Capacitors can also be connected in
(.0005 ampere), and you will have the series. As you learned in your lessons,
impedance. Perform this computation connecting capacitors in series is electri-
and answer the Statement. Disconnect cally equivalent to increasing the thick-
your power cord from the power line. Do ness of the dielectric material between
not disconnect the 1K-ohm resistor and the plates. This should decrease the ca-
the .25-mfd capacitor. You will use them pacitance. You will show that this is
in the following experiment. actually what does take place.
To show exactly how much the capaci-
Statement No. 23: I found that the tance changes, you will use the same
impedance of my .25-mfd capacitor was: procedure you used in the Statement of
the preceding experiment to determine

9
3)
(1) approximately 3,000 ohms. the impedance of the combination of
capacitors.
2 approximately 10,000 ohms.
approximately 30,000 ohms. The capacitance of acapacitor can be
calculated by rearranging the formula for
EXPERIMENT 24 capacitive reactance, if you know the
reactance and the frequency. For •all
Purpose: To show that wizen capacitors practical purposes, the reactance of the
are connected in parallel, their combined capacitor at that frequency is equal to its
capacitance is equal to the sum of their impedance. Thus, since we know the
individual capacitances; and to show that impedance we can find the capacitance
when capacitors are connected in series, by using the formula
their combined capacitance is less than 1
that of the smallest capacitor. Xc =6.28fC

Introductory Discussion: The capaci-

If we rearrange this formula, we can write
tance of a capacitor depends upon four
it in the form
things: (1) the area of the plates, (2) the
number of plates, (3) the distance be- 1
C=
tween adjacent plates, and (4) the kind of 6.28fXc
dielectric or plate separator material used.
If any one or any combination of these By substituting the impedance value you
four things is varied, the capacitance determine for Xc and 60 for f, you can
changes. get the capacitance in farads. You can
As you have learned in your lessons, convert this to microfarads by multi-
when capacitors are connected in parallel, plying by 1,000,000.
the plate area is effectively increased. As a serviceman, you will not have to
Therefore, the capacitance should in- make this type of calculation. Therefore,
crease. In this experiment, you will show we have prepared a graph that you can
that the capacitance increases, and that it use to determine the capacitance once
is equal to the sum of the capacitance of you have the impedance. The graph is a
the individual capacitors. plot of reactance in ohms at 60 Hertz

26
plotted against capacitance in mfd. If you
know the value of the capacitor, you can
find its reactance in ohms at 60 Hertz. Or
if you know the reactance in ohms at 60
Hertz, you can find the capacitance in
mfds. You get the same information from
the graph that you would get by working
out the reactance formula.
The important thing for you to watch
in this experiment is what happens to the
total capacity when you put capacitors in
parallel or in series. Fig. 24-1. Schematic showing capacitors in par-
Your first set of measurements will be allel across the potentiometer.

made with two capacitors connected in

parallel. The capacitance you compute occasionally tell you how to connect the
should be nearly equal to the sum of the test leads, but for the most part we will
rated capacitances. Because of manufac- merely tell you to make the measure-
turing tolerances, the actual capacitance ments and leave it up to you to set up the
will probably not be the same as the rated tvom properly from them. Of course, we
capacitance, so the calculated capacitance will give you help when you use the
will probably be somewhat different from instrument on arange that you have not
the sum of the rated values. used before in the experiments.
After making measurements and com- To connect the capacitors in parallel,
putations for capacitors connected in set up the circuit shown in the schematic
parallel, you will connect the same two diagram in Fig. 24-1 and the pictorial
capacitors in .series and repeat the mea- diagram in Fig. 24-2. Since you already
surements. This time you should find that have the 1K-ohm resistor and the .25-mfd
your computed capacitance is less that capacitor in place, all you need to do is
that of the rated value of the smallest connect the .1-mfd capacitor in parallel
capacitor in the combination. with the .25-mfd capacitor from terminal
5to terminal 14.
Experimental Procedure: For this ex-
periment, you need the circuit from the Step 1. To adjust the voltage across the
preceding experiment and: resistor to afixed value.

1 10K-ohm resistor Connect the tvom across the 1K-ohm

1 .1-mfd capacitor (CN12) resistor and set the range switch to 12V.
1 .25-mfd capacitor Apply ac power to the voltage divider,
and adjust the potentiometer to produce
From now on, we will not give you ameter reading of less than 1volt on the
step-by-step instructions for using your 12V scale. Now switch to the 1.2-volt
tvom in making all the measurements range and adjust the potentiometer to
required in your experiments. We will give you avoltage of .5 volt across the

27
 e

Fig. 24-2. Chassis layout for Step 1.

1K-ohm resistor. You now have acurrent Step 3. To determine the impedance of
of .5 milliampere flowing in the circuit. the parallel-connected capacitors.
Adjust this voltage as accurately as you
can. A small error here will cause a You know the current in the circuit is
considerable error in your computed ca- .5 milliampere. To calculate the imped-
pacitance value. Unplug the power cord. ance, divide this current value into the
voltage value you measured across the
Step 2. To measure the ac voltage drop capacitors. An easy way to do this is to
across the capacitors. multiply the voltage by 10,000 and then
simply divide by 5.
Switch the tvom to the 12V range and When we carried out this experiment in
connect it across the parallel-connected the laboratory, we had avoltage of 3.5
capacitors. Plug the power cord into the volts across the combination. Multiplying
ac outlet. Record the measured voltage in this by 10,000 gave us 35,000, and
Fig. 24-3. Unplug the power cord. dividing this by 5 we got 7000 ohms as

VOLTAGE CURRENT REACTANCE CAPACITANCE

CAPACITOR
ACROSS
GROUPING IN AMPS IN OHMS IN MFD
CAPACITORS

PARALLEL 0005
j. 4 i 2- k

SERIES .4./ v .0001

Fig. 24-3. Results of Experiment 24.

28
 across the two capacitors connected in
series from the chassis to terminal 14.
Plug in the power cord to the voltage
divider and read the meter. Be sure to
switch to the 3V range if the voltage is
less than about 2.5 volts. Record your
reading in Fig. 24-3. Disconnect the ac
power.
5

Step 5. To determine the impedance of

the series-connected capacitors.
Fig. 24-4. The capacitors are connected in series.
You can easily determine the value of
the impedance of the combination. Your the current in the circuit. Since you have
value should be reasonably close to this one volt across a 10K-ohm resistor, the
figure. Record the impedance you calcu- current must be 1 ÷ 10,000, which is
lated in Fig. 24-3 in the column headed .0001 ampere. To determine the imped-
"Reactance in Ohms." ance, you must divide the voltage across
Connect the capacitors in series, as the two capacitors by this current. Again,
shown in Fig. 24-4. Unsolder the lead of an easy way to do this is to multiply the
the .l-mfd capacitor from terminal 14 voltage by 10,000. Do this and enter your
and connect it to terminal 7. Unsolder value in Fig. 24-3.
the lead of the .25-mfd capacitor from
terminal 5 and solder it to terminal 7. Step 6. To find the net capacitance of
Unsolder and remove the 1K-ohm resistor the two capacitors connected in parallel.
and replace it with the 10K-ohm resistor
from terminal 14 to terminal 17 of the Use the graph shown in Fig. 24-5.
potentiometer. Notice the dark vertical lines. Each one of
these lines represents 5000 ohms. The
Step 4. To adjust the voltage across the lines representing 30,000 and 60,000
resistor to 1volt, and measure the voltage ohms are marked. In the example we
across the series-connected capacitors. gave, where we had an impedance of
7000 ohms, we would find the vertical
Connect the tvom across the 10K-ohm line representing 7000 ohms. This is the
resistor. With the range switch in the seventh line from the left. The first dark
12-volt position, energize your circuit and line to the right of the zero line is 5000
adjust the potentiometer to give you a ohms; the second light line to the right of
voltage less than 3volts. Then switch to the 5000-ohm line is the 7000-ohm line.
the 3V range, and adjust the potenti- Now follow this line up until it crosses
ometer to give you avoltage of 1volt. the curve on the graph, and then follow
Unplug the power cord to the voltage the nearest horizontal line to the left side
divider, switch the range switch to the of the graph.
12V position, and connect the tvom In our example, the vertical 7000-ohm

29
 Discussion: The actual value of your
capacitors may be quite different from
the capacitance marked on them. Most
capacitors of this type have tolerances of
1
7 +20% and -10%. Thus, the actual capaci-
tance of your .25-mfd capacitor may be
anything between .225-mfd and .3-mfd,
3 and the actual capacitance of your .1-mfd
capacitor may be any value between .09
and .12 mfd. Therefore, the sum of their h
actual capacitance may be anywhere from
.32-mfd to .42-mfd, even though the sum
o of their rated capacitance is .35-mfd.
However, as far as any of the experiments
in your practical training course are con-
Fig. 24-5. Graphic plot of reactance in ohms at cerned, you can find the capacitance of a
60 cycles plotted against capacitance in mfd.
group of capacitors accurately enough for
You will use this graph in Steps 6 and 7.
all practical purposes by using the rated
capacitance of the individual capacitors in
line intersects the curve about 2 lines your computations.
above the dark horizontal line, midway This experiment has proved that the
between .3 and .4. This dark line repre- capacitance of a group of capacitors
sents .35 mfd, and since there are five connected in parallel is larger than that of
lines between it and .4 mfd, the second any of the individual capacitors, and that
line above .35 represents .37-mfd. This the capacitance of agroup connected in
means the parallel capacitance is .37-mfd, series is less than that of the smallest of
which is close to the value we obtain by the group. We can find the capacitance of
adding .25-mfd and .1-mfd. Now, deter- agroup of capacitors connected in paral-
mine the capacitance of your parallel lel by adding the value of the individual
combination using Fig. 245. capacitors. To find the capacitance of
two capacitors connected in series, you
Step 7. To determine the net capaci- can use the formula:
tance of the capacitors when they are
connected in series. c1 X C2
C=
cl + C2
Use the value of reactance in ohms that
you obtained in Step 5when the capaci- If there are more than two in the series
tors were connected in series. Enter this group, work with just two at atime, and
value of reactance in the graph in Fig. find the net capacitance by applying the
24-5 and find the value of capacitance. formula as many times as necessary.
You should find that the total capaci-
tance of the two in series is about Instructions for Statement No. 24:
.07-mfd. Remove the .1-mfd capacitor from the

30
circuit and connect a.25-mfd capacitor in nected in series, the sum of the voltage
its place between terminals 5and 7. You drops across the capacitors equals the
should now have two .25-mfd capacitors source voltage; and
in series with the ac voltage source and To show that the capacitor with the
the 10K-ohm resistor. Connect your tvom lowest capacitance will have the most
across the 10K-ohm resistor, and apply voltage across it.
power to the voltage divider. Adjust the
potentiometer for a voltage of 1 volt Introductory Discussion: In this exper-
across the 10K-ohm resistor. Next, mea- iment, you will show that voltage applied
sure the voltage across the two .25-mfd to several series-connected capacitors di-
capacitors in series. Unplug the power vides among them in accordance with
cord, compute the impedance, and then their individual reactances. You will do so
determine the net capacitance of the by connecting three capacitors in series,
combination from the graph in Fig. 24-5. and measuring the ac voltage drop across
Use exactly the same procedure you each. You will remember that you per-
followed in the experiment. formed asimilar experiment to show that
Compare the net capacitance you have in a dc circuit the sum of the voltage
computed with the capacitance of one of drops is equal to the source voltage. This
the two capacitors. Then, choose the is Kirchhofrs Voltage Law. You have
answer in the Statement below and on seen that it works for dc; you will now
the Report Sheet that most nearly repre- prove that it is also true in ac circuits.
sents the results of your comparison.
When you have done this, disconnect Experimental Procedure: In addition
the 10K-ohm resistor and put it aside. Do to your chassis and tvom, the parts you
not remove the two .25-mfd capacitors need for this experiment are:
from the circuit, however. They will be
used in the following experiment. 1 .1-mfd capacitor
1 47K-ohm resistor
Statement No. 24: When Iconnected 1 18K-ohm resistor
two capacitors of equal capacitance in
series, the net capacitance was approxi- Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 25-1 as
mately: 2 follows:
You should have two .25-mfd capaci-
(1/ne-half
(2) four times 1MFD
17 14
(3) the same as •
(4) twice Cl
10 VOLTS 25
C2 MFD
that of one capacitor alone. AC
C3
5
EXPERIMENT 25 7
25MFD

Purpose: To show that when ac is

applied to two or more capacitors con- Fig. 25-1. Schematic of the circuit for Exp. 25.

31
"1 V 2 Z/Ccit
,D•oi 4.
tors connected in series, one from termi- terminal 7. Record your reading on the
nal 5-to terminal 7 and the other from first line in Fig. 25-3.
terminal 7 to terminal 14. Connect one
lead of a.1-mfd capacitor to terminal 14. Step 2. To measure the ac voltage
Solder the connection. Solder the other across the second .25-mfd capacitor.
lead of the .1-mfd capacitor to terminal
17 of the potentiometer. The chassis Remove the power cord. You must do
should now appear as shown in Fig. 25-2. this, because it is not good practice to
Now connect the ground clip of the change the connections of the tvom while
tvom to the chassis. Touch the probe to the circuit is energized. The safest proce-
terminal 17of the potentiometer. Switch dure, both for yourself and for the tvom,
your tvom to the I2V range, apply power is to unplug the power cord of the circuit
to the circuit, and adjust the voltage until you are working on before changing the
the meter indicates exactly 10 volts. connections of the tvom test leads. Do
not plug the power cord in again until
Step 1. To measure the ac voltage you have the tvom connected for the
across one of the .25-mfd capacitors. next measurement.
Transfer the ground clip of the tvom to
You already have the ground lead of terminal 7, which is the junction point of
your tvom connected to the chassis the two .25-mfd capacitors. Apply the ac
ground. To measure the voltage across power, and touch the tvom probe to
capacitor C3, touch the meter probe to terminal 14. Read the meter carefully,

Fig. 25 -
2. The wiring for Step 1.

32
 drops equals the source voltage within the
YOUR READING
limits of accuracy of your experimental
STEP I 2 measurements.
From the readings, you should also
STEP 2 2•
notice that the greatest voltage drop is
STEP 3 .57 yv
across the smallest capacitance. Since it is
TOTAL
the smallest capacitance that has the
highest reactance at any given frequency,
Fig. 25-3. Results of Experiment 25. your measurements prove that the great-
est voltage drop is across the highest
reactance. The voltage drops across the
and record your reading on the second two .25-mfd capacitors should be approx-
line in Fig. 25-3. imately equal. If you were to compute
the reactance of each capacitor, you
Step 3. To measure the voltage across would see that the voltage drops were
the .1-mfd capacitor. proportional to the individual reactances.
If you want to do this, find the
Unplug the power cord from the ac reactance by using the formula
source, and move the ground clip to the
159,000
junction of the .1-mfd capacitor and the Xc =
.25-mfd capacitor at terminal 14. Then, fC
reapply the power, touch the probe to
terminal 17 of the potentiometer, and in which fis the frequency in Hertz of
read the meter carefully. Record your the applied voltage and C is the capaci-
voltage measurement on line 3 of Fig. tance in microfarads.
25-3. For example, to find the reactance of
Unplug the circuit and unsolder and the .1-mfd capacitor, multiply 60 (the
remove all three capacitors from the power-supply frequency) by .1. This an-
circuit. Keep them handy for use in the swer is 6. Dividing this into 159,000, you
Statement of this experiment. get the value 26,500, which is the reac-
tance in ohms of the capacitor at 60
Discussion: The voltages you recorded Hertz. You can compute the reactance of
in the table in Fig. 25-3 should show you the .25-mfd capacitors in exactly the
two things. First, the sum of the individ- same way.
ual drops should be approximately equal
to the source voltage. Add the voltages Instructions for Statement No. 25: For
you measured in Steps 1, 2 and 3, and your report on this experiment, you are
record the total in the space provided in going to determine what happens when a
Fig. 25-3. Since it is difficult to read coupling capacitor has leakage.
small voltages accurately, the sum of your A very common radio and TV circuit
voltage may not be exactly 10 volts. You uses acapacitor to pass the ac signal from
should, however, come close enough to the plate circuit of one stage to the grid
be able to say that the sum of the voltage circuit of the next stage. We can simulate

33
 I8K ohm resistor. Make anote of your reading
in the margin of this page.
(C Next, simulate leakage in the .1-mfd
e 14
capacitor by connecting the 18K-ohm
1MFD
47K resistor in parallel with it. To do this,
solder the free lead of this resistor to
I5
terminal 8. Again measure the dc voltage
across the 47K-ohm resistor R. Make a
note of your reading in the margin.
Fig. 25-4. Circuit used for Statement 25.
t,64, Unsolder and remove the capacitor and
the two resistors. Leave the battery and
the ac voltage divider. Complete the
such acircuit as shown in Fig. 25-4. The Statement below and on the Report
3-volt battery represents the plate supply, Sheet.
capacitor C acts as the coupling capacitor,
and resistor R represents the grid resistor Statement No. 25: When Isimulated
of the next stage. We know that ac passes leakage by connecting the 18K-ohm resis-
through the capacitor, but should there tor across the capacitor, Ifound that the
be adc voltage across R? Will there be if dc voltage across resistor R was:
C is leaking? To find out, we will use the
18K-ohm resistor to simulate leakage in Li the same as
the capacitor. Wire the circuit shown in greater than
Fig. 25-4. Notice that one lead of the (3) less than
18K-ohm resistor is not connected as yet.
Use your tvom as a dc voltmeter and it was before the leakage resistor was
measure the dc voltage across the 47K- connected.

34
 Using Vectors To Combine
AC Quantities
o A
In a circuit in which the resistance is
the only device that opposes the flow of Fig. 9. A simple vector.
alternating current, the voltage drop
across each resistor is in phase with the age. For example, if a scale in which 1
current. By this we mean that during each inch equals 1volt is being used, aline 5
cycle, the voltage and current maximums inches long would represent avoltage of 5
and minimums occur at the same instant. volts. If line OA is a current vector, its
In other words, at the instant when the length represents an amount of current,
ac voltage is zero, the current also is zero; depending on the scale used.
and at the instant the voltage is at its The reference or starting position for
peak value, the current is at its peak vectors is along aline drawn to the right
value. Consequently, the sum of the of the point of origin, O.
individual voltage drops in the circuit is _A_yesint is_cousI'dered to rot_e_in a
equal to the source voltage. cou_nterclockwise direction only. If it
When the circuit contains reactance as forms an angle with the reference vector
well as resistance, however, the resulting and is psliating-upwae,,i1.15sansidered,t9
phase shifts make it impossible to simply be ahead of, or leading, the reference
add the voltage drops, because the volt- vector. If it is lointing downwarljt is
ages do not reach their peaks at the same conddered to be_ lagging behind the refer-
time. Complex mathematics can be used ence vector.
to combine ac values, but there is amuch For example, in Fig. 10, vector OB is
simpler graphical method. This is in the said to be 90° ahead of OA, and vector
use of vectors. Vectors are important OC is said to be 90° behind OA. A
because they help you see exactly what is complete cycle is 360°.Therefore, we
happening in an ac circuit. You will also
use them later, particularly when you
study color television.
A vector is a line whose length is
proportional to the magnitude of avolt-
age or current, and whose position with 90°
respect to other vectors or to areference o A
position indicates phase relationship. In 90°
other words, both the length of the
vector and its position convey infor-
mation.
A simple vector is shown in Fig. 9. If
the line OA is avoltage vector, the length
of the line indicates an amount of volt- F. 10. Vectors show magnitude and phase.

35
 I
HOCCYCLE
FOR represented by OA is twice as great as the
one represented by OB, and they are 90 °

1CYCLE
out-of-phase. The phase difference be-
tween them is represented by the angle O

FOR OB
(the Greek letter theta is used to indicate
a phase angle). Since the direction of

11CYCLE
rotation of vectors is always counter-

FOR OA
clockwise, we know vector OB leads
, el vector OA by 90°.When voltage OB is

270°
one-quarter of the way through its cycle,

180°1
OA is starting its cycle. The phase of two
voltages or currents can be compared
vectorially only if they have the same
frequency so that one cycle of each
90 ° 1
frequency takes the same length of time.
1
The vector sum of the two voltages can
be found by drawing the parallelogram
shown in Fig. 12B. (A parallelogram is a
four-sided figure, the opposite sides of
which are parallel. Squares and rectangles
are parallelograms in which all of the
angles are 90°,or right angles.) To form
this parallelogram, line BC is drawn paral-
Fig. 11. Another way of showing Fig. 10 values. lel to vector OA, and line AC is drawn
parallel to vector OB. Vector OC, the
could consider OC to be 270° ahead of diagonal from point 0 to the point where
OA; but if one cycle of OC is 270° ahead the broken lines intersect, is the vector
of one cycle of OA, that same cycle is sum or "resultant" of the two voltages.
90° behind the next cycle of OA. Thus, it The angle between vectors OA and OB
is customary to say that OC lags behind does not have to be a right angle (90 °).
OA by 90° rather than leads it by 270 °. For example, Fig. 12C shows two volt-
This is illustrated in Fig. 11, in which ages that are considerably less than 90°
each voltage is represented by a sine out-of-phase. Whatever the angle may be,
wave. the vector sum can be found in the same
When two or more voltages or currents way. Construct aparallelogram by draw-
are to be compared, one vector is drawn ing aline BC parallel to vector OA, and a
for each. One is usually placed in the line AC parallel to OB. The diagonal OC
reference position and the others are is the resultant.
drawn at an angle from the same point of If you compare the length of OC in
origin. This angle represents the phase Fig. 12C with the length of OC in Fig.
difference between the vectors. For ex- 12B, you will find that they are different,
ample, vectors OA and OB, shown in Fig. even though the lengths of OB and OA
12A, represent two voltages. The voltage are the same in both figures. This is

36
 without having to construct the entire
I parallelogram.
B, D, and F of Fig. 13 show this
short-cut method of finding the resultant.
As you can see, all you need to do is to
draw AC the same length and at the same
0 I> A angle that OB would be if it were drawn,

® and then draw in OC.

Whether you use the standard or the
short-cut method of vector addition, you
must make sure that the length of each
vector corresponds to the amplitude of
the voltage or current it represents, and
that the phase angle is correct.
This brief explanation by no means
covers the subject fully, but it covers the

®
basic facts you need to know about
vectors to work with the fundamental ac
circuits used in the following experi-
ments.

®
®
Fig. 12. How vectors are combined.

because the phase angle (0) or relation-

ship is not the same in both cases.
Therefore, as you can see, the vector C
addition takes both amplitude and phase
into account.
There is a form of vector shorthand
that you should know about. It is illus- o
trated in Fig. 13. A, C, and E show the
standard method of completing the par-
Fig. 13. A comparison between the "shorthand"
allelograms. However, since the length of
method of adding two vectors by completing a
line AC is exactly that of line OB, there is triangle, and the conventional method of adding
really no need to draw OB —we can draw by completing aparallelogram. The result is the
AC instead, and thus find the resultant same in both cases.

37
 EXPERIMENT 26 17 22011_ 14

Purpose: To show that in an ac circuit

containing only resistance, the sum of the
individual voltage drops equals the source
voltage with the greatest voltage being
across the highest resistance; and
To show that in an ac circuit contain-
ing acapacitor and aresistor in series, the
vector sum of the individual voltage drops Fig. 26-1. Schematic of circuit for Steps 1,2,3.
equals the source voltage.

Introductory Discussion: In carrying capacitor in series with a resistor, apply

out the following experiment, you will an ac voltage across the combination, and
first set up a circuit with three resistors measure the voltage drop across each
connected in series, apply a specified ac component. The voltage drop across the
voltage across the series circuit, and mea- capacitor lags behind the current through
sure the ac voltage drop across each of the capacitor by approximately 90 °,but
the resistors. The sum of the individual the current through the resistor is in
voltage drops should equal the source phase with the capacitor current.
voltage, because the voltages across the Therefore, the voltage across the capac-
resistors are all in phase with each other. itor is 90° out-of-phase with the voltage
Next, you will build a circuit with a across the resistor. You will draw avector

Fig. 26-2. Pictorial of circuit in Fig. 26-1.

38
diagram to show that the sum of the STEP MEASUREMENT YOUR VALUE
...
resistor voltage and the capacitor voltage
I VOLTAGE /
is equal to the source voltage when the ACROSS IK
phase difference is taken into account. VOLTAGE
2 .., . .....
ACROSS 500 n
VOLTAGE
Experimental Procedure: For this ex- 3
ACROSS 220 n •i ,..
periment, you need your experimental
TOTAL
2- c 't 4/
chassis, tvom and the following:

3 1K-ohm resistors Fig. 26-3. Results of Experiment 26.

1 220-ohm resistor
1 18K-ohm resistor
1 .1-mfd capacitor Step 2. To measure the ac voltage
2 .25-mfd capacitors across the 500-ohm resistance R2.

You are to set up the simple series Transfer the ground lead of the tvom
circuit shown in Fig. 26-1 across the ac to terminal 7. Touch the probe to termi-
voltage divider. A pictorial diagram is nal 14. Read the voltage, and record your
shown in Fig. 26-2. reading on line 2of Fig. 26-3.
Connect a 1K-ohm resistor from termi-
nal 5 to terminal 7. Solder terminal 5. Step 3. To measure the voltage across
Now connect two 1000-ohm resistors in the 220-ohm resistor R3.

parallel from terminal 7 to terminal 14.

Solder terminal 7. Connect the 220-ohm Move the tvom ground clip to terminal
resistor from terminal 14 to terminal 17 14. Touch the probe to terminal 17 of
on the potentiometer. Solder both termi- the potentiometer. Read the voltage, and
nals. enter your reading on line 3of Fig. 26-3.
Connect the tvom ground clip to the Unplug the line cord and remove all of
chassis, plug in the power cord, touch the the resistors. Wire the circuit shown in
probe to terminal 17 and adjust the Fig. 26-4. Connect the 18K-ohm resistor
potentiometer to produce a voltage of from terminal 17 of the potentiometer to
exactly 3volts ac. Remember to make an terminal 14. Connect the .1-mfd capaci-
approximate adjustment on the 12V
range first, and then switch to the 3V 17 14

range. 18 K

3 VOLTS
Step 1. To measure the ac voltage drop AC
IMFD
across the 1K-ohm resistor RI.
/

Leave the ground lead of the tvom

clipped to the chassis and touch the
probe to terminal 7. Read the meter
carefully, then enter your reading on the Fig. 26-4. Schematic diagram of the circuit
first line of Fig. 26-3. used in Steps 4 and 5.

39
tor from terminal 14 to terminal 5. in Fig. 26-5 as the voltage across the
Solder all three connections. resistor for Step 4.
Set your meter to the 12V range.
Connect the ground clip of the tvom to Step 5. To measure the ac voltage
the chassis, apply power to the voltage across the .1-mfg capacitor.
divider, and touch the probe to terminal
17. Adjust the potentiometer so that Transfer the black test clip to the
exactly 3 volts ac is applied to the test chassis. Touch the probe to terminal 14.
circuit. Measure the voltage, and enter your
Remember, the potentiometer that reading in Fig. 26-5 as the voltage across
controls the supply voltage must be reset the capacitor for Step 5. Unplug the
every time you change the parts used in power cord.
an experimental setup. Each combination
of parts draws adifferent current through Discussion: The sum of the voltages
the potentiometer and thus causes a you measured in Steps 1, 2and 3should
different voltage drop across it, resulting be approximately equal to the source
in a different output from the voltage voltage. It will probably vary somewhat
divider. Since we want to compare the because of parts tolerances. However, add
results, we must set the divider voltage to the voltages you have recorded for Steps
the right value in each case. Also remem- 1, 2and 3, and record your total in Fig.
ber to switch your tvom to the 12V range 26-3.
when you start to adjust the potenti- Next, add the voltages you measured in
ometer, and switch to alower range only Steps 4 and 5, and record the sum on the
after you are sure it is safe to do so. line marked "Total" in Fig. 26-5. The
sum of the voltages you measured across
Step 4. To measure the ac voltage drop the capacitor and the resistor in Steps 4
across the 18K-ohm resistor. and 5 should be greater than the source
voltage, because the two voltage drops are
Connect the tvom negative lead to not in phase. In fact, they are 90°
terminal 14. Touch the probe to the out-of-phase. Therefore, we must add
other lead of the resistor at terminal 17. these voltages vectorially.
Read the voltage and enter your reading In drawing a vector diagram, we must
have some starting point. In working with
STEP NATURE OF aseries circuit, the current vector is used
YOUR READING
NO. MEASUREMENT
..1 as areference because current is common
4
VOLTAGE ACROSS I8K
RESISTOR
i 4 i to all parts of a series circuit. The usual
procedure is to draw the current vector
VOLTAGE ACROSS .1 MFD 2. 5 -..
5
CAPACITOR first as areference vector. In other words,
TOTAL i/ . / // the other vectors are drawn to show their
relationship to the current vector. How-
VECTOR TOTAL Z. 7 Di
ever, we have an 18K-ohm resistor in the
circuit in Fig. 26-4, and the voltage across
Fig. 26-5. Results of Steps 4 and 5. a resistor is always in phase with the

40
current. Therefore, we can first draw the
vector representing the voltage across the
resistor and show the relationship of the
other voltages to this vector.
As an example, let us suppose that we
measured 1.75 volts across the resistor
and 2.35 volts across the capacitor. We
start the vector diagram by drawing a
vector to represent the voltage across the
18K-ohm resistor. To do so, we draw a
line OA as shown in Fig. 26-6, with the

o A

Fig. 26-6. OA represents the voltage drop Fig. 26-8. Vector diagram of the sum of the
across the resistor. voltage drops across the resistor and capacitor.

amount of voltage drawn according to The voltage drop across the capacitor
some convenient scale. If we use ascale lags 90° behind the current, and hence
of 1volt per inch to draw the vector, line lags 90° behind the resistor voltage drop
OA will be 1-3/4 inches long. also. Therefore, we draw the capacitor
voltage vector straight downward from
o A the origin 0 as line OB in Fig. 26-7, using
the same scale to determine its length. If
we measured 2.35 volts across the capaci-
tor, this line will be a little over 2-5/16
inches long.
Now we complete the parallelogram by
drawing line BC parallel to OA and line
AC parallel to line OB. Next we draw the
diagonal OC, as in Fig. 26-8, to represent
the vector sum of the capacitor and
resistor voltages. To find out how many
volts OC represents, we measure its length
and compare it with the voltage per-inch
scale we used in drawing OA and OB. If
13 you used ascale of one volt per inch, you
should find that the length of OC is close
Fig. 26-7. OB represents the voltage drop to three inches.
across the capacitor. The resultant could also be computed

41
mathematically by the process commonly actly 3 volts is applied between terminal
used to solve right triangles. If you know 17 and the chassis. Measure the voltage
how to solve this type of problem, using drops across the 18K-ohm resistor and
the Pythagorean Theorem, you can de- the .6-mfd capacity, and make notes of
termine the vector sum in this way. If both. «"//' .
you are not familiar with this type of Compare the resistor voltage you ob-
operation do not worry about it; use the tained in this Statement experiment with
graphical method. the one you found in Step 4. Bearing in
mind that the voltage across the resistor is
Instructions for Statement No. 26: proportional to the current flowing in the
You have learned that the reactance of a circuit, determine what effect increasing
capacitor decreases as its capacitance in- the capacitance has had on the current.
creases. If the capacitance is large enough, Finally, compare the voltage drop across
the current in a circuit can be almost as the resistor with your source voltage of 3
large as it would be if no capacitor were volts. Complete the Statement below and
there. on the Report Sheet.
We can, therefore, have a peculiar Disconnect the power cord and turn
situation in acircuit that contains alarge off the tvom. Unsolder and remove the
capacitor in series with the resistor. Even three capacitors and the resistor from the
though the voltage drop across the capaci- chassis, and lay them aside for future
tor may be appreciable, the fact that the experiments.
voltage drops across the capacitor and the
resistor are out-of-phase may mean that Statement No. 26: When I used a
the voltage across the resistor is just capacity of .6-mfd instead of .1-mfd, I
about what it would be if the capacitor found that the current through the cir-
were out of the circuit. cuit:
To show this, connect the two .25-mfd
capacitors in parallel with the .1-mfd ) increased.
capacitor as shown in Fig. 26-9. The total (2) decreased.
capacitance in the circuit is now .6-mfd. (3) remained the same.
Apply power to the voltage divider,
and adjust the potentiometer until ex- Ifound the resistor voltage to be:
18 K
1
7.---.isAey
much higher than
14 (2 much lower than
almost equal to

-5-r
2
3 VOLTS
AC
I 25
the source voltage.
MFD MFD MFD

5 MOUNTING THE CHOKE COIL

51_

Before going on to the next experi-

Fig. 26-
9. Circuit for Statement 26. ment, you must mount the choke coil on

42
 Fig. 14. The choke mounted on the experimental chassis.

the chassis. You will have to move one of Connect and solder one choke lead to
the flashlight cells to make room. terminal 5. Connect and solder the other
You will need the following: choke lead to terminal 14.

1 Choke coil (CO26) EXPERIMENT 27

2 1/e X 8-32 screws
2 8-32 hex nuts Purpose: To show that the opposition
2 No. 8lockwashers offered by a coil to the flow of an
alternating current is many times its
Move flashlight cell B2 from the right opposition to the flow of adirect current.
side of your chassis to the left as shown
in Fig. 14. Shorten the wire connecting Introductory Discussion: Coils are usu-
the two cells together if you wish. To ally wound of copper wire, which, when
secure the cell to the chassis, you can run stretched out, is practically as good a
alength of hookup wire or string through conductor for low frequency ac as it is
hole F in the chassis between the unused for dc. Winding the wire in the form of a
rubber grommet and the bend in the coil makes no change in its dc resistance,
chassis. but it does cause a great increase in its
Position the choke on top of the inductance, thereby increasing its induc-
chassis exactly as shown in Fig. 14. Pass tive reactance and its impedance. The
1/4" X 8-32 screws down through the opposition that the coil offers to ac,
holes in the mounting feet of the choke therefore, is much greater than its oppo-
and through holes M and N in the chassis. sition to dc.
Attach with No. 8 lockwashers and 8-32 You have studied these properties in
hex nuts and tighten. your lessons. We shall consider only the

43
opposition of the coil to ac as compared of the positive battery lead to terminal
to its opposition to dc in this experiment, 13.
but we suggest that you review these
lessons to refresh your memory con- Step I. To measure the dc voltage drop
cerning the impedance, reactance, and across the IK-ohm resistor.
inductance of coils and the application of
Ohm's Law to them. First, prepare your tvom for dc mea-
You will first determine the current surements on the 3V range. Fasten the
through an iron-core choke coil when it is ground clip to terminal 14 and touch the
connected in series with a resistance of probe to terminal 13. Read the meter,
1000 ohms to a 3-volt dc source. Next, and record your reading in Fig. 27-2.
you will apply 3 volts ac to the circuit,
and determine the current. Finally, you STEP NATURE OF YOUR VALUE
will compare the two currents. Your NO MEASUREMENT IN VOLTS

results will show that the alternating I DC VOLTS

ACROSS R
current is much less than the direct
AC VOLTS --
current. ACROSS R 0

Experimental Procedure: You will Fig. 27-2. Results of Steps 1and 3.

need the experimental chassis, the tvom
and the following: Since the resistance is 1000 ohms, the
voltage across the resistor in volts will be
2 1K-ohm resistors equal to the current in milliamperes
through the resistor. This was demon-
Wire the circuit shown in Fig. 27-1. strated in an earlier experiment.
The symbol L is used on schematic Now, disconnect the test leads from
diagrams to represent acoil or an induc- the resistor, and unsolder the positive
tance. The parallel lines beside it indicate battery lead.
that the coil has an iron core.
Solder one lead of a1K-ohm resistor to Step 2. To apply an ac voltage equiv-
terminal 14. Connect the other resistor alent to the dc voltage used in Step 1to
lead to terminal 13. Solder the free end the circuit.

13 IK 14
Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 27-3.
Unsolder the lead of the 1K-ohm resistor
from terminal 13 and solder it to terminal
17 on the potentiometer. Switch the
function switch in your tvom to ac.
Connect the ground lead to the chassis,
apply power to the voltage divider, touch
the probe to terminal 17, and adjust the
potentiometer to produce a voltage of
Fig. 27-1. Schematic for Step 1. exactly 3volts.

44
 IK 14
each part is proportional to the oppo-
17
sition offered by that part, we can set up
the following equation:
3VOLTS EL =Z
AC —
ER R

where EL is the voltage across the coil,

ER is the voltage across the resistor, R is
Fig. 27-3. Schematic of the circuit used in the resistance of the resistor, and Z is the
Step 2and Step 3. impedance of the coil. This can be simpli-
fied by writing the equation in this form:

Step 3. To measure the ac voltage Z= E LX R

across the 1K-ohm resistor. ER

For your report on this experiment, you

Move the ground clip to terminal 14,
will find the approximate impedance of
and touch the probe to terminal 17. Read
the coil by using this method. The imped-
the meter carefully on the 3V scale.
ance of the coil establishes the amount of
Record your reading in Fig. 27-2, and
current through the coil at the time of
unplug the voltage divider.
the measurement.

Discussion. The voltage you measured Instructions for Statement No. 27: Use
across the 1K-ohm resistor when a dc the circuit shown in Fig. 27-3, but reduce
voltage was applied in Step 1should have the resistance of R to 500 ohms. This can
been considerably greater than the ac be done by connecting another IK-ohm
voltage drop you measured in Step 3, resistor in parallel with the one now in
thus proving that the circuit current was series with the choke coil. When you have
less. Since the only difference between soldered the resistor in place, connect the
the circuits used for these two steps is the tvom to the output of the voltage divider,
nature of the source voltage, we can say and apply power. Adjust the potenti-
that the opposition offered by a coil is ometer until avoltage of exactly 3volts is
much greater for ac than for dc. applied to the coil and resistor.
The opposition that your coil offers to Measure the ac voltage across the
alternating current is known as its imped- 500-ohm resistance; then measure the
ance and is measured in ohms. There are voltage across the coil. Use the 3V range
several ways in which it can be deter- for both measurements. Make a note of
mined. One quick method, which does the readings you ee, and unpluLtly ac
not involve complex equipment and yet is power cord. J
reasonably accurate, is to connect the coil To find the approximate impedance of
in series with a resistor, apply an ac your coil, use the formula
voltage of known frequency, and measure
E,X R
the voltage drops across the resistor and Z=
the coil. Since the voltage drop across ER

45
 Multiply the voltage across the coil by experiment, you proved that the vector
500 (the resistance of the resistor). Then sum of the voltage across acapacitor and
divide the result by the voltage across the a resistor in series is equal to the source
500-ohm resistor. The result you get is voltage, if the drop across the capacitor is
the approximate impedance of the coil in considered to be 90° out-of-phase with
ohR. the resistor voltage.
,,etfike anote of the value you obtained In any good solid-dielectric capacitor,
4.
S for the impedance of the coil, and then the ac resistance is so small that it can be
determine the dc resistance of the coil. ignored. Therefore, we can say that the
You can use the ohmmeter section of impedance of such acapacitor is equal to
your tvom to measure the dc resistance, its reactance. Thus, the voltage across the
but you must disconnect one lead of the capacitor is 90° out-of-phase with the
coil in order to do this. Unsolder the current through it and 90° out-of-phase
choke coil lead from terminal 5, and with the voltage across any resistor in
connect the ground clip to one choke series with it.
lead and the probe to the other lead.
Reconnect the choke lead to terminal 5. i
Now, compare the impedance of the coil 1
with the dc resistance, and answer the E
90°
o
Statement.
Debit ,

Statement No. 27: When Icompared

the dc resistance of the choke coil with
its impedance, Ifound that the resistance LESS THAN
E\90 0 0
was:

ly
...- less
than

1t.„
2) approximately equal to
(3) greater than
E
90° ®
the impedance of the coil.

,
EXPERIMENT 28

Purpose: to show that the voltage drop

across acoil is less than 90° out-of-phase
®
with the current flowing through it be-
cause the coil has appreciable ac resis-
tance; and Fig. 28-1. The general phase relationship be-
tween the terminal voltage and the current
To show that we can find the phase
when we have: (A) a pure capacitance; (B) a
angle by using vectors.
capacitance plus series resistance; (C) a pure
inductance; (D) an inductance plus a series
Introductory Discussion: In aprevious resistance.

46
 However, always remember that the ac IT 3K 14
voltage we measure across any device is R
the voltage across the total opposition or i
impedance of that device. Fig. 28-1 shows 3VOLTS
the relationships. At A we have shown a AC

device that contains only acapacitor. The

phase relationship between the circuit i_

current and the voltage across the termi-

nals of the device is shown at the right; Fig. 28-2. Schematic of circuit used in Step 2.
the voltage lags 90 ° behind the current
because the impedance is made up solely To take this ac resistance into account,
of the reactance of the capacitor. If there we treat the coil as though it were made
is any appreciable resistance in the device, up of a pure inductance in series with a
however, as shown at B, the phase angle is resistance as in Fig. 28-1D. We can see
less than 90°.This device may be an what its total impedance is made up of
electrolytic capacitor, since an electro- with the aid of a vector diagram. The
lytic does have appreciable internal resis- method we will use in this experiment is
tance. often called the 3-voltage vector method
If the impedance of acoil were made of finding the ac resistance and the
up of the coil reactance only, as at C, the inductive reactance of coils.
coil voltage would lead the current by
90°.However, there is probably no coil Experimental Procedure: For this
that has so little resistance that it will act experiment, you need the experimental
as apure inductance. Every coil has some chassis, tvom and the following:
ac resistance, and it is always greater than
the dc resistance because of skin effect, 1 3K-ohm resistor, 5%
dielectric losses, and, in iron-core coils, 2 .25-mfd capacitors
core losses. The skin effect is the ten-
dency of alternating currents to flow only Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 28-2.
along the surface of the wire rather than To do this, unsolder and remove the two
throughout its entire cross-section. At 1K-ohm resistors used in the last experi-
higher frequencies, these effects become ment and solder the 3K-ohm resistor in
much more noticeable. Thus, rf coils, their place between terminals 14 and 17.
which usually have low dc resistances, Connect the ground clip of the tvom to
may have fairly high ac resistances. the chassis. Set the function switch to ac
The choke coil you will use in these and apply power to your chassis. Touch
experiments has adc resistance of at least the probe to terminal 17 and adjust the
400 ohms. Of course, its ac resistance is potentiometer until the voltage is exactly
considerably higher. Unfortunately, there 3volts, measured on the 3V range.
is no direct and simple method of finding
its ac resistance; an ohmmeter will meas- Step 1. To measure the ac voltage
ure only the de resistance. across the 3K-ohm resistor.

47
STEP NATURE OF
NO.
YOUR VALUE NRI VALUE
90 ° out-of-phase with the voltage drop
MEASUREMENT IN VOLTS IN VOLTS

VOLTAGE
«1
across the resistor, as it would be in a
I 1.5
; ,n;"
ACROSS R pure inductance, and add these values
VOLTAGE •
2 ACROSS L
, é_
c_ ......, r
2.25 vectorially as in Fig. 28-4, our resultant is
only 2.7 volts. Since this value is less than
Fig. 28-3. Results of Steps 1and 2.
the source voltage of 3volts, the voltage
across the coil must not actually be 90 °
ahead of the resistor voltage. The reason
Connect the ground lead from the is that the coil has considerable resis-
tvom to terminal 14. Apply power and tance. Using your readings, draw avector
touch the probe to the other end of the diagram like that in Fig. 28-4 to show
resistor at terminal 17. Read the voltage that the phase angle in your coil has to be
on the 3V ac scale. Record your reading less than 90°.
for Step 1 in Fig. 28-3 as the voltage We don't know what the angle should
across R. be, and we can't calculate it without
using rather complex mathematics. We
Step 2. To measure the ac voltage can, however, use vectors to solve the
across the coil. problem. The method of doing so is
shown in Fig. 28-5. Let's see how to use
Clip the ground lead to the chassis and it.
touch the probe to terminal 14. Read the We already know the three voltages for
voltage, and enter your reading in Fig. our vector diagram. What we do not
28-3 as the voltage across L Unplug the know is the angle between them. To plot
power cord. the angles, we start by using the voltage
we measured across the series resistance
Discussion: We are now going to show
how the measurements you just made can
be used to show that the phase angle
between the voltage and current in the
coil is less than 90°,and to compute the
inductance and ac resistance of acoil. To
illustrate our explanation, we will work
out these characteristics for the coil on
which we made measurements at NRI. In
this experiment, you are to determine
that the phase angle in your coil is less
than 90 °, but you do not have to
compute the inductance and ac resistance
unless you want to do so.
The NRI results for Steps 1and 2are
given in Fig. 28-3. Yours will not nec- Fig. 28-4. The resultant, which is the vector sum
essarily be the same. If we consider the of the voltages across the resistance and induct-
voltage drop across the coil to be exactly ance, does NOT equal the source voltage.

48
 X

/
/
/ x,
/

0 0 /*/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
I. / a
0 A 0 A

X X

Y C
Y C
// 1 1
/ /
/ XI
/ X1
/

0 // // ®
/ / 3
/ /
/ / 2.25
/
/
/
/ /
/ /
/ 75"
/ ad 3
0 A 0 1.5 A

Fig. 28-5. How to use the three-voltage vector method of determining the voltage drop across the ac
resistance of the coil, and the vector method of finding the voltage drop across the reactive compon-
ent of the coil.

as areference vector because it is in phase measured across the 3K-ohm resistor. Use
with the circuit current. ascale of 1inch equals 1volt.
Using the figures shown in Fig. 28-3 Using this same scale, we know that
for the coil we measured here at NRI, we the resultant, which we have called OC in
plot a line, OA, to represent 1.5 volts. our previous vector diagrams, will be 3
(The diagrams in Fig. 28-5 are not drawn inches long; it is our source voltage. It
to asca