LDIC Course Contents

Unit 1

- Operational Amplifier

Unit 2

- Applications of OP-Amp

Unit 3

- Oscillators

Unit 4

- D-A and A-D Converters

Unit 5

- Logic Families

Unit 6

- Memories

Text Books:
1. Linear Integrated Circuits D. Roy Choudhury
2. Op-Amps & Linear ICs Ramakanth A. Gayakwad.
3. Digital Fundamentals Floyd and Jain

Unit 1- Operational amplifies

What is an Integrated Circuit?

Where do you use an Integrated Circuit?

Why do you prefer an Integrated Circuit to the circuits

made by interconnecting discrete components?

Def: The Integrated Circuit or IC is a miniature,

low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and

passive components that are irreparably joined
together on a single crystal chip of silicon.

In 1958 Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments invented first IC

Applications of an Integrated Circuit

Communication

Control

Instrumentation

Computer

Electronics

Advantages:

Small size

Low cost

Less weight

Low supply voltages

Low power consumption

Highly reliable

Matched devices

Fast speed

Classification

Digital ICs
Linear ICs

Integrated circuits

Monolithic circuits

Bipolar

Pn junction
isolation

Thick
&Thin film
Uni polar

Dielectric
isolation

MOSFET

Classification of ICs

JFET

Hybrid circuits

Chip size and Complexity

Invention of Transistor (Ge)

- 1947

Development of Silicon

- 1955-1959

Silicon Planar Technology

- 1959

First ICs, SSI (3- 30gates/chip)

- 1960

MSI ( 30-300 gates/chip)

- 1965-1970

LSI ( 300-3000 gates/chip)

-1970-1975

VLSI (More than 3k gates/chip)

- 1975

ULSI (more than one million active devices are integrated on single
chip)

SSI

MSI

< 100 active 100-1000

devices
active
devices
Integrated
resistors,
diodes &
BJTs

BJTs and
Enhanced
MOSFETS

LSI

VLSI

ULSI

1000100000
active
devices

>100000
active
devices

Over 1
million
active
devices

MOSFETS

8bit, 16bit
Pentium
Microproces Microproces
sors
sors

IC Package types
Metal can Package
Dual-in-line
Flat Pack

Metal can Packages

The metal sealing plane is at the bottom
over which the chip is bounded
It is also called transistor pack

Doul-in-line Package
The chip is mounted inside a plastic or
ceramic case
The 8 pin Dip is called MiniDIP and also
available with 12, 14, 16, 20pins

Flat pack

The chip is enclosed in a rectangular

ceramic case

Selection of IC Package
Type

Criteria

Metal can
package

1.

DIP

1.

2.

2.

3.

Flat pack

1.
2.
3.

Heat dissipation is important

For high power applications like
power amplifiers, voltage regulators
etc.
For experimental or bread boarding
purposes as easy to mount
If bending or soldering of the leads is
not required
Suitable for printed circuit boards as
lead spacing is more
More reliability is required
Light in weight
Suited for airborne applications

Packages

The metal can (TO)

The Flat Package

Package

The Dual-in-Line (DIP)

Package

Factors affecting selection of IC package

Relative cost

Reliability

Weight of the package

Ease of fabrication

Power to be dissipated

Need of external heat sink

Temperature Ranges

1. Military temperature range

: -55o C to +125o C (-55o C to +85o C)

2. Industrial temperature range : -20o C to +85o C (-40o C to +85o C )

3. Commercial temperature range: 0o C to +70o C (0o C to +75o C )

Manufacturers Designation for Linear ICs

Fairchild

- A, AF

National Semiconductor

- LM,LH,LF,TBA

Motorola

- MC,MFC

RCA

- CA,CD

Texas Instruments

- SN

Signetics

- N/S,NE/SE

Burr- Brown

- BB

Operational Amplifier
An Operational amplifier is a direct coupled high-gain
amplifier usually consisting of one or more differential
amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and
output stage.

The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be

used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals and was
originally designed for computing such mathematical
functions as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
integration.

Op Amp
Positive power supply
(Positive rail)
Non-inverting
Input terminal
Output terminal

Inverting input
terminal
Negative power supply
(Negative rail)

The Op-Amp Chip

741 Op Amp or LM351 Op Amp

Op-amp have 5 basic terminals(ie 2 i/ps

1 o/p and 2 power supply terminals

The output goes positive when the noninverting input (+) goes more positive than
the inverting (-) input, and vice versa.

Single-Ended Input
+

~ Vi

23

+ terminal : Source
terminal : Ground
0o phase change

+ terminal : Ground
terminal : Source
180o phase change

Ref:080114HKN

Operational Amplifier

Basic Information of Op-Amp

Op-amps have five basic terminals, that is, two input
terminals, one output terminal and two power supply
terminals.

Basic Information of an Op-amp

contd
Power supply connection:
The power supply voltage may range from about + 5V to
+ 22V.
The common terminal of the V+ and V- sources is
connected to a reference point or ground.

Differential Amplifier
V0 =Ad (V1 V2 )
Ad =20 log10 (Ad ) in dB
Vc =

(V1 V2 )
2

CMRR= = | Ad |
Ac

Characteristics and performance parameters of

Op-amp

Input offset Voltage

Input offset current

Input bias current

Differential input resistance

Input capacitance

Open loop voltage gain

CMRR

Output voltage swing

Characteristics and performance parameters of Opamp

Output resistance

Offset adjustment range

Input Voltage range

Power supply rejection ratio

Power consumption

Slew rate

Gain Bandwidth product

Equivalent input noise voltage and current

Characteristics and performance parameters of Opamp

Average temperature coefficient of offset parameters

Output offset voltage

Supply current

1. Input Offset Voltage

The differential voltage that must be applied between the

two input terminals of an op-amp, to make the output
voltage zero.

It is denoted as Vios
For op-amp 741C the input offset voltage is 6mV

2. Input offset current

The algebraic difference between the currents flowing into

the two input terminals of the op-amp

It is denoted as Iios = | Ib1 Ib2|

For op-amp 741C the input offset current is 200nA

3. Input bias current

The average value of the two currents flowing
into the op-amp input terminals

It is expressed mathematically as

I b1 I b 2
2

For 741C the maximum value of Ib is 500nA

4. Differential Input Resistance

It is the equivalent resistance measured at either the

inverting or non-inverting input terminal with the other

input terminal grounded

It is denoted as Ri

For 741C it is of the order of 2M

5. Input capacitance
It is the equivalent capacitance measured at either the

inverting or non- inverting input terminal with the other

input terminal grounded.
It is denoted as Ci

For 741C it is of the 1-4 pF

6. Open loop Voltage gain

It is the ratio of output voltage to the differential input

voltage, when op-amp is in open loop configuration,

without any feedback. It is also called as large signal
voltage gain
It is denoted as AOL

AOL=Vo / Vd

For 741C it is typically 200,000

7. CMRR
It is the ratio of differential voltage gain Ad to common

mode voltage gain Ac

CMRR = Ad / Ac
Ad is open loop voltage gain AOL and Ac = VOC / Vc

For op-amp 741C CMRR is 90 dB

8. Output Voltage swing

The op-amp output voltage gets saturated at +Vcc and

VEE and it cannot produce output voltage more than +Vcc

and VEE. Practically voltages +Vsat and Vsat are slightly
less than +Vcc and VEE .

For op-amp 741C the saturation voltages are + 13V for supply voltages + 15V

9. Output Resistance

It is the equivalent resistance measured between the output

terminal of the op-amp and ground
It is denoted as Ro

For op-amp 741 it is 75

10. Offset voltage adjustment range

The range for which input offset voltage can be adjusted

using the potentiometer so as to reduce output to zero

For op-amp 741C it is + 15mV

11. Input Voltage range

It is the range of common mode voltages which can be

applied for which op-amp functions properly and given

offset specifications apply for the op-amp

For + 15V supply voltages, the input voltage range is + 13V

12. Power supply rejection ratio

PSRR is defined as the ratio of the change in input offset

voltage due to the change in supply voltage producing it,

keeping the other power supply voltage constant. It is
also called as power supply sensitivity (PSV)

PSRR= (vios / Vcc)|constant VEE

PSRR= (vios / VEE)|constant Vcc

The typical value of PSRR for op-amp 741C is 30V/V

13. Power Consumption

It is the amount of quiescent power to be consumed by op-

amp with zero input voltage, for its proper functioning

It is denoted as Pc

For 741C it is 85mW

14. Slew rate

It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage with time. The slew rate is specified in V/sec
Slew rate = S = dVo / dt |max
It is specified by the op-amp in unity gain condition.
The slew rate is caused due to limited charging rate of the

compensation capacitor and current limiting and saturation of the

internal stages of op-amp, when a high frequency large amplitude
signal is applied.

Slew rate
It is given by dVc /dt = I/C
For large charging rate, the capacitor should be small or
the current should be large.
S = Imax / C

For 741 IC the charging current is 15 A and

the internal capacitor is 30 pF. S= 0.5V/ sec

Slew rate equation

Vs = Vm sint

Vo = Vm sint

dVo
dt

= Vm cost

S =slew rate =

S = Vm = 2 f Vm
S = 2 f Vm V / sec

dVo
dt

max

For distortion free output, the

maximum allowable input

frequency fm can be obtained as

This is also called full
power bandwidth of the
op-amp

fm

S
2 V

15. Gain Bandwidth product

It is the bandwidth of op-amp when voltage gain is unity (1).

It is denoted as GB.

The GB is also called unity gain bandwidth

(UGB) or closed loop bandwidth

It is about 1MHz for op-amp 741C

16. Equivalent Input Noise Voltage and Current

The noise is expressed as a power density
Thus equivalent noise voltage is expressed as V2 /Hz
while the equivalent noise current is expressed as

A2 /Hz

17. Average temperature coefficient of offset parameters

The average rate of change of input offset voltage per unit change in
temperature is called average temperature coefficient of input offset
voltage or input offset voltage drift
It is measured in V/oC. For 741 C it is 0.5 V/oC

The average rate of change of input offset current per unit change in
temperature is called average temperature coefficient of input offset
current or input offset current drift
It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oC . For 741 C it is 12 pA/oC

18. Output offset voltage ( Voos )

The output offset voltage is the dc voltage present at the

output terminals when both the input terminals are

grounded.
It is denoted as Voos

19. Supply current

It is drawn by the op-amp from the power supply

For op-amp 741C it is 2.8mA

Op amp equivalent circuit

Block diagram of op amp

The Inverting Amplifier

Vout

Rf
Rin

Vin

Rf
Rin

Analyzing the Inverting

Amplifier

1)

inverting input (-):

non-inverting input (+):

Inverting Amplifier Analysis

1) :
:

V Vin VB VB Vout
2) : i

R
Rin
Rf
: VA 0
3) V A VB 0
Rf
Vout

Vin
Rin

Vin Vout

Rin
Rf

The Non-Inverting Amplifier

Rf
Vout 1
R
g

Rf
A 1
Rg

Vin

Analysis of Non-Inverting
Amplifier
Note that step 2 uses a voltage
divider to find the voltage at VB
relative to the output voltage.

2) : VA Vin
: VB

Rg
R f Rg

3) VA VB Vin
1)

:
:

Vout R f Rg

Vin
Rg
Rf
Vout
1
Vin
Rg

Vout
Rg

R f Rg

Vout

Comparison of the ideal inverting and noninverting op-amp

Ideal Inverting amplifier

Ideal non-inverting amplifier

1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1

1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1

2. The output is inverted with

2. No phase shift between input

respect to input

and output

3. The voltage gain can be

3. The voltage gain is always

adjusted as greater than, equal to

greater than one

or less than one

4. The input impedance is R1

4. The input impedance is very

large

The Ideal Operational Amplifier

Open loop voltage gain

AOL

Input Impedance

Ri

Output Impedance

Ro

=0

Bandwidth

BW

Zero offset (Vo = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0) Vios

=0

CMRR

Slew rate

No effect of temperature

Power supply rejection ratio

PSRR = 0

Ideal Op-amp
1. An ideal op-amp draws no current at both the input
terminals I.e. I1 = I2 = 0. Thus its input impedance is

infinite. Any source can drive it and there is no loading

on the driver stage
2. The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, hence the

differential input Vd = V1 V2 is essentially zero for the

finite output voltage Vo
3. The output voltage Vo is independent of the current
drawn from the output terminals. Thus its output
impedance is zero and hence output can drive an infinite
number of other circuits

Op-amp Characteristics

DC Characteristics
Input bias current

Input offset current

Input offset voltage
Thermal drift

AC Characteristics
Slew rate
Frequency response

Ideal Voltage transfer curve

+Vsat
AOL =
-Vd

+Vd
+Vsat +Vcc

-Vsat

Practical voltage transfer curve

1.

If Vd is greater than corresponding to b, the output

attains +Vsat

2.

If Vd is less than corresponding to a, the output attains

Vsat

3.

Thus range a-b is input range for which output varies

linearily with the input. But AOL is very high, practically
this range is very small

Transient Response Rise time

When the output of the op-amp is suddenly changing like
pulse type, then the rise time of the response depends on
the cut-off frequency fH of the op-amp. Such a rise time is
called cut-off frequency limited rise time or transient
response rise time ( tr )

0.35
tr
fH

Op-amp Characteristics

DC Characteristics
Input bias current

Input offset current

Input offset voltage
Thermal drift

AC Characteristics
Slew rate
Frequency response

DC Characteristics
Thermal Drift

The op-amp parameters input offset voltage Vios and input

offset current Iios are not constants but vary with the
factors
1.

Temperature

2.

Supply Voltage changes

3.

Time

Thermal Voltage Drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input offset voltage
per unit change in temperature. It is also called as input offset
voltage drift

Input offset voltage drift =

Vios
T

Vios = change in input offset voltage

T = Change in temperature

It is expressed in V/0 c. The drift is not constant and it is

not uniform over specified operating temperature range.
The value of input offset voltage may increase or
decrease with the increasing temperature

Vios
in
mv

Input Offset Voltage Drift

Slope can be of
either polarities

2
1
0

-1
-2
-55

TA , ambient
temp in oc

-25

25

50

75

Input bias current drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input bias

current per unit change in temperature

Thermal drift in input bias current =

I b
T

It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oc. These parameters vary randomly with

temperature. i.e. they may be positive in one temperature range and negative in
another

Input bias current drift

100
80
Ib in
nA

60
40

TA ambient temp.
in oC

20
-55
-25

25

50

75

Input Offset current drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input offset

current per unit change in temperature

Thermal drift in input offset current =

I ios
T

It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oc. These parameters vary randomly with

temperature. i.e. they may be positive in one temperature range and negative in
another

Input Offset current Drift

Slope can be of
either polarities

2
Iios in
nA

1
0
-1
-2
-55

TA , ambient
temp in oc
-25

25

50

75

AC Characteristics
Frequency Response
Ideally, an op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth but practically opamp gain decreases at higher frequencies. Such a gain reduction
with respect to frequency is called as roll off.

The plot showing the variations in magnitude and phase

angle of the gain due to the change in frequency is called
frequency response of the op-amp

When the gain in decibels, phase angle in degrees are

plotted against logarithmic scale of frequency, the plot is
called Bode Plot

The manner in which the gain of the op-amp changes with

variation in frequency is known as the magnitude plot.

The manner in which the phase shift changes with variation
in frequency is known as the phase-angle plot.

Obtaining the frequency response

To obtain the frequency response , consider the high frequency model
of the op-amp with capacitor C at the output, taking into account the
capacitive effect present
Where

AOL
AOL ( f )
1 j 2fRoC

AOL ( f )

AOL
f
1 j( )
fo

AOL(f) = open loop voltage gain as a

function of frequency
AOL = Gain of the op-amp at 0Hz
F = operating frequency
Fo = Break frequency or cutoff
frequency of op-amp

For a given op-amp and selected value of C, the frequency fo is constant.

The above equation can be written in the polar form as

AOL ( f )

AOL
f
1
fo

f
AOL ( f ) ( f ) tan
f0
1

Frequency Response of an op-amp

The following observations can be made from the frequency response of an

op-amp
i) The open loop gain AOL is almost constant from 0 Hz to the break
frequency fo .
ii)

At

f=fo , the gain is 3dB down from its value at 0Hz . Hence the frequency

fo is also called as -3dB frequency. It is also know as corner frequency

iii) After f=fo , the gain AOL (f) decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade or
6dB/octave. As the gain decreases, slope of the magnitude plot is 20dB/decade or -6dB/octave, after f=fo .
iv) At a certain frequency, the gain reduces to 0dB. This means 20log|AOL | is
0dB i.e. |AOL | =1. Such a frequency is called gain cross-over frequency or

unity gain bandwidth (UGB). It is also called closed loop bandwidth.

UGB is the gain bandwidth product only if an op-amp has a single breakover
frequency, before AOL (f) dB is zero.

For an op-amp with single break frequency fo , after fo

the gain bandwidth product is constant equal to UGB

UGB=AOL fo
UGB is also called gain bandwidth product and denoted as ft
Thus ft is the product of gain of op-amp and bandwidth.
The break frequency is nothing but a corner frequency fo . At this
frequency, slope of the magnitude plot changes. The op-amp for
which there is only once change in the slope of the magnitude plot,
is called single break frequency op-amp.

For a single break frequency we can also write

UGB= Af ff

Af = closed loop voltage gain

Ff = bandwidth with feedback
v) The phase angle of an op-amp with single break frequency varies
between 00 to 900 . The maximum possible phase shift is -900 , i.e. output
voltage lags input voltage by 900 when phase shift is maximum
vi) At a corner frequency f=fo , the phase shift is -450.
F
o

= UGB / AOL

The modes of using an op-amp

Open Loop : (The output assumes one of the two

possible output states, that is +Vsat or Vsat and the
amplifier acts as a switch only).

Closed Loop: ( The utility of an op-amp can be greatly

increased by providing negative feed back. The output in
this case is not driven into saturation and the circuit

behaves in a linear manner).

Open loop configuration of op-amp

The voltage transfer curve indicates the inability of opamp to work as a linear small signal amplifier in the open
loop mode

Such an open loop behaviour of the op-amp finds some

rare applications like voltage comparator, zero crossing

detector etc.

Open loop op-amp configurations

The configuration in which output depends on input, but output has

no effect on the input is called open loop configuration.

No feed back from output to input is used in such configuration.

The opamp works as high gain amplifier

The op-amp can be used in three modes in open loop

configuration they are

1.

Differential amplifier

2.

Inverting amplifier

3.

Non inverting amplifier

Differential Amplifier
The amplifier which amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages is called differential amplifier.

V o AOLVd AOL (V1 V2 ) AOL (Vin1 Vin 2 )

Key point: For very small Vd , output gets driven into saturation due to high AOL ,
hence this application is applicable for very small range of differential input
voltage.

Inverting Amplifier
The amplifier in which the output is inverted i.e. having

180o phase shift with respect to the input is called an

inverting amplifier

Vo = -AOL Vin2

Keypoint: The negative sign indicates that there is phase shift of 180o between
input and output i.e. output is inverted with respect to input.

Non-inverting Amplifier
The amplifier in which the output is amplified without any

phase shift in between input and output is called non

inverting amplifier

Vo = AOL Vin1

Keypoint: The positive output shows that input and output are in phase and
input is amplified AOL times to get the output.

Why op-amp is generally not used in open loop

mode?
As open loop gain of op-amp is very large, very small input
voltage drives the op-amp voltage to the saturation level.
Thus in open loop configuration, the output is at its

positive saturation voltage (+Vsat ) or negative saturation

voltage (-Vsat ) depending on which input V1 or V2 is
more than the other. For a.c. input voltages, output may
switch between positive and negative saturation voltages

This indicates the inability of op-amp to work as a linear small signal

amplifier in the open loop mode. Hence the op-amp in open loop
configuration is not used for the linear applications

General purpose op-amp 741

The IC 741 is high performance monolithic op-amp IC. It is

available in 8pin, 10pin or 14pin configuration. It can

operate over a temperature of -550 C to 1250 C.

Features:
i) No frequency compensation required
ii) Short circuit protection provided

iii) Offset Voltage null capability

iv) Large common mode and differential voltage range
v) No latch up

Internal schematic of 741 op-amp

The 8pin DIP package of IC 741

Realistic simplifying assumptions

Zero input current: The current drawn by either of the

input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) is zero

Virtual ground :This means the differential input voltage

Vd between the non-inverting and inverting terminals is
essentially zero. (The voltage at the non inverting input

terminal of an op-amp can be realistically assumed to be

equal to the voltage at the inverting input terminal

Closed loop operation of op-amp

The utility of the op-amp can be increased considerably by

operating in closed loop mode. The closed loop

operation is possible with the help of feedback. The
feedback allows to feed some part of the output back to
the input terminals. In the linear applications, the opamp is always used with negative feedback. The
negative feedback helps in controlling gain, which
otherwise drives the op-amp out of its linear range, even
for a small noise voltage at the input terminals

Ideal Inverting Amplifier

1.

The output is inverted with respect to input, which is indicated by minus

sign.

2.

The voltage gain is independent of open loop gain of the op-amp, which is
assumed to be large.

3.

The voltage gain depends on the ratio of the two resistances. Hence

selecting Rf and R1 , the required value of gain can be easily obtained.

4.

If Rf > R1,, the gain is greater than 1

If Rf < R1,, the gain is less than 1
If Rf = R1, the gain is unity

Thus the output voltage can be greater than, less than or equal to the input
voltage in magnitude

5.

If the ratio of Rf and R1 is K which is other than one, the circuit is called
scale changer while for Rf/R1 =1 it is called phase inverter.

6.

The closed loop gain is denoted as AVF or ACL i.e. gain with feedback

Ideal Non-inverting Amplifier

1.

The voltage gain is always greater than one

2.

The voltage gain is positive indicating that for a.c. input, the output
and input are in phase while for d.c. input, the output polarity is
same as that of input

3.

The voltage gain is independent of open loop gain of op-amp, but

depends only on the two resistance values

4.

The desired voltage gain can be obtained by selecting proper

values of Rf and R1

Comparison of the ideal inverting and noninverting op-amp

Ideal Inverting amplifier

Ideal non-inverting amplifier

1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1

1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1

2. The output is inverted with

2. No phase shift between input

respect to input

and output

3. The voltage gain can be

3. The voltage gain is always

adjusted as greater than, equal to

greater than one

or less than one

4. The input impedance is R1

4. The input impedance is very

large

Parameter consideration for various

applications
For A.C. applications

For D.C. applications

Input resistance

Input resistance

Output resistance

Output resistance

Open loop voltage gain

Open loop voltage gain

Slew rate

Input offset voltage

Output voltage swing

Input offset current

Gain- bandwidth product

Input offset voltage and current

drifts

Input noise voltage and current

Input offset voltage and current
drifts

Factors affecting parameters of Op-amp

Supply
Voltage

Frequency

Temperature

1. Voltage gain

1. Input offset current

2. Input resistance

2. Input offset voltage

3. Output resistance

3. Input bias current

3. Input voltage range

4. CMRR

4. Power consumption

4. Power consumption

5. Input noise voltage

5. Gain-Bandwidth
product

5. Input offset current

6. Input noise current

1. Voltage gain
2. Output Voltage
swing

6. Slew rate
7. Input resistance

Practical Inverting Amplifier

Closed Loop Voltage gain =

ACL

AOL R f
R1 R f R1 AOL

Practical Non-Inverting Amplifier

Closed Loop Voltage gain =

ACL

AOL ( R1 R f )
R1 R f R1 AOL

The End