Basic Modern Physics

4. Atomic Structure

Outline
The nuclear atom
Electron orbits
Atomic spectra
The Bohr atom
Energy levels and spectra
Correspondence principle
Nuclear motion
Atomic excitation
The laser
 Atomic structure??
Question about Microscopic Level of a Matter

The matter looks continuous. What is a matter consisted of?

But, is it still continuous on a
→ Proton, Electron, Neutron...
microscopic world?
It has a definite discrete structure!

Bohr’s Theory

Every atom consists of a small nucleus of protons and neutrons with a

number of electrons some distance away.

Niels Bohr applied quantum ideas to atomic structure in 1913 to

obtain a model, and it provides a valuable transition to the more abstract
quantum theory of the atom.
Bohr–Einstein debates

Christian Aage
 The Nuclear Atom
Thompson’s Experiment – Cathode Ray Tube

Thompson’s Experiment

‐ All atoms have something that

is negatively charged.
→ concept of ‘electron’

J.J. Thompson’s Suggestion (1898)

‐ Atoms are just positively charged lumps of matter with
electrons embedded in them, like raisins in a cake.

Concept of Proton
Rutherford’s Experiment – Alpha Ray Scattering

Geiger‐Marsden experiment (1909)

‐ Almost all alpha particles that pass through a thin
foil were deflected only slightly; however
a few were scattered through very large angles.

Rutherford model of the atom (1911)

+ ‐ An atom is composed of a tiny nucleus in which its

positive charge and nearly all its mass are concentrated,
with the electrons in some distance away.
 Rutherford Scattering
Rutherford Scattering and Atomic Number

Most alpha particles go right through a

Z proton thin foil because an atom space is
largely empty.

When alpha particle passes near a nucleus, it is deflected.

* The deflection of an alpha particle depends on

the magnitude of the nuclear charge. → ‘atomic number’ Z

Rutherford Scattering Formula

(Derivation in Appendix, Ch. 4)
N i ntZ 2 e 4
Rutherford Scattering Formula : N ( ) 
(8 0 ) 2 r 2 KE 2 sin 4 ( / 2)
N(θ) = number of alpha particles per unit area that reach the
screen at a scattering angle of θ
Ni = total number of alpha particles that reach the screen
n = number of atoms per unit volume in the foil
Z = atomic number of the foil atoms
r = distance of the screen from the foil
KE = kinetic energy of the alpha particles
t = foil thickness

Nuclear Dimensions
‐ The distance of closest approach R for
the most energetic alpha particles(He2+)
1 2 Ze 2
KEinitial  PE 
4 0 R
2 Ze 2
Distance of closest approach : R 
4 0 KEinitial
 RBS
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (also high energy ion spectrometry)
Quantitative technique without need for calibrated sample
Applications: thickness, stoichiometry, amount and distribution of impurities, crystallinity

2
 
E1  1  ( R sin  )  R cos  
2
2 R (1  cos  )
K   1
E0 (1  R) 2 (1  R ) 2

R=M1/M2, approximation When R << 1

and ~180°

Electron Orbits
Classical Dynamics of Hydrogen Atom

• Classical Dynamics in Rutherford’s Model

‐ A tiny, massive, positively charged nucleus is surrounded
by enough electrons at a relatively great distance to
render the atom electrically neutral as a whole.

Centripetal Force Electric(Coulombic) Force

m 2
1 e2
Balance of Fc  = Fe  (Dynamically Stable)
r 4 0 r 2
Two Forces
m 2 1 e2 e
r

4 0 r 2
Electron Velocity  
4 0 mr

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Total Energy

+ =
Total Energy 1 e2 e2
KE  m 2 PE   E
2 4 0 r 8 0 r
 The Failure of Classical Physics
Contradiction Between Classical Dynamics and Classical EM Theory
<Classical Dynamics>

An electron pursuing a curve path : Acceleration!

<Classical EM theory>

‐ In the electron orbital model, the accelerated electron

should continuously lose energy and spiral into the
nucleus in a fraction of second.

The Limit of Classical Physics

Classical Physics fails to provide a meaningful analysis of atomic

structure because it approaches nature in terms of ‘pure particles’ and
‘pure waves’.

In reality particles and waves have many properties in common,

though the smallness of Planck’s constant makes the wave-particle
duality imperceptible in the macroworld.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-YYBCNQnYNM
 Atomic Spectra
Another Phenomenon that Cannot Be Explained by Classical Physics
Exciting an atomic gas or vapor
by passing an electric current through it

→ The emitted spectrum has a spectrum

which contains certain specific
wavelengths only.

Every element displays a unique line spectrum

when a sample of it in the vapor phase is excited.
→ ‘Spectroscopy’

The emission line spectra of several elements

Spectroscopy
A Useful Tool for Analyzing the Composition of an Unknown Substance
Absorption spectrum : Dark lines in the bright background – Missed wavelengths
(When white light is passed through a gas)

Emission spectrum : Bright lines in the dark background – Emitted wavelengths

(When gas atoms radiate light)

‐ It is possible to tell by examining its spectrum not only

what elements are present in a light source Spectroscopy
but also much about their physical state.
 Spectral Series
A Series of Discrete Spectra
• J.J Balmer discovered the series of visible parts in the hydrogen spectrum in 1885.
1 1 1
Lyman  R(  ) n  2,3,4... Ultraviolet
 12 n 2

Balmer 1 1 1 Visible Light

 R(  ) n  3,4,5...
 22 n 2

longer 1 1 1
Paschen  R(  ) n  4,5,6... Infra Red
wavelength  32 n 2

1 1 1
Brackett  R(  ) n  5,6,7...
 42 n 2

1 1 1
Pfund  R(  ) n  6,7,8...
 52 n 2

Rydberg Constant : R  1.097 107 m 1  0.01097 nm 1

The Bohr Atom

The First Theory of an Atom
h
De Broglie Wavelength of the electron around the hydrogen nucleus :   m
e
The electron velocity : 
4 0 mr
4 0 r
Orbital electron wavelength :   h
e m

The Circumference of
The Electron Wavelength
the Electron Orbit
6.63  10 34 J  s (4 )(8.85  10 12 C 2 / N  m 2 )(5.3  10 11 m)

1.6 10 19 C 9.110 31 kg = 2r  3.3 10 12 m
 3.3 10 12 m

The orbit of an electron in a hydrogen atom corresponds

to one complete electron wavelength joined on itself
 Condition for Stable Orbit
The Clue to Construct a Theory of the Atom
<Case 1> <Case 2>

Circumference of Orbit is Circumference of Orbit is

an integral number of wavelengths a fractional number of wavelengths

Amplitude of wave is maintained Destructive interference occurs

* An electron can circle a nucleus only if its orbit contains

an integral number of de Broglie wavelengths.

Derivation of Bohr Radius

The Radius of the Innermost Orbit of the Hydrogen Atom
1. Condition for stability : n  2r
Circumference of electron orbit = integral number of de Broglie wavelengths

2. Orbital electron wavelength :   h 4 0 r

e m

n 2 h 2 0
Orbital Radii in Bohr atom : rn  n  1,2,3...
me 2

Bohr Radius :
(1) 2  (6.626  10 34 J  s ) 2  (8.854  10 12 C 2 / N  m 2 ) 
rn   5.292  10 11 m( 0.53 )
  (9.109 10 kg )  (1.6 10 C )
31 19 2

The formula for outside radii : rn  n 2 a0

* Bohr used a different approach, since de Broglie’s work came a decade later.
Condition for stability The results are exactly the same, however. It makes Bohr’s achievement more remarkable.
 Energy Levels and Spectra
An Emission of Photon when An Electron Jumps or Drops
Free
electron
‐ Energy of the electron
e2
En   (Ch 4.2)
8 0 rn Excited
states
‐ Orbital radii in Bohr atom
n 2 h 2 0
rn  n  1,2,3... (Ch 4.4)
me 2
Energy Levels
me 4 1 E
En   ( 2 )  21
8 0 h n
2 2
n
E1  2.18 10 18 J  13.6eV

* Negative energy level value

→ electron does not have enough Ground
states
energy to escape from the nucleus. Lowest Energy Level

The Terms of Energy Level

The Terms of Energy Level
Free
electron
‐ Ground State :
The Lowest energy level.
Excited
‐ Excited State : states
Higher levels then ground state.

‐ Free electron :
Unbounded electron due to Ionization
the weak Coulombic force Energy
between nucleus and electron.

‐ Ionization Energy :
The work needed to remove an electron
from an atom in its ground state. Ground
states
Lowest Energy Level
 Origin of Line Spectra
From the Discrete Energy Levels in the Hydrogen Atom

‐ The atoms exhibit line spectra

in both emission and absorption.

→ In the world of the atom, par cles can

possess only certain energies.
(mass, charge...)

* Initial Energy ‐ Final Energy = Photon Energy

Ei – Ef = hv

Rydberg Constant
Derivation of Rydberg Constant

From Ei – Ef = hv (initial energy – final energy = photon energy),

1 1 1 1 Ei  E f E1 1 1
hv  Ei  E f  E1 ( 2
 2 )   E1 ( 2  2 ) v  ( 2  2)
ni n f n f ni h h n f ni
1 E1 1 1 1 1 1
Since 1/λ = v/c  ( 2  2) *(Ch. 4.3)   R( n 2  n 2 ) n  2,3,4...
 ch n f ni f i

* Rydberg Constant
E1 me 4
  2 3
ch 8 0 ch
(13.6eV ) (9.109  10 31 kg )(1.602  10 19 C ) 4
 
(2.998  10 m / s )(4.136  10 eV  s ) (8)(8.854  10 C / N  m 2 )(2.998  108 m / s )(6.626  10 34 J  s ) 3
8 15 12 2

 1.097  10 7 m 1
 Spectral Series of Hydrogen
Spectrum Series and Energy Levels

1 E 1 1
Hydrogen Spectrum :    ch1 ( n 2 
ni2
)
f

* nf = 1 : Lyman
nf = 2 : Balmer
nf = 3 : Paschen
nf = 4 : Brackett
nf = 5 : Pfund

* E2-E1 > E-E2 (v21min > v2 max)

E3-E2 > E-E3 (v32min > v3 max)
E4-E3 > E-E4 (v43min > v4 max)
..
.

Correspondence Principle
The Greater the Quantum Number, the Closer Quantum Physics
Approaches Classical Physics
<Microworld> <Macroworld>
Classical Approach Classical Approach
? !

Quantum Approach Quantum Approach

|Ψ|2

0 

‐ Correspondence Principle
def : The requirement that quantum physics give out the same results as
classical physics in the limit of large quantum number
 Derivation of ‘Frequency of Revolution’

Classical Physics Can be Derived from Quantum Physics

<Classical EM theory> <Quantum mechanical approach>
‐ The speed of electron v
E1 1 1
( 2  2) nf = n-p, ni = n
e h n f ni

4 0 mr
E1 1 1 E 2np  p 2
v [  2] 1[ 2 ]
‐ The frequency of revolution h (n  p) 2
n h n (n  p) 2
electron speed  e
f    * Classical physics case : n >>> p
orbit circumference 2r 2 4 0 mr 3
‐ The radius of a stable orbit E1 2np  p 2 2np - p2 = p2 E1 2 p
v [ ] v ( )
n h 0
2 2 h n 2 (n  p) 2 (n - p) 2 = n2 h n3
rn 
me 2
‐ The frequency of revolution ‐ The frequency of photon
4
me 2 E 2 E1 2 p
f  ( )  1 ( 3) v ( )
8 02 h 3 n 3 h n h n3

* When n is comparatively large enough than p, the discrepancy between quantum physics
and classical physics become small enough to be neglected.

Nuclear Motion
Actually, Nucleus also Revolves

<What we usually think> <What Actually Happens>

What actually happens when an electrons rotate around a nucleus?

‐ Both nucleus and electron revolve around their common center of mass.
Center of Mass : Very close to the nucleus (because mn>me)
mM
Reduced mass(for small particle in a system) : m' 
mM
 Correction for Nuclear Motion
Why Is the Nucleus Motion Usually Ignored?

mM
m' 
mM
4
‐ Energy levels corrected for nuclear motion : En'   m'2e 2 ( 12 )  ( m' )( E21 )
8 0 h n m n

‐ Actual change of the values on the mass of hydrogen with

consideration of the nuclear motion :
m' M 1.675  10 27 kg
   0.99945 ( Error : 0.05%) →(almost same)
m M  m 1.675  10  27 kg  9.109  10 31 kg
* Usually, the change of values as a result of nucleus motion is small enough to be neglected.
(If nucleus is not massive enough to ignore the mass of an electron, nucleus motion
should be considered!)

Atomic Excitation
Two Main Ways of Atomic Excitation

collision with another particle absorption of a photon from light

hv

Auroras are caused by streams of fast protons and electrons

from the sun that excite atoms in the upper atmosphere.
 Absorption and Emission
Absorption and Emission of Energy

Absorption Spectrum Emission Spectrum

* The lines in the absorption spectrum of any element coincide with those in
its emission spectrum that represent transitions to the ground state.

Franck-Hertz Experiment
Another Evidence of the Discrete Energy Levels

Various gases

Changing accelerating potential

E1 E2 E3

Abrupt drop of plate current at a certain critical potential :

Because of absorption of the gas in the tube → Another evidence of discrete energy levels
 The Laser
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

<The properties of LASER>

1. The light is very nearly monochromatic.
2. The light is coherent, with the waves all exactly in phase with one another.
3. A laser beam diverges hardly at all.
4. The laser beam is extremely intense.

Metastable State
Relatively Long‐lived States for Electron
Excited State

Metastable State Ground State

‐ Metastable state
The state that has lifetime lasting at least 100 times longer than
the shortest lived of its states.
→ It can draw population inversion
 Optical Pumping and Population Inversion

Necessary Process in LASER

<Optical Pumping> <Population Inversion>

E2 E2

E1 E1

‐ Using an external light source to

‐ The majority carrier in atoms is
raise ground‐state atoms to
above the ground state
the excited state.

Three Kinds of Transition in EM radiation

Absorption and Emission During the Process of LASER

‐ Stimulated Absorption
The raising of atom initially in the lower state by absorbing a photon of energy
which is similar to the gap between two energy levels.
‐ Spontaneous Emission
The process by which a light source in an excited state undergoes a transition
to the ground state and emits photon.
‐ Stimulated Emission
The process by which an electron, perturbed by a photon having the correct energy,
drop to a lower energy level resulting in the creation of another photon.
 The Process of LASER
The Process of LASER(3 Levels Case)
1. 2. 3. 4.

optical
pumping spontaneous population stimulated
(Stimulated emission inversion emission
absorption)

Absorption and Emission in Photodevice

Comparison of LED and LASER

Application LASER LED

optical pumping O X
population O O
inversion
spontaneous O O
emission
stimulated emission O X
coherency of phase In phase(strong intensity) Random(weak intensity)
 Practical Laser
• Ruby Laser: the first successful laser, based on three energy levels in the
Cr3+

• He-Ne gas Laser: four level laser, continuous operation is possible.

Other types of Laser

• Chemical Laser: Based on the
production by chemical reactions of
molecules in metastable excited states
(HF Laser, DF Laser)
• Dye Laser: “tunable” laser using dye
molecules
• Excimer laser: Excimers (Excited
Dimers) are highly unstable noble
gas/halogen chemical compounds
that produce laser action when
excited, Produce Deep UV light. ArF,
KrF laser etc..
• Nd:YAG Laser: used for surgery
• CO2 laser: high power laser up to
many KWs
• Semiconductor laser: ideal for
optoelectronics