A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Implications

for Design Principles by Mayer & Moreno

By Maryam Malik
 Research on educational technologies-ranging from motion pictures to computer-
based tutoring systems--documents a disappointing history in which strong claims for a
new technology are followed by large-scale implementations which eventually fail(Cuban,
1986; Mayer, in press)
 In 1922, the famous inventor Thomas Edison proclaimed that "the motion picture is
destined to revolutionize our educational system and that in a few years it will
supplant...the use of textbooks" (cited in Cuban, 1986, p. 9)
 Yet, in reviewing the role of motion pictures in schools over the decades since Edison's
grand predictions, Cuban (1986, p. 17) concluded that "most teachers used films
infrequently in classrooms."
 Similarly, fifty years later in the 1970s, the game-like computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) programs that were tauted as the wave of the future in education eventually
proved to be no more effective than teacher-based modes of instruction (Cognition and
Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1996)
 Today, similarly strong claims are being made for the potential of multimedia learning
environments
 How can we avoid a trail of broken promises concerning the educational benefits of
new educational technologies such as multimedia learning environments?
 A reasonable solution is to use instructional technology in ways that are grounded in
research-based theory
 The theme of this paper is that effective use of a new instructional technology must be
guided by a research-based theory of how students learn
 Fortunately, advances in cognitive psychology provide the starting point for such
theories
 We are convinced that one of the most important avenues of cognitive psychology is to
understanding how technology--such as multimedia--can be used to foster student
learning. As an example, in this paper we provide a research-based review of five
principles of multimedia design
 We begin with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 1997). The theory
draws on Paivio's dual coding theory, Baddeley's (1992) model of working memory,
Sweller's cognitive load theory, Wittrock's (1989) generative theory, and Mayer's (1996)
SOI model of meaningful learning
 According to the theory, the learner possesses a visual information processing system
and a verbal information processing, such that auditory narration goes into the verbal
system whereas animation goes into the visual system
 In multimedia learning the learner engages in three important cognitive processes
1. The first cognitive progress, selecting, is applied to incoming verbal information to yield a
text base and is applied to incoming visual information to yield an image base
2. The second cognitive process, organizing, is applied to the word base to create a verbally-
based model of the to-be explained system and is applied to the image base to create a
visually-based model of the to be-explained system
3. Finally, the third process, integrating, occurs when the learner builds connections between
corresponding events (or states or parts) in the verbally-based model and the visually-
based model
The model has generated a series of experiments yielding five major principles of how to
use multimedia to help students understand a scientific explanation
Multiple Representation Principle

 The first principle is simply that it is better to present an explanation using two modes of
representation rather than one (Dual-Coding theory). For example, students who
listened to a narration explaining how a bicycle tire pump works while also viewing a
corresponding animation generated twice as many useful solutions to subsequent problem
solving transfer questions than did students who listened to the same narration without
viewing any animation(Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992)
 Similarly, students who read a text containing captioned illustrations placed near the
corresponding words generated about 65% more useful solutions on a subsequent
problem-solving transfer test than did students who simply read the text. We call this
result a multimedia effect
 The multimedia effect is consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning
because students given multimedia explanations are able to build two different mental
representations--a verbal model and a visual model--and build connections between them
Contiguity Principle:

 When giving a multimedia explanation, present corresponding words and pictures

contiguously rather than separately
 For example, students who listened to a narration explaining how a bicycle tire pump
works while also viewing a corresponding animation, generated 50% more useful solutions
to subsequent problem-solving transfer questions than did students who viewed the
animation before or after listening to the narration
 Similarly, students who read a text explaining how tire pumps work that included
captioned illustrations placed near the text generated about 75% more useful solutions on
problem-solving transfer questions than did students who read the same text and
illustrations presented on separate pages
 This result is called contiguity effect
 Contiguity effect is consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning because
corresponding words and pictures must be in working memory at the same time in order to
facilitate the construction of referential links between them
Split-Attention Principle

 When giving a multimedia explanation, present words as auditory narration rather than as
visual on-screen text. The third principle is that words should be presented auditorily rather
than visually. For example, students who viewed an animation depicting the formation of
lightning while also listening to a corresponding narration generated approximately 50%
more useful solutions on a subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did students who
viewed the same animation with corresponding on-screen text consisting of the same
words as the narration
 Sweller and his colleagues call this a split attention effect
 This result is consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning because the on-
screen text and animation can overload the visual information processing system whereas
narration is processed in the verbal information processing system and animation is
processed in the visual information processing system
Individual Differences Principle

 The fourth principle is that multimedia effects, contiguity effects, and split-attention
effects depend on individual differences in the learner
 For example, students who lack prior knowledge tended to show stronger multimedia
effects and contiguity effects than students who possessed high levels of prior
knowledge
 According to a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, students with high prior
knowledge may be able to generate their own mental images while listening to an
animation or reading a verbal text so having a contiguous visual presentation is not needed
 Additionally, students who scored high on tests of spatial ability showed greater
multimedia effects than did students who scored low on spatial ability (Mayer & Sims,
1994)
 According to a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, students with high spatial ability
are able to hold the visual image in visual working memory and thus are more likely to
benefit from contiguous presentation of words and pictures
Coherence Principle

 When giving a multimedia explanation, use few rather than many extraneous words
and pictures. The fifth principle is that students learn better from a coherent summary
which highlights the relevant words and pictures than from a longer version of the
summary
 For example, students who read a passage explaining the steps in how lightning forms
along with corresponding illustrations generated 50% more useful solutions on a
subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did students who read the same information
with additional details inserted in the materials
 This result is consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, in which a shorter
presentation primes the learner to select relevant information and organize it
Additional Points

 Mayer also discusses the role of three memory stores: sensory (which receives stimuli
and stores it for a very short time), working (where we actively process information to
create mental constructs (or ‘schema’), and long-term (the repository of all things learned)
 Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning presents the idea that the brain does not
interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and auditory information in a
mutually exclusive fashion; rather, these elements are selected and organized dynamically
to produce logical mental constructs
CRITICISMS OF THE THEORY

 Does not take into account learner stress and motivation, which can contribute to cognitive
load
 Does not explicitly address non-narrative audio (e.g. background music)
 Unclear how generalisable the theory is – needs more studies done settings other than
physical sciences. However, increasing evidence of applicability to medical education.
 Lack of mechanistic understanding of the integrative processing present in the model