MECHATRONICS

DC MOTORE
Permanent Magnet
• Consider a permanent magnet dc motor, the permanent
magnet giving a constant value of flux density For an
armature conductor of length and carrying a current the
force resulting from a magnetic flux density B at night
angles to the conductor is BiL. With N such conductors
the force is NBIL. The forces result in a torque T about
the coil axis of Fb, with b being the breadth of the coil.
Thus

is torque constant
• Since an armature coil is rotating in a magnetic field, electromagnetic induction
will occur and a back e.m.f. will be induced.
• The back emf is proportional to the rate at which the flux linked by the coil
changes.
• Hence, for a constant magnetic field, is proportional to the angular velocity of
the rotation. Thus:

• is back emf constant

• We can consider a dc motor to have the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure.
• The armature coil being represented by a
resistor R in series with an inductance L in
series with a source of back emf.
• If we neglect the inductance of the armature
coil, then the voltage providing the current i
through the resistance is the applied voltage
V minus the back emf, ie V- . Hence:
DM Motor with field coil
D.C. motors with field coils are classified according to how the
field windings and armature windings are connected

Series Shunt Compound

Separately
wound
Series Wound:

• The armature and fields coils are in series.

• Exerts the highest starting torque
• Greatest no-load speed
• With light loads there is a danger that a series wound
motor might run at too high a speed.
• Reversing the polarity of the supply to the coils has no
effect on the direction of rotation of the motor, it will
continue rotating in the same direction since both the
field and armature currents have been reversed.
Shunt wound :

• Armature and field coils are in parallel.

• It provides the lowest starting torque, a much lower no-
load speed and has good speed regulation.
• Because of this almost constant speed regardless of load,
shunt wound motors are very widely used.
• To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or
field supplied must be reversed. For this reason, the
separately excited windings are preferable for such a
situation.
Compound Motor: Separately exited motor:
• The compound motor has two field • The separately excited motor has
windings, one in series with the separate control of the armature and
armature and one in parallel field currents
• Aim to get the best features of the • Can be considered to be a special case
series and shunt wound motors, of the shunt wound motor.
namely a high starting torque and
good speed regulation.
• Figure indicates the torque-speed characteristics of the
above motors.
• The speed of such d.c. motors can be changed by either
changing the armature current or the field current.
• Generally it is the armature current that is varied.
• The choice of motor will depend on its application.
• For example, with a robot manipulator, the robot wrist
might use a series wound motor because the speed
decreases as the load increases. A shunt wound motor
would be used where a constant speed was required,
regardless of the load.
Control of DC motor
• The speed of a permanent magnet motor depends on the current through the
armature coil.
• With a field coil motor the speed can be changed by either varying the armature
current or the field current (generally it is the armature current that is varied).
• Thus speed control can be obtained by controlling the voltage applied to the
armature.
• However, because fixed voltage supplies are often used, a variable voltage is
obtained by an electronic circuit.
• The simplest form of motor control is open loop control, where one
simply sets the drive voltage value, and the motor characteristics and
load determine the operating speed and torque.
• But most interesting problems require some sort of automatic control,
where the voltage is automatically varied to produce a desired motion.
This is called closed-loop or feedback control, and it requires an output
speed and/or torque sensor to feed back output values to continuously
compare the actual output to a desired value, called the set point.
• The controller then actively changes the motor output to move closer
to the set point. Electronic speed controllers are of two types:
1. linear amplifiers
2. pulse width modulators. (lower power requirements, ease of design, smaller
size, and lower cost)
• This basically involves taking a
constant dc supply voltage and
chopping it so that the average value is
varied.
• A DC power supply voltage is rapidly switched
at a fixed frequency f between two values
(e.g., ON and OFF).
• Figure shows how PWM can be obtained
by means of a basic transistor circuit.
• The transistor is switched on or off by
means of a signal applied to its base.
• The diode is to provide a path for current
which arises when the transistor is off as a
result of the motor acting as a generator.
• Such a circuit can only be used to drive the
motor in one direction.
• To control the direction of rotation, the direction of
current supplied to the motor must be reversible. This
requires a current amplifier and some means to switch
the current direction. The concept of an H-bridge meets
these requirements.
• It uses four switches (relays or transistors) arranged in
an H configuration around the DC motor
• The switches are turned on one pair at a time for the
desired direction of motion
• If switches Q1 and Q3 are on and Q2 and Q4 are off,
current flows through the motor in the direction shown
and the motor rotates in one direction.
• Alternatively, if switches Q2 and Q4 are on and Q1 and
Q3 are off, the motor rotates in the other direction.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-M_pQDIOcNo
• The above are examples of open-loop control, this assumes that conditions will
remain constant.
• Closed-loop control systems use feedback to modify the motor speed if conditions
change following Figure shows some of the methods that might be employed.
• In Figure (a) the feedback signal is provided by a tachogenerator, this giving an
analogue signal which has to be converted to a digital signal by an ADC for input
to the microprocessor The output from the microprocessor is converted to an
analogue signal by an ADC and used to vary the voltage applied to the armature of
the dc motor.

(a)
• In Figure (b) the feedback signal is provided by an encoder, thus giving a digital
signal which after code conversion can be directly inputted to the microprocessor.

(b)
• As in (a) the system shows an analogue voltage being varied to control
the motor speed.
• In Figure 7.32(c) the system is completely digital and PWM is used to
control the average voltage applied to the armature

(c)
Brushless permanent magnet DC motors
• A problem with dc motors is that they require a commutator and
brushes in order to periodically reverse the current through each
armature coil.
• The brushes make sliding contacts with the commutator and as a
consequence sparks jump between the two and they suffer wear.
• Brushes thus have to be periodically changed and the commutator
resurfaced.
• To avoid such problems brushless motors have been designed.
• Essentially they consist of a sequence of stator coils and a permanent
magnet rotor.
• A current-carving conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force
• With the conventional DC motor the magnet is fixed and the current-carrying
conductors made to move.
• With the brushless permanent magnet dc motor the reverse is the case, the
current carrying conductors are fixed and the magnet moves.
• Brushless permanent magnet dc motors are becoming increasingly used in
situations where high performance coupled with reliability and low
maintenance are essential.
• Because of their lack of brushes, they are quiet and capable of high speeds
• The rotor is a ferrite or ceramic permanent
magnet Figure shows the basic form of such a
motor.
• The current to the stator coils is electronically
switched by transistors in sequence round the
coils, the switching being controlled by the
position of the rotor so that there are always
forces acting on the magnet causing it to rotate
in the same direction.
• Hall sensors are generally used to sense the
position of the rotor and initiate the switching
by the transistors, the sensor being positioned
around the stator.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCEiOnuODac
• Figure shows the transistor switching
circuits that might be used with the motor.
• To switch the coils in sequence we need to
supply signals to switch the transistors on
in the right sequence.
• This is provided by the outputs from the
three sensors operating through a decoder
circuit to give the appropriate base
currents.
• Thus when the rotor is in the
vertical position, ie 0°, there is an
output from sensor c but none
from a and b.
• This is used to switch on
transistors A+ and B- .
• For the rotor in the 60° position
there are signals from the
sensors b and c and transistors
A+ and C- are switched on.
• Table 7.1 shows the entire switching sequence. The entire circuit for
controlling such a motor is available on a single integrated circuit
A.C. MOTOR
• An AC motor is a motor that converts alternating current into mechanical power.
• The stator and the rotor are important parts of AC motors.
• The stator is the stationary part of the motor, and the rotor is the rotating part of
the motor.
• The AC motor may be single phase and polyphase with each group being further
sub divided into induction and synchronous motors.
• Single-phase motors tend to be used for low power requirements while poly
phase motors are used for higher powers.
• Induction motors tend to be cheaper than synchronous motors and are thus very
widely used.
 Single-phase Squirrel-cage Induction Motor
• The single-phase squirrel-cage induction motor consists of a squirrel-cage rotor, this
being copper or aluminium bars that fit into slots in end rings to form complete
electrical circuits.
• There are no external electrical connections to the rotor.
• The basic motor consists of this rotor with a stator having a set of windings.
• When an alternating current passes through the stator windings an alternating
magnetic field is produced
• As a result of electromagnetic induction, em.fs are induced in the conductors of the
rotor and currents flow in the rotor.
• Initially, when the rotor is stationary, the forces on the current carrying conductors of
the rotor in the magnetic field of the stator are such as to result in no net torque.
• The motor is not self-starting.
• A number of methods are used to make the motor self-starting and give this
initial impetus to start it, one is to use an auxiliary starting winding to give
the rotor an initial push.
• The rotor rotates at a speed determined by the frequency of the alternating
current applied to the stator.
• For constant frequency supply to a two-pole single-phase motor the
magnetic field will alternate at this frequency.
• This speed of rotation of the magnetic field is termed the synchronous
speed. The rotor will never quite match this frequency of rotation, typically
differing from it by about 1 to 3%.
• This difference is termed slip.
• Thus for a 50 Hz supply the speed of rotation of the rotor will be almost 50
revolutions per second.
three-phase induction motor
• The three-phase induction motor is similar to the single-
phase induction motor but has a stator with three
windings located 120° apart, each winding being
connected to one of the three lines of the supply.
• Because the three phases reach their maximum currents
at different times, the magnetic field can be considered to
rotate round the stator poles, completing one rotation in
one full cycle of the current.
• The rotation of the field is much smoother than with the
single-phase motor.
• The three-phase motor has a great advantage over the
single-phase motor of being self-starting The direction of
rotation is reversed by interchanging any two of the line
connections, this changing the direction of rotation of the
magnetic field
three-phase Synchronous motors

• Synchronous motors have stators similar to those

described above for induction motors but a rotor which is a
permanent magnet.
• The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and so
the magnet rotates with it.
• With one pair of poles per phase of the supply, the
magnetic field rotates through 360° in one cycle of the
supply and so the frequency of rotation with this
arrangement is the same as the frequency of the supply.
• Synchronous motors are used when a precise speed is
required
• They are not self-starting and some system has to be
employed to start them.
Stepper motor
• The stepper motor is a device that produces rotation through equal
angles, the so-called steps for each digital pulse supplied to its input.
• Thus, for example, if with such a motor 1 pulse produces a rotation of
6 then 60 pulses will produce a rotation through 360°
• There are a number of forms of stepper motor

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyqwLiowZiU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0vrTNmCTkc
variable reluctance stepper motor
• The variable reluctance stepper motor has a ferromagnetic rotor
rather than a permanent magnet rotor.
• With this form the rotor is made of soft steel and is cylindrical
with four poles i.e fewer poles than on the stator.
• When an opposite pair of windings has current switched to them,
a magnetic field is produced with lines of force which pass from
the stator poles through the nearest set of poles on the rotor.
• Since lines of force can be considered to be rather like elastic
thread and always trying to shorten themselves, the rotor will
move until the rotor and stator poles line up.
• This is termed the position of minimum reluctance. This form of
stepper generally gives step angles of 7 5° or 15°
Stepper motor & BLDC
• The stepper motor can run step by step. BLDC motors are designed to provide smooth motion.
• Since stepping motors are used for motion control, repeatable steps are required. That is, if
you start with one step, then go to another step, and then go back to the first step, it should
ideally return to the previous position accurately. Various things can mess things up. The
BLDC motor is optimized to achieve smooth torque between steps, rather than repeatability.
• The stepper motor is designed to maximize the holding torque, which is the ability of the
stepper to maintain the mechanical load at a certain level. Even if the rotor is aligned with the
stator, it can be achieved by maintaining a high winding current. This wastes a lot of energy
because it will not produce torque unless the load tries to deviate from its position, but it does
avoid the need for any feedback mechanism.
• On the other hand, BLDC usually runs with the rotor lagging behind the stator, so the applied
current always produces the maximum torque, which is the torque produced by a brushed
motor. If less torque is required, the current is reduced.
 Permanent magnet stepper
• The motor shown has a stator with four poles. Each pole is
wound with a field winding, the coils on opposite pairs of poles
being in series.
• Current is supplied from a d.c. source to the windings through
switches
• The rotor is a permanent magnet and thus when a pair of stator
poles has a current switched to it, the rotor will move to line up
with it
• Thus for the currents giving the situation shown in the figure the
rotor moves to the 45 position
• If the current is then switched so that the polarities are reversed,
the rotor will move a further 45° in order to line up again.
• Thus by switching the currents through the coils the rotor rotates
in 45° steps
• With this type of motor, step angles are commonly 18°, 7 5°, 15°
30° 34° or 90°
Hybrid stepper motor

• Hybrid stepper motors combine the features of both

the variable reluctance and permanent magnet
motors, having a permanent magnet encased in iron
caps which are cut to have teeth.
• The rotor sets itself in the minimum reluctance
position in response to a pair of stator coils being
energised .
• Typical step angles are 0.9° and 1.8° Such stepper
motors are extensively used in high-accuracy
positioning applications, eg in computer hard disc
drives