BEC402-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

UNIT- I

BASIC DEVICE STABILIZATION AND LOW

FREQUENCY DESIGN ANALYSIS
• Circuits for BJT, DC and AC Load lines, Stability
factor analysis, Temperature compensation methods,
biasing circuits for FET's and MOSFET's.
• Transistor, FET and MOSFET Amplifiers, Equivalent
circuit, input and output characteristics, calculation of
midband gain, input and output impedance of various
amplifiers, cascode amplifier, Darlington
Bootstrapping.
• Differential amplifier, CMRR measurement, Use of
current source in Emitter.
 INTRODUCTION

 The BJT as a circuit element operates various

circuits with many major and minor modifications.
 For the analysis of such circuits, we obtain the
various conditions for proper operation of the device,
and also determine the projected range of operation
of the device.
A detailed study of the device in a two-port mode
simplifies the circuit analysis of the device to a large
extent.
 Thus, we calculate the various parameters of the
devices’ performance, namely voltage gain, current
gain, input impedance, and output impedance.
 The frequency response of the device is dealt with
in detail, and a study of the various regions of
operation in the frequency scale is also explained.
 Finally, we will discuss the various configurations
of the device and take a look into the high-frequency
operation of the device and its performance in those
regions.
 Proper Transistor Biasing
• For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier,
the emitter-base junction must be forward-biased and
the collector-base junction must be reverse-biased.
• The common connection for the voltage sources are
at the base lead of the transistor.
• The emitter-base supply voltage is designated VEE
and the collector-base supply voltage is designated
VCC.
• For silicon, the barrier potential for both EB and CB
junctions equals 0.7 V
Transistor Biasing
The basic function of transistor is amplification.
The process of raising the strength of weak signal
without any change in its general shape is referred
as faithful amplification. For faithful amplification
it is essential that:-
1. Emitter-Base junction is forward biased
2. Collector- Base junction is reversed biased
3. Proper zero signal collector current
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and
the maintenance of proper collector emitter voltage
during the passage of signal is called transistor
biasing. 6
 Why Biasing?
If the transistor is not biased properly, it would
work inefficiently and produce distortion in output
signal.
How A Transistor Can Be Biased?
A transistor is biased either with the help of battery
or associating a circuit with the transistor. The later
method is more efficient and is frequently used. The
circuit used for transistor biasing is called the biasing
circuit.

7
 BIAS STABILITY

 Through proper biasing, a desired quiescent operating

point of the transistor amplifier in the active region
(linear region) of the characteristics is obtained. It is
desired that once selected the operating point should
remain stable. The maintenance of operating point stable
is called Stabilisation.

8
The selection of a proper quiescent point generally
depends on the following factors:
(a)The amplitude of the signal to be handled by
the amplifier and distortion level in signal
(b)The load to which the amplifier is to work for a
corresponding supply voltage

 The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts

mainly with changes in temperature, since the
transistor parameters — β, ICO and VBE (where the
symbols carry their usual meaning)—are functions of
temperature.
The DC Operating Point
For a transistor circuit to amplify it must be properly
biased with dc voltages. The dc operating point
between saturation and cutoff is called the Q-point.
The goal is to set the Q-point such that that it does not
go into saturation or cutoff when an a ac signal is
applied.

10
 The Thermal Stability of Operating Point (SIco)
Stability Factor S:- The stability factor S, as
the change of collector current with respect to the
reverse saturation current, keeping β and VBE
constant. This can be written as:
The Thermal Stability Factor : SIco
SIco = ∂Ic
∂Ico Vbe, β

11
 This equation signifies that Ic Changes SIco times as
fast as Ico

Differentiating the equation of Collector Current IC =

(1+β)Ico+ βIb & rearranging the terms we can write
SIco ═ 1+β ∕‫ﻮ‬1- β (∂Ib/∂IC)

It may be noted that Lower is the value of SIco better is

the stability
 Various Biasing Circuits

• Fixed Bias Circuit

• Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor

• Collector to Base Bias Circuit

• Potential Divider Bias Circuit

13
The Fixed Bias Circuit
The Thermal Stability Factor : SIco
15 V 15 V
SIco = ∂Ic
200 k RC 1k
Rb ∂Ico Vbe, β
C RC
B

Ib General Equation of SIco Comes out

E to

SIco ═ 1 + β
1- β (∂Ib/∂IC)

14
Applying KVL through Base Circuit we can
write,
Ib Rb+ Vbe= Vcc
Diff w. r. t. IC, we get
(∂Ib / ∂Ic) = 0

SIco= (1+β) is very large Indicating high un-

stability
Merits:
• It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in
the active region by merely changing the base
resistor (RB).
• A very small number of components are required.

Demerits:
• The collector current does not remain constant with
variation in temperature or power supply voltage.
Therefore the operating point is unstable.

16
• When the transistor is replaced with another one,
considerable change in the value of β can be expected.
Due to this change the operating point will shift.
• For small-signal transistors (e.g., not power transistors)
with relatively high values of β (i.e., between 100 and
200), this configuration will be prone to thermal
runaway. In particular, the stability factor, which is a
measure of the change in collector current with changes
in reverse saturation current, is approximately β+1. To
ensure absolute stability of the amplifier, a stability
factor of less than 25 is preferred, and so small-signal
transistors have large stability factors.
Fixed bias with emitter resistor

The fixed bias circuit is

modified by attaching an
external resistor to the
emitter. This resistor
introduces negative
feedback that stabilizes the
Q-point.

18
Merits:

• The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating

point against changes in temperature and β-value.

Demerits:

• As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation

can be satisfied either by keeping RE very large, or
making RB very low.

19
The Collector to Base Bias Circuit

VCC
This configuration employs
negative feedback to prevent
RC thermal runaway and stabilize
the operating point. In this form
Ic
of biasing, the base resistor RF
RF C is connected to the collector
Ib
instead of connecting it to the
+ V
B DC source Vcc. So any thermal
BE
-
EI
E runaway will induce a voltage
drop across the Rc resistor that
will throttle the transistor's base
current. 20
 Applying KVL through base circuit
we can write (Ib+ IC) RC + Ib Rf+ Vbe= Vcc
Diff. w. r. t. IC we get
(∂Ib / ∂Ic) = - RC / (Rf + RC)

Therefore, SIco ═ (1+ β)

1+ [βRC/(RC+ Rf)]
Which is less than (1+β), signifying better
thermal stability

21
Merits:
• Circuit stabilizes the operating point against
variations in temperature
and β (i.e. replacement of transistor)
Demerits:
• As β -value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a
given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either
by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rf very low.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the input

impedance of the amplifier as seen from the base,
which can be advantageous. Due to the gain
reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used
only when the trade-off for stability is warranted.
22
The Potential Divider Bias Circuit

This is the most commonly used arrangement for

biasing as it provide good bias stability. In this
arrangement the emitter resistance ‘RE’ RE’ provides
stabilization. The resistance ‘RE’
RE’ cause a voltage drop
in a direction so as to reverse bias the emitter
junction. Since the emitter-base junction is to be
forward biased, the base voltage is obtained from R1-
R2 network.

23
 The Potential Divider Bias Circuit

• The net forward bias across the emitter base junction

is equal to VB- dc voltage drop across ‘RE’
RE’. The base
voltage is set by Vcc and R1 and R2. The dc bias
circuit is independent of transistor current gain. In
case of amplifier, to avoid the loss of ac signal, a
capacitor of large capacitance is connected across RE.
The capacitor offers a very small reactance to ac
signal and so it passes through the condensor.
 The Potential Divider Bias Circuit

VCC VCC To find the stability of this circuit

R1
IC
RC
we have to convert this circuit
into its Thevenin’s Equivalent
Ib C
circuit
B

E Rth = R1*R2 & Vth = Vcc R2

R2
IE
RE
R1+R2 R1+R2

25
 The Potential Divider Bias Circuit
Applying KVL through input base
Thevenin
Equivalent Ckt circuit

VCC
we can write IbRTh + IE RE+ Vbe= VTh
RC Therefore, IbRTh + (IC+ Ib) RE+ VBE=
IC
C
VTh
Ib
B

RTh
Diff. w. r. t. IC & rearranging we get
+
E (∂Ib / ∂Ic) = - RE / (RTh + RE)
_ VTh
IE RE
Therefore, 1 
SIco 
 RE 
Self--bias Resistor
Self 1  
Thevenin
Equivalent Voltage  R E  RTh 
Merits:

• Operating point is almost independent of β variation.

• Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.

Demerits:

• As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation

can be satisfied either by keeping RE fairly large, or
making R1||R2 very low.

27
 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This
increases cost as well
as precautions necessary while handling.

 AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which

reduces the AC voltage gain of the amplifier. A
method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC
feedback is discussed below.
Usage:
The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely
used for linear circuits. If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or
R2 is low, or both are low. A low R1 raises VB closer to VC,
reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and
limiting how large RC can be made without driving the
transistor out of active mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing
the allowed collector current. Lowering both resistor values
draws more current from the power supply and lowers the
input resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.
 Biasing And Bias Stability

 Biasing refers to the establishment of suitable dc

values of different currents and voltages of a transistor.
 Through proper biasing, a desired quiescent operating
point of the transistor amplifier in the active region
(linear region) of the characteristics is obtained.
 The selection of a proper quiescent point generally
depends on the following factors:
(a)The amplitude of the signal to be handled by the
amplifier and distortion level in signal
(b)The load to which the amplifier is to work for a
corresponding supply voltage
The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts
mainly with changes in temperature, since the
transistor parameters — β, ICO and VBE (where the
symbols carry their usual meaning)—are functions of
temperature.

 Circuit Configurations
 Fixed-bias circuit
 Fixed bias with emitter resistance
 Voltage-divider bias
 Voltage-feedback biasing
 Biasing And Bias Stability
 Fixed-bias circuit
 Base–emitter loop  Collector–emitter loop
and

(a) Representation of fixed-bias circuit (b) Equivalent circuit

 Biasing And Bias Stability
 Fixed
bias with emitter resistance
 Base–emitter loop

and the emitter current can be written as

From above two equation we get:

 Collector–emitter loop
with the base current known, IC can be easily
calculated by the relation IC = βIB.

Fixed-bias circuit with emitter resistance

 Biasing And Bias Stability
 Voltage-divider bias:- The Thevenins equivalent
voltage and resistance for the input side is given by:
The KVL equation for the input circuit is given as:

Voltage-divider bias circuit Simplified voltage-divider circuit

 Biasing And Bias Stability

 Voltage-feedback biasing
 Base–emitter loop
Applying KVL for this part, we get:

Thus, the base current can be obtained as:

Representation of Voltage-feedback biased circuit

 Biasing And Bias Stability

 Stabilization Against Variations in ICO, VBE , and

β
Transfer characteristic:- In this particular
characteristic, the output current IC is a function of
input voltage for the germanium transistor. Thus,
the word “transfer” is used for this characteristic.

Transfer characteristics for germanium

p–n–p alloy type transistor
Biasing And Bias Stability

Self-bias circuit

Collector current vs. base-to-emitter

voltage for a silicon transistor
Biasing And Bias Stability

Variation of the collector current with

temperature because of VBE, ICO and β
 Transistor Biasing
• For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier,
an external dc supply voltage must be applied to
produce the desired collector current.
• Bias is defined as a control voltage or current.
• Transistors must be biased correctly to produce the
desired circuit voltages and currents.
• The most common techniques used in biasing are
– Base bias
– Voltage-divider bias
– Emitter bias
 Transistor Biasing
 Fig.-1 (a) shows the simplest
way to bias a transistor, called
base bias.
 VBB is the base supply voltage,
which is used to forward-bias the
base-emitter junction.
 RB is used to provide the
desired value of base current.
 VCC is the collector supply
voltage, which provides the
reverse-bias voltage required for
the collector-base junction.
 The collector resistor, RC,
provides the desired voltage in Fig. -1
the collector circuit
 Transistor Biasing: Base Biasing

• A more practical way to

provide base bias is to use
one power supply.

VCC - VBE
IB =
RB

IC  dc x IB

VCE  VCC - ICRC

 Transistor Biasing

The DC load line is a graph that allows us to determine

all possible combinations of IC and VCE for a given
amplifier.

 For every value of collector current, IC, the

corresponding value of VCE can be found by examining the
dc load line.

 A sample dc load line is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
 Transistor Biasing
Midpoint Bias
• Without an ac signal applied to a transistor, specific
values of IC and VCE exist at a specific point on a dc
load line
• This specific point is called the Q point (quiescent
currents and voltages with no ac input signal)
• An amplifier is biased such that the Q point is near
the center of dc load line
– ICQ = ½ IC(sat)
– VCEQ = ½ VCC
• Base bias provides a very unstable Q point, because
IC and VCE are greatly affected by any change in the
transistor’s beta value
 Transistor Biasing

Fig. 2 illustrates a dc load

line showing the end points
IC (sat) and VCE (off), as well
as the Q point values ICQ
and VCEQ.

Fig. 2
 Transistor Biasing

 The most popular way to bias a

transistor is with voltage-divider
bias.
 The advantage of voltage-divider
bias lies in its stability.
 An example of voltage-divider
bias is shownRin 2
Fig. 28-18.
VB = X VCC
R1 + R2

VE = VB - VBE
Fig. 28-18
IE  IC
 Voltage Divider Bias – Example

• Solve for VB, VE, IE, IC, VC and VCE

• Construct a dc load line showing the values of IC(sat),
VCE(off), ICQ and VCEQ
 Transistor Biasing

 Fig. 28-19 shows the dc

load line for voltage-divider
biased transistor circuit in Fig.
28-18.
 End points and Q points are
IC (sat) = 12.09 mA
VCE (off) = 15 V
 ICQ = 7 mA
 VCEQ = 6.32 V

Fig. 28-19
 Calculation Of Stability Factors

 Stability Factor S:- The stability factor S, as the

change of collector current with respect to the reverse
saturation current, keeping β and VBE constant. This can
be written as:
Or,

 Stability Factor S’:- The variation of IC with VBE is

given by the stability factor S defined by the partial
derivative:
Stability Factor S″:- The variation of IC with
respect to β is represented by the stability factor,
S'', given as:

 General Remarks on Collector Current

Stability:- The stability factors have been defined
earlier keeping in mind the change in collector
current with respect to changes in ICO , VBE and β.
These stability factors are repeated here for
simplicity.
Thermal Runaway
The maximum average power in which a transistor
can dissipate depends upon the construction of
transistor and lie in the range of few milliwatts and
200W. The maximum power is limited by the
temperature that the collector Base junction can
withstand. The maximum power dissipation is
usually specified for the transistor enclosure is 25
degree celsius. The junction temperature may
increase either because of rise in ambient
temperature or because of self heating. The problem
of self heating arises due to dissipation of power at
the collector junction.
The leakage current Icbo is extremely temperature
dependent and increases with the rise in temperature
of collector-base junction. With the increase in
collector current Ic, collector power dissipation
increases which raises the junction temperature that
leads to further increase in collector current Ic. The
process is cumulative and may lead to the eventual
destruction of transistor. This phenomenon is known
as THERMAL RUNAWAY of transistor. In practice
the Thermal Runaway can be prevented by a well
designed circuit called as STABILIZATION Circuitry.
 Diode Compensation Techniques
Compensation for VBE:

Diagram shows the voltage divider bias with bias

compensation technique.Here, separate supply VDD is
used to keep diode in forward If biased condition. If the
diode used in the circuit is of same material and type as
the transistor, the voltage across the diode will have the
same temperature coefficient as the base to emitter
voltage VBE . So when VBE changes by ∂ VBE with
change in temperature, VD changes by VD and ∂ VD~=~∂
VBE, the changes tend to cancel each other. Apply*g
KVL to the base circuit of Fig. ,we have
Diode is connected in series with resistance R2 in the
voltage divider circuit and it is forward biased condition.
For voltage divider bias,

When VBE changes with temperature, IC also changes

To cancel the changes in IC , one diode is used in the

circuit for compensation
Compensation for ICO
* In germanium transistor changes in ICO with
temperature plays an important role collector current
stability

* The diode is kept at reverse bias condition ,so

only leakage current flows

* Io increases then ICO also increases

Thermistor Compensation
Fig (b) shows another thermistor compensation technique
. Here, thermistor is connected between emitter and Vcc
to minimize the increase in collector current due to
changes in ICO, VBE, or beta with temperature
.IC increases with temperature and RT decreases with
increase in temperature. Therefore, current flowing
through RE increases, which increases the voltage drop
across it. E - B junction is forward biased. But due to
increase in voltage drop across RE, emitter is made more
positive, which reduces the forward bias voltage VBE.
Hence, bias current reduces.

As Ico increases with temperature, IB decreases and

hence. IC remains constant
Sensistor Compensation technique
This method of transistor compensation uses
temperature sensitive resistive element, sensistors
rather than diodes or transistors. It has a positive
temperature coefficient, its resistance increases
exponentially with increasing temperature as shown in
the Fig

Slope of this curve =

is the temperature coefficient for thermistor and

the slope is positive So we can say that sensistor has
positive temperature coefficient of resistance (PTC).
 Biasing Circuits used for JFET

• Fixed bias circuit

• Self bias circuit
• Potential Divider bias circuit
JFET (n-channel) Biasing Circuits

For Fixed Bias Circuit

Applying KVL to gate circuit we get

VGG  IG RG VGS  VGS  Fixed,IG  0

2
 V  and 
2
1  GS  V GS 
I I 
I DS  I DSS  1  
DSS    VP 
DS V
 P  and V DS  V DD  I DS R D
Where, Vp=VGS-off & IDSS is Short ckt. IDS

For Self Bias Circuit

V GS  I DS R S  0
V GS
 I DS  
RS
 JFET Biasing Circuits Contd
Contd……
or Fixed Bias Ckt.
 JFET Self (or Source) Bias Circuit

2
 V 
and  1  GS  2
I  I    V   V
DS DSS V  V
 P  I 1  2 GS   GS    GS  0
2 DSS  V  V   R
 V  V  P  P   S
 GS   
I 1    GS
DSS  V  R This quadratic equation can be solved for VGS & IDS
 P  S
 The Potential (Voltage) Divider Bias

2
 V  V  V
 I  1  GS   G GS  0
DSS  V  R
 P  S

Solving this quadratic equation gives V and I

GS DS
 DC analysis step for Feedback Biasing Enhancement
type MOSFET

 Find k using the datasheet or specification given;

ex: VGS(ON),VGS(TH)
 Plot transfer characteristics using the formula
ID=k(VGS – VT)2. Three point already defined that is
ID(ON), VGS(ON) and VGS(TH)
 Plot a point that is slightly greater than VGS
 Plot the linear characteristics (network bias line)
 The intersection defines the Q-Q-point

68
 Voltage-Divider Biasing

Again plot the line and the transfer curve to find the Q-point.
Using the following equations: VG  R2VDD
R1  R2
Input loop : VGS  VG  I D RS
Output loop : VDS  V DD  I D ( RS  RD ) 69
 UNIT II LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

• Class A, AB, B, C and D type of operation, efficiency

of Class A amplifier with resistive and transformer
coupled load, efficiency of Class B, Complementry
Symmetry amplifiers, MOSFET Power amplifiers,
Thermal stability of Power amplifiers, heat sink
design
Classes of Amplifiers
Introduction

One method used to distinguish the electrical

characteristics of different types of amplifiers is by
“class”, and as such amplifiers are classified
according to their circuit configuration and method
of operation. Then Amplifier Classes is the term
used to differentiate between the different
amplifier types.
Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the
output signal which varies within the amplifier
circuit over one cycle of operation when excited
by a sinusoidal input signal. The classification of
amplifiers range from entirely linear operation (for
use in high-fidelity signal amplification) with very
low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a
faithful signal reproduction is not so important)
operation but with a much higher efficiency, while
others are a compromise between the two.
Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two
basic groups. The first are the classically
controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming
the more common amplifier classes of A, B,
AB and C, which are defined by the length of
their conduction state over some portion of the
output waveform, such that the output stage
transistor operation lies somewhere between
being “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”.
The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-
called “switching” amplifier classes of D, E, F,
G, S, T etc, which use digital circuits and pulse
width modulation (PWM) to constantly switch
the signal between “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”
driving the output hard into the transistors
saturation and cut-off regions.
Class A Amplifier
To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a
class A amplifier is biased “ON” (conducting) all the
time. Then for an amplifier to be classified as “Class A”
the zero signal idle current in the output stage must be
equal to or greater than the maximum load current
(usually a loudspeaker) required to produce the largest
output signal.
As a class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of
its characteristic curves, the single output device
conducts through a full 360 degrees of the output
waveform. Then the class A amplifier is equivalent to a
current source.
Class B Amplifier

Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to

the efficiency and heating problems associated with
the previous class A amplifier. The basic class B
amplifier uses two complimentary transistors either
bipolar of FET for each half of the waveform with
its output stage configured in a “push-pull” type
arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies
only half of the output waveform.
Class B Amplifier
When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased
transistor conducts while the negative transistor is
switched “OFF”. Likewise, when the input signal goes
negative, the positive transistor switches “OFF” while the
negative biased transistor turns “ON” and conducts the
negative portion of the signal. Thus the transistor
conducts only half of the time, either on positive or
negative half cycle of the input signal.
Then we can see that each transistor device of the class B
amplifier only conducts through one half or 180 degrees
of the output waveform in strict time alternation, but as
the output stage has devices for both halves of the signal
waveform the two halves are combined together to
produce the full linear output waveform.
Class AB Amplifier
As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a
combination of the “Class A” and the “Class B” type
amplifiers we have looked at above. The AB
classification of amplifier is currently one of the most
common used types of audio power amplifier design. The
class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier as
described above, except that both devices are allowed to
conduct at the same time around the waveforms crossover
point eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the
previous class B amplifier.
Class AB Amplifier
The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided
by series diodes or resistors, is that the crossover
distortion created by the class B amplifier
characteristics is overcome, without the
inefficiencies of the class A amplifier design. So
the class AB amplifier is a good compromise
between class A and class B in terms of efficiency
and linearity, with conversion efficiencies
reaching about 50% to 60%.
Class C Amplifier
The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest
efficiency but the poorest linearity of the classes
of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous
classes, A, B and AB are considered linear
amplifiers, as the output signals amplitude and
phase are linearly related to the input signals
amplitude and phase.
However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased
so that the output current is zero for more than
one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with
the transistor idling at its cut-off point.
Class C Amplifier
Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C
amplifiers are commonly used in high frequency
sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio
frequency amplifiers, where the pulses of current
produced at the amplifiers output can be converted
to complete sine waves of a particular frequency by
the use of LC resonant circuits in its collector
circuit.
Class D Power Amplifier
A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear
switching amplifier or PWM amplifier.
Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100%
efficiency, as there is no period during a cycle were
the voltage and current waveforms overlap as
current is drawn only through the transistor that is
on.
Amplifier Classes and Efficiency
Amplifier Class by Conduction Angle
Amplifier Conduction
Description
Class Angle
Full cycle 360o of
Class-A θ = 2π
Conduction
Half cycle 180o of
Class-B θ=π
Conduction
Slightly more than
Class-AB π < θ < 2π
180o of conduction
Slightly less than
Class-C θ<π
180o of conduction
Class-D to ON-OFF non-linear
θ=0
T switching
 Crossover Distortion
 When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are
off and the input signal voltage must exceed VBE
before a transistor conducts.
 Because of this, there is a time interval between the
positive and negative alternations of the input when
neither transistor is conducting, as shown in Figure.
 The resulting distortion in the output waveform is called
crossover distortion.
 Thermal stability of Power amplifiers
• Each heat-sink has a parameter called its Thermal
Resistance (Rth) measured in °C/Watt and the lower the
value of Rth the faster heat is dissipated. Other factors
affecting heat dissipation include the power (in Watts)
being dissipated by the transistor, the efficiency of heat
transfer between the internal transistor junction and the
transistor case, and the case to the heat-sink. The
difference between the temperature of the heatsink and
the air temperature surrounding the heat-sink (the
ambient temperature) must also be taken into account.
The main criterion is that the heat-sink should be
efficient enough, too efficient is not a problem.
 Heat Sinks

A heat-sink is designed to remove heat from a

transistor and dissipate it into the surrounding air
as efficiently as possible. Heat-sinks take many
different forms, such as finned aluminium or
copper sheets or blocks, often painted or anodised
matt black to help dissipate heat more quickly. A
selection of heat-sinks is illustrated in Fig. 5.1.3.
Heat Sinks
Good physical contact between the transistor and heat-
sink is essential, and a heat transmitting grease (heat-sink
compound) is smeared on the contact area before
clamping the transistor to the heat-sink. Where it is
necessary to maintain electrical insulation between
transistor and heat-sink a mica layer is used between the
heat-sink and transistor. Mica has excellent insulation and
very good heat conducting properties.
 UNIT III FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Types of feedback, Effect of feedback on noise,

distortion, gain, input and output impedance
of the amplifiers, Analysis of Voltage and
Current feedback amplifiers, Negative
Resistance Oscillator, Barhausen Criterion for
oscillation in feedback oscillator,
Mechanism for start of oscillation and
stabilization of amplitude, Analysis of RC
Oscillators using Cascade connection of Lowpass
and Highpass filters, Wein Phase shift and twin-T
network, Analysis of LC Oscillators, Colpitts,
Hartley, Clapp, Franklin, Armstrong and Miller
Oscillator, Quartz Crystal Oscillator circuits.
The General Feedback Structure

Basic structure of a feedback amplifier. To make it

general, the figure shows signal flow as opposed to
voltages or currents (i.e., signals can be either current
or voltage).

xi xo
S o u rce  A Load
xs

xf


A is called the loop gain 1+A is called the “amount of feedback”

The open-loop amplifier has gain A  xo = A*xi
Output is fed back through a feedback network which
produces a sample (xf) of the output (xo)  xf = bxo
Where b is called the feedback factor
The input to the amplifier is xi = xs – xf (the
subtraction makes feedback negative)
Implicit to the above analysis is that neither the
feedback block nor the load affect the
amplifier’s gain (A). This
x o not generally
A true and
so we will later A f  
xs 1  A
see how to deal with it.
Negative Feedback Properties
Negative feedback takes a sample of the output
signal and applies it to the input to get several
desirable properties. In amplifiers, negative
feedback can be applied to get the following
properties
–Desensitized gain – gain less sensitive to circuit
component variations
Reduce nonlinear distortion – output
proportional to input (constant gain
independent of signal level)
–Reduce effect of noise
–Control input and output impedances – by
applying appropriate feedback topologies
–Extend bandwidth of amplifier
These properties can be achieved by trading
off gain
Gain Desensitivity

Feedback can be used to desensitize the closed-loop

gain to variations in the basic amplifier. Let’s see
how.
Assume beta is constant. Taking differentials of the
closed-loop gain equation gives…

A dA
Af  dA f 
1  A 1  A 2
Divide by Af
dA f dA 1  A 1 dA
 
Af 1  A 2 A 1  A A
This result shows the effects of variations in A on Af
is mitigated by the feedback amount. 1+Abeta is
also called the desensitivity amount
We will see through examples that feedback also
affects the input and resistance of the amplifier
(increases Ri and decreases Ro by 1+Abeta factor)
Bandwidth Extension

We’ve mentioned several times in the past that we

can trade gain for bandwidth. Finally, we see how
to do so with feedback… Consider an amplifier
with a high-frequency response characterized by a
single pole and the expression:
Apply negative feedback beta and the resulting
closed-loop gain is:
 AM
As  
1  s H

As  AM 1  AM  
A f s   
1  As  1  s  H 1  AM  

•Notice that the midband gain reduces by

(1+AMbeta) while the 3-dB roll-off frequency
increases by (1+AMbeta)
Basic Feedback Topologies
series-shunt
Depending on the input signal (voltage
or current) to be amplified and form
of the output (voltage or current),
amplifiers can be classified into four shunt-series

categories. Depending on the

amplifier category, one of four types
of feedback structures should be used
series-series
(series-shunt, series-series, shunt-
shunt, or shunt-series) Voltage
amplifier – voltage-controlled voltage
source Requires high input
impedance, low output impedance
shunt-shunt
Use series-shunt feedback (voltage-voltage feedback)
Current amplifier – current-controlled current source
Use shunt-series feedback (current-current feedback)
Transconductance amplifier – voltage-controlled
current source Use series-series feedback (current-
voltage feedback)
Transimpedance amplifier – current-controlled
voltage source
Use shunt-shunt feedback (voltage-current feedback)
Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
(Voltage-Voltage Feedback)
Samples the output voltage
andreturns a feedback voltage
signal
Ideal feedback network has
infinite input impedance and
zero output resistance
Ro
Find the closed-loop gain and Rof 
1  A
input resistance
 The output resistance can be found by
applying a test voltage to the output
So, increases input resistance and
reduces output resistance  makes
amplifier closer to ideal VCVS
The Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier

The Ideal Situation

The series-shunt
feedback
amplifier:
(a)ideal structure;
(b)equivalent circuit. Z o( s )
Vo A Z of ( s )
Af 1  A( s )   ( s )
Vs 1  A

Vs Vs Vs Vi    A  Vi
Rif Ri Ri
Ii Vi Vi Vi
Ri

Rif Ri  1  A   

Zif ( s ) Zi( s )   1  A ( s )   ( s ) 
 Series-Series Feedback Amplifier
(Current-Voltage Feedback)
For a transconductance amplifier
(voltage input, current output), we
must apply the appropriate feedback
circuit
Sense the output current and
feedback a voltage signal. So, the Iout
Gm ZL
feedback current is a transimpedance
block that converts the current signal Itst

into a voltage. Vf RF
 Io
A (also called Gm )
Vi

Io A
Af  
Vs 1  A

I out
Loop Gain  A    Gm R f
I tst

Vs Vi  V f Ri I i  I o Ri I i  AVi
Rif      Ri 1  A 
Ii Ii Ii Ii

Vtst I tst  AVi Ro I tst  AI tst Ro

Rof     1  A Ro
I tst I tst I tst
 Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
(Voltage-Current Feedback

• When voltage-current FB is
applied to a transimpedance
amplifier, output voltage is
sensed and current is
subtracted from the input

Ro
Rif  Ri 1  A  Rof 
1  A 
– The gain stage has some resistance
– The feedback stage is a transconductor
– Input and output resistances (Rif and Rof)
follow the same form as before based on
values for A and beta

Vo
A
Ii
Vo
I s  I i  I f   Vo
A
Vo A
Af  
I s 1  A
 Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifier
(Current-Current Feedback)
•A current-current FB circuit
is used for current amplifiers
–For the b circuit – input
resistance should be low and
output resistance be high

Iout
RD

Iin

RF
RS
•A circuit example is shown
–RS and RF constitute the FB circuit
•RS should be small and RF large
–The same steps can be taken to solve for
A, Abeta, Af, Rif, and Rof
•Remember that both A and b circuits are
current controlled current sources
 Negative Resistance Oscillator

Negative resistance is a property of

some electric circuits where an increase in the
current entering a port results in a decreased
voltage across the same port.
•The circuit helps generate microwave frequencies
upto 100 GHz.
•The tunnel diode is connected in series with the
tank circuit.
•When power is applied surge current produces
oscillation in the tank. R and C values will make DC
bias at the center of negative resistance curve of
tunnel diode.
•Sustained oscillation results when magnitude of
negative resistance of tunnel diode is greater or
equal to positive resistance of the tank circuit.
 Oscillators

• Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a

periodic waveform on its output without an
external signal source. It is used to convert dc to
ac.
• Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous
signal of some type without the need of an input.
• These signals serve a variety of purposes.
• Communications systems, digital systems
(including computers), and test equipment make
use of oscillators
•An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive
signal from a dc voltage.
• The feedback oscillator relies on a positive
feedback of the output to maintain the
oscillations.
• The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC
timing circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal signal
such as square wave.
Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
•Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF
signals to IF signals in a receiver;
•Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
•Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
•Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO
Sine wave

Square wave

Sawtooth wave
 Conditions for Barkhausen criterion

According to Barkhausen criterion for sustained

oscillation:
The magnitude of the product of open loop gain of
the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback
factor is unity, i.e., |βA|=1|βA|=1 where A is
the gain of the amplifying element in the circuit
and β(jω)β(jω) is the transfer function of the
feedback path.
•The total phase shift around the loop is 00 or
integral multiples of 2π2π.
 Tank Circuit

•LC parallel circuit is called tank

circuit.
• Once excited, it oscillates at
The energy keeps oscillating between electric
potential energy and magnetic filed energy
Damped oscillations are produced.
 RC OSCILLATORS
Three types of feedback oscillators that use RC circuits
to produce sinusoidal outputs are the
o Wien-bridge oscillator
o Phase-shift oscillator
o Twin-T oscillator
-Generally, RC feedback oscillators are used for
frequencies up to about 1 MHz.
-The Wien-bridge is by far the most widely used type
of RC feedback oscillator for this range of frequencies.
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
•The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to
provide 180º phase shift that when coupled with
the 180º of the op-amp itself provides the
necessary feedback to sustain oscillations.
•The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the
oscillations.
•The frequency of resonance for the this type is
similar to any RC circuit oscillator.
Wien bridge oscillator
 Wien bridge oscillator

• The Wien bridge oscillator is essentially a

feedback amplifier in which the Wien bridge
serves as the phase-shift network.
• The Wien bridge is an ac bridge, the balance of
which is achieved at one particular frequency.
• Frequency of Oscillation
 LC Oscillators

• Colpitts Oscillator
• Hartley Oscillator
• Clapp Oscillator
• Franklin Oscillator
• Armstrong Oscillator
• Miller Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
•One basic type of resonant circuit feedback
oscillator is the Colpitts oscillator.
•This type of oscillator uses an LC circuit in the
feedback loop to provide the necessary phase
shift and to act as a resonant filter that passes
only the desired frequency of oscillation.
•The approximate frequency of oscillation is the
resonant frequency of the LC circuit and is
established by the values of C1,C2,L and
according to the formula:
Where CT is the total capacitance.
•Because the capacitors effectively appear in series around the tank
circuit, the total capacitance CT is
The Hartley Oscillator
 The Hartley Oscillator

• The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts except

that the feedback circuit consists of two series
inductors and a parallel capacitor
• In this circuit, the frequency of oscillation for(Q>10)
is

Where LT=L1+L2
The Clapp Oscillator
 The Clapp Oscillator

• The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts.

• The basic difference is an additional capacitor
C3,in series with the inductor in the resonant
feedback circuit
• Since C3 is in series with C1 and C2 around the
tank circuit, the total capacitance is

and the approximate frequency of oscillation

(Q>10) is
The Armstrong Oscillator
 The Armstrong Oscillator

• This type of LC feedback oscillator uses

transformer coupling to feed back a portion of the
signal voltage.
• The transformer secondary coil provides the
feedback to keep the oscillation going.
• The Armstrong is less common than the Colpitts,
Clapp, and Hartley, mainly because of the
disadvantage of transformer size and cost.
• The frequency of oscillation is set by the
inductance of the primary winding(LPri) in parallel
with C1.
Franklin Oscillator
 Franklin Oscillator

• The Franklin Oscillator has 2 CE amplifier stages

which gives phase shift from input to output.
• The frequency of oscillation is
Quartz Crystal
 Quartz Crystal

• A quartz crystal exhibits a very important

property known as the piezoelectric effect.
• When a mechanical pressure is applied across the
faces of the crystal, a voltage which is
proportional to mechanical pressure appears
across the crystal.
• That voltage causes distortion in the crystal.
• Distorted amount will be proportional to the
applied voltage and also an alternate voltage
applied to a crystal it causes to vibrate at its
natural frequency.
Quartz Crystal Oscillator
 Quartz Crystal Oscillator

• The quartz crystal oscillator circuit diagram consists

of two resonances such as series and parallel
resonance, i.e., two resonant frequencies
• The series resonance occurs when the reactance
produced by capacitance C1is equal and opposite to
the reactance produced by inductance L.
 UNIT IV TUNED AMPLIFIERS &
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
• Tank circuits.
• Analysis of single tuned amplifier, Double tuned,
stagger tuned amplifiers.
• Instability of tuned amplifiers, stabilization
techniques, Narrow band neutralization using coil,
Broad banding using Hazeltine neutralization,
• Class C tuned amplifiers and their applications.
Efficiency of Class C tuned Amplifier.
• Astable multivibrators, monostable and bistable
multivibrator using similar and complementary
transistors, speed up capacitors,Schmitt trigger
circuits.
 Tuned Amplifier

• Definition

An amplifier circuit in which the load circuit is a

tank circuit such that it can be tuned to pass or
amplify selection of a desired frequency or a
narrow band of frequencies, is known as Tuned
Circuit Amplifier.
 Tuned Amplifier Characteristics

• Tuned amplifier selects and amplifies a single

frequency from a mixture of frequencies in any
frequency range.
• A Tuned amplifier employs a tuned circuit.
• It uses the phenomena of resonance, the tank circuit
which is capable of selecting a particular or relative
narrow band of frequencies.
• The centre of this frequency band is the resonant
frequency of the tuned circuit .
• Both types consist of an inductance L and capacitance
C with two element connected in series and parallel
 Resonance Circuits

When at particular frequency the inductive

reactance became equal to capacitive reactance
and the circuit then behaves as purely resistive
circuit. This phenomenon is called the
resonance and the corresponding frequency is
called the resonant frequency.

L
C

Tuned circuit
Classification of Tuned Amplifier
Single Tuned Amplifiers
Single Tuned Amplifier
 Single Tuned Amplifier

• Single Tuned Amplifier consist of only one Tank

Circuit and the amplifing frequency range is
Determined by it.
• By giving signal to its input terminal of various
Frequency Ranges.
• The Tank Circuit on its collector delivers High
Impedence on resonant Frequency.
• Thus the amplified signal is Completely Available on
the output Terminal.
• And for input signals other than Resonant Frequency,
the tank circuit provides lower imedence, hence most
of the signals get attenuated at collector Terminal.
 Limitations
• This tuned amplifier are required to be highly
selective. But high selectivity required a tuned circuit
with a high Q- factor .
• A high Q- factor circuit will give a high Av but at
the same time , it will give much reduced band with
because bandwidth is inversely proportional to the
Q- factor .
• It means that tuned amplifier with reduce
bandwidth may not be able to amplify equally the
complete band of signals & result is poor
reproduction . This is called potential instability in
tuned amplifier.
Double tuned amplifier
 Double tuned amplifier

• Double tuned amplifiers consists of Inductively

coupled two tuned circuits. One L1, C1 and the other
L2, C2. In the Collector terminals.
A change in the coupling of the two tuned circuits
results in change in the shape of the Frequency
response curve.
• By proper adjustment of the coupling between the
two coils of the two tuned circuits, the required
results(High selectivity, high Voltage gain and
required bandwidth) may be obtained.
 Resonance curve of Parallel Resonant
circuit:
Voltage
gain AV

K=2
K=1.5
Loose Critical
K=1
fr coupling coupling

Frequency fr
Stagger Tuned Amplifier
 Stagger Tuned Amplifier

• Stagger Tuned Amplifiers are used to improve the

overall frequency response of tuned Amplifiers.
Stagger tuned Amplifiers are usually designed so that
the overall response exhibits maximal flatness around
the centre frequency.
• It needs a number of tuned circuit operating in union.
The overall frequency response of a Stagger tuned
amplifier is obtained by adding the individual
response together. Since the resonant Frequencies of
different tuned circuits are displaced or staggered,
they are referred as Stagger Tuned Amplifier.
The main advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is
increased bandwidth. Its Drawback is Reduced
Selectivity and critical tuning of many tank circuits.
They are used in RF amplifier stage in Radio
Receivers.
The stagger tuning in this circuit is achieved by
resonating the tuned circuits L1 C1, L2 C2 to
slightly different Frequencies
 Stagger Tuned Amplifier

Freq. Freq.
response response of
of first
Voltage

second stage
stage

Over all
response
f1 f0 f2

Frequency
Neutralization using coil
 Neutralization using coil

• L part of the tuned circuit at the base o next stage is

oriented or minimum coupling to the other winding.
It is wound on a separate from and is mounted at right
angle to the coupled windings. If the windings are
properly polarized, the voltage across L due to the
circulating current in the base circuit will have the
proper phase to cancel the signal coupled through the
base to collector, Cbc capacitance.
Hazeltine Neutralization
 Hazeltine Neutralization

• In this circuit a small value of variable capacitance

CN is connected from the bottom of coil, point B, to
the base.
• Therefore, the internal capacitance Cbc, shown
dotted, feeds a signal from the top end of the coil,
point A, to the transistor base and the CN feeds a
signal output equal magnitude but opposite polarity
from the bottom output coil, point B, to the base.
• The neutralizing capacitor, CN can be adjusted
correctly to completely nullify the signal fed through
the Cbc
 Class C Tuned Amplifier

• Class C amplifiers are biased so that conduction occurs for

much less than 180 degrees .
• Class C amplifiers are more efficient than either class A or
push-pull class B and class AB, which means that more
output power can be obtained from class C operation.
• The output amplitude is a nonlinear function of the input,
so class C amplifiers are not used for linear amplification.
• They are generally used in radio frequency (RF)
applications, including circuits, such as oscillators, that
have a constant output amplitude modulators, where a
high-frequency signal is controlled by a low-frequency
signal.
• Therefore, Class C amplifiers are also called Tuned
Amplifiers.
Class C Tuned Amplifier
 Class C Tuned Amplifier
• Because the collector voltage (output) is not a replica
of the input, the resistively loaded class C amplifier
alone is of no value in linear applications.
• It is therefore necessary to use a class C amplifier
with a parallel resonant circuit (tank).
• The short pulse of collector current on each cycle of
the input initiates and sustains the oscillation of the
tank circuit so that an output sinusoidal voltage is
produced.
• The tank circuit has high impedance only near the
resonant frequency, so the gain is large only at this
frequency
 Sharpness of the Resonance Curve

• The resonance curve is required to be as sharp as

possible in order to provide a high selectivity.
• A sharp resonance curve means that the impedance
falls off rapidly as the frequency is varied above and
below the resonant frequency.
 Effect of Coil Resistance (R) on
sharpness of the resonant curve
 Applications of Tuned Amplifiers

Tuned amplifiers serve the best for two purposes:

a)Selection of desired frequency.
b)Amplifying the signal to a desired level.
 Advantages

• It provides high selectivity.

• It has small collector voltage.
• Power loss is also less.
• Signal to noise ratio of O/P is good.
• They are well suited for radio transmitters and
receivers
 Disadvantages

• They are not suitable to amplify audio frequencies.

• If the band of frequency is increase then design
becomes complex.
• Since they use inductors and capacitors as tuning
elements, the circuit is bulky and costly.
 Multivibrators
• A Multivibrator is an electronic circuit that generates
square, rectangular, pulse waveforms, also called
nonlinear oscillators or function generators.
• Multivibrator is basically a two amplifier circuits
arranged with regenerative feedback.
There are three types of Multivibrator:
Astable Multivibrator: Circuit is not stable in
either state—it continuously oscillates from
one state to the other. (Application in
Oscillators)
Monostable Multivibrator: One of the state is
stable but the other is not. (Application in
Timer)
Bistable Multivibrator: Circuit is stable in both
the state and will remain in either state
indefinitely. The circuit can be flipped from
one state to the other by an external event or
trigger. (Application in Flip flop)
 Duty Cycle

• Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of pulse duration to

pulse period.

The pulse duration is τ; this is how long the

pulse remains high (amplitude=1 in the
figure).The pulse period is T ; this is the
duration of one complete cycle, and is just the
inverse of the frequency in Hz (f = 1/T). D= τ / T
 Astable Multivibrator

• The astable circuit has no stable state.

• With no external signal applied, the transistors
alternately switch from cutoff to saturation at a
frequency determined by the RC time constants of
the coupling circuits.
• Astable multivibrator circuit consist of two cross
coupled RC amplifiers.
Consists of two amplifying devices cross-coupled
by resistors and capacitors.
Typically, R2 = R3, R1 = R4, C1 = C2 and R2 >>
R1.
The circuit has two states State 1: VC1 LOW,
VC2 HIGH, Q1 ON (saturation) and Q2 OFF.
State 2: VC1 HIGH, VC2 LOW, Q1 OFF and Q2
ON (saturation).
It continuously oscillates from one state to the
other.
Astable Multivibrator
Monostable Multivibrators
 Monostable Multivibrators
• One of the state is stable but the other is not. For that
capacitive path between VC2 and VB1 removed.
• In stable state any one transistor conducts and other is
off. Application of external trigger change the state.
• When the external signal goes high 8 VB2 charges up
to VCC through R 2 .
• After a certain time T, VB2=VON, Q2 turns on VC2
pulled to 0V, Q1 turns off.
• Enters state 1 and remains there When VB2 is
momentarily pulled to ground by an external signal
• VC2 rises to VCC Q1 turns on VC1 pulled to 0V
Bistable Multivibrators
 Bistable Multivibrators

• Both capacitors removed

• Stable for either state 1 or 2
• Can be forced to either state by Set or Reset signals
• If Set is low,
• Q1 turns off
• VC1 (Vout) and VB2 rises towards VCC
• Q2 turns on
 Bistable Multivibrators

• VC2 pulled to 0V
• VB1 is latched to 0V
• Circuit remains in state 2 until Reset is low
• If Reset is low
• Similar operation
• Circuit remains in state 1 until Set is low
• Behave as an RS flip-flop (memory element
 Speed Up Capacitors

• Switching Characteristics can be improve by passing

high frequency components of the pulses
• For this purpose small capacitances are used in shunt
with the coupling resistorsR1.
• Due to this transition time reduces without affecting
the stable states.
• These capacitors allows fast rise and fall times.
• Hence they are called as Speed Up Capacitors.
Speed Up Capacitors
Schmitt Trigger
 Schmitt Trigger

• Schmitt trigger circuit converts any type of wave in to

a rectangular wave.
• When power is first switched on it gives a small
forward bias to Q2 then it comes in to conducting
state.
This current flows through R4 which gives a potential
drop VE across R4 .
This VE gives reverse bias to the base of Q1 .
So it comes to off state then the voltage across Q1 will
be equal to Vcc, and voltage across Q2 approaches to
zero.
So in this case.
a) Q1 is in cut – off state and voltage across it is high.
b) Q2 is in saturation or conducting state and voltage
across it is low or zero..
 Schmitt Trigger
• If the positive voltage of the sine wave from the
signal generator is sufficient to over come the reverse
bias of Q1, then Q1 comes in to conducting state and
the negative going voltage is applied to the base of
Q2 through R3 .
• This reduces the forward bias of Q2 and thus Q2
comes in to cut-off state.
• Then the voltage across it is high and voltage across
Q1 is low.
•
The same process repeats with opposite sense
when negative half cycle if in put of a.c. is
applied.
The combined effect generates a rectangular wave
at the out put. Also the frequency of the
rectangular wave is equal to the frequency of the
a.c. input signal.
The amplitude of the in put voltage required to
put Q2 in to conducting state is called lower
trigger potential (LTP).
Similarly input voltage required to put Q1 in to
conducting state is called upper trigger potential
(UTP).
Schmitt Trigger
 UNIT V RECTIFIERS, BLOCK OSCILLATORS
AND TIMEBASE GENERATORS

• Half Wave Rectifier - Full Wave Rectifier – Bridge

Rectifier – Performance of Rectifiers
• Filters – Types of Filters – L, C, LC, π Filters –
Ripple Factor Calculation for C, L, LC and π Filter
• Regulators – Shunt and Series Voltage Regulator – IC
Regulator SMPS – Power Control using SCR. RC
and RL wave shaping circuits, UJT sawtooth
generators, Linearization using constant current
circuit, Bootstrap and Miller saw tooth generators,
current time base generators, Time base circuits -
Voltage-Time base circuit, Current-Time base circuit.
 Rectifiers
Definition
• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts AC
supply into unidirectional DC supply. This process of
converting alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC) is also called as rectification. These bridge
rectifiers are available in different packages as
modules ranging from few amperes to several
hundred amperes. Mostly in bridge rectifier circuits,
semiconductor diode is used for converting AC since
it allows the current flow in one direction only
(Unidirectional device)
Half Wave Rectifier
It is a simple type of rectifier made with single
diode which is connected in series with load. For
small power levels this type of rectifier circuit is
commonly used.
During the positive half of the AC input, diode
becomes forward biased and currents starts flowing
through it. During the negative half of the AC input,
diode becomes reverse biased and current stops
flowing through it. Output waveform across the load
is shown in figure. Because of high ripple content in
the output, this type of rectifier is seldom used with
pure resistive load.
The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be

calculated with the following two ideal equations

Half wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier
Advantage
Simple circuit and low cost
Disadvantage
The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc
component, ac components of basic frequency equal to
that of the input voltage frequency. Ripple factor is high
and an elaborate filtering is, therefore, required to give
steady dc output.
The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency
is quite low. This is due to the fact that power is delivered
only half the time.
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) is low.
DC saturation of transformer core resulting in
magnetizing current and hysteresis losses and generation
of harmonics.
Full Wave Center-tapped Rectifier
This type of rectifier uses two diodes and a transformer
with center tapped secondary winding. During the positive
half cycle of the input AC diode D1 is forward biased and
the current starts flowing to the load through it. During the
negative half of the input diode D2 forward biased and D1
becomes reverse biased. Load current start flowing
through D2 during this negative peak. Note that the
current flow through load has not changed even when the
voltage polarity changed.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Using the same secondary voltage, this bridge rectifier
can produce almost double the output voltage as
compared with full wave center-tapped transformer
rectifier. During the positive half of the input AC diodes
D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 are
reverse biased. Thus load current flows through D1 and
D2 diodes. During the negative half cycle of the input
diodes D3&D4 are forward biased and D1&D2 are
reverse biased. Therefore load current flows through
D3&D4 diodes.
Advantages of bridge rectifier
The rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is
double of that of a half-wave rectifier.
Higher output voltage, higher output power and higher
Transformer Utilization Factor in case of full-wave
rectifier.
The ripple voltage is low and of higher frequency in
case of full-wave rectifier so simple filtering circuit is
required
No center tap is required in the transformer secondary
so in case of a bridge rectifier the transformer required
is simpler.
If stepping up or stepping down of voltage is not
required, transformer can be eliminated even.
For a given power output, power transformer of
smaller size can be used in case of the bridge
rectifier because current in both primary and
secondary windings of the supply transformer flow
for the entire ac cycle
2 Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier
It requires four diodes.
The use of two extra diodes cause an additional
voltage drop thereby reducing the output voltage.
 Filters

• A filter circuit is a device to remove the AC

components of the rectified output,but allow the DC
component to reach the load.
• A filter circuit consists of passive circuit elements i.e
inductors,capacitors,resistors and their combination.
 Types of Filters

• Inductor Filter
• Capacitor Filter
• LC Filter
• ᴨ Filter
Inductor Filter
 Inductor Filter

• Also called Choke Filter.

• Consists of an inductor L which is inserted between
the Rectifier and the load resistance RL.
• Rectifier contains AC as well as DC components
• When output passes through inductor it offers a high
resistance to the AC component and no resistance to
DC component.
• Therefore AC components of the rectified output is
blocked and only DC components reached at the load.
Capacitor Filter
 Capacitor Filter

• Capacitor is connected across the load.

• During the rise of voltage it gets charge and is
supplied to the load during the fall in voltage cycle.
• This process is repeated for each cycle and thus the
repel is reduced across the load.
LC Filter
 LC Filter

• Choke is connected in series with load.

• Offers high resistance to the AC components and
allows DC component to flow through the load.
• The capacitor across the load is connected in parallel
which filter out any AC component flowing through
the choke.
CLC or PIE Filter
 CLC or PIE Filter

• Three components are arranged in shape of Greek

letter Pi.
• Input capacitor is selected to offer very low reactance
to the repel frequency.
• Major part of filtering is done by C1.
• Remaining parts of repels are removed by the
combining action of L and C2.
• It gives much better filter than LC filter.
 Voltage Regulators

• A voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage level.

When a steady, reliable voltage is needed, then
voltage regulator is the preferred device.
• It generates a fixed output voltage that remains
constant for any changes in an input voltage or load
conditions.
• It acts as a buffer for protecting components from
damages.
Block Diagram
 Types of Voltage Regulators

• Series Voltage Regulator

• Shunt Voltage Regulator
Series Voltage Regulator
 Series Voltage Regulator

• A control element is placed to collect the unregulated

input which controls the magnitude of the input
voltage and passes it to the output.
• The output voltage is then fedback to a sampling
circuit and then compared with a reference voltage
and sent back to the output.
• If the output voltage tends to increase the comparator
circuit provides a control signal to cause the control
element to reduce the magnitude of the output voltage
by passing it through the sampling circuit and
comparing it, thereby maintaining a constant and
steady output voltage.
Shunt Voltage Regulator
 Shunt Voltage Regulator

• If the output voltage increases, the shunt current

increases and thus produces less load current and
maintains a regulated output voltage.
• If the output voltage reduces, the shunt current
reduces and thus produces more load current and
maintains a regulated constant output voltage.
 IC Regulator

• IC Voltage Regulator uses integrated circuits for

voltage regulation .
• One advantage of IC voltage regulator is that
properties like thermal compensation, short circuit
protection and surge protection can be built into the
device.
• Most of the commonly used IC voltage regulators are
three-terminal devices
IC Regulator
 Switched Mode Power Supply

• A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an

electronic circuit that converts power using switching
devices that are turned on and off at high frequencies,
and storage components such as inductors or
capacitors to supply power when the switching device
is in its non-conduction state.
• Switching power supplies have high efficiencies and
are widely used in a variety of electronic equipment,
including computers and other sensitive equipment
requiring stable and efficient power supply.
 Switched Mode Power Supply

Switched-mode power supplies are classified according

to the type of input and output voltages. The four
major categories are:
• AC to DC,DC to DC,DC to AC,AC to AC
A basic isolated AC to DC switched-mode power supply
consists of:
• Input rectifier and filter
• Inverter consisting of switching devices such as
MOSFETs,Transformer,Output rectifier and filter
• Feedback and control circuit
Switched Mode Power Supply
 Switched Mode Power Supply

• The input DC supply from a rectifier or battery is fed

to the inverter where it is turned on and off at high
frequencies of between 20 KHz and 200 KHz by the
switching MOSFET or power transistors.
• The high-frequency voltage pulses from the inverter
are fed to the transformer primary winding, and the
secondary AC output is rectified and smoothed to
produce the required DC voltages.
• A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and
instructs the control circuit to adjust the duty cycle to
maintain the output at the desired level.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of switched-mode power supplies:

• Higher efficiency of 68% to 90%
• Regulated and reliable outputs regardless of
variations in input supply voltage
• Small size and lighter
• Flexible technology
• High power density
Disadvantages:
• Generates EMI
• Complex circuit design
• Expensive compared to linear supplies
 UJT relaxation oscillator

• UJT relaxation oscillator is a type of RC ( resistor-

capacitor) oscillator where the active element is a
UJT (uni-junction transistor).
• UJT is an excellent switch with switching times in
the order of nano seconds.
• It has a negative resistance region in the
characteristics and can be easily employed in
relaxation oscillators.
• The UJT relaxation oscillator is called so because the
timing interval is set up by the charging of a capacitor
and the timing interval is ceased by the rapid
discharge of the same capacitor.
UJT relaxation oscillator
 UJT relaxation oscillator
• When power supply is switched ON the capacitor C
starts charging through resistor R.
• The capacitor keeps on charging until the voltage
across it becomes equal to 0.7V plus ηVbb.
• This voltage is the peak voltage point “Vp” denoted
in the characteristics curve (Fig:2).
• After this point the emitter to RB1 resistance drops
drastically and the capacitors starts discharging
through this path. When the capacitor is discharged to
the valley point voltage “Vv” the emitter to RB1
resistance climbs again and the capacitor starts
charging. This cycle is repeated and results in a sort
of sawtooth waveform across the capacitor.
UJT relaxation oscillator
 A bootstrap sweep generator
A bootstrap sweep generator is a time base generator circuit
whose output is fed back to the input through the feedback.
This will increase or decrease the input impedance of the
circuit. This process of bootstrapping is used to achieve
constant charging current.
Construction of Bootstrap Time Base Generator
The boot strap time base generator circuit consists of two
transistors, Q1which acts as a switch and Q2 which acts as an
emitter follower. The transistor Q1 is connected using an
input capacitor CB at its base and a resistor RBthrough VCC.
The collector of the transistor Q1 is connected to the base of
the transistor Q2. The collector of Q2 is connected to
VCC while its emitter is provided with a resistor RE across
which the output is taken.
A diode D is taken whose anode is connected to
VCC while cathode is connected to the capacitor
C2 which is connected to the output. The cathode of
diode D is also connected to a resistor R which is in
turn connected to a capacitor C1. This C1 and R are
connected through the base of Q2 and collector of
Q1. The voltage that appears across the capacitor
C1 provides the output voltage Vo.
Operation of Bootstrap Time Base Generator
Before the application of gating waveform at t = 0, as the
transistor gets enough base drive from VCC through RB,
Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF. The capacitor C2 charges to
VCC through the diode D. Then a negative trigger pulse
from the gating waveform of a Monostable Multivibrator is
applied at the base of Q1 which turns Q1 OFF. The capacitor
C2 now discharges and the capacitor C1 charges through the
resistor R. As the capacitor C2 has large value of
capacitance, its voltage levels (charge and discharge) vary
at a slower rate. Hence it discharges slowly and maintains a
nearly constant value during the ramp generation at the
output of Q2.
 Current Time Base Generators
• The generator which generates a waveform which is
responsible for the movement of spot on screen
horizontally is called time base generator or sweep
generator.
• The sweep circuit along with the display gating
functions is called time bases.
• The linear sweep moves the spot from left to right
while the movement of spot from right to left is not
visible.
This portion of waveform generated by time base is
called flyback or retrace.
During this time, the cathode ray tube is blanked.
The time base generator also controls the rate at which
the spot moves, across the screen.
This rate is to be adjusted from front panel control.
 Current Time Base Generators
• When switch S1 is closed, S2 is open and capacitor
charges to produce linear ramp at the output.
• The sweep rate can be controlled by changing the
value of capacitor or charging current.
• Reaching to the maximum value of ramp voltage, the
switch S2 is closed and S1 is open.
• Thus capacitor gets discharged through the resistance
R. this is called flyback or retrace.
The time t1 is called sweep time.
The circuit is a sort of relaxation oscillator which
generates saw tooth waveform.
But this circuit has less accuracy.
The bootstrap techniques allow much greater
linearity but he techniques are much more costly.