ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CE-521. Foundation Engineering- II Instructor – AZMACH LOLE
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KP- 5C 1st Semester, A.Y.2011

PILE FOUNDATIONS

Introduction
Piles are structural members that are made of steel, concrete, or timber. They are used to
build pile foundations, which are deep and which cost more than shallow foundations.
Despite the cost, the use of piles often is necessary to ensure structural safety. The
following list identifies some the conditions that require pile foundations;
1. When one or more upper layers are highly compressible and too weak to support
the load transmitted by the superstructure, piles are used to transmit the load to
underlying bedrock or a stronger soil layer, as shown in Fig.1a. When bedrock is
not encountered at a reasonable depth below the ground surface, piles are used to
transmit the structural load to the soil gradually. The resistance to the applied
structural load is derived mainly from the frictional resistance developed at the
soil-pile interface. (Refer Fig 1b).
2. When subjected to horizontal forces (Refer Fig 1c), pile foundations resist by
bending, while still supporting the vertical load supporting the vertical load
transmitted by the superstructure. This type situation is generally encountered in
the design and construction of earth-retaining structures and foundations of tall
structures that are subjected to high wind or to earthquake forces.
3. In many cases, expansive and collapsible soils may be present at the site of a
proposed structure. These soils may extend to a great depth below the ground
surface. Expansive soils swell and shrink as their moisture content increases and
decreases, and the pressure of the swelling can be considerable. If shallow
foundations are used in such circumstances, the structure may suffer considerable
damage. However, pile foundations may be considered as an alternative when
piles are extended beyond the active zone, which is where swelling and shrinking
occur. (Refer Fig 1d).
4. The foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers, offshore
platforms, and basement mats below the water table, are subjected to uplifting
forces. Piles are sometimes used for these foundations to resist the uplifting force.
( Refer fig 1e).
5. Bridge abutments and piers are usually constructed over pile foundations to avoid
the loss of bearing capacity that a shallow foundation might suffer because of soil
erosion at the ground surface.(See Fig 1f).

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Fig.1 Conditions that require the use of pile foundations.
Types of Piles
Piles are made from concrete or steel or timber. The selection of the type of pile required
for a project depends on what type is readily available, the magnitude of the loading, the
soil type, and the environment in which the pile will be installed, for example, a corrosive
environment of a marine environment.
(i) Concrete Piles
There are several types of concrete piles that are commonly used. These include cast-in-
place piles, pre-cast concrete piles, and drilled shaft. Cast-in-place concrete piles are
formed by driving a cylindrical steel shell into the ground. The steel shell is for
construction convenience and does not contribute to the load transfer capacity of the pile.
Its purpose is to open a hole in the ground and keep it open to facilitate the construction
of the concrete pile. Plain concrete is used when the structure load is only compressive.
If moments and lateral loads are to be transferred, then a steel reinforcement cage is used
in the upper part of the pile. Vigilant quality control and good construction practice are
necessary to ensure the integrity of cast-in- place piles.
Some general facts about concrete piles are as follows:
-Usual length 10m to 15 m

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-Usual load 300 to 3000 kN
-Advantages;
1. Can be subjected to hard driving
2. Corrosion resistant
3. Can be easily combined with a concrete superstructure
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to achieve proper cutoff
2. Difficult to transport
Pre cast concrete piles usually have square or circular or rectangular or octagons cross
sections and are fabricated in a construction yard from reinforced or prestressed concrete.
(See Fig 2) .They are preferred when the pile length is known in advance. The
disadvantages of precast piles are problems in transportation long piles, cutting, and

Fig 2. Precast concrete pile.

lengthening. A very popular type of precast concrete pile is the Raymond cylindrical pile.
Some general facts about precast prestressed piles are as follows:
-Usual length 10 m to 45m
-Maximum length 60m
-Maximum load 7500kN.
The advantages and disadvantages are the same as those of precast piles.
Cast-in-in situ, or cast-in-place concrete piles are built by making a hole in the ground
and then filling it with concrete. Various types of cast-in-place concrete piles are
currently used in construction, and most of them have been patented by their
manufacturers. These piles may be divided into two broad categories: (a) cased and (b)
uncased. Both types may have a pedestal at the bottom.

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Cased piles are made by driving a steel casing into the ground with the help of a mandrel
placed inside the casing. When the pile reaches the proper depth the mandrel is
withdrawn and the casing is filled with concrete. Figures 3 a,3b, 3c, and 3d show some
examples of cased piles without a pedestal. Figures 3e shows a cased pile with a pedestal.
The pedestal is an expanded concrete bulb that is formed by dropping a hammer on fresh
concrete.

Fig3. Cast-in-place concrete piles

Some general facts about cased cast-in-place piles are as follows:
-Usual length 5 -15 m
-Maximum length 30-40m
-Usual load 200-500kN
-Approximate maximum load 800kN
Advantages
-Relatively cheap
-Allow for inspection before pouring concrete
-Easy to extend
Disadvantages
-Difficult to splice after concrete
-Thin casing may be damaged during driving

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Figures 3f and 3g are two types of uncased pile, one with pedestal and the other without.
The uncased piles are made by first driving the casing to the desired depth and then
filling it with fresh concrete. The casing is then gradually withdrawn.
Following are some general facts about uncased cast-in-place concrete piles:
-Usual length 5-15m
-Maximum length 30-40m
Usual load 300-500kN
Approximate maximum load 700kN
Advantages
-Initially economical
-Can be finished at any elevation
Disadvantages
-Voids may be created if concrete is placed rapidly
-Difficult to splice after concreting.
(ii) Steel Piles
Steel piles come in various shapes and sizes and include cylindrical, tapered, and H-piles.
Steel H-piles are rolled steel sections. Steel pipe piles are seamless pipes that can be
welded to yield up to 70 m. They are usually driven with open ends into the soil. A
conical tip is used where the piles have to penetrate boulders and rocks. To increase the
load capacity of steel piles, the soil plug is excavated and replaced by concrete. These
piles are called concrete-filled steel piles.
(iii) Timber Piles
Timber piles have been used since ancient times. The lengths of timber piles depend on
the types of trees used to harvest the piles, but common lengths are about 12 m. Longer
lengths can be obtained by splicing several piles. Timber piles are susceptible to marine
organisms, and rot within zones exposed to seasonal changes. These piles are divided into
following three classes:
1. Class A piles carry heavy loads. The maximum diameter of the butt should be 356mm.
2. Class B piles are used to carry medium loads. The maximum butt diameter should be
305-330 mm.
3 Class C piles are used in temporary construction work. They can be used permanently
for structures when the entire pile is below water table. The minimum butt diameter
should be 305mm.
In no case, a pile tip should not have a diameter less than 150mm.

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 Estimating pile length
Selecting the type of pile to be used and estimating its necessary length are fairly difficult
tasks that require good judgment. However, piles can be classified into three major

Fig 4. (a) and (b) point bearing piles; (c) friction piles
categories, depending on their lengths and the mechanisms of load transfer to the soil: (a)
point bearing piles, (b) friction piles, and (c) compaction piles.
Point Bearing Piles
If soil-bearing records establish the presence of bedrock or rocklike material at a site
within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended to the rock surface. (Fig 4a) In this case,
the ultimate bearing capacity of the piles depends entirely on the load- bearing capacity
of the underlying material; thus; the piles are called point bearing piles. In most of these
cases, the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.
If, instead of bedrock, a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil is encountered at a
reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few meters into the hard stratum. (Fig 4b) Piles
with pedestal can be constructed on the bed of the hard stratum, and the ultimate pile load
may be expressed as
Qu = QP + Qs (1)
Where QP = load carried at the pile point
Q s = load carried by skin friction developed at the inside of the pile
(caused by shearing resistance between the soil and the pile)
If Qs is very small,
Qu Qp (2)

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 In this case, the required pile length may be estimated accurately if proper subsoil
exploration records are available.

Friction Piles
When no layer of rock or rocklike material is present at a reasonable depth at a site, point
bearing piles become very long and uneconomical. In this type of subsoil, piles are driven
through the softer material to specified depths. (Fig4c) The ultimate load of the piles may
be expressed by Eq.1. However, if the value of Qp is relatively small, then
Qu Qs (3)
These piles are called friction piles, because most of their resistance is derived from skin
friction. However, the term friction pile, although used often in the literature, is a
misnomer: In clay soils, the resistance to applied load is also caused by adhesion.
The length of the friction piles depend on the shear strength of the soil, the applied load,
and the pile size. To determine the necessary lengths of these piles, an engineer needs a
good understanding of soil-pile interaction, good judgment, and experience.
Compaction Piles
Under certain circumstances, piles are driven in granular soils to achieve proper
compaction of soil close to the ground surface. These piles are called compaction piles.
The lengths of compaction piles depend on factors such as (a) the relative density of the
soil before compaction,(b) the desired relative density of the soil after compaction, and
(c) the required depth of compaction. These piles are generally short; however, some
field tests are necessary to determine a reasonable length.
Load Transfer Mechanism
The load transfer mechanism from a pile to the soil is complicated. To understand it,
consider a pile of length L, as shown in Fig 5a. The load on the pile is gradually increased
from zero to Q(z=0) at the ground surface. Part of this load will be resisted by the side
friction developed along the shaft, Q1. and part by the soil below the tip of the pile, Q2.
Now, how are Q1 and Q2 related to the load? If measurements are made to obtain the load
carried by the pile shaft, Q(z) , at any depth z, the nature of the variation found will be like
that shown in curve 1 of Fig 5b. The frictional resistance per unit area at any depth z
may be determined as

(4)

Where p = perimeter of the cross section of the pile

Fig 5c shows the variation of with depth.
If the load Q at the ground surface is gradually increased, maximum frictional resistance
along the pile shaft will be fully mobilized when the relative displacement between the
soil and the pile is about 5-10 mm, irrespective of the pile size and length L. However,

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the maximum point resistance Q2= Qp will not be mobilized until the tip of the pile has
moved about 10-25 % of he pile width (or diameter). (The lower limit applies to driven
piles and the upper limit to bored piles). At ultimate load (Fig 5d and curve2 in Fig 5b),
Thus,
Q1 = Qs (5)

And Q2 = Qp (6)

Fig 5 Load transfer mechanism for piles.

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The preceding explanation indicates that Q s (or the unit skin friction, f, along the pile
shaft) is developed at a much smaller pile displacement compared with the point
resistance, Qp.
At ultimate load, the failure surface in the soil at the pile tip ( a bearing capacity failure
caused by Qp) is like that shown in fig 5e. It is to be note that pile foundations are deep
foundations and that the soil fails mostly in a punching mode. That is a triangular zone, I,
is developed at the pile tip, which is pushed downward without producing any other
visible slip surface. In dense sands and stiff clayey soils, a radial shear zone, II, may
partially develop.
Equations for Estimating Pile Capacity
The ultimate load- carrying capacity Qu of a pile is given by the equation
Q u = Qp + Qs (7)
Where Qp = load carrying capacity of the pile point
Qs = friction resistance (skin friction) derived from the soil- pile interface
( Fig 6)
Numerous published studies cover the determination of the values of Q p and Qs. Excellent
reviews of many of these investigations have been provided by Vesic (1977), Meyerhof
(1976), and Coyle and Costello (1981). These studies afford an insight into the problem
of determining the ultimate pile capacity.
Point Bearing Capacity, Qp
The ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations is given as (according toTerzaghi’s
equations),
qu = 1.3 c/.Nc + q.Nq + 0.4 .B. ( for shallow square foundation) (8)
and qu = 1.3 c/.Nc + q.Nq + 0.3 .B. for shallow circular foundation) (9)
Similarly, the general bearing capacity equation for shallow foundation is given) for
vertical loading) as

Hence, in general, the ultimate load- bearing capacity may be expressed as

(10)
Where , and are the bearing capacity factors that include the necessary
shape and depth factors.
Pile foundations are deep. However, the ultimate resistance per unit area developed at the
pile tip, , may be expressed by an equation similar in form to eq.10, although the
values of , and will change for deep foundations. The notations used for
width of a pile is D. Hence, substituting D for B in eq.10 gives
(11)

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Because the width D of a pile is relatively small, the term may be dropped from
the right side of the equation without introducing a serious error; thus we have
(12)
It is to be noted that the term q has been replaced by in eq. 12, to signify effective
vertical stress. Thus, the point bearing of piles is
(13)
Where Ap =area of pile tip
=cohesion of the soil supporting the pile tip
= unit point resistance
=effective vertical stress at the level of the pile tip

= the bearing capacity factors for deep foundations

Frictional Resistance, Qs
The frictional, or skin, resistance of a pile may be written as
(14)
Where p = perimeter of the pile section
= incremental pile length over which p and f are taken to be constant
= unit friction resistance at any depth z
It is stated that, in the field, for full mobilization of the point resistance (Qp), the pile tip
must go through a displacement of 10 to 25 % of the pile width (or diameter).Following
approaches are adopted to estimate the bearing capacity of piles:
(I) Static Methods
(II) Dynamic Methods
(III) Pile Test Method
(IV) Sounding Methods
These methods are discussed in the following paragraphs.
(I) Static Methods
These methods are based on field and laboratory tests and the formulae so developed are
empirical in nature. These formulae are derived on the basis of soil parameters such
cohesion and angle of friction.
(A) Methods of Determining Point Bearing Capacity of a Pile, Qp
There are various methods to determine the tip resistance of a pile. However, we will
discuss here only following three methods;

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 (1) Meyerhof’s method
(a) Sand
The point bearing capacity, qp , of a pile in sand generally increases with the depth of
embedment in the bearing stratum and reaches a maximum value at an embedment ratio
of . It is to be noted that in a homogeneous soil, Lb , is equal to the actual
embedment length of the pile, L ( see Fig 6a). However, where a pile has penetrated into
a bearing stratum, Lb < L. (see Fig 4b). Beyond the critical embedment ratio,
,the value of qp remains constant ( qp =qt ). That is
shown in the fig 7. for the case of a homogeneous soil, L = Lb

Fig 6. Ultimate load-carrying capacity of pile.

For pile in sand, =0, and eq. 13 simplifies to
(15)

The variation of with soil friction angle is shown in fig 8. However, Qp should not
exceed the limiting value Ap ql ; that is,
(16)
The limiting point resistance is given by
(17)

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Fig 7. Nature of variation of point resistance in homogeneous sand.
Where pa = atmospheric pressure (= 100 )
= effective soil friction angle of the bearing stratum

Fig 8. Variation of the maximum values

of with soil friction angle (after meyerhof1976)

(b) Clay
For piles in saturated clays under undrained conditions

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 (18)
Where cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile
(i) Vesic’s method
Vesic (1997) proposed a method for estimating the pile point bearing capacity based
on the theory of expansion of cavity. According to this theory, on the basis of
effective stress parameters, we may write
(19)

Where = mean effective normal ground stress at the level of the pile point

= (20)

= earth pressure coefficient at rest = (1-sin ) (21)

, = bearing capacity factors as given by Vesic as

(22)

(23)
According to Vesic’s theory,
(24)
Where Irr = reduced rigidity index for the soil

However, where = rigidity index (25)

Where (26)

Es = modulus of elasticity of soil

= Poisson’s ratio of soil
Gs = shear modulus of soil
= average volumetric strain in the plastic zone below the pile point
When the volume does not change (e.g., for dense sand or saturated clay), =0, so
Ir = Irr (27)
Vesic has given the values of and for various values of the soil friction angle
and Irr . For =0 (an undrained condition),

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 (28)

The values of Ir can be estimated from laboratory consolidation and triaxial tests
corresponding to the proper stress levels. However, for preliminary use, the following
values are recommended
Types of soil Ir
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sand 70-150
Silts and clays (drained condition) 50-100
Clays (undrained condition) 100-200
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii) Janbu’s Method
Janbu (1976) proposed calculating Qp as follows
(29)

The bearing capacity factors and are calculated by assuming a failure

surface in soil at the pile tip similar to that shown in fig 9.
The bearing capacity relationship is then
(30 a)
(the angle is defined in the figure ) and
(30 b)
from eq. 30 a

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 Fig 9. failure surface at the pile tip assumed by Janbu (1976)
The angle varies from 600 for clays to about 1050 for dense sandy soils. It is
recommended that, for practical use,

Following table gives the variation of and for = 600 , 750 , and 900 .
Table – Janbu’s Bearing Capacity factors
=600 =750 =900
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0 5.74 1.0 5.74 1.0 5.74 1.0

10 5.95 2.05 7.11 2.25 8.34 2.47
20 9.26 4.37 11.78 5.29 14.83 6.40
30 19.43 10.05 21.82 13.60 30.14 18.40
40 30.58 26.66 48.11 41.37 75.31 64.20
45 46.32 47.32 78.90 79.90 133.87 134.87
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(B) Pile Frictional Resistance (Qs)
(i) in Sand
The frictional resistance between soil and pile-surface for piles in sand is given by
(31)
The unit frictional resistance, , is hard to estimate. In making an estimation of ,
several important factors must be kept in mind:
1. The nature of the pile installation. For driven piles in sand, the vibration caused
during pile driving helps densify the soil around the pile. Fig.10 shows the
contours of the soil friction angle around a driven pile. The original frictional
angle of sand was 320. The zone of sand densification is about 2.5 times the pile
diameter, in the sand surrounding the pile.

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Fig 10. Compaction of sand near driven pile (After Meyerhof 1961)

Fig 11. Unit frictional resistance for piles in sand.

2. It has been observed that the nature of variation of in the field is approximately
as shown in the Fig11. The unit skin friction increases with depth more or less
linearly to a certain depth (known as critical depth) and remains constant
thereafter. The magnitude of the critical depth may be 10 to 20 pile diameters,
for loose sand to dense sand, respectively. A conservative estimate would be
=15 D (32)
3. At similar depths, the unit skin friction in loose in loose sand is higher for a high
displacement pile, compared with a low- displacement pile.
4. At similar depths, bored or jetted piles will have a lower unit skin friction,
compared with driven pile.
Taking into account these factors, following approximate relations are given:
Foe z=0 to ,
(33)
And for z= to , (34)
Where K = effective earth coefficient
= effective vertical stress at the depth under consideration

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 = soil-pile friction angle
In reality, the magnitude of K varies with depth; it is approximately equal to the
Rankine passive pressure coefficient, Kp , at the top of the pile and may be less
than the at-rest pressure coefficient, K0, at a greater depth. Based on presently
available results, the following average values of K are taken for use in eq33:
Pile type K
Bored or jetted
Low- displacement driven

High-displacement driven

The coefficient of friction between sand and pile material can be obtained from the
following table.
Table- Coefficient of friction between sand and pile material
Material
Concrete 0.45
Wood 0.40
Steel (smooth) 0.20
Steel (rough, rusted) 0.4
Steel (corrugated) Use of sand
However, the values of from various investigations appear to be in the range
from 0.5 to 0.8 . Judgment must be used in choosing the value of . For high-
displacement driven pile, Bhusan (1982) recommended
(35)
And (36)
Where Dr = relative density (%)
(ii) Clay
Estimating the frictional (skin) resistance in clay also is almost difficult a task due to
several variables which cannot be easily determined. There are several methods for
estimating the unit frictional resistance of piles in clays as described in the available
literature. We shall discuss three methods only which are very common in practice.
(a) Method
This method was proposed by Vijiayvergia and Fotch (1972) and is based on the
assumption that the displacement of soil caused by pile driving results in a passive lateral
pressure at any depth and that the average unit skin resistance is

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 (37)
Where = mean effective vertical stress for the entire embedment length
= mean undrained shear strength ( )
The value of changes with the depth of penetration of the pile (see fig 12) Thus, the
total frictional resistance may be calculated as

Fig 12. Variation of with pile embedment length (after McClelland, 1974)
(b) Method
According to the method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be represented by
the equation
(38)
Where = empirical adhesion factor
The approximate variation of the value of is shown in Fig 13. where is the vertical
effective stress. This variation of with was obtained by Randolph and Murphy
(1985). With it, we have
(39)

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Fig 13. Variation of with .
(c) Method
When pile is driven into the saturated clay, the pore- pressure in the soil around the pile is
increased. The excess pore water pressure in normally consolidated clays may be four to
six times .However, within a month or so, this pore pressure gradually dissipates.
Hence, the unit frictional resistance for the pile can be determined on the bases of the
effective stress parameters of the clay in a remolded state . Thus, at any depth,
(40)
Where = vertical effective stress
= (41)
= drained friction angle of remolded clay
K = earth pressure coefficient
Conservatively, the magnitude of K is the earth pressure coefficient at rest, or
(for normally consolidated clays) (42)
And (for over-consolidated clays) (43)
Where OCR 0verconsilation ratio
Combining eqs40, 41, 42 and 43, for normally consolidated clays yields
(44)
And for overconsidated clays,

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 (45)
With the values of so determined, the total frictional resistance may be evaluated as
(46)
Point Bearing Capacity of piles resting on Rock
Sometimes piles are driven to an underlying layer of rock. In such cases, the engineer
must evaluate the bearing capacity of the rock. The ultimate unit point resistance in rock
(Goodman, 1980) is approximately
(47)

Where
= unconfined compressive strength of rock
= drained angle of friction
The unconfined compressive strength of rock can be determined by laboratory tests on
rock specimens collected during field investigation. However, extreme precaution should
be used in obtaining the proper value of , because laboratory specimens usually are
small in diameter. As the diameter of the specimen increases, the unconfined compressive
strength decreases- a phenomenon referred to as the scale effect. For specimens larger
than about 1 m in diameter, the values of remain approximately constant. There
appears to be a four- folded to five-folded reduction of the magnitude of in this
process. The scale effect in rock is caused primarily by randomly distributed large and
small fractures and also by progressive ruptures along the slip lines. Hence, we always
recommend that

(48)

The table below lists some representative values of (laboratory) unconfined compressive
strength and friction angle of rock.
Table-Typical values of unconfined compressive strength & angle of friction of rocks
Type of rock (MN/m2 Angle of friction, (deg)

Sandstone 70-140 27-45

Limestone 105-210 30-40
Shale 35-70 10-20
Granite 140-210 40-50
Marble 60-70 25-30

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A factor of safety of at least 3 should be used to determine the allowable point bearing of
piles. Thus,

(49)

(II) Dynamic Methods

There are various pile- driving formulae to estimate the dynamic bearing capacity of
piles. These are based on the principle that the dynamic energy imparted to the pile
through a hammer is utilized in driving the pile in to the ground. However, some of this
energy is wasted in the form of losses. One of the earliest such equations- commonly
referred to as the Engineering News (EN) Record formula- is derived from this principle
of work- energy theory. That is;
Energy imparted by the hammer per blow=
(Pile resistance) (Penetration per hammer blow)
According to the EN formula, the pile resistance is the ultimate load , expressed as

(50)

Where WR = weight of the ram

h = height of fall of the ram
S = penetration of the pile per hammer blow
The pile penetration, S , is usually based on the average value obtained from the last few
driving blows. In the equation’s original form, the following values of C were
recommended:
For drop hammers,
C= 25.4 mm if S and h are in mm
For steam hammers
C= 2.54 mm if S and h are in mm
Also, a factor of safety FS =6 was recommended for estimating the allowable pile
capacity. For single and double- acting steam hammers, the term W R.h is replaced by
E.HE, where E is the hammer efficiency and HE is the rated energy of the hammer. Thus,

(51)

The EN formula has been revised several times over the years, and other pile-driving
formulae also have been suggested. Three of them are discussed here

Modified EN formula

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 (52)

Where E = efficiency of hammer

C = 2.54 mm if the unit of S and h are in mm
Wp = weight of the pile
n = coefficient of restitution between the ram and the pile cap
Factor of safety for this formula is 6
Typical values for E
Single- and double- acting hammer 0.7-0.85
Diesel hammers 0.8-0.9
Drop hammer 0.7-0.9
Typical values for n
Cast-iron hammer and concrete
Pile( without cap) 0.4-0.5
Wooden cushion on steel piles 0.3-0.4
Wooden piles 0.25-0.3

Janbu’s formula (Janbu, 1953)

(53)

Where

FS for this formula = 3 to 6

(III) Pile Load Test

In most large projects, a specific number of load tests must be conducted on piles. The
vertical and lateral load bearing capacity of a pile can be tested in the field. Fig 14 given

22
below shows a schematic diagram of the pile load arrangement for testing axial
compression in the field. The load is applied to the pile by a hydraulic jack. Step loads
are applied to the pile, and sufficient time is allowed to elapse after each load so that a
small amount of settlement occurs. The settlement of the pile is measured by dial gauges.
The amount of load to be applied for each step load be about one-fourth of the proposed
working load. After the desired pile load is reached, the pile is gradually unloaded.

Fig 14. Schematic diagram of pile load test arrangement.

The values of load can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net settlement. The
ultimate load of the pile then can be determined from the graph as shown in Fig 15. Pile
settlement may increase with load to a certain point, beyond which the load-settlement
curve becomes vertical. The load corresponding to the point where the curve of load vs.
settlement becomes vertical is the ultimate load for the pile. In many cases, the latter
stage of the load-settlement curve is almost linear, showing a large degree of settlement
for a small increment of load.

Fig 15. (c) Plot of load against total settlement (d) plot of load against net settlement

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Negative Skin Friction
Negative skin friction is a downward drag force on a pile by the soil surrounding it. Such
a force can exist under the following conditions, among others:
1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is driven,
the fill will gradually consolidate. The consolidation process will exert a
downward drag force on the pile during the period of consolidation ( see Fig 16a).

Fig 16. Demonstration of negative friction on pile.

2. If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, as shown in the
following fig.16b, it will induce the process of consolation in the clay layer and
thus exert a downward drag on the pile.
3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil at
any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is located
in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a downward drag force.
In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause foundation
failure.
In our present study here, we will study two tentative methods for the calculation of
negative skin force as follows;
(i) Clay Fill over Granular Soil
Similar to the - method, the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is given by
(54)
Where = earth pressure coefficient =
= vertical effective stress at any depth z =

= effective unit weight of fill

= soil- friction angle
Hence, the total downward drag force on a pile is

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 (55)

Where Hf = height of fill.

If the fill is above the water table, the effective unit weight should be replaced by the
moist unit weight.
(ii) Granular Soil Fill over Clay
In this case, the evidence indicates that the negative skin stress on the pile may exist
from z=0 to z=L1, which is referred to as the neutral plane. The neutral depth may be
given as (Bowles, 1982)

(56)

Where and = effective unit weight of the fill and the underlying clay layer,
respectively.
For end- bearing piles, the neutral depth may be assumed to be located at the pile tip
( i.e., L1 = L – Hf )
Once the value of L1 is determined, the downward drag force is obtained in the following
manner: The unit negative skin friction at any depth from z =0 to z =L1 is
(57)
Where
=

= (58)

If the soil and the fill are above the water table, the effective unit weights should be
replaced by moist unit weights. In some cases, the piles can be coated with bitumen in the
down drag zone to avoid this problem.
Elastic Settlement of Piles
The total settlement of a pile under a vertical working load Qw is given by
(59)
Where = elastic settlement of pile
= settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile tip

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 = settlement of pile by the load transmitted along the pile shaft
If the pile material is assumed to be elastic, the deformation of the pile shaft can be
evaluated, in accordance with the fundamental principles of mechanics of materials, as

(60)

Where Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working load condition
Qws = load carried by friction (skin) resistance under working load
Condition
Ap = area of cross section of pile
L = Length of pile
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material

Fig 17 Various types of distribution of unit friction(skin) resistance along the pile shaft.
The magnitude of will depend on the nature of the distribution of the unit friction (skin)
resistance along the pile shaft. If the distribution of is uniform or parabolic as shown
in the fig.17a and 17b, then =0.5. However, for a triangular distribution of (fig 17c) ,
the magnitude of = 0.67 ( Vesic, 1977)
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried at the pile point may be expressed in
the form

(61)

Where D = width or diameter of pile

= point load per unit area at the pile point =

= modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point

= Poisson’s ratio of soil
= influence factor = 0.85

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The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried by the pile shaft is given by a relation
similar the eq.61, namely

(62)

Where p= perimeter of the pile

L = embedded length of pile
Iws = influence factor
It is to be noted that the term in eq. 66 is average value of along the pile shaft.
The influence factor, , has a simple empirical relation ( Vesic, 1977),

(63)

Pile Groups
In most practical situations, piles are used in groups as shown in Fig 18, to transmit the
structural load to the soil. A pile cap is constructed over group piles. The piles are
connected at their heads by a concrete pile cap, which may or may not be in contact with
the ground (Fig 18a) or well above the ground, as in the case of off shore platforms (see
Fig 18b). If the pile cap is in contact with the ground, part of load will be transferred
directly to the soil.
Determining the load- bearing capacity of group piles is extremely complicated and has
not yet been fully resolved. When the piles are placed close to each other in a group, a
reasonable assumption is that the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil will overlap,
reducing the load- bearing capacity of the piles. Ideally, the piles in a group should be
spaced so that the load-bearing capacity of the group is not less than the sum of the
bearing capacity of the individual piles. In practice, the minimum center to center
spacing, s, varies between 2.5 D to 5 D. However, the cost of the pile cape is increased
considerably if this spacing is more than 3.5 D. Moreover, the settlement of the pile-
group is increased due increase in size of the pile-group.
The group load- bearing capacity is tried to be correlated with the load-bearing capacity
of a single pile because it is comparatively simple to find out the bearing capacity of
single pile. The ratio of the load- bearing capacity of a pile- group, Q g(u) ,to the total load-
bearing capacity of the piles acting as individual piles n Q u is called the group efficiency
or group efficiency factor, .The efficiency of the load- bearing capacity of a group pile
may be mathematically, defined as

(64)

Where n = number of piles in a group

Qg(u)= load- bearing capacity of the group

27
 Qu = load –bearing capacity of a single pile
The efficiency factor is usually less than 1. However, piles driven into a loose, coarse-
grained soil tend to densify the soil around the piles and could exceed 1.Also if the
spacing is large enough so that the piles act an individual pile in the group, then also the
value of may be greater than 1.

Fig 18. Group piles where d=s =center to center spacing between the piles.

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Group Efficiency
There are several equations to find out the group efficiency. All these equations are
empirical in nature. Some of them are presented here.
1. Converse- Labarre Equation

(65)

Where
n= number of piles in a row
m= number of rows of piles in a group
2. Los Angeles Group Action Equation

(66)

3. Feld Method
Feld (1943) suggested a method by which the load capacity of individual piles( when
only frictional resistance is considered ) in a group embedded in sand could be assessed.
According to this method, the ultimate capacity of a pile is reduced by one- sixteenth by
each adjacent diagonal or row pile. The technique is explained by the example given in
Fig 19.This is a plan of a group pile.

Fig 19. Fed’s method for estimating the group capacity of friction piles.
In this example, there are eight adjacent piles for pile type A. Similarly there are five
adjacent piles for pile type b and three for pile type. C. With this in mind, the following
table can be prepared:
Pile type No. of No. of adjacent Reduction factor for each pile Ultimate capacity
piles piles/pile
=(no.of piles* Qu* Reduction factor)
A 1 8 1-8/16 0.5Qu
B 4 5 1-5/16 2.75Qu
C 4 3 1-3/16 3.25Qu

= Qg(u)

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Hence,

Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay

Fig 20 shows a group pile in saturated clay. Using the figure, one can estimate the
ultimate load-bearing capacity of group piles in the following manner:

Fig 20 Ultimate bearing capacity of pile-group in clay.

1. Determine

Where in which is undrained cohesion of the clay at the pile tip

and

So (67)
2. Determine the ultimate capacity by assuming that the piles in the group act as a block
with dimensions . The skin resistance of the block is

Calculate the point bearing capacity:

Obtain the value of the bearing capacity factor from fig21. Thus, the ultimate load is

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 (68)

Fig 21 Variation of with Lg /Bg and L /Bg

The essential points are ;
1. The ultimate load capacity of a pile group is not necessarily the ultimate load capacity of a single
pile multiplied by the number of piles in the group.
2. A pile group can either fail by the group failing as a single pile unit, called block failure mode, or
as individual piles, called single pile failure mode.

Elastic Settlement of Group Piles

In general, the settlement of a group pile under a similar working load increases with the
width of the group (Bg) and the center-to-center spacing of the piles (d). This fact is
demonstrated in Fig 22, obtained from the experimental results of Meyerhof (1961) for
group piles in sand. In the figure, s g(e) is the settlement of the group pile and s e is the
settlement of isolated piles under a similar working load.
The settlements of group piles, as per several investigators have been found to be widely
varying. Whatsoever, simplest relation for the settlement of group piles was given by
Vesic (1960), as follows

(69)

where sg(e) = elastic settlement of group piles

Bg = width of group pile section
D = width or diameter of each pile in the group
Se = elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load (for this,
you can see “elastic settlement of piles” as discussed above)
For group piles in sand and gravel, for elastic settlement, Meyerhof(1976) suggested the
empirical relationas

31
 (70)
where q is in kN/m2 and Bg and Lg in m, and

Fig 22. Settlement of group piles in sand (aster Meyerhof, 1961)

Consolidation settlement of Group Piles

The consolidation settlement of a group pile in clay can be determined by using the 2:1
stress distribution method. The calculation involves the following steps (see fig 21)
1. Let the depth of embedment of the piles be L. The group is subjected to a total
load of Qg. If the pile cap is below the original ground surface, Q g. equals the total
load of the superstructure on the piles minus the effective weight of soil above the
group piles removed by excavation.
2. Assume that the load Qg is transmitted to the soil beginning at a depth of
from the top of the pile, as shown in the fig 21. The load Q g spreads out along the
two vertical lines to one horizontal line from this depth (2:1 lines).
3. Calculate the increase in effective stress caused at the middle of each soil layer by
the load Qg. . The formula is

(71)

Where = increase in effective stress at the middle of layer i

Lg, Bg = length and width, respectively of the planned group piles

32
 Zi = distance from z=0 to the middle of the clay layer i
4. Calculate the consolidation settlement of each layer caused by the increased
stress. The formula is

(72)

Fig 21.Consolidation settlement of group piles.

Where = consolidation settlement of layer i

= compression index of ith layer of soil

33
 = thickness of layer i
= initial voids ratio of soil layer I (before construction)
= effective stress at the middle of the layer i
5. The total consolidation settlement of the group piles is then
(73)

Pile groups and Pile Spacing of Piles (Ref. Soils & foundations by Cheng Liu, 4th
ed,p348)

34
Hereto fore in this chapter, discussion has pertained to a single pile. In reality, however,
piles are almost always arranged in groups of three or more. Furthermore, the group of
piles is commonly tied together by a pile cap, which is attached to the head of individual
piles and causes the several piles to act together as a pile foundation.
If two piles are driven close together, soil stresses caused by the piles tend to overlap, and
the bearing capacity of the piles consisting of two piles is less than the sum of the
individual capacities. If the two piles are moved farther apart, so that individual stresses
do not overlap, the bearing capacity of the pile group is not reduced significantly from the
sum of the individual capacities. Thus, it would appear that piles should be spaced
relatively far apart. This consideration is offset, however, by the unduly large pile caps
that would be required for the wider spacing.
Minimum allowable pile spacing is often specified by applicable building codes. Foe
example, a building code may state that “the minimum center-to center spacing of piles
not driven to rock shall not be less than twice the average diameter of a round pile, nor
less than 1.75 times the diagonal dimension of a rectangular or rolled structural steel pile,
nor less than 2 ft 6 inch (0.76m) For piles driven to rock, the minimum center-to center
spacing of piles shall be not less than twice the average diameter of a round pile, nor less
than 1.75 times the diagonal dimension of a rectangular or rolled structural ateel pile, nor
less than 2ft 0inch ( 0.61m).
Spacing of Piles (Ethiopian code EBCS-7) p-95
(1) The spacing of piles shall be considered in relation to the nature of the ground, their
behavior in groups and overall cost of the foundation which includes pile cp or
restraining grade beams.
(2) The spacing of piles will be determined by the method of installation (e.g. driven or
bored)
(3) Working rules which are generally, though not always, suitable are as follows:
a) for friction piles the spacing center to center shall be not less than the perimeter
of the pile or, for circular piles, three times the diameter.
b) for end bearing piles passing through relatively compressible strata the spacing
shall not be less than 2.5 times the diameter of the pile.
c) for end bearing piles passing through relatively compressible strata and resting
on dense sand or stiff clay the spacing shall not be less 3 and 3.5 times the
diameter of the pile, respectively.
d) for driven cast in-situ piles the spacing shall not be less than 2.5 times the
diameter of the pile.
e) For bored cast in-situ piles the spacing shall be at least 3 times the diameter of
the pile, but not less than 1.10m.
f) For under-reamed piles the spacing shall not be less than 2 times the diameter
of under reamed pile base. .

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