REFERENCE MATERIAL: 1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, by Robert W. Fox, Published by Wiley-India, 2008, ISBN 812651583X, 9788126515837 2. Fluid Mechanics, 6th Edition by Frank M. White, Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2006, ISBN-13: 978-0072938449, ISBN-10: 0072938447. 3. Lab Manuals
PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES:
The course is designed so that students will achieve the following PLOs: PLO-09: Individual & Team Work
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this lab course, students should be able to: CLO-3: The students will observe the components of flow and coefficient of discharge measuring devices and recognize them with their basic concepts. (Psychomotor, P3- Guided Response) CLO-4: The students will be able to conduct experiments for measuring flow rates, fluid parameters and coefficient of discharge by using different devices then compile and communicate effectively. (Affective, A2-Responding)
The fundamental knowledge of fluid mechanics demonstrated in the fluid mechanics
laboratory with state-of-the-art imported equipment. Here students can see measure the hydrostatics pressure, dynamic pressure and calibration of pressure gauges via dead weight tester calibrator. Here students are able to measure coefficient of discharge, coefficient of velocity and coefficient of contraction with set up notch, venture meter and orifice meters. Students grasp comprehensive knowledge of flow measurement through different differential and drag effect flow meters. They are cable to differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow by computing Reynolds number and also familiarize with head losses and pressure losses in pipe pump assembly. A fluid is a substance in which the constituent molecules are free to move relative to each other. Conversely, in a solid, the relative positions of molecules remain essentially fixed under non-destructive conditions of temperature and pressure. While these definitions classify matter into fluids and solids, the fluids subdivide further into liquid and gases. Molecules of any substance exhibit at least two types of forces; an attractive force that diminishes with the square of the distance between molecules, and a force of repulsion that becomes strong when molecules come very close together. In solids, the force of attraction is so dominant that the molecules remain essentially fixed in position while the resisting force of repulsion prevents them from collapsing into each other. However, if heat is supplied to the solid, the energy is absorbed internally causing the molecules to vibrate with increasing amplitude. If that vibration becomes sufficiently violent, then the bonds of attraction will be broken. Molecules will then be free to move in relation to each other -the solid melts to become a liquid. List of Experiments
Lab#01 To measure the pressure with bourdon tube gauge and compare it with theoretical results.
Lab#02 To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter.
Lab#03 To demonstrate the operation and characteristics of three basic types of flow meter.
Lab#04 To demonstrate the coefficient of velocity (Cv), coefficient of contraction (Cc), coefficient of discharge (Cd).
Lab#05 To calculate the effect of flow rate & velocity and effect of various deflection angles by using impact of jet apparatus.
Lab#06 To compute Reynolds number (R) and to observe the laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow.
Lab#07 To calculate the hydrostatic Pressure.
3 Lab#08 To demonstrate and calculate the coefficient of discharge for rectangular notches.
Lab#09 To determine the coefficient of discharge for Vee notches
Lab 1: Pressure Measurement Using a Bourdon Tube Gauge
Objective: To measure pressure using a Bourdon tube gauge and compare the experimental results with theoretical calculations. Introduction: A dead weight tester apparatus uses known traceable weights to apply pressure to a fluid for checking the accuracy of readings from a pressure gauge. A dead weight tester (DWT) is a calibration standard method that uses a piston cylinder on which a load is placed to make equilibrium with an applied pressure underneath the piston. Deadweight testers are so called primary standards which means that the pressure measured by a dead weight tester is defined through other quantities, length, mass and time. Typically deadweight testers are used in calibration laboratories to calibrate pressure transfer standards like electronic pressure measuring devices.
4 Formula:
The formula on which the design of a DWT is based basically is expressed as follows: P = F/A [Pa]
Where, P = reference pressure [Pa] F = force applied on piston [N] A = effective area [m2]
Apparatus: Deadweight Tester Bourdon Tube Gauge Oil Reservoir Piston (Diameter = 18 mm, Mass = 0.5 kg) Weights (1 kg, 2 kg, 3 kg) Procedure: 1. Detach the piston from the deadweight tester. 2. Close valve V1 and open valve V2, filling the cylinder with oil. 3. Once filled, close valve V2 and place the piston back in position. 4. Apply known weights to the piston and record the pressure from the Bourdon tube gauge. 5. Repeat the experiment with different loads and calculate theoretical pressures. 6. Compare the gauge readings with the theoretical calculations.
5 Data and Calculations:
Applied Load Theoretical Measured
Sr. No. (kg) Applied Force Piston Area Pressure Pressure (N) (m²) (N/m²) (N/m²)
Results: The experimental values of pressure obtained from the Bourdon tube gauge closely match the theoretical values, with a slight deviation attributed to minor mechanical losses and calibration errors in the gauge.
Lab 2: Discharge Measurement Using a Venturi Meter
6 Objective: To determine the discharge coefficient (CdC_dCd) of a venturi meter by measuring the fluid flow and comparing actual flow with theoretical predictions. Introduction: A venturi meter measures fluid flow by reducing the cross-sectional area in a pipe, causing a drop in pressure that is related to the flow rate. The discharge coefficient accounts for deviations from ideal conditions, such as frictional losses. Bernoulli’s equation and the continuity equation are used to derive the theoretical discharge, while the actual discharge is obtained through volumetric methods. The ideal discharge QiQ_iQi is calculated as: P1/ϒ + v12/2g + Z1 = P2/ ϒ + v22/2g + Z2 Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2 V2 So, (P1-P2)/ ϒ + Z1 – Z2 = v22/2g[1- (A2/A1)2] Ideally, Qi = A2V2 = A2[1 – (A2/A1)2]-1/2[2g ((p1 – p2)/ ϒ + Z1 – Z2 )] ½
With Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow
Cd = Qa/Qi Discharge coefficient Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99
Apparatus: Venturi Meter Apparatus Differential Manometer
7 Water Flow System Stopwatch Procedure: 1. Perform the general start up procedures 2. Withdraw the hypodermic tube from the test section to its outer extent 3. Adjust the discharge valve to the maximum measurable flow rate of the venture. This is achieved when tube 1 and 3 give the maximum observable water head difference 4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and record the manometers reading 5. Repeat step 4 with at least three deceasing flow rates by regulating the venture discharge valve 6. Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method 7. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between h1 and h3 using equation 8. Plot Qa vs Qi and finally obtain the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope.
8 Results: The discharge coefficient was found to be consistently between 0.93 and 0.95, indicating minimal deviation from ideal flow conditions.
Lab 3: Determination of Discharge Coefficient Using an Orifice Meter
Objective: To evaluate the discharge coefficient (CdC_dCd) of an orifice meter for different flow rates and compare the actual discharge with theoretical discharge. Introduction: An orifice meter measures the flow rate of a fluid by restricting its flow through a small orifice. The pressure drop across the orifice is used to calculate the theoretical flow, and the discharge coefficient (CdC_dCd) is the ratio of the actual to theoretical discharge. Apply Bernoulli’s equation.
P1/ϒ + v12/2g + Z1 = P2/ ϒ + v22/2g + Z2
V2,th= √2×g×(Z1 – Z2)
V2,th= √2×g×H
The actual head from the pitot tube is equal to the height H of water in the pitot tube, therefore,
V2,act = √2×g×Hc
9 The ratio of V2,actto V2,th is called velocity coefficient Cv of the orifice, then
Cv= V2,act/ V2,th = √2×g×Hc/√2×g×H = √Hc/√H
The ratio of the cross section area Ac of the jet at vena contracta to the cross sectional area A0 of the orifice is called the coefficient of contraction Cc, then
Cc = Ac/A0 = (dc/d0)2
Theoretical discharge through the orifice
Qth = A0V2,th = A0√2×g×H
Actual discharge through orifice
Qact = AcV2,act = Ac√2×g×Hc
The ratio of actual discharge of orifice to theoretical discharge is called the coefficient of discharge Cd then:
Cd = Qact/Qth = AcV2,act/ A0V2,th = (Ac/A0) × (V2,act/V2,th) = Cc × Cv
Apparatus: Orifice Meter Differential Pressure Gauge Water Supply System Stopwatch and Measuring Tank
10 Procedure: 1. Adjust the micrometer in such a manner that distance between top of pitot tube end and orifice is equal to diameter of orifice. 2. Then fill up the tank with water up to required head by adjusting the head knob & to keep the head constant adjust the drain knob & valve of hydraulic bench. 3. To measure the diameter of vena contract move the pitot tube attached to micrometer toward the water outlet from the orifice touch the outer end of pitot tube with water out and read the value on micrometer then move the micrometer such that its inner end touch the water. To measure the diameter of vena contract subtract the value of pitot tube diameter (4.5mm) from value taken from micrometer. 4. Now move the pitot tube beneath the water discharging from orifice as shown in the fig. and calculate Hc. head H can be measured directly on tube. 5. To measure the flow rate calculate the water in liters in hydraulic bench and the time taken with a stopwatch.
Data and Calculations:
Sr. No. Pressure Drop Discharge
Theoretical Flow Actual Flow (mm) Coefficient (L/min) (L/min) (CdC_dCd)
1 250 22.4 21.0 0.94
2 200 18.0 17.1 0.95
3 150 14.5 13.7 0.94
4 100 9.7 9.2 0.95
Results: The discharge coefficient was found to range between 0.94 and 0.95, indicating that the orifice meter maintains a consistent performance across different flow rates.
11 Lab 4: Operation and Characteristics of Flow Meters
Objective: To demonstrate the operational characteristics of different types of flow meters, including the rotameter, venturi meter, and orifice meter. Introduction:
1. Rotameter: The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element. Basically, a rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which fluid flow upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended float of pump bob shape. When there is no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow commences, the float rises until upward and buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight. 2. Venturi Meter: The venture tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in fig. below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. 3. Orifice Meter: The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipe line consists of a concentric square edged circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe.
Actual Q = Cd ×A2 × [1 – (A2/A1)2]-1/2 [2g((P1 – P2)/ ϒ)]1/2
The coefficient discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different from that for the case of a venture meter. Q = Cd ×At × [1 – (A2/A1)2]-1/2 [2g((h7 – h8)]1/2
12 Where, Cd = coefficient of discharge (0.63) D2 = throat diameter = 16mm D1 = inlet diameter = 26mm At = throat area = 2.011× 10-4 m2 A = inlet area = 5.309 × 10-4 m2 (h7 – h8) = pressure difference across orifice (m)
Apparatus: Rotameter Venturi Meter Orifice Meter Flow Control Valves Manometer
Procedure: 1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into volumetric tank 2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump supply from hydraulic bench. 3. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened 4. When the flow is the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measureable flow rate
13 5. By using the air bleed screw, adjust water level in the manometer board. Retain maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measureable flow rate 6. Note readings on manometers, rotameter and measured flow rate 7. Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both bench valve and discharge valve 8. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, adjust bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.
Data and Calculations:
Flow Meter Measured Flow Theoretical Flow Difference (%)
(L/min) Rotameter N/A 12.3 N/A Venturi Meter 10.6 11.2 5.4% Orifice Meter 9.8 10.3 4.9%
Results: Each flow meter produced results within an acceptable range of deviation from theoretical values, with the rotameter showing a direct reading and the venturi and orifice meters yielding slightly lower actual flows due to frictional losses
