TRANSISTORS

AND
AMPLIFIERS
I. TRANSISTOR
FUNDAMENTALS
Transistor
 Developed in December 23, 1947
in Bell Laboratories
 By John Bardeen, William
Shockley, and Walter Brattain
 Basically a resistor that amplifies
electrical impulses as they are
from its input to its output
terminals
Basic Types
1. Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT)
 It is a three layer semiconductor
device consisting of either two N-
type and one P-type layers of
materials or two P-type and one N-
type layers of semiconductor
materials.
Three Regions of BJT
Base
Region to which carriers flow from
emitter to collector.
1017 dopants/ cm3
Moderately doped
Three Regions of BJT
Emitter
Region from which carriers flow
1019 dopants/ cm3
Heavily doped
Three Regions of BJT
Collector
Region to which carriers flow
1015 dopants/ cm3
Lightly doped
Largest
BJT Structure and
Construction
Metal contacts

Emitter
Base
Collector
Substrate

Epitaxial Planar Structure

BJT Structure and
Construction
collector collector

n p
base p base n
n p
emitter emitter

npn-type pnp-type
Transistor Currents and Configuration
Common
Base Vi E C Vo
Configuration Ie Ic
◦ In this circuit, the RE B RC
input signal is
applied at the
emitter, the output
is taken at the VEE VCC
collector and the
base is the common
terminal.
◦ This has very low
Transistor Currents and Configuration

Alpha (α)
◦ In the dc mode, the levels of IC and IE due to
majority carriers are related by a quantity called
alpha and defined by the following equation:

Ic
α =
Ie
Transistor Currents and Configuration
Common
Emitter Ic
Ib VCC
Configuration Vi
◦ The input is applied to the
base, the amplified output Ie Vo
is taken from the collector RB
and the emitter is the
common terminal. RE
◦ The circuit is the one
generally used for
VBB
transistors because this
has the best combination
of current and voltage Ie = Ib + Ic
gains.
Transistor Currents and Configuration

Beta (β)
◦ the ratio of collector current to the base current .

Ic
β=
Ib
Transistor Currents and Configuration
Common Ic
Ib VCC
Collector Vi
Configuration Vo
◦ This circuit has the Ie
RB
input applied to the
base, the output taken RE
at the emitter terminal
and the collector is the VBB
common terminal.
◦ Impedance matching.
Transistor Currents and Configuration

Gamma (δ)
◦ the ratio of collector current to the base current .

Ie
δ=
Ib
Comparison of Amplifier Configurations
Common Common
Characteristic Common Base
Emitter Collector
Power Gain moderate highest moderate

Voltage Gain highest moderate less than 1

Current Gain lowest than1 moderate highest

Input
lowest moderate highest
Impedance
Output
highest moderate highest
Impedance
Phase 180o out of
none none
Inversion phase

Application RF amplifier universal isolation

Transistor Biasing
Bias
 An electrical, mechanical or magnetic force
applied to a device to establish a desired electrical
or mechanical reference level for its operation.

 Is a DC voltage or current that sets the operating

point for amplifying the AC signal
Transistor Biasing
Fixed Bias
 Is taken from a battery or power supply

VCC
RC
RB
Vo
Vi
C
C
Transistor Biasing
Self Bias
 The amplifier produces its own DC voltage from
an IR drop across a resistor in the return circuit of
the common terminal.

 Self bias is probably the type of bias used most

often because it is economical and has stabilizing
effect on the DC level of the output current.

 Can be emitter stabilized or collector stabilized.

Transistor Biasing
Self Bias
VCC
RC
RB
Vo
Vi
C
C

RE
Emitter
Stabilized
Transistor Biasing
Self Bias
VCC
RC
RB

Vo
Vi
C
C

Collector
Stabilized
Transistor Biasing
Voltage-Divider Bias
 The most stable type of circuit biasing.
VCC
RC
RL
Vo
Vi
C
C

R2 RE
Transistor Biasing
Signal Bias
VCC
RC

RB C Vo
C

RE
Regions of Transistor Action
IC LOADLINE
IB
VCC
RL
IB

BREAKDOWN
ACTIVE
IB
SATURATION

Q-POINT IB

IB

VCE
CUT- OFF VCC
Regions of Transistor Action
Active region
 Base-emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector-base junction is reversed biased.
 Transistor’s active operation as an amplifier.
Saturation region
 Both junctions are forward biased.
 Switch on operation for the transistor.
Cut off region
 Both junctions are reverse biased.
 Switch off operation for the transistor.
Loadline and Q-Point
Loadline
- Is a straight line drawn on the collector
curves between the cut-off and saturation
points of the transistor.
Q-point (Quiescent point )
- Is the operating point of the transistor with
the time varying sources out of the circuit.
Review Question:
Given the circuit below, draw the DC loadline
1K Ic
10K 25 mA
VCC = 25V
DC Loadline
VBB = 3V
VCE
25 V

Analysis: At cut-off, IC = 0 thus VCE = VCC

At saturation, VCE = 0 thus IC = VCC / RC
 BJT Small Signal Analysis
Ii Io

hi
hi Ii

Vi hr Vo hi Vo

Transistor Hybrid Equivalent

 BJT Small Signal Analysis
H - Parameters
1. hi – short circuit input impedance

Vi
hi = (Vo = 0)
Ii
2. hr – open circuit reverse voltage gain (voltage
feedback ratio)

Vi
hr = (Ii = 0)
Vo
 BJT Small Signal Analysis
H - Parameters
3. hf – short circuit forward current gain

Io
hf = (Vo = 0)
Ii
4. ho – open circuit output admittance

Io
ho = (Ii = 0)
Vo
2. Field Effect Transistor
(FET)
 Unipolar device because they operate
only with one type of charge carrier.
Voltage controlled device where the
voltage between two of the terminals
(gate and source) controls the current
through the device.
Major feature is very high input
resistance.
a. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Operates with a reverse-biased PN junction to
control current in the channel .
Square law device because of the relation of I D
and VGS

2
VGS
ID = IDSS 1 - JFET/ D-MOSFET transfer
VGS(OFF) characteristics
 • can be n-channel or p-channel
drain drain

Types of
n-channel

p-channel
gate p p gate n n JFET, its
structure
and
source source parts

D D
G G
JFET
Symbol
S S
n-channel p-channel
Operation of JFET
JFET is always operated with the gate-
source PN junction reversed biased.
Reverse biasing of the gate source
junction with the negative voltage
produces a depletion region along the PN
junction which extends into the n-channel
and thus increases its resistance by
restricting the channel width as shown in
the preceding figure.
 Operation of JFET

drain

VDS

n-channel
gate
p p
VGS

source
 Operation of JFET
Ohmic Region

Breakdown Region
Pinch off Region

Vp – pinch off voltage Va – avalanche breakdown

voltage
DC Biasing for JFET
1. Fixed Bias
- a separate power source.
VDD +
RL
ID
Vin
-
RG VGS +

VGG -
DC Biasing for JFET
2. Self Bias
VDD +

RL
ID
Vin
VGS
+
RG VS RS
-
DC Biasing for JFET
3. Source Bias
VDD +

RL
ID
Vin
-
VGS +
RG RS

VSS -
DC Biasing for JFET
4. Voltage Divider
VDD +

R1 RL
ID
Vin
-
VGS +
R2 RS
VS
b. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor (MOSFET)
 Second category of the field effect transistor
 Because of the presence of an insulated gate,
then it is sometimes called IGFET’s
 MOSFET’s differs from JFET in that it has
no PN junction structure.
 It has two basic types: D – MOSFET and
E - MOSFET
Depletion MOSFET (D - MOSFET)
The drain and source are diffused into
substrate material and connected by a
narrow channel adjacent to the insulated
gate
It can be operated two in modes, the
depletion mode or the enhancement mode
and sometimes called
depletion/enhancement mode MOSFET
Depletion MOSFET (D - MOSFET)
It can be operated with a zero, positive or
negative gate-source voltage.
Normally operated in the depletion mode.
When configured as switch, it is normally-
on.
 D D
SiO2 SiO2 p-channel
n-channel
G G
p-substrate n-substrate

S S
drain drain

gate gate

source source
n-channel D- p-channel D-
Depletion Enhancement
Mode Mode
Negative gate to Positive gate voltage
source voltage is is applied.
applied More conduction
n-channel is electrons are
depleted of some attracted to the
electrons hence channel thus
decreasing channel enhancing channel
conductivity. conductivity.
Enhancement MOSFET (E - MOSFET)
Operates only in the enhancement mode
Has no depletion mode
It has no structural channel
It has no IDSS parameter
For an n-channel type of this device, a positive
gate voltage above threshold induces a channel
by creating a layer of negative charges (inversion
layer) in the substrate portion that is adjacent to
the SiO2 layer.
Enhancement MOSFET (E - MOSFET)
An n-channel E-MOSFET has a positive VGS while a
p-channel E-MOSFET has a negative VGS.
The conductivity of its channel is enhanced by
increasing the gate to source voltage.
For gate voltage below the threshold, there is no
channel to be formed.
If configured as switch, this device is normally off
LD MOSFET, VMOSFET and TMOSFET are E-
MOSFET technologies developed for higher power
dissipation.
 D
SiO2 n D
n
p-substrate + -
G G
n + - Inversion
S No n layer
permanent
channel
S

Basic Operati
construction
drain on drain
gate gate

n-channel source p-channel source

II. AMPLIFIERS
Electronic devices capable of amplification or
increasing the amplitude of power, current or
voltage at its output.
Circuits designed to increase the amplitude of
level of an electronic signal.
Used as boosters.

AMPLIFIER
input output
Classification of Amplifier
1. According to Function
a. Voltage Amplifier
- Voltage controlled source
- Op-amps are voltage amplifier
b. Current Amplifier
- current controlled source
- BJT’s are current amplifier
c. Power Amplifier
- Boost the power level of the signal
Classification of Amplifier
2. According to Configuration
a. Common Base Amplifier
- Transistor amplifier where input is
applied at the emitter and output is
taken from the collector terminal.
- The base is common to both input
and output.
- maximum current gain is 1
- No phase inversion from input to
output .
 Classification of Amplifier
2. According to Configuration
b. Common Collector Amplifier (emitter
follower)
- Transistor amplifier where input is
applied at the base, output is taken
from the emitter terminal.
- Maximum voltage gain is 1.
- Capacitors must have a negligible
reactance at the frequency of
operation.
Classification of Amplifier
2. According to Configuration
c. Common Emitter Amplifier
- Transistor amplifier wherein the
input is applied at the base and the
output is taken from the collector
terminal.
- There is a phase inversion from input
to output.
 Classification of Amplifier
3. According to Class of
Operation
Class A Class B Class C Class AB
Between A &
Efficiency 50 % 78.5 % 100 % B

Below Slightly
Conduction
Angle
360O 180O greater than
360O 180O

Distortion Low High Extreme Moderate

Bias (Base Linear Above Below
Cut-off
Emitter) portion Cut-off Cut-off

Input Output Output Output Output

 Classification of Amplifier
4. According to Frequency
a. DC Amplifier
- amplifies DC signal.
b. Audio Amplifier
- amplifies signal whose frequency is
within the audio range (20 Hz – 20
KHz).
c. RF Amplifier
- amplifies signal whose frequency is
within the radio frequency range.
 Classification of Amplifier
4. According to Frequency
d. IF Amplifier
- amplifies signal whose frequency is in
between the carrier and the modulating
frequency.
e. Video Amplifier
- a wide band amplifier that amplifies
video signal.
- video signal refers to the frequency range
of the picture information which arises
from the television scanning process.
Classification of Amplifier
5. According to the signal being
amplified
a. Small Signal Amplifiers
- Amplifier that utilizes only the very
linear portion of the
b. Large Signal Amplifiers
- Amplifier that utilizes almmost the full
rated output power
Classification of Amplifier
6. According to method of
coupling
a. Direct Coupling
- Amplifiers connected or coupled
without any passive
b. Capacitive Coupling
- Amplifiers are connected or coupled
by the used
Classification of Amplifier
6. According to method of
coupling
c. Inductive Coupling
- Amplifiers are connected or coupled
by the use of inductor transformer.
d. Transformer Coupling
- Most often, inductor is not used as
coupling device instead transformer
is used.
Classification of Amplifier
7. Power Amplifiers
a. Push-Pull Amplifiers
- Amplifier with two similar circuits
operating in phase.
- On amplifies the half of the cycle and
the remaining half is being amplified
by the other amplifier.
Classification of Amplifier
7. Power Amplifiers
b. Complementary-Symmetry Amplifiers
- Push-pull amplifiers using
complementary transistors such as pair
of pnp and npn.
c. Quasi-Complementary Amplifiers
- Push-pull amplifiers using the same
transistors at the output but the
driver is using complementary
transistors.
Compound Configurations
a. Cascade Connection
- a cascade connection is a series
connection with the output of one stage
then applied as input to the second
stage.
- The cascade connection provides a
multiplication of the gain of each stage for a
larger overall gain.

AV = AV1AV2AV3…AVn AV(dB) = 20Log(AV)

Compound Configurations
b. Cascode Connection
- a cascode connection has one transistor on
top of (in series with) another.
- This arrangement is design to provide high
input impedance with low voltage gain to
ensure that the input Miller capacitance is
minimum.
Compound Configurations
c. Darlington Connection
- The main feature of Darlington connection
is that the composite transistor acts as a
single unit with a current gain that is the
product of the current gains of the individual
transistors.
- It is a circuit meant to boost input
resistance.
Compound Configurations
c. Darlington Connection

β1

β2
βD = β1 β2
Compound Configurations
d. Feedback Pair
- The feedback pair connection is a two
transistor circuit that operates like the
Darlington circuit.
- It uses a pnp transistor driving an npn
transistor.