Chapter 2 Transverse motion

--The vibrating string

2.1Transverse waves on a string

(Observation): If the displacement is small

speed is independent of the shape and amplitude of the initial
displacement, but depend on the mass per unit length and its tension.

2.2 One-dimensional wave equation

assumptions: (1) density is uniform
(2) stiffness is negligible
(3) gravity is neglected
(4) no dissipative force
(5) displacement is small
(6) tension is constant along the string

1
The unbalance force in y direction is
df y  (T sin  ) x  dx  (T sin  ) x

 (T sin  )  (T sin  )
 [(T sin  ) x  dx  ( dx 2 )]  (T sin  ) x  dx
x x

Since the displacement is small →  is small

dy dy
 sin    tan   , i.e.,  sin  is replaced by
dx dx

y
 (T )
x 2y
 df y  dx  T 2 dx
x x
Newton’s law: F=ma
2y 2y 2y
 df y  (  L dx ) 2  T 2 dx  (  L dx ) 2
t x t

2y 1 2y T
  wave equation, where c2 
 x 2 c 2 t 2 L

2.3 General solution of the wave equation

let   x  c t ,   x  c t  ( x, t )  ( , )

2y 1 2y
then   y  0
 x 2 c 2 t 2

 y ( x, t )  y1 ( x  c t )  y2 ( x  c t ) general solution

y1 ( x  c t ) : wave moving in +x direction

y2 ( x  c t ) : wave moving in -x direction

Explain: why y1 ( x  c t ) is a wave and propagation in +x direction

2
The particular displacement y1 ( x1  c t1 ) found at x1 when time is t1,

now is found at position at x2 when time is t2

 x1  c t1  x2  c t2  x2  x1  c(t2  t1 )

x2  x1
c speed of the wave move to the right
t2  t1

2.4 Reflection at a boundary

A. rigidly supported:
Assume x = 0, rigid support → displacement must be zero

 y ( x, t )  y1 ( x  ct )  y2 ( x  ct )

 y (0, t )  y1 ( ct )  y2 (  ct )  0  y2 ( ct )   y1 (  ct )

 y ( x, t )  y1 ( x  ct )  y1 (  x  ct )

3
B. free end:
No transverse force on the string at end support
y
→ T sin  to be vanished   0 at support
x
 y   y 
Assume support located at x = 0   1   2 0
 x  x  0  x  x  0
 y1 ' ( x  ct ) x  0  1  y2 ' ( x  ct ) x  0  1  0
 y1 ' (  ct )  y2 ' ( ct )  0 , integrate with ct
  y1 ( ct )  y2 ( ct )  0  y2 ( ct )  y1 ( ct )
 y ( x, t )  y1 ( x  ct )  y1 (  x  ct )

4
2.5 Forced Vibration of an infinite string

Consider an ideal string of infinite length extending to the right from x=0,
stretched to a tension T, with a transverse driving force applied at x=0.

Extend to infinity → no reflection → wave moving to right only

Thus the solution is of the form ~y ( x, t )  ~
y1 ( x  ct )
~
boundary condition at x = 0 → y (0, t )  A e j t
~
~ ~
A related to the driving force f
~ ~ 
combined  ~ y1 (  ct )  A e j t  A e jk ( ct ) , k : wave number
c
~ ~ j ( t  kx )
The solution for all x is y ( x, t )  A e jk ( ct  x )
~  Ae (1)

Since no mass at the end of the string, the driving force must be balanced
by the tension.
 in transverse direction f y  T sin  0 at the end
~  ~y
 f  T   (2)
  x  x 0

i.e., the slope of the string is determined by the applied force and the
tension in the string.
~ ~ F
( 2)  F e j t  T (  j k ) A e j t  A
jkT

5
 F j ( t  kx )
 ~ y ( x, t )  e
jkT
~y F j ( t  kx ) F Fc Fc F
and u~( x, t )   e , (    )
t  L c kT T  Lc 2  L c

~
Define: input mechanical impedance Z m 0
The ratio of the driving force to the transverse speed of the string at
~
~ f
driving point. (x = 0)  Z m0  ~
u (0, t )

Then for the case of the infinite string

~
Z m0   Lc

 L c is also called the characteristic mechanical impedance since it is

independent of the driving force and it is thus a characteristic property of
the string and not of the wave.

 F 
power input to the string is  i  f u  F cos  t   cos t

 L 
c
F2 1
time average power input is     L cU 02 ,
2  Lc 2
F
U 0  u~(0, t ) 
 Lc

6
2.6 Forced vibration of finite string

The behavior of a string of finite length forced at one end is considered.

Finite length  reflection  wave in two directions
~ ~
 ~y ( x, t )  A e j ( t  kx )  B e j ( t  kx )
~ ~
A, B determined by boundary conditions

(a): Forced, Fixed string

 ~
y ~ ~
At x = 0, F e j t  T    0  F  T (  j k A  j kB )  0
 x  x  0
~ ~
At x = L, y ( L, t )  0  A e  jkL  B e jkL  0
~
~ F e jkL Fe jkL
 A 
j k T e jkL  e  jkL 2 j k T cos kL
~ Fe  jkL
B
 2 j k T cos kL
 ~
y ( x, t ) 
F
2 j k T cos kL

e j[ t  k ( L  x )]  e j[ t  k ( L  x )]  (A)

F sin[k ( L  x )] j t
 e (B)
kT cos kL
From (A): two waves of equal amplitude traveling in the opposite
direction.
From (B): a wave but does not propagate along the string, just oscillate
while the wave form remain stationary → standing wave

From (B):
(1): when sin k ( L  x )  0  displacement is zero for all time
 nodes , i.e., k ( L  x )  q , q  0,1,2,  kL / 
q
 xq  L   , q  0,1,2,  2 L /  node’s position
2
Position of nodes varies with the driving frequency

If L = integer times of  driving point is a node
2

L = integer times of  driving point is an antinode
4

(2): when cos kL  0  displacement    resonance

2n  1
i.e., kL   , n  1, 2, 3,
2
2n  1 c
 f rn  , n  1, 2, 3, f rn : resonance frequency
4 L
at resonance, driving point is an antinode  u(0, t ) is as large as possible.
(driving point x=0, sin k ( L  x )  sin kL  1  cos kL  0 )

For this case ( forced, fixed), the input mechanical impedance is

~ F e j t F e j t
Z m0  ~    j  L c cot kL
u (0, t ) F j  tan k L e j t
kT
Which is a pure reactance, i.e., no power is absorbed by the string since
no way for the energy to leave the system.

Consideration of the input impedance leads to the same conclusions:

whenever cot kl = 0, the input impedance is zero and the amplitude of
vibration is consequently a maximum. 
General definition of resonance frequency:
The resonance frequencies of any mechanical system are defined as those
frequencies for which the input mechanical reactance goes to zero.

(b): Forced, mass-loaded string

~ ~
 ~ y ( x, t )  A e j ( t  kx )  B e j ( t  kx )
 ~y
At x = 0, F e j t   L c 2   0

  x 0
x
 ~
y
At x = L, the force applied to the mass is T 
 x  x  L
 ~y  2 ~
y
  T    m 2 
  x xL   t xL
Therefore, obtains
~ ~
At x = 0, F    L c 2 (  j k A  j kB )
~ ~
x = L,   L c 2 (  j k A e  jkL  j kB e jkL )  m( j ) 2 ( A e  jkL  B e jkL )
~ ~

1  ( j m
~ F  Lc) e jkL
 A
 L c ( m ) cos kL  sin kL 2
 Lc
1  ( j m e  jkL
~ F  Lc)
B
 L c ( m ) cos kL  sin kL 2
 Lc
~ ~
A, B complex conjugate, i.e., amplitude is the same

~
y
~
speed u   j ~
y
t
   m
~ F cos[ k ( L x )] (
 Lc ) sin[k ( L  x )] j t
u j e
 Lc  m
(
 Lc ) cos kL  sin kL

The input mechanical impedance is

( m
~  L c )  tan kL
Z m 0   j L c :pure reactance
1  ( m
 L c ) tan kL
~
resonance frequency  Z m 0 (reactive)=0

 ( m
m
)  tan kL  0  tan kL   kL, ms   L L
 Lc ms
(1): m >> ms → mass like a rigid support → forced-fixed string
(2): m << ms → forced-free string → tan kL = 0, kL = nπ
(3): general case, lowest resonance frequency is between forced-fixed and
forced-free and higher resonance frequency is not integer
multiples of the lowest.

Nodes located at cos[k ( L  x )]  (

m
 L c ) sin[k ( L  x )]  0
 Lc 2L
 tan k ( L  xq )  , q  0,1,2... 
m 
 large  then R.H .S  0  tan k ( L  xq )  0  xq  L, ( node, fix )
   R.H .S value   tan k ( L  xq )   xq change from L to 0
i.e., node move inward from end

2.7 Normal modes of fixed, fixed string

~ ~
try y ( x, t )  A e j ( t  kx )  B e j ( t  kx )
~

B.C. at x = 0 and x = L,  ~ y 0
~ ~
 A  B  0
Thus  ~  jkL ~ jkL
 A e Be 0
~ ~
 2 A j sin kL  0, A  0 or sin kL  0
 n n c
 sin kL  0  kL  n  fn   , n  1,2...
2 2 L
yn ( x, t )  An sin kn x e jn t
~ ~
or

yn ( x, t )  ( An cos  n t  Bn sin  n t ) sin kn x

eigenfunctions or normal modes, sin kn x

associated frequency f n → eigenfrequency, natural frequency, or

normal mode frequency

Complete solution is:


y ( x, t )   ( A cos t  B sin  t ) sin k x
n 1
n n n n n

assume at t = 0, the displacement and the speed are y ( x,0) and u( x,0)
then An , Bn can be obtained by
 
 y ( x,0) 
 n 1
An sin kn x  2 L

 An  L 0 y ( x,0) sin kn x dx
 

2 L
u ( x,0) 
 
 n Bn sin kn x  Bn 
 n L 0 
u ( x,0) sin kn x dx
 n 1
2.8 Effects of more realistic boundary conditions on the freely
vibrating string

yielding of the support → no longer rigid, i.e., not y = 0

the characteristics of the support can be replaced by a
~ ~
“ mechanical impedance ” Z m 0 or Z mL

e.g. a string attached to an undamped harmonic oscillator

how to get the B.C. ?

~
y
T T
x

~  ~y
String applied force on the mass is f 0  T  
  x  x 0
Thus force equilibrium on the mass is
~ y
 2 ~ ~ S ~
f 0  S y (0, t )  m 2 
~  f0  u0  m( j )u~0
 t  x  0 j
~ S ~ ~
 f 0  j ( m  )u~0  f 0  Z m 0u~0

 ~
~ f0 ~ 1  ~ y
Therefore, the B.C. at x = 0 is u0  ~ or u0  ~ T  
Z m0 Z m 0  x  x  0
1  ~y
Similarly the B.C. at x = L is u~L   ~ T  
Z mL  x  x  L

(a) Fixed, mass-loaded string

~ y (0, t )  0

B.Cs. are  ~ T  ~ y
u ( L, t )    
 jmL  x  x L
~ ~
Try ~ y ( x, t )  A e j ( t  kx )  B e j ( t  kx )
~ ~ ~
 A   B,  ~ y ( x, t )  2 j A sin kx e j t
Tk
second boundary condition  j sin kL   cos kL
j mL
mL
 cot kL  k L, ms   L L
ms
mL
: large  kL  n  similar to fixed at both ends
ms
mL
↓ reduced  kL   raising normal mode frequency
ms
(b) Fixed, resistance-loaded string
~ y (0, t )  0

B.Cs. are  ~ T  ~y
u ( L, t )    
 Rm  x  x  L
Damping included → standing wave decay with time
Introduce the complex angular frequency 
~   j
2 ~
y 1 2 ~ y
Since no losses on the string   satisfy
x 2 c 2 t 2
 ~  ~
2
2 ~y
    y
x 2 c
~ ~ j (~t  k~x ) ~ j (~t  k~x )
solution will be y ( x, t )  A e Be
~
complex wave number k  k  j  is given by
~ ~  
~ 2  c 2k 2  ~  ck , i.e.,  k and 
c c
By boundary conditions
~ ~
y ( x, t )  2 j A sin k x e j t
~
~

 ~  Lc ~
 sin k L  j cos k L
 Rm
  Lc
 cos kL sinh  L  ( ) cos kL cosh L imaginary part
Rm
  c
sin kL cosh L  ( L ) sin kL sinh L real part
 Rm

two possible solutions

(1): sin kL  0 and tanh L 
 Lc
Rm
Rm
(2): cos kL  0 and tanh L 
 Lc
for weak damping, Rm<<  L c  (1) is not a solution ( tanh x <1)
Rm 1
(2)  L  and kL  ( n  )
 Lc 2

the displacement magnitude is

y ( x, t )  2 A e  c t sin 2 kx  (x ) 2 cos2 kx
~
 ~
 sin k x  sin( k  j ) x  sin kx cos( jx )  cos kx sin( jx )
 sin kx cosh x  cos kx ( j sinh x )  sin kx  j (x ) cos kx

(c) The Fixed, Fixed Damped string

Assume the loss term is proportional to the particle speed, the wave
equation becomes
2 y y 2  y
2
 2 c 0 (A)
 t2 t  x2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
trial solution ~y ( x , t )  A e j (  t  k x )  B e j ( t  k x )
at x=0 and x=L, string are fixed y=0
~ ~ ~
y ( x, t )  2 j A (sin k x )e j t & sin k L  0
~
~
~
 k  k only pure real can satisfy the equation.
And (A) becomes ~ 2  2  j ~  c 2 k 2
 ~  [( ck ) 2   2 ] 2  j 
1

natural angular frequency temporal absorption coefficient

2.9 Energy of vibration of a string

element of the string x, x+dx → mass  L dx
2
1  y 
its kinetic energy dEk is dEk  (  L dx )  
2  t 
dx also stretched to ds → deformation → potential energy
y
deformation is ds  dx  dx 2  ( ) 2 dx 2  dx   1  ( y ) 2  1 dx
x  x 
1 y
small displacement  ds  dx  ( ) 2 dx
2 x
its potential energy is Tension times deformation of the element
1 y 1 y
 dE p  T  ( )2 dx   Lc 2 ( )2 dx
2 x 2 x
dEk dEp
total energy per unit length dE is 
dx dx dx
dE 1  y 1 y 2 
   L c 2 ( ) 2  ( ) 
dx 2  x c t 
 y 2 1 y 2 

1
The total energy of the string is E   Lc 2 ( x )  ( c t )  dx
2
string