POLARIZATION

Wave Types
 Longitudinal wave: sound

 Transverse waves: light

x
Polarized vs. Unpolarized

 Unpolarized light: light wave which is vibrating

in more than one plane
 Polarized light: light waves in which the
vibrations occur in a single plane.
 Polarization: The process of transforming
unpolarized light into polarized light is known
as Polarization.
Characteristics of Polarized light

 Polarized light has its E-field in one direction.

 Light can be polarized by different processes like
 Selective absorption- Polaroid filter (tourmaline crystal)
 Reflection- Brewester’s angle
 Refraction
 Scattering etc.
 Polarized light has many applications:
 Polaroid sunglasses, Polarization microscopy, liquid crystal
display
 Techniques to obtained Polarised Light

1.Polarisation by Reflection

2.Polarisation by Refraction

3.Polarisation by Double Refraction

4.Polarisation by Scattering
Polarizers and analysers

A polarizer (like polaroid) can be used to

polarize light
Polarizers and analysers

A polarizer can also be used to determine if

light is polarized. It is then called an
analyser.
Crossed Polariods can Eliminate
Light
There are three main types of polarized light. They
are linear, circular, and elliptical polarizations.
 Polarization by Reflection

 Unpolarized light can be polarized, either

partially or completely, by reflection.
 The amount of polarization in the reflected
beam depends on the angle of incidence.
 Brewster’s law
 The tangent of the angle of polarization is
numerically equal to the refractive index of the
medium.
  tan  p
 It is found that experimentally when the reflected
ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray, the
reflected light will be completely plane-polarized.

Incident Reflected
ray ray

p p
o
n1
90
n2
r
Polarizing angle (Brewster’s angle)

 The angle of incidence at which the reflected light is

completely plane-polarized is called the polarizing
angle (or Brewster’s angle).

By Snell’s law, n1 sin  p  n2 sin  r

Since  p   r  90 and
sin  r  sin( 90o   p )  cos p
Then we get n2
tan  p 
n1
Malus’ Law

 The intensity of polarised light that passes through a polarizer is proportional

to the square of the cosine of the angle between the electric field of the
polarized light and the angle of the polarizer!
Malus’ law
 Malus’s Law gives the following relationship between the
intensity I of light transmitted through a polariser, and the
relative angle between the transmission axis of the polariser
and the plane of polarisation of the incident light, intensity Io:
I = Iocos2θ

Io
Iocos2θ
 Polarization by Refraction

 When an incident
unpolarized ray
enters some crystals
it will be split into
two rays called
ordinary and
extraordinary rays,
which are plane-
polarized in
directions at right
angles to each other.
 Double Refraction
 When light is refracted into two rays each polarized with the
vibration directions oriented at right angles to one another, and
traveling at different velocities. This phenomenon is termed "double"
or "bi" refraction.
 Double refraction, also called birefringence, an optical property in
which a single ray of unpolarized light entering an anisotropic medium
is split into two rays, each traveling in a different direction. One ray
is called the extraordinary ray and the other ray is called the ordinary
ray.
 DOUBLE REFRACTION
The splitting of unpolarised light into
two refracted component (ordinary
light and extraordinary light)
travelling at different speeds inside
medium is known as phenomenon of
double refraction.
This is observed using a
special crystal category known as
doubly refracting crystal.

POSITIVE CRYSTAL (re < ro) AND NEGATIVE CRYSTAL (re > ro)
CALCITE CRYSTAL
Optic Axis – A line passing through any one of the blunt
corners and making equal angles with each of three edges
which meet at the corner is known as optic axis

Principal Section –

A plane containing the optic axis of the crystal

and perpendicular to the two opposite refracting
faces is called principal section of the crystal for
that pair of faces:

v|| = c/ne µe = 1.486

v┴ = c/no µo = 1.658
 sin i
0  e 
sin i
sin ro sin re

Optic Axis A

i Q E  ray
Incident re
ro
Axis P O  ray

B
 Double Refraction
When a ray of unpolarized light is passed through a uniaxial crystal , it split up into
two refracted rays, each propagating in different direction. This phenomenon of
splitting of light into two rays is known as double refraction.

One of the rays obeys the laws of refraction and its velocity in the crystal is the same
in all directions. This ray is called the ‘ordinary ray’ (O-ray).

The other refracted ray does not obeys the laws of refraction. It travels in the crystal
with different speeds in different directions. Hence it is called the ‘extraordinary way’
(E-ray).
 Double refraction
Polarization-dependent refraction. One slow and one fast ray means they take different paths through the
material, e.g. calcite
 DOUBLE REFRACTIVE CRYSTALS

The double refractive property of calcite

leads to the formation of two images as
shown in these examples. The images
are related to the existence of ordinary
rays (o-rays) and extraordinary rays (e-
rays). An analysis of these rays shows
that both these rays are linearly
polarized.
Colorless Calcite Rhombohedron with a long
edge of ~12 cm.
 Properties of O ray and E-rays

 Two different angle of refraction , i.e. re and ro

 Both rays becomes parallel after emerging the crystal

 Ordinary follows the snell’s law of refraction but not the

extraordinary

 Both rays are plane polarized. Ordinary ray : Plane of vibration

is perpendicular to the principal section while for extraordinary
is parallel to the principal section.

 POSITIVE CRYSTAL (re < ro) AND NEGATIVE CRYSTAL (re > ro)
What is the difference between
ordinary and extra ordinary ray?
1. o ray obey snells law of refraction,
e ray does not obey
2. velocity of o ray is same for all direction,
velocity of e ray is different for different direction.
3. for o ray wavefront is spherical,
for e ray wavefront is elliptical.
4. ve>vo for negative crystal (Eg Calcite). If vo >ve for
positive crystal (Quartz).
Birefringent devices – Separation of the o-
and e- rays.
Nicol prism
 A Nicol prism is a type of polarizer, an optical device used to produce
a polarized beam of light from an unpolarized beam. It is made in
such a way that it eliminates one of the rays by Total Internal
Reflection i.e, the O-ray is eliminated and only the E-ray is
transmitted through the prism.
 It was the first type of polarizing prism to be invented, in 1828 by
William Nicol (1770–1851) of Edinburgh. It consists of a rhombohedral
crystal of Iceland spar (a variety of calcite) that has been cut at an
angle of 68° with respect to the crystal axis, cut again diagonally, and
then rejoined as shown using, as a glue, a layer of transparent Canada
balsam.
Nicol Prism
Basic Principle
 The basic principle behind Nicol Prism is based on its
unique behaviour on the event of incidence of light rays
on its surface. When an ordinary ray of light is passed
through a calcite crystal, it is broken up into two rays:
 An ‘Ordinary ray’ which is polarized and has its vibrations
perpendicular to the principle section of the crystal and
 An extra-ordinary ray which is polarized and whose
vibration is parallel to the principle section of the prism.
If by some optical means, one of the two rays eliminates,
the ray emerging through the crystal will be Plane
polarized. In Nicol Prism, ordinary ray is eliminated and
Extra-ordinary ray, which is plane polarized, is
transmitted through the prism.
 Construction
 A calcite crystal’s length is three times its breadth. Let a crystal having ABCD as a
principle section of the crystal with BAD = 710.

 The end faces of the crystal are cut in such a way that they make angles of 680
and 1120 in the principle section instead of 710 and 1090. The crystal is then cut
into two pieces from one blunt corner to the other along two pieces.
 A thin layer of balsam glues two halves of the crystal. Balsam has an index of
refraction, µ b, which is between that of the o- and e-rays, i.e., µ e< µ b < µ o.

 Polarizers take advantage of double refraction and total internal
reflection
Combine two prisms of calcite, rotated so that the
ordinary polarization in the first prism is extraordinary in
the second (and vice versa).

The perpendicular polarization goes from high index (no)

to low (ne) and undergoes total internal reflection, while
the parallel polarization is transmitted near Brewster's
angle.

Nicol Prism: made up from two prisms of calcite

cemented with Canada balsam. The ordinary ray
totally reflects off the prism boundary, leaving only
the extraordinary ray.
Limitations of Nicol Prism

 When the angle of incidence at the crystal surface is increased, the

angle of incidence at Calcite – Balsam surface decreases. When the
angle S0MS becomes greater than 14o, the angle of incidence of
Calcite – Balsam surface becomes less than the critical angle. In this
position ordinary ray is also transmitted through the prism along with
extraordinary ray so light emerging from Nicol prism will not be plane
polarized.
 When angle of incidence at crystal surface is decreased, the
extraordinary ray makes less angle with the optic axis, as a result its
refractive index increase, because the refractive index of calcite
crystal for E ray is different in different directions through the crystal
being maximum when the E ray travels at right angles to the optic axis
and minimum when E ray travels along with O ray and no light
emerges from the prism
There are three main types of polarized light. They
are linear, circular, and elliptical polarizations.
 Retardation plates
• The crystal plate of doubly refracting crystal, that retards
the motion of one of the refracted beams (O-ray or E-ray)
are known as retardation plates.
• Quarter wave plate
• Half wave plate
 Quarter Wave Plate

A doubly-refracting crystal plate having a thickness such as to

produce a path difference of  / 4 or a phase difference of  / 2
between the ordinary and extra-ordinary wave is called a
quarter-wave plate.

The quarter-wave plate is used for producing circularly and

elliptically polarized light. In conjunction with Nicol Prism, it is
used for analyzing all kinds of polarized light.
 Retardation Plates

Quarter Wave Plate

A plate of a doubly refracting crystal where refracting faces are cut parallel to the direction of
optic axis whose thickness is such that to produce a phase difference of π/2 and a path
difference of λ/4 between the ordinary and extraordinary waves is called quarter wave plate.

t=λ/4(μE - μo)

Half Wave Plate

A plate of a doubly refracting crystal where refracting faces are cut parallel to the direction of optic
axis whose thickness is such that to produce a phase difference of π and a path difference of λ/2
between the ordinary and extraordinary waves is called quarter wave plate.

t=λ/2(μE μo)
 Production and Detection of Plane Polarized Light

Incident a beam of ordinary light on a Nicol Prism in a direction parallel to

the long edge of the prism.

The beam gets broken into two components O and E.

The O component gets totally reflected while the E component emerges out which
is plane polarized.
The emerging wave will have vibrations parallel to the Principal section

For detection pass the emerging light through a Nicol Prism rotating about the
direction of propagation of light.. If intensity of the emerging light varies with
zero minimum, then the light is plane polarized.
 Production and Detection of Circularly Polarized Light

Incident a plane polarized light normally on a quarter-wave plate.

The direction of vibration in the incident plane polarized light makes an angle of
45o with the optic axis of the plate.

The components emerge from the plate with phase difference of  /2

The emerging light from the quarter wave plate will be circularly polarized light.

The circularly polarized, when seen through a rotating Nicol Prism, shows no
variation in intensity. It thus resembles unpolarized light

For detection pass the emerging light through a quarter-wave plate (which converts
it into plane polarized light) and then through a rotating Nicol prism. If the light
shows a variation in intensity with zero minimum then it is circularly polarized
Light.
 Production and Detection of Elliptically Polarized Light
Incident a plane polarized light normally on a quarter-wave plate such that the
direction of vibration in the incident plane polarized light makes an angle other
than 0, 45o and 90o with the optic axis of the plate.
The incident wave inside the plate gets divided into E and O components of unequal
amplitudes which emerge from the plate with a phase difference of  / 2

The emerging light from the quarter wave plate will be elliptically polarized light.

The elliptically polarized, when seen through a rotating Nicol Prism, shows
variation in intensity but the minimum intensity is not zero. It thus resembles
partially plane polarized light.

First pass it through a rotating Nicol prism and Adjust Nicol for maximum intensity.
The principal section of the Nicol is thus parallel to the major axis of the elliptic
vibration.
 Production and Detection of Elliptically Polarized Light

Put another quarter-wave plate between the first plate (which produced elliptically
polarized light) and the Nicol prism such that the optic axis of the second plate is
parallel to the principal section of the Nicol.

The optic axis of the second plate is thus parallel to the major axis of the elliptic
vibrations. The light after passing through the second quarter-wave plate becomes
plane polarized . If Nicol is rotated now , the intensity will vary with zero minimum.
Analysis of Polarised light

General Light

Rotating Nicol

Intensity Intensity
No Intensity variation with variation with
variation min zero min non-zero
intensity intensity

Either elliptically
Either circularly
Plane Polarised or partially
or unpolarised
plane polarised
 Either circularly or Either Elliptically or
unpolarised partially polarised light

Incident on quarter wave Incident on quarter wave plate with

plate and then through optic axis parallel to principal section
rotating nicol of nicol 1 and then through rotating
nicol

Intensity Intensity Intensity

variation with No intensity variation with variation with
min zero variation min zero minimum non-
intensity intensity zero

Circularly Elliptically Partially

Unpolarised
Polarised Polarised polarised