BABA SAHEB DR. BR.

AMBEDKAR COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY ,ETAWAH

TOPIC:
TANSISTOR BIASING & APPLICATION OF
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Er.SHIVAM YADAV PRITI YADAV
CT-2804/18
 Transistor Biasing
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collectoremitter
voltage during the passage of signal is known as Transistor Biasing. The circuit which provides
transistor biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.

Need for DC biasing

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified. Because, for
a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.
• The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
• The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external sources, so that BJT
operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then this problem can
be avoided. The given DC voltage and currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in
active region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC biasing is needed.
The below figure shows a transistor amplifier that is provided with DC biasing on both input and
output circuits.

For a transistor to be operated as a faithful amplifier, the operating point should be stabilized.
Let us have a look at the factors that affect the stabilization of operating point.

Factors affecting the operating point

The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The operating point shifts due
to change in temperature.
As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.

• ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)

• VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)
So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature. Hence operating point
should be made independent of the temperature so as to achieve stability. To achieve this,
biasing circuits are introduced.

Stabilization
The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or variations in
transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become independent of temperature
variations or replacement of transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in the stabilization of
operating point.

Need for Stabilization

Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons.

• Temperature dependence of IC
• Individual variations
• Thermal runaway
Let us understand these concepts in detail.

Temperature Dependence of IC

As the expression for collector current IC is

IC=βIB+ICEOIC=βIB+ICEO

=βIB+(β+1)ICBO=βIB+(β+1)ICBO

The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature variations. To come out
of this, the biasing conditions are set so that zero signal collector current I C = 1 mA. Therefore,
the operating point needs to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep I C constant.

Individual Variations
As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every transistor, whenever a transistor is
replaced, the operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary to stabilize the operating
point.

Thermal Runaway

As the expression for collector current IC is

IC=βIB+ICEOIC=βIB+ICEO

=βIB+(β+1)ICBO=βIB+(β+1)ICBO
The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat dissipation. If the
operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect which increases this heat
dissipation.
The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known as Thermal run away.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is necessary to stabilize
the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.

Stability Factor
It is understood that IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of I CBO or ICO. The extent to
which a biasing circuit is successful in maintaining this is measured by Stability factor. It
denoted by S.
By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector leakage current
ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.
S=dICdICOS=dICdICO at constant IB and β
Hence we can understand that any change in collector leakage current changes the collector
current to a great extent. The stability factor should be as low as possible so that the collector
current doesn’t get affected. S=1 is the ideal value.
The general expression of stability factor for a CE configuration can be obtained as under.
IC=βIB+(β+1)ICOIC=βIB+(β+1)ICO

Differentiating above expression with respect to IC, we get

1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)dICOdIC1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)dICOdIC

Or
1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)S1=βdIBdIC+(β+1)S

Since dICOdIC=1SdICOdIC=1S
Or
S=β+11−β(dIBdIC)S=β+11−β(dIBdIC)

Hence the stability factor S depends on β, IB and IC.

Methods of Transistor Biasing

The biasing in transistor circuits is done by using two DC sources V BB and VCC. It is economical
to minimize the DC source to one supply instead of two which also makes the circuit simple.
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are

• Base Resistor method

 • Collector to Base bias
• Biasing with Collector feedback resistor
• Voltage-divider bias
All of these methods have the same basic principle of obtaining the required value of I B and
IC from VCC in the zero signal conditions.

Base Resistor Method

In this method, a resistor R B of high resistance is connected in base, as the name implies. The
required zero signal base current is provided by V CC which flows through RB. The base emitter
junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to emitter.
The required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector current (as IC = βIB) can
be made to flow by selecting the proper value of base resistor RB. Hence the value of R B is to
be known. The figure below shows how a base resistor method of biasing circuit looks like.

Let IC be the required zero signal collector current. Therefore,

IB=ICβIB=ICβ
Considering the closed circuit from VCC, base, emitter and ground, while applying the
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get,
VCC=IBRB+VBEVCC=IBRB+VBE
Or
IBRB=VCC−VBEIBRB=VCC−VBE

Therefore
RB=VCC−VBEIBRB=VCC−VBEIB

Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the former can be neglected with little
error. Then,
RB=VCCIBRB=VCCIB

We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable value. As R B can
be found directly, this method is called as fixed bias method.
Stability factor
S=β+11−β(dIBdIC)S=β+11−β(dIBdIC)

In fixed-bias method of biasing, IB is independent of IC so that,

dIBdIC=0dIBdIC=0

Substituting the above value in the previous equation,

Stability factor, S=β+1S=β+1
Thus the stability factor in a fixed bias is (β+1) which means that I C changes (β+1) times as much
as any change in ICO.

Advantages
• The circuit is simple.
• Only one resistor RE is required.
• Biasing conditions are set easily.
• No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.

Disadvantages
• The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.
• The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run away.
Hence, this method is rarely employed.

Collector to Base Bias

The collector to base bias circuit is same as base bias circuit except that the base resistor R B is
returned to collector, rather than to VCC supply as shown in the figure below.
This circuit helps in improving the stability considerably. If the value of IC increases, the voltage
across RL increases and hence the VCE also increases. This in turn reduces the base current I B.
This action somewhat compensates the original increase.
The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal collector current IC can be calculated as
follows.
Voltage drop across RL will be

RL=(IC+IB)RL≅ICRLRL=(IC+IB)RL≅ICRL
From the figure,

ICRL+IBRB+VBE=VCCICRL+IBRB+VBE=VCC
Or
IBRB=VCC−VBE−ICRLIBRB=VCC−VBE−ICRL
Therefore
RB=VCC−VBE−ICRLIBRB=VCC−VBE−ICRLIB
Or
RB=(VCC−VBE−ICRL)βICRB=(VCC−VBE−ICRL)βIC
Applying KVL we have
(IB+IC)RL+IBRB+VBE=VCC(IB+IC)RL+IBRB+VBE=VCC
Or
IB(RL+RB)+ICRL+VBE=VCCIB(RL+RB)+ICRL+VBE=VCC
Therefore
IB=VCC−VBE−ICRLRL+RBIB=VCC−VBE−ICRLRL+RB
Since VBE is almost independent of collector current, we get
dIBdIC=−RLRL+RBdIBdIC=−RLRL+RB
We know that
S=1+β1−β(dIB/dIC)S=1+β1−β(dIB/dIC)
Therefore
S=1+β1+β(RLRL+RB)S=1+β1+β(RLRL+RB)
This value is smaller than (1+β) which is obtained for fixed bias circuit. Thus there is an
improvement in the stability.
This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the gain of the amplifier. So the
increased stability of the collector to base bias circuit is obtained at the cost of AC voltage gain.

Biasing with Collector Feedback resistor

In this method, the base resistor R B has its one end connected to base and the other to the
collector as its name implies. In this circuit, the zero signal base current is determined by V CB but
not by VCC.
It is clear that VCB forward biases the base-emitter junction and hence base current IB flows
through RB. This causes the zero signal collector current to flow in the circuit. The below figure
shows the biasing with collector feedback resistor circuit.
The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal current IC can be determined as follows.
VCC=ICRC+IBRB+VBEVCC=ICRC+IBRB+VBE

Or
RB=VCC−VBE−ICRCIBRB=VCC−VBE−ICRCIB

=VCC−VBE−βIBRCIB=VCC−VBE−βIBRCIB

Since IC=βIBIC=βIB
Alternatively,
VCE=VBE+VCBVCE=VBE+VCB

Or
VCB=VCE−VBEVCB=VCE−VBE

Since
RB=VCBIB=VCE−VBEIBRB=VCBIB=VCE−VBEIB

Where
IB=ICβIB=ICβ
Mathematically,
Stability factor, S<(β+1)S<(β+1)
Therefore, this method provides better thermal stability than the fixed bias.
The Q-point values for the circuit are shown as
IC=VCC−VBERB/β+RCIC=VCC−VBERB/β+RC

VCE=VCC−ICRCVCE=VCC−ICRC

Advantages
• The circuit is simple as it needs only one resistor.
• This circuit provides some stabilization, for lesser changes.

Disadvantages

• The circuit doesn’t provide good stabilization.

• The circuit provides negative feedback.

Voltage Divider Bias Method

Among all the methods of providing biasing and stabilization, the voltage divider bias
method is the most prominent one. Here, two resistors R 1 and R2 are employed, which are
connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor RE employed in the emitter provides
stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R 1 and R2. The voltage drop
across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base current and hence
collector current flow in the zero signal conditions. The figure below shows the circuit of voltage
divider bias method.
Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R 1 is I1. As base current IB is very small,
therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing through R 2 is also I1.
Now let us try to derive the expressions for collector current and collector voltage.

Collector Current, IC

From the circuit, it is evident that,

I1=VCCR1+R2I1=VCCR1+R2

Therefore, the voltage across resistance R2 is

V2=(VCCR1+R2)R2V2=(VCCR1+R2)R2

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base circuit,

V2=VBE+VEV2=VBE+VE

V2=VBE+IEREV2=VBE+IERE

IE=V2−VBEREIE=V2−VBERE

Since IE ≈ IC,
IC=V2−VBEREIC=V2−VBERE

From the above expression, it is evident that IC doesn’t depend upon β. VBE is very small that
IC doesn’t get affected by VBE at all. Thus IC in this circuit is almost independent of transistor
parameters and hence good stabilization is achieved.
Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector side,
VCC=ICRC+VCE+IEREVCC=ICRC+VCE+IERE

Since IE ≅ IC
=ICRC+VCE+ICRE=ICRC+VCE+ICRE

=IC(RC+RE)+VCE=IC(RC+RE)+VCE

Therefore,
VCE=VCC−IC(RC+RE)VCE=VCC−IC(RC+RE)

RE provides excellent stabilization in this circuit.

V2=VBE+ICREV2=VBE+ICRE

Suppose there is a rise in temperature, then the collector current I C decreases, which causes the
voltage drop across RE to increase. As the voltage drop across R 2 is V2, which is independent of
IC, the value of VBE decreases. The reduced value of IB tends to restore IC to the original value.

Stability Factor

The equation for Stability factor of this circuit is obtained as

Stability Factor = S=(β+1)(R0+R3)R0+RE+βRES=(β+1)(R0+R3)R0+RE+βRE
=(β+1)×1+R0REβ+1+R0RE=(β+1)×1+R0REβ+1+R0RE
Where
R0=R1R2R1+R2R0=R1R2R1+R2

If the ratio R0/RE is very small, then R0/RE can be neglected as compared to 1 and the stability
factor becomes
Stability Factor = S=(β+1)×1β+1=1S=(β+1)×1β+1=1
This is the smallest possible value of S and leads to the maximum possible thermal stability.
 Op-Amp-Applications
A circuit is said to be linear, if there exists a linear relationship between its input and the output.
Similarly, a circuit is said to be non-linear, if there exists a non-linear relationship between its input
and output.
Op-amps can be used in both linear and non-linear applications. The following are the basic
applications of op-amp −

• Inverting Amplifier
• Non-inverting Amplifier
• Voltage follower
This chapter discusses these basic applications in detail.

Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier takes the input through its inverting terminal through a resistor R1R1, and
produces its amplified version as the output. This amplifier not only amplifies the input but also inverts
it (changes its sign).
The circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier is shown in the following figure −

Note that for an op-amp, the voltage at the inverting input terminal is equal to the voltage at its non-
inverting input terminal. Physically, there is no short between those two terminals but virtually, they
are in short with each other.
In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal is connected to ground. That means zero
volts is applied at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp will
be zero volts.
The nodal equation at this terminal's node is as shown below −

0−ViR1+0−V0Rf=00−ViR1+0−V0Rf=0

=>−ViR1=V0Rf=>−ViR1=V0Rf

=>V0=(−RfR1)Vt=>V0=(−RfR1)Vt

=>V0Vi=−RfR1=>V0Vi=−RfR1

The ratio of the output voltage V0V0 and the input voltage ViVi is the voltage-gain or gain of the
amplifier. Therefore, the gain of inverting amplifier is equal to −RfR1−RfR1.
Note that the gain of the inverting amplifier is having a negative sign. It indicates that there exists a
1800 phase difference between the input and the output.

Non-Inverting Amplifier
A non-inverting amplifier takes the input through its non-inverting terminal, and produces its amplified
version as the output. As the name suggests, this amplifier just amplifies the input, without inverting
or changing the sign of the output.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting amplifier is shown in the following figure −

In the above circuit, the input voltage ViVi is directly applied to the non-inverting input terminal of
op-amp. So, the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp will be ViVi.
By using voltage division principle, we can calculate the voltage at the inverting input terminal of
the op-amp as shown below −

=>V1=V0(R1R1+Rf)=>V1=V0(R1R1+Rf)
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp is
same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal.

=>V1=Vi=>V1=Vi

=>V0(R1R1+Rf)=Vi=>V0(R1R1+Rf)=Vi

=>V0Vi=R1+RfR1=>V0Vi=R1+RfR1

=>V0Vi=1+RfR1=>V0Vi=1+RfR1

Now, the ratio of output voltage V0V0 and input voltage ViVi or the voltage-gain or gain of the non-
inverting amplifier is equal to 1+RfR11+RfR1.
Note that the gain of the non-inverting amplifier is having a positive sign. It indicates that there is no
phase difference between the input and the output.

Voltage follower
A voltage follower is an electronic circuit, which produces an output that follows the input voltage. It
is a special case of non-inverting amplifier.

If we consider the value of feedback resistor, RfRf as zero ohms and (or) the value of resistor, 1 as
infinity ohms, then a non-inverting amplifier becomes a voltage follower. The circuit diagram of a
voltage follower is shown in the following figure −

In the above circuit, the input voltage ViVi is directly applied to the non-inverting input terminal of the
op-amp. So, the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of op-amp is equal to ViVi. Here, the
output is directly connected to the inverting input terminal of opamp. Hence, the voltage at the
inverting input terminal of op-amp is equal to V0V0.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of the op-amp is
same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal.
 =>V0=Vi=>V0=Vi

So, the output voltage V0V0 of a voltage follower is equal to its input voltage ViVi.
Thus, the gain of a voltage follower is equal to one since, both output voltage V0V0 and input
voltage ViVi of voltage follower are same.

Arithmetic Circuits
The electronic circuits, which perform arithmetic operations are called as arithmetic circuits.
Using op-amps, you can build basic arithmetic circuits such as an adder and a subtractor. In
this chapter, you will learn about each of them in detail.

Adder
An adder is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is equal to the sum of the applied
inputs. This section discusses about the op-amp based adder circuit.
An op-amp based adder produces an output equal to the sum of the input voltages applied at its
inverting terminal. It is also called as a summing amplifier, since the output is an amplified one.
The circuit diagram of an op-amp based adder is shown in the following figure −

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That
means zero volts is applied at its non-inverting input terminal.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp
is same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting
input terminal of the op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is
0−V1R1+0−V2R2+0−V0Rf=00−V1R1+0−V2R2+0−V0Rf=0

=>V1R1−V2R2=V0Rf=>V1R1−V2R2=V0Rf

=>V0=Rf(V1R1+V2R2)=>V0=Rf(V1R1+V2R2)

If Rf=R1=R2=RRf=R1=R2=R, then the output voltage V0V0 will be −

V0=−R(V1R+V2R)V0=−R(V1R+V2R)

=>V0=−(V1+V2)=>V0=−(V1+V2)

Therefore, the op-amp based adder circuit discussed above will produce the sum of the two input
voltages v1v1 and v1v1, as the output, when all the resistors present in the circuit are of same
value. Note that the output voltage V0V0 of an adder circuit is having a negative sign, which
indicates that there exists a 1800 phase difference between the input and the output.

Subtractor
A subtractor is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is equal to the difference of
the applied inputs. This section discusses about the op-amp based subtractor circuit.
An op-amp based subtractor produces an output equal to the difference of the input voltages
applied at its inverting and non-inverting terminals. It is also called as a difference amplifier,
since the output is an amplified one.
The circuit diagram of an op-amp based subtractor is shown in the following figure −

Now, let us find the expression for output voltage V0V0 of the above circuit using superposition
theorem using the following steps −

Step 1
Firstly, let us calculate the output voltage V01V01 by considering only V1V1.
For this, eliminate V2V2 by making it short circuit. Then we obtain the modified circuit
diagram as shown in the following figure −

Now, using the voltage division principle, calculate the voltage at the non-inverting input
terminal of the op-amp.
=>Vp=V1(R3R2+R3)=>Vp=V1(R3R2+R3)

Now, the above circuit looks like a non-inverting amplifier having input voltage VpVp. Therefore,
the output voltage V01V01 of above circuit will be
V01=Vp(1+RfR1)V01=Vp(1+RfR1)

Substitute, the value of VpVp in above equation, we obtain the output voltage V01V01 by
considering only V1V1, as −
V01=V1(R3R2+R3)(1+RfR1)V01=V1(R3R2+R3)(1+RfR1)

Step 2

In this step, let us find the output voltage, V02V02 by considering only V2V2. Similar to that in
the above step, eliminate V1V1 by making it short circuit. The modified circuit diagram is
shown in the following figure .
You can observe that the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp will be zero
volts. It means, the above circuit is simply an inverting op-amp. Therefore, the output
voltage V02V02 of above circuit will be −
V02=(−RfR1)V2V02=(−RfR1)V2

Step 3
In this step, we will obtain the output voltage V0V0 of the subtractor circuit by adding the output
voltages obtained in Step1 and Step2. Mathematically, it can be written as
V0=V01+V02V0=V01+V02

Substituting the values of V01V01 and V02V02 in the above equation, we get −
V0=V1(R3R2+R3)(1+RfR1)+(−RfR1)V2V0=V1(R3R2+R3)(1+RfR1)+(−RfR1)V2

=>V0=V1(R3R2+R3)(1+RfR1)−(RfR1)V2=>V0=V1(R3R2+R3)(1+RfR1)−(RfR1)V2

If Rf=R1=R2=R3=RRf=R1=R2=R3=R, then the output voltage V0V0 will be

V0=V1(RR+R)(1+RR)−(RR)V2V0=V1(RR+R)(1+RR)−(RR)V2

=>V0=V1(R2R)(2)−(1)V2=>V0=V1(R2R)(2)−(1)V2

V0=V1−V2V0=V1−V2

Thus, the op-amp based subtractor circuit discussed above will produce an output, which is the
difference of two input voltages V1V1 and V2V2, when all the resistors present in the circuit are
of same value.
 Differentiator And Integrator
Differentiator
A differentiator is an electronic circuit that produces an output equal to the first derivative of its
input. This section discusses about the op-amp based differentiator in detail.
An op-amp based differentiator produces an output, which is equal to the differential of input
voltage that is applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based
differentiator is shown in the following figure −

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That
means zero volts is applied to its non-inverting input terminal.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of opamp will
be equal to the voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting
input terminal of op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is −
Cd(0−Vi)dt+0−V0R=0Cd(0−Vi)dt+0−V0R=0

=>−CdVidt=V0R=>−CdVidt=V0R

=>V0=−RCdVidt=>V0=−RCdVidt

If RC=1secRC=1sec, then the output voltage V0V0 will be −

V0=−dVidtV0=−dVidt

Thus, the op-amp based differentiator circuit shown above will produce an output, which
is the differential of input voltage ViVi, when the magnitudes of impedances of resistor
and capacitor are reciprocal to each other.
Note that the output voltage V0V0 is having a negative sign, which indicates that there
exists a 1800 phase difference between the input and the output.
Integrator
An integrator is an electronic circuit that produces an output that is the integration of the applied
input. This section discusses about the op-amp based integrator.
An op-amp based integrator produces an output, which is an integral of the input voltage applied
to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based integrator is shown in the
following figure −

In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground.
That means zero volts is applied to its non-inverting input terminal.
According to virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp will be
equal to the voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting
input terminal of op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal is −
0−ViR+Cd(0−V0)dt=00−ViR+Cd(0−V0)dt=0

=>−ViR=CdV0dt=>−ViR=CdV0dt

=>dV0dt=−ViRC=>dV0dt=−ViRC

=>dV0=(−ViRC)dt=>dV0=(−ViRC)dt

Integrating both sides of the equation shown above, we get −

∫dV0=∫(−ViRC)dt∫dV0=∫(−ViRC)dt

=>V0=−1RC∫Vtdt=>V0=−1RC∫Vtdt

If RC=1secRC=1sec, then the output voltage, V0V0 will be −

 V0=−∫VidtV0=−∫Vidt

So, the op-amp based integrator circuit discussed above will produce an output, which is the
integral of input voltage ViVi, when the magnitude of impedances of resistor and capacitor are
reciprocal to each other.
Note − The output voltage, V0V0 is having a negative sign, which indicates that there exists
1800 phase difference between the input and the output.

Comparators
A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs that are applied to it and
produces an output. The output value of the comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater
or lesser. Please note that comparator falls under non-linear applications of ICs.
An op-amp consists of two input terminals and hence an op-amp based comparator compares
the two inputs that are applied to it and produces the result of comparison as the output. This
chapter discusses about op-amp based comparators.

Types of Comparators
Comparators are of two types : Inverting and Non-inverting. This section discusses about
these two types in detail.

Inverting Comparator

An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is

applied to its non-inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its inverting terminal. This
comparator is called as inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be
compared is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp.
The circuit diagram of an inverting comparator is shown in the following figure.
The operation of an inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two
values, +Vsat+Vsat and −Vsat−Vsat at the output based on the values of its input
voltage ViVi and the reference voltage VrefVref.
• The output value of an inverting comparator will be −Vsat−Vsat, for which the
input ViVi voltage is greater than the reference voltage VrefVref.
• The output value of an inverting comparator will be +Vsat+Vsat, for which the input ViVi is
less than the reference voltage VrefVref.

Example

Let us draw the output wave form of an inverting comparator, when a sinusoidal input signal
and a reference voltage of zero volts are applied to its inverting and non-inverting terminals
respectively.

The operation of the inverting comparator shown above is discussed below −

• During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at the
inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of the
inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat−Vsat during positive half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.
• Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage
present at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output
value of the inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat+Vsat during negative half cycle
of the sinusoidal input signal.
The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of an inverting comparator, when
the reference voltage is zero volts.
In the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions either
from −Vsat−Vsat to +Vsat+Vsat or from +Vsat+Vsat to −Vsat−Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input
signal is crossing zero volts. In other words, output changes its value when the input is crossing
zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is also called as inverting zero crossing detector.

Non-Inverting Comparator

A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is

applied to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal. This
op-amp based comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input voltage,
which has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following figure
The operation of a non-inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two
values, +Vsat+Vsat and −Vsat−Vsat at the output based on the values of input voltage VtVt and
the reference voltage +Vref+Vref.
• The output value of a non-inverting comparator will be +Vsat+Vsat, for which the input
voltage ViVi is greater than the reference voltage +Vref+Vref.
• The output value of a non-inverting comparator will bee −Vsat−Vsat, for which the input
voltage ViVi is less than the reference voltage +Vref+Vref.

Example

Let us draw the output wave form of a non-inverting comparator, when a sinusoidal input signal
and reference voltage of zero volts are applied to the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the
op-amp respectively.

The operation of a non-inverting comparator is explained below −

• During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at the non-
inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of a non-
 inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat+Vsat during the positive half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.
• Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at
the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output value of non-
inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat−Vsat during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.
The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of a non-inverting
comparator, when the reference voltage is zero volts.

From the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions either
from +Vsat+Vsat to −Vsat−Vsat or from −Vsat−Vsat to +Vsat+Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input
signal crosses zero volts. That means, the output changes its value when the input is crossing
zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is also called as non-inverting zero crossing detector.
 Rectifiers
AC and DC are two frequent terms that you encounter while studying the flow of
electrical charge. Alternating Current (AC) has the property to change its state
continuously. For example, if we consider a sine wave, the current flows in one direction
for positive half cycle and in the opposite direction for negative half cycle. On the other
hand, Direct Current (DC) flows only in one direction.
An electronic circuit, which produces either DC signal or a pulsated DC signal, when an
AC signal is applied to it is called as a rectifier. This chapter discusses about op-amp
based rectifiers in detail.

Types of Rectifiers
Rectifiers are classified into two types: Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier. This section
discusses about these two types in detail.

Half wave Rectifier

A half wave rectifier is a rectifier that produces positive half cycles at the output for one half
cycle of the input and zero output for the other half cycle of the input.
The circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier is shown in the following figure .

Observe that the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier shown above looks like an inverting
amplifier, with two diodes D1 and D2 in addition.
The working of the half wave rectifier circuit shown above is explained below
 • For the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input, the output of the op-amp will be negative.
Hence, diode D1 will be forward biased.
• When diode D1 is in forward bias, output voltage of the op-amp will be -0.7 V. So, diode D2 will
be reverse biased. Hence, the output voltage of the above circuit is zero volts.
• Therefore, there is no (zero) output of half wave rectifier for the positive half cycle of a
sinusoidal input.
• For the negative half cycle of sinusoidal input, the output of the op-amp will be positive.
Hence, the diodes D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and forward biased respectively. So, the
output voltage of above circuit will be −

V0=−(RfR1)V1V0=−(RfR1)V1
• Therefore, the output of a half wave rectifier will be a positive half cycle for a negative half
cycle of the sinusoidal input.

Wave forms

The input and output waveforms of a half wave rectifier are shown in the following figure
As you can see from the above graph, the half wave rectifier circuit diagram that we discussed
will produce positive half cycles for negative half cycles of sinusoidal input and zero output for
positive half cycles of sinusoidal input

Full wave Rectifier

A full wave rectifier produces positive half cycles at the output for both half cycles of the input.
The circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier is shown in the following figure −

The above circuit diagram consists of two op-amps, two diodes, D1 & D2 and five resistors, R1 to
R5. The working of the full wave rectifier circuit shown above is explained below −
• For the positive half cycle of a sinusoidal input, the output of the first op-amp will be negative.
Hence, diodes D1 and D2 will be forward biased and reverse biased respectively.
• Then, the output voltage of the first op-amp will be −

V01=−(R2R1)ViV01=−(R2R1)Vi
• Observe that the output of the first op-amp is connected to a resistor R4, which is connected
to the inverting terminal of the second op-amp. The voltage present at the non-inverting
terminal of second op-amp is 0 V. So, the second op-amp with resistors, R4 and R4 acts as
an inverting amplifier.
• The output voltage of the second op-amp will be
 V0=−(R5R4)V01V0=−(R5R4)V01
Substituting the value of V01V01 in the above equation, we get −

=>V0=−(R5R4){−(R2R1)Vi}=>V0=−(R5R4){−(R2R1)Vi}

=>V0=(R2R5R1R4)Vi=>V0=(R2R5R1R4)Vi

• Therefore, the output of a full wave rectifier will be a positive half cycle for the positive
half cycle of a sinusoidal input. In this case, the gain of the output
is R2R5R1R4R2R5R1R4. If we consider R1=R2=R4=R5=RR1=R2=R4=R5=R, then the
gain of the output will be one.
• For the negative half cycle of a sinusoidal input, the output of the first op-amp will be
positive. Hence, diodes D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and forward biased respectively.
• The output voltage of the first op-amp will be −
V01=−(R3R1)ViV01=−(R3R1)Vi

• The output of the first op-amp is directly connected to the non-inverting terminal of the
second op-amp. Now, the second op-amp with resistors, R4 and R5 acts as a non-
inverting amplifier.
The output voltage of the second op-amp will be −

V0=(1+R5R4)V01V0=(1+R5R4)V01

Substituting the value of V01V01 in the above equation, we get

=>V0=(1+R5R4){−(R3R1)Vi}=>V0=(1+R5R4){−(R3R1)Vi}

=>V0=−(R3R1)(1+R5R4)Vi=>V0=−(R3R1)(1+R5R4)Vi

• Therefore, the output of a full wave rectifier will be a positive half cycle for the negative
half cycle of sinusoidal input also. In this case, the magnitude of the gain of the output
is (R3R1)(1+R5R4)(R3R1)(1+R5R4). If we
consider R1=2R3=R4=R5=RR1=2R3=R4=R5=R then the gain of the output will be one.
The input and output waveforms of a full wave rectifier are shown in the following figure
As you can see in the above figure, the full wave rectifier circuit diagram that we
considered will produce only positive half cycles for both positive and negative half
cycles of a sinusoidal input.