By: Prof Dr.

Akhtar Naeem Khan

chairciv@nwfpuet.edu.pk

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 Types of loads
 Wind Load
 Earthquake Load
 Load Combinations

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Feeling Responsibility

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 Determination of loads for which a given
structure may be designed for is a difficult
problem.

Questions to be Answered:
• What loads may structure be called upon during its
lifetime?
• In what combinations these loads occur?
• The probability that a specific live load be
exceeded at some time during lifetime of
structure?

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Three broad categories:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Environmental load

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1. Dead load
Dead Loads consist of the weight of
all materials and fixed equipment
incorporated into the building or
other structure. (UBC Section 1602)
◦Weight of structure
◦Weight of permanent machinery etc.
◦Dead loads can be reasonably estimated if the
member dimensions and material densities are
known.

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2. Live load:
Live loads are those loads produced by
the use and occupancy of the building or
other structure and do not include dead
load, construction load, or environmental
loads.
◦ Weight of people, furniture, machinery, goods
in building.
◦ Weight of traffic on bridge

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2. Live load:

• Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is

extremely difficult to estimate suitable design
loads.
• Different building codes specify live load
requirements.
• Uniform Building Code (UBC)
• Southern Standard Building Code
• BOCA National Building Code

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3. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load,
snow load, rain load, earthquake load,
and flood load.

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 Bernoulli’s equation for stream flow is
used to determine local pressure at
stagnation point, considering air to be
non-viscous & incompressible.
q: pressure
q = (ρv2/2) ρ: mass density of air
v: velocity

• This pressure is called velocity pressure, stagnation pressure.

• This equation is based on steady flow.
• It does not account for dynamic effects of gusts or dynamic
response of body.

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 Resultant wind pressure on body depends
upon pattern of flow around it.
 Pressure vary from point to point on surface,

which depends on shape & size of body.

 Resultant wind pressure is expressed as:

PD = CDA(ρv2/2) PL= CLA(ρv2/2)

CD : Drag coefficient
CL : Lift coefficient

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• For buildings bridges and the like pressure is
expressed in terms of Shape Factor CS (pressure
coefficient)
Air at 15C weighs 0.0765pcf

P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph

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 Measured wind velocities are averages of
fluctuating velocities encountered during a
finite time.
 In US average of velocities recorded during

the time it takes a horizontal column of air 1

mile long to pass a fixed point.
 Fastest mile is highest velocity in 1 day.
 Annual extreme mile is the largest of the

daily maximums.

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 Wind pressure to be used in design should
be based on a wind velocity having a
specific mean recurrence interval.
 The flow of air close to ground is slowed
by surface roughness, which depends on
density, size and height of buildings,
trees, vegetation etc.
 Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616) above
ground is used as the basic values for
design purpose.

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 Shape factor varies considerably with
proportion of structure & horizontal angle of
incidence of the wind.
• CS for windward face of flat roofed rectangular building is
0.9
• CS for negative pressure on rear face varies from -0.3 to -0.6
• For such building resultant pressure be determined by shape
factor 1.2 to 1.5
• Commonly used is 1.3
• CS for Side walls -0.4 to –0.8
• CS for roof –0.5 to –0.8
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 Wind load

• Pressure acts on the windward face of the building

• Suction acts on the leeward face of the building
• Suction acts on the sides of the building so a person
standing in The window may be thrown outside
• Suction acts on the floor so that sheet floors are
blown away During strong wind storms

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 Wind load

The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

Experience suction which will cause tension in the column and as
Concrete is weak in tension so it may crack. As a result the lateral
Wind load may collapse the restaurant.

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  Design Wind Pressure:

P  CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

Cq (or Cs): Pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of
structure under consideration (Table 16-H)
qs : wind stagnation pressure at the standard height of
33ft (Table 16-F)
Iw: importance factor (Table 16-k)

CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan 19

 Example: Calculate the wind pressure exerted by a
wind blowing at 100mph on the uniform grid shape
building.
Sol: According the formula given above:

P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph

For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-

H)
For Leeward face: Cs = .5 outward (UBC97 Table 16-
H)

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 Wind Load Example
P=0.00256CSV2

 Pwindward = 20.48 psf

 Pleeward = 12.80 psf

 Ptotal = 33.28 psf

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 Wind Load Example
 Alternate Method:

P  CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

 Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-

G)
 Cq = 0.8 ( For windward wall, Table 16-H)
= 0.5 ( For leeward wall, Table 16-H)
 q = 25.6 psf (For 100mph velocity, Table 16-F)
s
 I = 1.0 (According to occupancy category,
w
Table16-K)

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 Wind Load Example

P  CeCqqsIw
 Pwindward = 15.56 psf

 Pleeward = 9.73 psf

 Ptotal = 25.29 psf

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Wind Load Example

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 Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
 Earthquake loads are necessary to consider
in earthquake prone regions.
 Earthquake waves are of two types:

◦ Body waves
◦ Surface waves

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 Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
• Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves
•These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to
move back and forth and impart accelerations into
the base of structure.
•Period and intensity of these acceleration pulses
change rapidly & their magnitude vary from small
values to more than that of gravity.

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 Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

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 Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
Structure response to an earthquake primarily
depends upon:
• Mass
• stiffness
• natural period of vibration
• damping characteristics of structure
• location from epicenter
• topography & geological formation.
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 Earthquake Load UBC 97
Seismic Zone BCP 07

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 Mean Return Period
The average Time Period (in years) based on
geological and historical records in which there
is a good statistical probability that an
earthquake of a certain magnitude or a hurricane
will recur is called Mean Return Period or
Recurrence Interval R.
Probability of Exceedence of the event in any one year
is the inverse of the Mean Return Period = 1/R

Probability that an event will be exceeded at least once in

the n years is
Pn= 1-( 1-1/R)n

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 Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an windstorm of
150mph is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will
encounter an windstorm exceeding 150mph during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be

exposed to a windstorm exceeding 150mph.
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 Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an earthquake
of 0.4g is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will encounter
an earthquake exceeding 0.4g during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed

to an earthquake exceeding 0.4g
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 Mean Return Period
Uniform Building Code specifies that the earthquake for
which a building has to be designed should correspond to an
earthquake with a return period of 475 years.
Assuming that a building has service life of 50 years. The
probability that it will experience and earthquake of mean
return period 475 in its design life would be:

P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%

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 Impact Load
 Spring Example
 It is customary to express Impact load as
percentage of static force.
 Effect of impact load is taken into account in
calculation of loads.
 If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by
1.25
 According to AISC live load on hangers
supporting floor and balcony construction
should be increased by one-third for impact.

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ASD Load combinations

1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75W
3. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75E
D = dead load
L = Live load
W = Wind load
E = Earthquake load

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ASD Load combinations
You can use following load combinations
with the parameter ALSTRINC (Allowable
Strength Increase) to account for the 1/3
allowable increase for the wind and seismic
load

1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0W
3. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0E

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LRFD Load Combinations
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D +1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D ± (1.3W or 1.0E
D = Dead load L = Live load
Lr = Roof Live Load W = Wind load
S = Snow Load E = Earthquake
load
R = Rain Water or Ice

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 Load Combinations
Example: Roof beams W16X31, spaced 7ft-0in center-to-center,
support a superimposed dead load of 40 psf. Code specified roof
loads are 30 psf downward (due to roof live load, snow, or rain)
and 20 psf upward or downward (due to wind). Determine the
critical loading for LRFD.

D = 31 plf + 40 psf X 7.0 ft = 311 plf

L=0
(Lr or S or R) = 30 psf X 7.0 ft = 210 plf
W = 20 psf X 7.0 ft = 140 plf
E=0

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 Load Combinations
1) 1.4D
1.4(311 plf) = 435 plf

2) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0.5(210 plf) = 478 plf

3) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)

1.2(311 plf) + 1.6 (210 plf) +0.8(140 plf) = 821 plf

4) 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2(311 plf) + 1.3(140 plf) + 0 +0.5(210 plf) = 660 plf

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 Load Combinations

5) 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S

1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0 + 0.2(210 plf) = 415 plf

6) 0.9D ± (1.3W or 1.0E)

a) 0.9 (311 plf) + 1.3 (140 plf) = 462 plf
b) 0.9(311 plf) - 1.3(140 plf) = 98 plf

The critical factored load combination for design is the third, with
a total factored load of 821 plf.

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