ENS5361

POWER SYSTEMS 2

Lecture 1: Power System Flow Analysis

Textbook Reading: 2.4, 6.4

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Purpose of this Lecture

 Understand the importance of planning methodologies

 Formulate the power flow problem

 Preparations of a network for simulation

 Review relevant Power Systems 1 content:

• Single line diagrams

• Per unit conversions

• Real and reactive power calculations in single and three-phase

circuits

• Understand the concept of a node 5

 Overview
 Topics covered (introduced or reviewed) in this lecture:
• A Planning Methodology Example from Powerlink
• “N-1” Criterion
• Components of planning criteria
• Power, frequency, and voltage requirements
• Step by Step Planning Procedure
• Bulk Power System Concept
• Power flow problem
• Bus Admittance Matrix
• Phasors
• Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase Circuits
• Complex Power Flow
• Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Single-Line Representation of Power Systems
• The Per-Unit System 6
What you (should) already know about this unit

 You had to read and complete the tasks in Introduction to Unit on

the Blackboard site, including reading the Unit Plan.

 The unit is basically a continuation of Power Systems 1,

delivered in the same manner…

 Any questions?

7
 Introduction
 In the prerequisite unit Power Systems 1 you were introduced to many of the
basic concepts and fundamental elements and components of a power system.
This was a fairly “broad picture” introduction to the area of power engineering.
 Other previous units like Electrical Machines and Transformers focused on the
“narrow picture” view of a power system by only looking at components in a
stand alone capacity without looking at the wider issues that arise from the fact
that they are not stand alone components but in fact interconnected with many
other components in the system.
 In this unit, Power Systems 2, we will look in particular detail at the planning,
operation, analysis and design of these interconnected power systems. The “big
picture” view taken in this unit allows us to look at the wider system as a whole,
considering all of the elements interconnected within it and the ways in which
they interact.
 This unit builds upon the power systems concepts introduced in Power Systems
1. Power systems are analysed from the point of view of power flow.
Symmetrical faults and symmetrical components, and asymmetrical faults are
discussed. Students gain experience in the design of power network protection
circuits and systems. The unit continues with power system controls and
stability, and concludes with communication, SCADA, and substation design
8
fundamentals.
 Planning

 Electric Power Transmission Systems planning is one of the most

important justifications for Power Flow Calculation.

 It is required to satisfy regulatory requirements in maintaining continuity

and reliability of supply.

 Its horizon can be medium (5-10 years) to long term (over 20 years).

 It could not be done as an isolated scenario, generation expansion and

load growth information are required as well.

 It is usually conducted for only the bulk power supply network.

9
Identifying Bulk Power System

 Bulk power system means all loads connected downstream from the

highest voltage substation are lumped in the substation or busbar.

 For this lumped load, both the coincident peak loads and light loads

are of interest.

 The peak loads stretch the network and test for low voltages and

system overload.

 The light loads test the network for high voltages due to Ferranti

effect.

 The light loads are taken as 40% of the peak loads on a busbar.
10
Methodologies

 Developing methodologies for transmission system expansion is

an integral part of planning.

 Both steady-state and dynamic requirements must be met.

 System reliability criteria must be met.

 Information on new load centres, city planning, generating plant

location, etc., must be made available.

 Retirement schedules of units, equipment, etc., must be known.

11
 A Planning Methodology Example
 Powerlink is the sole holder of the

transmission authority in Queensland.

 Powerlink operates the high voltage

transmission grid in the east coast part of

Queensland.

 It must comply with the relevant National

Electricity Rules (NER).

 Powerlink also has the responsibility to plan

for the future Queensland transmission

12
 National Electricity Rules (NER)
 Powerlink, as a transmission network service provider (TNSP), most

comply with these NER requirements:

• TNSP must plan and operate its transmission networks to allow the

transfer of power from generators to customers

• TNSP must allow the transfer of power under certain facilities or

plant out of service, called “credible contingency events”

• Credible contingency events and practices must be used by TNSP

for planning and operation of transmission networks

 Credible contingency events include the disconnection of any single

13
generating unit or transmission line/plant.
Queensland State Government Rules

 Powerlink must plan and develop its transmission grid in

accordance with good electricity practice, including:

• quality standards obligations during normal and transient

operating conditions

• quality standards obligations during the most critical single

network element outage

• the power transfer available through the power system will be

adequate to supply the forecast peak demand during the most

critical single network element outage 14

 “N-1” Criterion
 Definition: the network capacity to supply the forecast peak demand of each

area under the most critical element out of service, without the necessity of

load shedding.

 Powerlink must plan and develop its transmission network according to an

“N-1” criterion (single line contingencies).

 Powerlink has defined the Credible contingency events that must be taken

into account.

 It includes the disconnection of any single generating unit or transmission

line/plant, with or without the application of a solid fault on lines operating at

15
 NER Rules Regarding “N-1” Criterion
 According to NER, meeting the “N-1” criterion means that the power system

can settle to a new “satisfactory” operation state following the single

contingency event.

 NER defines satisfactory operating state based on:

• the frequency at all busbars;

• the voltage magnitudes at all busbars;

• the current flows on all transmission lines;

• the output of power plants;

• the overall stability of conditions of the power system, i.e. synchronism,

16
damped power system oscillations, voltage stability criteria.
 “N-2” Criterion

 Sometime more restrictive contingency criteria may be introduced for better

system availability and reliability.

 “N-2” means double line or component contingencies.

 In such cases, loads must be able to be diverted through other circuits/lines

for double line or circuit failures. Voltages and line rating criteria must be

met.

 For double line contingency, line rating may be relaxed up to 150% to 200%

for a short period of time.

 Must be coordinated with system protection scenarios. 17

Components of Planning Criteria

 Aspects defining the conditions and assumptions under

which Powerlink must meet its statutory obligations include:

• Load forecast;

• Generation assumptions;

• Coincident generation assumptions;

• Reactive power capability;

• Rating of transmission equipments.

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 Load Forecast

 Long Term Load Forecast is required (up to 20 years).

 Lead time to design, build and commission a line may be up to 5 years.
 Planning of the main transmission system will be based on meeting the
10% probability of exceedance (PoE) medium economic load growth
forecast.
 This extends to the provision of adequate transformer capacity at
Powerlink’s major substations.
 Distributed Network Service Providers (DNSPs) agreed that the 50%
PoE medium economic load growth forecast is to be used to identify the
limitations.
 Allowance is made to consider the 50% PoE zone or local peak forecast.
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 Generation Assumptions

 To assess the reliability obligations, assumptions of generation

availability, dispatch and capability are of importance.
 The following generation assumptions are required:

• Number of generating units of influence in the area or zone;

• Age, technology and reliability record of this plant;
• Energy limitations of the plant (if applicable);
• Any external factors that may impact on the generation capacity and
availability of plant, e.g. water availability, fuel supply, etc.
• Any linkages between different generation sources with respect to a
critical resource availability, e.g. water or fuel.
20
Rating of Transmission Equipments

 The NER prescribes that the current flows on all transmission

lines and plant must be within the ratings.

 For transmission lines rating, Powerlink has formulated a criterion

involving fixed ratings for both system normal operation and

following a contingency event.

 For transformers, Powerlink has assigned normal cyclic,

emergency cyclic, short term emergency (2-hour) and short term

maximum ratings.
21
 Power, Frequency, and Voltage Requirements
 The voltage of supply at a connection point should not vary by more than 10
percent above or below its normal voltage.
 As a consequence of a credible contingency event, the voltage of supply at
a connection point must comply with the following figure:

22
Step by Step Planning Procedure

23
Power Flow Problem

 Power Flow problem definition: the computation of all bus

voltages, with known power loads and set of restrictions on

power generations and voltages.

 Power Flow problem is fundamentally important for:

• the planning of transmission and generation facilities expansions;

• establishing the starting point for many other power system

studies.

 As by-product of power flow, the real and reactive power flow in

power system equipments and equipment losses are computed. 24

 Recap: Bulk Power System Concept
 The bulk power system is mainly composed of the following parts:
• Generation: using 3-phase synchronous generators (alternators);
• Transformer: to increase the voltage level in transmission lines;
• Transmission: transferring power from generation to consumption;
• Distribution: delivering electrical energy to different load sectors;
• Utilization: converting electrical energy into other energy forms.
 Standard voltage levels (You should note that there are other voltages used
by utilities too):

25
Recap: Phasors
 Phasor is a trick to ease the understanding of sinusoidal signals.
 Voltage and current signals can be defined by their amplitude and
phase angle definition as their frequency is fixed.

V  Vrms e j  Vrms   Vrms cos   jVrms sin 

26
 Recap: Power in Single-Phase Circuits

 The average power delivered to the load is called Active Power or Real

Power (P), and its unit is Watt. Ѳ is the load angle, β is the angle of

current and δ is the angle of the voltage.

 Power Factor is defined as cos(Ѳ).

 Reactive Power (Q) accounts for power oscillation into and out of the

load, with measurement unit VAR.

27
 Recap: Complex and Apparent Power
 Complex Power (S) is used to conveniently define P and Q concepts.

 Apparent Power (S) is defined as the magnitude of S = P + jQ = Vrms I*rms,

with measurement unit VA.

 A utility company supplies both average and apparent power to the

consumer.

28
 Recap: Complex Power Flow

 For a two-bus network connected by a transmission line:

 The flow of P is mainly governed by the angle difference of the terminal

voltages, and it flows from large angle to small angle.

 The reactive power flow is more dependant on voltage amplitudes. 29

 Recap: Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
 Three-phase circuits are used because:
• less conductor material to transmit power
• no need for a neutral line as sum of currents are zero
• constant power transfer into three phase load
 Three-phase components are configured in either Star or Delta:
• For Star Connection:
• For Delta Connection:
 The complex power in 3-phase circuits:

 Conductors in a 3-phase system are identified by a colour code (in Australia

and New Zealand set by standard AS/NZS 3000:2000 Section 3.81)

30
 Recap: Single Line Representation of Power Systems
 For a balanced circuit, the system can be modelled as an equivalent
single-phase system, termed as Single Line Diagram.
 Resistances are negligible in real networks. Thus, system
components can be represented by their equivalent reactances,
called Single Line Reactance Diagram.

31
Single Line Diagram of a Sample Power System

32
 Example: The IEEE 30 Bus Test Case
 Represents a portion of the American Electric Power System (in the
Midwestern US) as of December, 1961. This network has been widely
used by various analytical and computer-based load flow techniques as
a standard evaluation test case.

33
Recap: Per-Unit Calculations

 A key problem in analyzing power systems is the large number

of transformers.

• It would be very difficult to continually have to refer

impedances to the different sides of the transformers

 This problem is avoided by a normalization of all variables.

 This normalization is known as per unit analysis.

actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
34
Recap: Per-Unit Conversion Procedure, 1f

1. Pick a 1f VA base for the entire system, SB

2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB.

Voltage bases are related by transformer turns ratios.

Voltages are line-to-neutral.

3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB = (VB)2/SB

4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB = SB/VB

5. Convert actual values to per unit.

Note: per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
35
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
 Recap: Per-Unit Solution
 Per-unit solution procedure:

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems are already in p.u.)

2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary
 When several components are involved, the individual ratings may be
different. To convert a given impedance into the equivalent impedance:

 Advantages of using the normalization and per-unit system are:

• The transformer turn-ratio equivalent circuit can be eliminated;
• Device parameters fall into a narrow range;
• The voltage throughout the power system is normally close to unity. 36
 Recap: Three-Phase Per-Unit
 Procedure is very similar to 1f except we use a 3f VA base, and use line-to-
line voltage bases:
3
1. S
Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system, B

2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB. Voltages are
line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base: VB2, LL ( 3 VB ,LN )2 VB2, LN
ZB   
S B3 3S 1B S1B

Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!

4. Calculate the current base, IB: I3 S B3 3 S 1B S 1B

B     I1B
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

37
5. Convert actual values to per-unit.
 Network Equations
 Impedance matrix or its inverse, admittance matrix, are two main methods
for defining the interconnection between network buses.
 Nodal admittance formulation is defined as using bus admittance matrix for
the formulation of network equations.
 Using nodal formulation, load-flow equation can be formulated as a
nonlinear problem and solved by well-known iterative techniques.

n
Ykk   ykj ; k  j
j 1

Yij  Y ji   yij ; i  j

38
 Example of Nodal Analysis
 Write the nodal equations for the following circuit and determine the bus
admittance matrix:

 Step 1: select one node (or bus) to be the reference bus, determine the
number of remaining non-reference buses (N) and define the voltages at the
remaining buses with respect to the reference bus. The circuit has 4 buses,
therefore N = 3. Bus 0 is chosen as the reference bus and bus voltages V10,

V20 and V30 are the bus voltages defined with respect to the reference. 39
 Example of Nodal Analysis (cont.)

 Step 2: Transform voltage sources in series with impedances into

equivalent current sources in parallel with impedances. Show admittance
values instead of impedance values on the modified circuit diagram.

40
 Example of Nodal Analysis (cont.)
 Step 3: Write nodal equations in matrix format. The elements of the bus
admittance matrix are formed as follows: 

• Ykk = sum of admittances connected to bus k

• Yij = -(sum of admittances connected between buses i and j)

( j 3  j10)  ( j 3) 0  V10   I1 
  ( j 3) ( j 3  j1  j1  j 2 )  ( j1  j 2)  V    I 
   20   2 
 0  ( j1  j 2) ( j1  j 4  j 2) V30   I 3 
 j 7  j 3 0  V10   I1 
  j3 j1 j1  V    I 
   20   2 
 0 j1  j 5 V30   I 3 

 The advantage of writing nodal equations is that a computer can be used to

generate the admittance matrix and to solve for the unknown bus voltage
vector. 41
 Power Flow Input Data: Bus Data
 There are four key parameters of load flow for each bus: active power (P),
reactive power (Q), bus voltage amplitude (V), and voltage angle (d).
 There are three types of buses:
• Swing Bus (slack bus) – a bus that is considered as the reference bus with
known voltage, e.g. 10 p.u. The unknown parameters are P and Q.
• Load Bus (PQ bus) – most of buses in a load-flow program. P and Q are
input data, the power-flow program must compute bus voltage and angle.
• Voltage-Controlled Bus (PV bus)
– generators, tap-changing
transformers, etc. are connected
to this bus type. Voltage
amplitude, P, and QG limits are
input data. Compute Q and δ.
42
 Power Flow Input Data: Branch Data
 Transmission lines and transformers can be represented by equivalent
circuits:

Per unit transmission line Per unit equivalent model of

 equivalent model a two winding transformer
 The input data obtained for every transmission line in a system includes:
• Per-unit equivalent  circuit impedance and shunt admittance;
• The two buses to which the line is connected;
• Maximum MVA power rating of the line.
 The input data obtained for every transformer in a system includes:
• Per-unit winding impedances and per-unit exciting branch admittance;
• The two buses to which the transformer windings are connected;
• Maximum MVA power rating of the transformer;
• The maximum tap setting if the transformer is a tap-changing transformer.
43
Example 6.9

44
Example 6.9: Bus Data

45
Example 6.9: Bus Data (cont.)

 Bus 1 is the slack bus. This bus is the reference bus for the
system and voltage magnitude and phase variables are defined
for this bus. The power flow program computes real and reactive
power.
 Bus 3 is a PV bus. Per-unit real power, bus voltage per-unit
magnitude, and per – unit reactive power limits are the input data
variables defined for this bus. The power flow program
calculates reactive power and voltage phase.
 Buses 2, 4 and 5 are PQ buses. Per-unit real and reactive power
values are the input data variables defined. The power flow
program calculates voltage magnitude and phase variables.

46
 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 Y15 
Example 6.9: Bus Admittance Matrix Y
 21 Y22 Y23 Y24 Y25 
Ybus  Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 Y35 
n  
Ykk   ykj ; k  j Yij  Y ji   yij ; i  j Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 Y45 
j 1 Y51 Y52 Y53 Y54 Y55 
 1st row: buses 2, 3 and 4 do not directly connect to bus 1  Y12  Y13  Y14  0
1 1
Y11    3.729  j 49.7203  49.8599  85.7108 per unit
R15  jX 15 0.0015  j 0.02
1 1
Y15    3.729  j 49.7203  49.859994.289  per unit
R15  jX 15 0.0015  j 0.02

47
 Example 6.9: Bus Admittance Matrix (cont.)
 2nd row: buses 1 and 3 do not directly connect to bus 2  Y21  Y23  0
′ ′
 
1 1 𝐵 𝐵 124 25 1
𝑌 =
22 ′
+ ′
+𝑗 +𝑗 =
′ ′
+ +¿
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑅 +𝑗 𝑋
24 24 25
2 2 0.0099+ 𝑗0.1 0.0045+ 𝑗0.05
25
1 1
Y24    0.89276  j 9.91964  9.9597295.143 p.u.
R24  jX 24 0.009  j 0.1
' '

1 1
Y25    1.78552  j19.83932  19.919595.143
p.u.
R25  jX 25 0.0045  j 0.05
' '

48
Example 6.9:
Simulation

49
Special Case: “Off-Nominal”, Tap Changing Transformers
 Load Tap
Changing
transformers
have tap ratios
that can be
varied to
regulate bus
voltages.
 The typical
range of
variation is Y11 Y12  V1   I1 
Y Y  V    I 
10% from the  21 22   2   2 
nominal values,
usually in 33  Yeq  cYeq  V1   I1 
 *    
c Yeq  V2   I 2 
2
discrete steps.  c Yeq 50
Example: “Off-Nominal”, Tap Changing Transformers
 In the previous example the off-nominal tap ratio for the transformer
between buses 3 and 4 was set at 1.0, which effectively means that the
transformer was not considered an off-nominal transformer. In this example
the off-nominal turns ratio is altered to 0.9 and Ybus is recalculated. In this
case the non-tapped side is bus 4 and the tapped side is bus 3.
1 1
Yeq    7.46  j 99.44
R34  jX 34 0.00075  j 0.01
Y33  c 2Yeq  0.9 2  7.46  j 99.44  6.16  j82.18
Y34  Y43  cYeq  0.9 7.46  j 99.44  6.78  j 90.40
' '
1 1 B24 B45
Y44  Yeq    j  j 
'
R24  jX 24
' '
R45  jX 45
'
2 2
1 1
  7.46  j 99.44    
0.009  j 0.1 0.00225  j 0.025
1.72 0.44
j j  11 .92  j147.96
2 2

1
Yeq 
Z eq
 Yeq  cYeq  V1   I1 
 *    
c Yeq  V2   I 2 
2
 c Yeq 51
 Summary
In this lecture you have learned/reviewed:
 Methodologies for transmission system planning;
 How to interpret a single line diagram of a three phase system;
 How to normalise them using per unit conversion;
 Concepts of real and reactive power;
 Effect of voltage and angle and system parameters on real and reactive
power flow: real power is mostly affected by changes in power angles and
reactive power is mostly affected by changes in voltage magnitudes;
 How to define a node “k” in a power system that is connected to other nodes
in the system;
 How to compute the bus admittance matrix;
 How to formulate the power flow problem. 52
What You Need To Do For Next Week

 Make sure you know how to access all information (both

technical and administrative) presented during class times and
on-line
 Keep an eye at all times on the Blackboard site and your
University email, and do what is requested in the announcements
 If you have not already done so:
• familiarize yourself with the Blackboard site and the Unit Plan
• review Chapter 2 and sections 3.3 and 3.8 in the prescribed
textbook

 Study these slides

 Study Chapter 6 in the prescribed textbook 53