10784

Chapter 8
The Complete Response

of RL and RC Circuits
Seoul National University

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Prof. SungJune Kim

What is First Order Circuits?
 Circuits that contain only one inductor or only one capacitor can be
represented by a first-order differential equation. These circuits are
called first-order circuits
(a) First, separate the energy storage

element from the rest of the circuit.
(b) Next, replace the circuit connected to

a capacitor by its Thevenin equivalent
circuit, or replace the circuit connected to
an inductor by its Norton equivalent
circuit. (because the voltage in capacitor
circuit or the current in inductor circuit
are to be continuous.)
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU
Prof. SungJune Kim
Response of the First Order Circuits
 Consider the first-order circuit shown in Figure 8.2-2
 The circuit is at steady state before the
switch is closed
v(t ) = B cos(1000t + φ ), t < 0
 The switch closes at time t=0.
v(0) = B cos(φ ), t = 0
 After the switch is closed,

the capacitor voltage is
v(t ) = Ke − t /τ + M cos(1000t + δ ) (8.2-3)

Transient Steady-state
response response

Prof. SungJune Kim
The responses are called:
 “transient part of the response”  transient response
 “steady-state part of the response”  steady state response
 The response, v(t), given by Eq. 8.2-3, is called the complete response
complete response= transient response+ steady state response

 In general, the complete response of a first-order circuit can be represented as the
sum of two part, the natural response ( which is the transient response) and the
forced response (which is the steady state response):
complete response= natural response+ forced response
 Natural response: the general solution of the (homogeneous) differential equation

representing the first-order circuit, when the input is zero.
 Forced response: a particular solution of the differential equation representing the circuit
when there is non-zero input.

Prof. SungJune Kim
The names
 The natural response of a first-order circuit will be of the form
natural response = Ke − ( t −t 0 ) /τ
When t0=0, then

natural response = Ke − t /τ
The constant K in the natural response depends on the initial condition.
For example, the capacitor voltage at time t0

Prof. SungJune Kim
Special Inputs to the First Order Circuits
 In this chapter, we will consider three cases.

In theses cases the input to the circuit after the disturbance will be
(1) a constant
vs (t ) = Vo
(2) an exponential
vs (t ) = V0 e − t /τ
(3) a sinusoid
vs (t ) = V0 cos(ωt + θ )
These three cases are special because the forced response will have the same form
as the input.

Prof. SungJune Kim
Plans to find complete response
 Here is our plan for finding the complete response of first-order circuits:
Step 1: Find the steady state (forced) response before the disturbance. Evaluate this
response at time t=t0 to obtain the initial condition of the energy storage
element. (X(0): where it comes from.)
Step 2: Find the steady state (forced) response after the disturbance. (X(∞): where
it goes ultimately.)
Step 3: Add the transient (natural) response=Ke-t/τ to the steady state (forced)
response to get the complete response. Use the initial condition to evaluate the
constant K.

Prof. SungJune Kim
The Response of a First-Order Circuit
to a Constant Input
FIGURE 8.3-1
 In Figure 8.3-1a we find a first-order circuit.
 X(0)= (R3/(R1+R2+R3)*Vs is the initial Steady State response
 X(∞)= (R3/(R2+R3)*Vs is the final Steady State response.
 The transient response can be obtained using the Thevenin circuit shown in
Fig.8.3-1b.
R3 R2 R3
Voc = Vs Rt =
R2 + R3 and R2 + R3 s

Prof. SungJune Kim
The Response of a First-Order Circuit
to a Constant Input
FIGURE 8.3-1
 The capacitor current is given by
d
i (t ) = C v(t )
dt
 Apply KVL to Figure 8.3-1b to get
d
Voc = Rt i (t ) + v(t ) = Rt (C v(t )) + v(t )
dt
 Therefore,
d v(t ) Voc
v(t ) + = (8.3-1)
dt Rt C Rt C
Prof. SungJune Kim
Repeat the same for the inductor circuit using
Norton eq. circuit.
FIGURE 8.3-2
V R2 R3
I sc = s Rt =
R2 R2 + R3 s

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solving the inductor circuit
FIGURE 8.3-2
 The inductor voltage is given by
d
v(t ) = L i (t )
dt
 Apply KCL to Figure 8.3-1b to get d
L i (t )
v(t ) dt
I sc = + i (t ) = + i (t )
Rt Rt
 Therefore,
d R Rt
i (t ) + t i (t ) = I SC (8.3-2)
dt L L
Prof. SungJune Kim
Now coming to a general form of solution
 Equation 8.3-1 and 8.3-2 have the same form. That is
d x(t )
x(t ) + =
K (8.3-3)
dt τ
 The parameter τ is called the time constant. We will solve this differential
equation by separating the variables and integrating. Then we will use the
solution of Eq. 8.3-3 to obtain solutions of Eqs. 8.3-1 and 8.3- 2
 We may rewrite Eq. (3) as

dx Kτ − x
=
dt τ
 Or, separating the variables,
dx dt
= −
x − kτ τ
Prof. SungJune Kim
Second page--
 Forming the indefinite integral, we have

dx 1
∫ x − kτ τ ∫ dt + D
= −
where D is a constant of integration. Performing the integration, we have

t
ln( x − Kτ ) =− + D
τ
 Solving for x gives
t ) Kτ + Ae − t /τ
x(=
where A=eD, which is determined from the initial condition, x(0).

Prof. SungJune Kim
Here we go. Note the solution at the bottom of this
page.
 To find A, let t=0. Then
Kτ + Ae −0 /τ =
x(0) = Kτ + A
or
A x(0) − Kτ
=
 Therefore, we obtain
x(t ) =Kτ + [ x(0) − Kτ ]e − t /τ

 Since
= x(t ) Kτ
x(∞) lim=
t →∞
 This can be written as
x(t ) = x(∞) + [ x(0) − x(∞)]e − t /τ

Prof. SungJune Kim
The plot
 Figure 8.3-3 shows a plot of x(t) versus t.

 We can determine the values of
(1) the slope of the plot at time t=0
(2) the initial value of x(t)
(3) the final value of x(t) from this plot.
FIGURE 8.3-3
A graphical technique for measuring the
time constant of a first-order circuit

Prof. SungJune Kim
Apply this to the capacitor circuit
 Next, we apply these results to the RC circuit in Figure 8.3-1. Comparing Eqs.
8.3-1 and 8.3-3, we see that
Voc
= x(t ) v=(t ), τ Rt C , and= k
Rt C
 Making these substitutions in Eq. 8.3-4 gives
v(t ) =Voc + (v(0) − Voc )e − t /( Rt C )
 This is the steady-state or forced response. The sum of the natural and forced
responses is the complete response;
=
complete reponse v=
(t ), forced response VOC
= (v(0) − VOC )e − t /( Rt C )
natural reponse
Prof. SungJune Kim
Apply this to the inductor circuit
 Next, compare Eqs. 8.3-2 and 8.3-3 to find the solution of the RL circuit in
Figure 8.3-2. We see that
L L
= t ), τ
x(t ) i (= =
, and K I SC
Rt Rt
 Making these substitutions in Eq. 8.3-4 gives
i (t ) =I SC + (i (0) − I SC )e − ( Rt / L )t
 Again, the complete response is the sum of the forced(steady-state) response

and the transient(natural) response:
=
complete reponse i (=
t ), forced response I SC
= (i (0) − I SC )e − ( Rt / L )t
natural reponse

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.3-1 First-Order Circuit with a Capacitor
 Find the capacitor voltage after the switch opens in the circuit shown in Figure 8.3-4a.
What is the value of the capacitor voltage 50ms after the switch opens?

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
Initial condition
v(0) = 2V
Figure 8.3-4b shows the circuit
after the switch opens.
Rt =
10k Ω and VOC =
8V
Time constant
τ =Rt C =(10 ×103 )(2 ×10−6 ) =20 ×10−3 =20ms
Capacitor voltage
v(t )= 8 − 6e − t / 20 V FIGURE 8.3-4
where t has units of ms.

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
To find the voltage 50ms after the switch opens, let t=50. Then
8 − 6e −50 / 20 =
v(50) = 7.51V
Figure 8.3-4c shows a plot of the capacitor voltage as a function of time
FIGURE 8.3-4

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.3-2 First-Order Circuit with an Inductor
 Find the inductor current after the switch closes in the circuit shown in
Figure 8.3-5a. How long will it take for the inductor current to reach 2mA?
FIGURE 8.3-4

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
Figure 8.3-5b shows the circuit after the

switch closes.
Rt =
1000Ω and I SC =
4mA
Time constant
L 5 ×10−3
τ== 5µ s
5 ×10−6 =
=
Rt 1000
Inductor current
i (t )= 4 − 4e − t / 5 mA
Find the time when the current reaches 2mA.
2= 4 − 4e − t / 5 mA
2−4
t =−5 × ln( ) =3.47 µ s
−4
Departmentshows
Figure8.3-5c of Electrical andofComputer
a plot Engineering, SNU
the inductor
Prof. SungJune Kim
current as a function of time
Example 8.3-3 First-Order Circuit
 The switch in Figure 8.3-6a has been open for a long time, and the circuit has
reached steady state before the switch closes at time t=0. Find the capacitor voltage
for t≥0.
FIGURE 8.3-6

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
 Figure 8.3-6b shows the appropriate equivalent

circuit while the switch is open.
Analyzing the circuit in Figure 8.3-6b using voltage
division gives
60 ×103
v(0) = 12 7.2V
40 ×10 + 60 ×10
3 3
 Figure 8.3-6c shows the appropriate equivalent

circuit after the switch closes.
After the switch is closed
60 ×103
vOC = 12 8V
30 ×10 + 60 ×10
3 3
30 ×103 × 60 ×103
Rt = = 20 × 10 3
=20kΩ
Department 30 ×10 +and
3
of Electrical ×10 Engineering, SNU
3
60Computer
Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
 The time constant is
τ = Rt × C = (20 ×103 ) × (2 ×10−6 ) = 40 ×10−3 = 40ms
 Consequently
v(t )= 8 − 0.8e − t / 40 V
where t has units of ms.

Prof. SungJune Kim
 The switch in Figure 8.3-7a has been open for a long time, and the circuit has
reached steady state before the switch closes at time t=0. Find the inductor current
for t≥0.
FIGURE 8.3-7

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. Figure 8.3-7b shows the appropriate equivalent
circuit while the switch is open.
The initial inductor current can be calculated
using Ohm’s law:
12
i=
(0) = 40mA
300
2. Figure 8.3-7c shows the appropriate equivalent
circuit after the switch closes.
After the switch is closed
12
=
I SC = 60mA and =
Rt 200Ω
200
3. The time constant is
L 5 ×10−3
τ= = =25 ×10−6 =25µ s
Rt 200
4. Consequently,
) 60 − 20e − t / 25 mA
i (t=
where t has of microseconds.

Prof. SungJune Kim
 The circuit in Figure 8.3-8a is at steady state before the switch opens. Find
the current i(t) for t>0.
FIGURE 8.3-8

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. We find the capacitor voltage. Before the switch opens, the capacitor voltage is
equal to the voltage of the 2-volt source. The initial condition is
v(0) = 2V
2. Figure 8.3-8b shows the circuit as it will be after the switch is opened.
The part of the circuit connected to the capacitor has been replaced by its Thévenin
equivalent circuit in Figure 8.3-8c.
The parameters of the Thévenin equivalent circuit are
60 ×103
=vOC = 8 4V
60 ×10 + 60 ×10
3 3
60 ×103 × 60 ×103
Rt =30 ×10 + 3
=60 × 10 3
=60kΩ
60 ×10 + 60 ×10
3 3

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
τ = Rt × C = (60 ×103 ) × (2 ×10−6 ) = 120 ×10−3 = 120ms
therefore,
v(t )= 4 − 2e − t /120 V
where t has units of ms
4. The node voltage, va(t) in Figure 8.3-8b
va (t ) − 8 va (t ) va (t ) − v(t )
+ + =0
60 ×103 60 ×103 30 ×103
va (t ) − 8 va (t ) va (t ) − (4 − 2e − t /120 )
+ + =
0
60 ×103 60 ×103 30 ×103
Solving for va(t), we get 8 + 2(4 − 2e − t /120 )
va (t )= = 4 − e − t /120 V
4
5. Finally, we calculate I(t) using Ohm’s law:
va (t ) 4 − e − t /120
=
i (t ) = = 66.7 − 16.7 e − t /120
µA
60 ×10 3
60 ×10 3

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.3-6 First-Order Circuit with t0≠0
 Find the capacitor voltage after the switch opens in the circuit shown in Figure 8.3-
9a. What is the value of the capacitor voltage 50ms after the switch opens?
FIGURE 8.3-9

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. The 2-volt voltage source forces the capacitor voltage to be 2 volts until the switch
opens. Consequently,
=v(t ) 2V for t ≤ 0.05s
2. In particular, the in initial condition is
v(0.05) = 2V
3. Figure 8.3-8b shows the circuit after the switch opens. We see that
Rt =
10kΩ and Voc 8V
4. The time constant for this first-order circuit containing a capacitor is

= τ R= tC 0.020s
5. Consequently, the voltage of the capacitor is given by
v(t )= 8 − 6e − (t −50) / 20 V

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
6. To find the voltage 50ms after the switch opens, let t=100ms. Then
v(100)= 8 − 6e − (100−50) / 20 =7.51V
7. Figure 8.3-9c shows a plot of the capacitor voltage as a function of time.

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.3-7 First-Order Circuit with t0≠0
 Find the inductor current after the switch closes in the circuit shown in
Figure 8.3-10a. How long will it take for the inductor current to reach 2mA?
FIGURE 8.3-10

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. The inductor current will be 0A until the switch closes. There, the initial condition is
i (10 µ s ) = 0A
2. Figure 8.3-10b shows the circuit after the switch closes. We see that
= =
Rt 1000Ω and I SC 4mA
3. The time constant for this first-order circuit containing an inductor is

L 5 ×10−3
τ== = 5 ×10−6 = 5μs
Rt 1000
4. Consequently, the current of the inductor is given by
i (t )= 4 − 4e − (t −10) / 5 mA

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
6. To find the time when the current reaches 2mA, substitute i(t)=2mA. Then
2= 4 − 4e − (t −10) / 5 mA
Solving for t gives
 2−4
t =−5 × ln   + 10 =13.47μs
 −4 
7. Figure 8.3-10c shows a plot of the inductor current as a function of time.

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.3-8 Exponential Response of a First-Order Circuit
 Figure 8.3-11a shows a plot of the voltage across the inductor in Figure 8.3-11b.
a. Determine the equation that represents the inductor voltage as a function of time.
b. Determine the value of the resistance R.
c. Determine the equation that represents the inductor current as a function of time.
FIGURE 8.3-11

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution(a)
1. The inductor voltage is represented by an equation of the form
 D for t < 0
v(t ) =  − at
 E + Fe for t ≥ 0
The constants D, E, and F are described by
=D v(t ) when t=
< 0, E lim v(t ), and=
E + F lim v(t )
t →∞ t →0 +
From the plot, we see that

D= 0, E= 0, and E + F= 4V
Consequently, 0 for t < 0
v(t ) =  − at
 4e for t ≥ 0
2. One such point is labeled on the plot in Figure 8.3-11b. We see v(0.14)=2V;
ln(0.5)
2=4e − a (0.14) =
>a= =
5
−0.14
Consequently,
0 for t < 0
v(t ) =  −5t
 4e for t ≥ 0

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution(b)
1. Figure 8.3-12a shows the circuit immediately after the switch opens.in Figure 8.3-
12b, the part of the circuit connected to the inductor has been replaced by its
Thévenin equivalent circuit.
L 4
2. τ =
The time constant of the circuit is given by =
Rt R+5
L 4
τ =
=
Rt R + 5
t
Also, the time constant is related to the exponent in v(t) by −5t =− . Consequently
τ
1 R+5
5 == =
> R=
15Ω
τ 4

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution(c)
1. The inductor current is related to the inductor voltage by
1 t
= i (t )
L ∫0
v(τ ) dτ + i (0)
2. Figure 8.3-13 show the circuit before the switch opens.
The inductor current is given by

6
i (=
t) = 0.4A FIGURE 8.3-13
15
In particular, i(0-)=0.4A. The current in an inductor is continuous, so i(0+)=i(0-).
Consequently,
i (0) = 0.4A
3. Returning to the equation for the inductor current, after the switch opens we have
1 t 1 −5t
i (t ) = ∫ 4e −5τ dτ + 0.4 = (e − 1) + 0.4 = 0.6 − 0.2e −5t
4 0 −5
4. In summary,
 0.4 for t < 0
i (t ) =  −5t
0.6 − 0.2e for t ≥ 0

Prof. SungJune Kim
Sequential Switching
 Sequential switching occurs when a circuit contains two or more

switches that change state at different instants.
 Figure 8.4-1a is an example of sequential switching.
FIGURE 8.4-1

Prof. SungJune Kim
Sequential Switching (cont’d)
 Figure 8.4-1b shows the equivalent
circuit that is appropriate for t<0.
=i (t ) 10[A] t<0
Before the switch changes state at time

t=0.
FIGURE 8.4-1 i (0− ) = 10[A]
After the switch changes state at time

t=0.
i (0+ ) = 10[A]
This is the initial condition at t=0.

Prof. SungJune Kim
Figure 8.4-1c shows the equivalent

circuit at 0< t <1 ms
= I sc 0[=A] and Rt 2[Ω]
Time constant
L 2 ×10−3
τ == 1×10−3 =
= 1ms
Rt 2
Inductor current
FIGURE 8.4-1 = e − t /τ 10e − t[A ] for 0 < t < 1ms
i (t ) i (0)=
Immediately before t=1ms

(1− ) 10
i= = e −1 3.68[A ]
Immediately after t=1ms
i (1+ ) = 3.68[A ]
This is the initial condition at time t=1ms.
Prof. SungJune Kim
Figure 8.4-1d shows the

appropriate equivalent circuit.
= I sc 0[=
A] and Rt 1[Ω ]
Time constant
L 2 ×10−3
τ== 2 ×10−3 =
= 2ms
FIGURE 8.4-1 Rt 1
Inductor current
= t0 )e − (t −t0 ) /τ 3.68e − (t −1) / 2[A] for t > 1ms
i (t ) i (=
t0 denotes the time when the switch
changes state – 1ms in this example.
 Figure 8.4-2 shows a plot of the

FIGURE 8.4-2 inductor current.
Prof. SungJune Kim
 In some applications, switching occurs at prescribed voltage values rather

than at prescribed times. Figure 8.4-3 a device, called comparator, that
can be used to accomplish this kind of switching.
VH if v+ > v−
vo (t ) = 
VL if v+ < v−
FIGURE 8.4-3

Prof. SungJune Kim
 In figure 8.4-4, a comparator is used to compare the capacitor voltage to a

threshold voltage VT, Suppose
VA > VT > vc (0)
The input voltages of the comparator are
= v+ v= c (t ) and v− vT
so the output voltage of the comparator is
VH if vc (t ) > vT
vo (t ) = 
VL if vc (t ) < vT
FIGURE 8.4-4

Prof. SungJune Kim
 We know that the capacitor voltage of this first-order circuit will be
VA (vc (0) − VA )e − t /( RC )
vc (t ) =+
Let t1 denote the time when the comparator output voltage switches from
VL to VH. Then vc(t1)=VT, so
VA + [vc (0) − VA ]e − t1 /( RC )
VT =
Solving for t1 gives
vc (0) − VA
t1 = RC ln( )
VT − VA

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example) Comparator Circuit
 Consider the circuit shown in Figure 8.4-5. The initial value of the capacitor voltage
is vc (0)=1.667 volts. What value of resistance, R, is required if the comparator is to
switch from VL=0 to VH=5 volts at time t1=1 ms
FIGURE 8.4-5

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
 Figure 8.4-5 shows a specific example of the circuit
in Figure 8.4-4.
1. We get
 5 
 3 − 5 
−3 −6
1×10 =R(1×10 ) ln   =R(1×10−6 ) ln(2)
 10 − 5 
 3 
2. Then, solving for R:
1×10−3
=R = −6
1.44k Ω
ln(2) × 10

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example) Comparator Circuit
 In Figure 8.4-6, a comparator is used to compare the resistor voltage, vR (t), to a

threshold voltage, VT. Suppose
VA > VT > RiL (0)
Determine the time t1 when the comparator output voltage switches from VL to VH
FIGURE 8.4-6

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. The resistor current is equal to the inductor current, so
vR (t ) = RiL (t )
2. The comparator does not disturb the first-order circuit consisting of the voltage
source, resistor, and inductor. The inductor current is
V V
iL (t ) =A + (iL (0) − A )e − ( R / L ) / t
R R
3. Next, t1 is the time when RiL(t1)=VT, so
VA + ( RiL (0) − VA )e − ( R / L ) / t1
VT =
4. Solving for t1 gives

L RiL (0) − VA
t1 = ln( )
R VT − VA

Prof. SungJune Kim
Stability of First-Order Circuits
 Complete response
=
x(t ) xn (t ) + x f (t )
xn (t ) = Ke − t /τ ( natural response )
x f (t ) (forced response)
 The circuit is stable

 When τ>0 , the natural response vanishes as t->0.
 The circuit is unstable
 When τ<0, the natural response grows without bound as t->0.
 In most applications, the behavior of unstable circuits is undesirable and is to
be avoided.
 How can we design first-order circuits to be stable?
 =
Rt>0 is required to make a first-order circuit be stable. (τ R=
t C or τ L / Rt )

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.5-1 Response of an Unstable First-
Order Circuit
 The First-order circuit shown in Figure 8.5-1a is at steady state before the
switch closes at t=0. This circuit contains a dependent source and so may
be unstable. Find the capacitor voltage, v(t), for t>0.
FIGURE 8.5-1

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. We calculate the initial condition from the circuit

in Figure 8.5-2b.
1. Apply KCL to the top node of the dependent current source
−i + 2i =0
i=0
2. Consequently, There is no voltage drop across the resistor and
v(0) = 12V
2. Calculate the open-circuit voltage using the circuit in Figure 8.5-1c.
1. Writing a KVL equation, we get
12 =(5 ×103 ) × i + (10 ×103 ) × (i − 2i )
2. We find
i = −2.4mA
3. Applying Ohm’s law to the 10-kΩ resistor, we get
VOC = (10 ×103 ) × (i − 2i ) = 24V

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
3. Calculate the Thévenin resistance using the circuit shown in Figure 8.5-1d.
1. Apply KVL to the loop consisting of the two resistors to get
( )
0 = (5 ×103 ) × i + 10 ×103 × ( IT + i − 2i )
2. Solving for the current,
i = 2 IT
3. Applying Ohm’s law to the 10-kΩ resistor, we get
10 103 × ( IT + i − 2i ) =
VT =× −10 ×103 × IT
4. The Thévenin resistance is given by
VT
Rt = = −10kΩ
IT
τ = Rt C = −20ms
4. The complete response is
v(t=
) 24 − 12et / 20

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.5-2 Designing First-Order Circuits to
Be Stable
 The circuit considered in Example 8.5-1 has been redrawn in Figure 8.5-2a,
with the gain of the dependent source represented by the variable B. What
restrictions must be placed on the gain of the dependent source to ensure that
it is stable? Design this circuit to have a time constant of +20ms.
FIGURE 8.5-2

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
 Figure 8.5-2b the circuit used to calculate Rt
1. Applying KVL to the loop consisting of the two
resistors.
5 × 103 × i + VT =0
2. Solving for the current gives
VT
i=
5 × 103
3. Applying KCL to the top node of the dependent
source, we get
VT
−i + Bi + − IT =0
10 ×103
4. Combining these equations, we get
 1− B 1 
 + V − IT =
3  T
0
 5 × 10 3
10 × 10 

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
5. The Thevenin resistance is given by

VT 10 ×103
Rt = = −
IT 2B − 3
 B<3/2 is required to ensure that Rt is positive and the circuit is stable.
6. To obtain a time constant of +20ms requires
7. which in turn requires

10 ×103
10 ×10 =
−
3
2B − 3
 Therefore B=1. This suggests that we can fix the unstable circuit by decreasing
the gain of the dependent source from 2A/A to 1 A/A

Prof. SungJune Kim
The Unit Step Source
 The Unit step forcing function as a function of time that is zero for t<t0, and unity
for t>t0.
 0 t < t0
u (t − t0 ) =

1 t > t0
 Application of a constant-voltage source
at t=t0 using two switches both acting at t=t0.
=
v(t ) V0u (t − t0 )
 Single-switch equivalent circuit for the step

voltage source
 Symbol for the step voltage source

Prof. SungJune Kim
 A pulse signal has a constant nonzero value for a time duration of Δt=t1-t0
 Pulse source
v(t )= V0u (t − t0 ) − V0u (t − t1 )

0 t < t0

= V0 t0 < t < t1
0 t1 < t

 Two-step voltage sources

Prof. SungJune Kim
 Let us consider the application of a pulse to an RL circuit as shown in Figure 8.6-
7. Here we let t0=0. The pulse is applied to the RL circuit when i(0)=0.
FIGURE 8.6-7
 Since the circuit is linear, we may use the principle of superposition, so that
i= i1 + i2
where i1 is the response to V0u(t) and i2 is the response to V0u(t-t1)
 The response of an RL circuit to a constant forcing function applied at t=tn is

V0
i= (1 − e − (t −tn ) /τ ) when t > tn
R
where τ=L/R.

Prof. SungJune Kim
 The two solutions to the two-step sources are
V0
i1 = (1 − e − t /τ ) when t ≥ 0
R
−V0
i2 = (1 − e − (t −t1 ) /τ ) when t > t1
R
 Adding the responses, we have
V0 − t /τ
 R (1 − e ) 0 < t ≤ t1
i=
 −V0 e − t /τ (et /τ − 1) t > t
 R 1
 The response at t=t1 is V0

i=
(t1 ) (1 − e − t1 /τ )
R
 If t1 is greater than τ, the response will
approach V0/R before starting its decline,
as shown in Figure 8.6-8. The response
at t=2t1 is
V0 −2(t1 /τ ) − t1 /τ V0 − t1 /τ
i=
(2t1 ) e (e = − 1) (e − e 2( − t1 /τ ) ) FIGURE 8.6-8
R R
Prof. SungJune Kim
 Figure 8.6-9 shows a first-order circuit. The input to the circuit is the
voltage of the voltage source, vs(t). The output is the current of the
inductor, i0(t). Determine the output of this circuit when the input is
vs(t)=4-8u(t) [V].
FIGURE 8.6-8

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. The response of the first-order circuit will be
A + Be − at for t > 0
io (t ) =
2. Circuits used to calculate the steady-state reponse

(a)before t=0 (b) after t=0
A + Be − a (0) =
i0 (0) = A+ B i0 (∞) = A + Be − a ( ∞ ) = A
A+ B =
0.2 A A= − 0.2A
B = 0.4A
3. The value of the constant a is determined from the time constant τ.
1 L
= τ=
a Rt

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
4. Figure 8.6-11 shows the circuit used to calculate Rt.
Rt = 20Ω
Therefore,
20 1
=
a = 2
10 s
FIGURE 8.6-11
5. Substituting the values of A, B and a gives
 0.2[A ] for t ≤ 0
i0 (t ) =  −2 t
−0.2 + 0.4e [A ] for t ≥ 0

Prof. SungJune Kim
 Figure 8.6-12 shows a first-order circuit. The input to the circuit is the
voltage of the voltage source, vs(t). The output is the voltage across the
capacitor, vo(t). Determine the output of this circuit when the input is
vs(t)=7-14u(t)V.
FIGURE 8.6-12

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. The response of the first-order circuit will be
A + Be − at for t > 0
vo (t ) =
2. Circuits used to calculate the steady-state reponse

(a)before t=0 (b) after t=0
− a (0) v0 (∞) = A + Be − a ( ∞ ) = A
v0 (0) =
A + Be =
A+ B
5
5 A= × (−7) =−4.38V
A+ =
B ×=
7 4.38V 3+5
3+5
B = 8.76V
3. The value of the constant a is determined from the time constant τ.
1
= τ= Rt C
a

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
4. Figure 8.6-14 shows the circuit used to calculate Rt.
(5)(3)
= Rt = 1.875Ω
5+3
Therefore,
1 1
a = 1.16
(1.875)(460 ×10−3 ) s
FIGURE 8.6-14
5. Substituting the values of A, B and a gives
 − 4.38V for t ≤ 0
v0 (t ) =  −1.16 t
−4.38 + 8.76e V for t ≥ 0

Prof. SungJune Kim
The Response of a First-Order Circuit to a
Nonconstant Source
 The differential equation an RL or RC circuit is represented by the general form
dx(t )
+ ax(t ) =
y (t ) (8.7-1)
dt
 Consider the derivative of a product of two terms such that
d dx dx (8.7-2)
( xe at ) = e at + axe at =( + ax)e at
dt dt dt
 The term within the parentheses on the right-hand side of Eq.8.7-2 is exactly the
form on the left-hand side of Eq.8.7-1.
Therefore,
dx d
= ( + ax)e at ye at or= ( xe at ) ye at
dt dt
 Integrating both sides of the second equation, we have
=
xe at ∫ dt + K
at
ye

Prof. SungJune Kim
The Response of a First-Order Circuit to a
Nonconstant Source
 Therefore,
=x e − at ∫ ye at dt + Ke − at (8.7-1)
 For the case where the source is a constant so that y(t)=M, we have
M
e − at M ∫ e at dt + Ke − at = + Ke − at =
x= x f + xn (8.7-2)
a
natural response : xn = ke − at
forced response : x f = M / a
 Consider the case where y(t), the forcing function, is not a constant.
natural response : xn = ke − at
1 − at ( a +b ) ebt
∫ e e dt e =
∫ e dt a +=
− at − at ( a +b )t
=
forced response : x f e= bt at
e e
b a+b

Prof. SungJune Kim
Example 8.7-1 First-Order Circuit with
Nonconstant Source
 Find the current i for the circuit of Figure 8.7-1a for t>0 when
vs = 10e −2t u (t )V
Assume the circuit is in steady state at t=0-
FIGURE 8.7-1

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
1. We expect if to be
i f = Be −2t
2. Writing KVL arround the right-hand mesh, we have
di di
= L + Ri vs =
or + 4i 10e −2t
dt dt
3. Substituting i f = Be −2t , we have
2 Be −2t + 4 Be −2t 10e −2t
−= or (−2 B + 4 B)e −2t 10e −2t
=
Hence, B=5 and
i f = 5e −2t
4. The natural response can be obtained by considering the circuit shown in Figure
8.7-1b. This is the equivalent circuit after the switch opens. The natural response
is
− ( Rt / L ) t
= =
in Ae Ae −4t

Prof. SungJune Kim
Solution
5. The complete response is
i = in + i f = Ae −4t + 5e −2t
6. The constant A can be determined from the value of the inductor current at time
t=0. The initial inductor current, i(0), can be obtained by considering the circuit
shown in Figure 8.7-1c. This is the equivalent circuit that is appropriate before
the switch opens.
7. From Figure 8.7-1c

10
=
i (0) = 2A
5
8. Therefore, at t=0
Ae −4×0 + 5e −2×0 |=
i (0) = A+5
2= A + 5
A = −3
9. Therefore,
(−3e −4t + 5e −2t )A t>0
i=

Prof. SungJune Kim
Differential Operators
 We can define a differential operators such tat
dx d 2x
= sx = and 2
s x
dt dt 2
 Use of the s operator is particularly attractive when higher-order differential
equations are involved. Then we use the s operator, so that
dnx
= n
s x for n ≥ 0
dt n
 We assume that n=0 represents no differentiation, so that
s0 = 1
which implies s0x=x.
 Because integration is the inverse of differentiation, we define
1 t
x = ∫ xdτ
s −∞
 The operator 1/s must be shown to satisfy the usual rules of algebraic
manipulations. Of these rules, the commutative multiplication property presents
the only difficulty. Thus, we require
1 1
s⋅ = ⋅s = 1
s s
Prof. SungJune Kim
 First, we examine Eq. 8.8-1. Multiplying Eq. 8.8-1 by s yields
1 d t
dt ∫−∞
= s⋅ x = x dτ or x x
s
 We try the reverse order by multiplying sx by the integration operator to obtain
1 t dx
sx ∫
= dτ x(t ) − x(−∞)
=
s −∞ dt
Therefore
1
= sx x only= when x(−∞) 0
s
 From a physical point of view, we require that all capacitor voltages and inductor
currents be zero at t = −∞ . Then the operator 1/s can be said to satisfy Eq. 8.8-2
and can be manipulated as an ordinary algebraic quantity.
 Differential operators can be used to find the natural solution of a differential

equation.
 For example, consider the first-order differential equation
d
x(t ) + ax(t ) =
by (t )
dt
Prof. SungJune Kim
 The natural solution of this differential equation is
xn (t ) = Ke st
 The homogeneous form of this equation is

d
x(t ) + ax(t ) = 0
dt
 To see that xn(t) is a solution of the homogeneous form of the differential
equation,
d
( Ke st ) + a ( Ke st ) = sKe st + aKe st = 0
dt
 To obtain the parameters s,
sx + ax =( s + a ) x =0
we use the solution s=-a.
 Consequently,
xn (t ) = Ke − at

Prof. SungJune Kim
 As a second application of differential operators, consider using the computer
program MATLAB to find the complete response of a first-order circuit.
 Differential operators are used to describe differential equations to MATLAB.
The natural solution of this differential equation is
 To represent this circuit by a differential equation, apply KVL to get
 d 
10 ×103 1×10−6 v(t )  + v(t ) − 4 cos(100t ) =
0
 dt 
d
or 0.01 v(t ) + v(t ) =4 cos(100t )
dt
 In the syntax used by MATLAB, the differential operator is represented by D

instead of s. Replace by the differential operator D to get
0.01Dv + v = 4 cos(100t )
 Entering the MATLAB commands
v = dsolve(‘0.01*Dv + v = 4*cos(100*t)’, ‘v(0)=-8’)
ezplot(v, [0, 2])

Prof. SungJune Kim
 MATLAB responds by providing the complete solution of the differential
equation
v = 2.*cos(100*t)+2.*sin(100*t)-10.*exp(-100.*t)
 The plot of v(t) versus t shown in Figure 8.8-1b.

Prof. SungJune Kim

10784

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

10784

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

10784

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 8

The Complete Response

Seoul National University

Prof. SungJune Kim

(a) First, separate the energy storage

(b) Next, replace the circuit connected to

 The switch closes at time t=0.

 After the switch is closed,

v(t ) = Ke − t /τ + M cos(1000t + δ ) (8.2-3)

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

complete response= transient response+ steady state response

complete response= natural response+ forced response

 Natural response: the general solution of the (homogeneous) differential equation

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

 The natural response of a first-order circuit will be of the form

When t0=0, then

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

 In this chapter, we will consider three cases.

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

 Equation 8.3-1 and 8.3-2 have the same form. That is

 We may rewrite Eq. (3) as

 Forming the indefinite integral, we have

where D is a constant of integration. Performing the integration, we have

 Solving for x gives

where A=eD, which is determined from the initial condition, x(0).

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

x(t ) =Kτ + [ x(0) − Kτ ]e − t /τ

 This can be written as

x(t ) = x(∞) + [ x(0) − x(∞)]e − t /τ

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

 Figure 8.3-3 shows a plot of x(t) versus t.

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

 Again, the complete response is the sum of the forced(steady-state) response

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Figure 8.3-5b shows the circuit after the

Find the time when the current reaches 2mA.

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

 Figure 8.3-6b shows the appropriate equivalent

 Figure 8.3-6c shows the appropriate equivalent

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

The parameters of the Thévenin equivalent circuit are

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

4. The time constant for this first-order circuit containing a capacitor is

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

7. Figure 8.3-9c shows a plot of the capacitor voltage as a function of time.

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, SNU

3. The time constant for this first-order circuit containing an inductor is