Prof..

Mohammed Gulam Ahamad

Collector Base

Emitter

Two PN junctions joined together Two types available NPN and PNP The regions (from top to bottom) are called the collector (C), the base (B), and the emitter (E)

Begin by reverse biasing the CB junction

Now we apply a small forward bias on the emitter-base junction

Here we are showing an NPN transistor as an example

Some of the electrons pushed into the base by the forward bias E-B voltage end up depleting holes in that junction

Electrons are pushed into the base, which then quickly flow to the collector The result is a large emitter-collector electron current (conventional current is C-E) which is maintained by a small E-B voltage

This would eventually destroy the junction if we didnt replenish the holes The electrons that might do this are drawn off as a base current

the Emitter 'emits' the electrons which pass through the device the Collector 'collects' them again once they've passed through the Base ...and the Base?...

The thickness of the unmodified Base region has to be just right.

Too thin, and the Base would essentially vanish. The Emitter and Collector would then form a continuous piece of semiconductor, so current would flow between them whatever the base potential. Too thick, and electrons entering the Base from the Emitter wouldn't notice the Collector as it would be too far away. So then, the current would all be between the Emitter and the Base, and there'd be no Emitter-Collector current.

The C-B voltage junction operates near breakdown.

This ensures that a small E-B voltage causes avalanche Large current through the device

How does IC vary with VCE for various IB? Note that both dc sources are variable Set VBB to establish a certain IB

If VCC = 0, then IC = 0 and VCE = 0 As VCC both VCE and IC When VCE 0.7 V, basecollector becomes reverse-biased and IC reaches full value (IC = bI B ) IC ~ constant as VCE . There is a slight increase of IC due to the widening of the depletion zone (BC) giving fewer holes for recombinations with e in base. Since IC = bIB, different base currents produce different I

Slope of the load line is 1/RL

For a constant load, stepping IB gives different currents (IC) predicted by where the load line crosses the characteristic curve. IC = bIBworks so long as the load line intersects on the plateau region of the curve.

Cut-off

Note that the load line intersects the 75 mA curve below the plateau region. This is saturation and IC = bIB doesnt work in this region.

We adjust the base current to 200 mA and note that this transistor has a b = 100

Then IC = bIB = 100(200 X 10-6A) = 20 mA

Notice that we can use Kirchhoffs voltage law around the right side of the circuit

VCE = VCC ICRC = 10 V (20 mA)(220 W) = 10 V 4.4 V = 5.6 V

Now adjust IB to 300 mA

Now we get IC = 30 mA And VCE = 10 V (30 mA)(220 W) = 3.4 V IB = 40 mA and VCE = 1.2 V

Finally, adjust IB = 400 mA

VCE 5.6 V 3.4 V 1.2 V

IC 20 mA 30 mA 40 mA

As temperature increases, the gain increases for all current values.

There will be a limit on the dissipated power

PD(max) = VCEIC VCE and IC were the parameters plotted on the characteristic curve.
If there is a voltage limit (VCE(max)), then you can compute the

IC that results If there is a current limit (IC(max)), then you can compute the VCE that results

Assume PD(max) = 0.5 W VCE(max) = 20 V IC(max) = 50 mA

PD(max) VCE 0.5 W 5V

IC 100 mA

10
15

50
33

20

25

Operating Range

Common Base PNP

Now we have added an ac source

The biasing of the junctions are:
BE is forward biased by VBB - thus a small resistance BC is reverse biased by VCC and a large resistance Since IB is small, IC IE

rE = internal ac emitter resistance IE = Vin/rE (Ohms Law) Vout = ICRC IERC

Vout AV voltage gain Vin

I E RC RC AV I E rE rE

Recall the name transfer resistor

Common Base

a = IC/IE < 1
b = IC/IB

Common Emitter

From Kirchhoff' s Current Law I E IC I B IE IB 1 IC IC 1

a b b a ab b a( 1 b ) b a 1 b

1 b

If b = 50, then a = 50/51 = 0.98

Recall a < 1

Rearranging,
b = a + ab b(1-a) = a b = a/(1-a)

We can control the base current using VBB (we dont actually use a physical switch). The circuit then acts as a high speed switch.

In Cut-off

All currents are zero and VCE = VCC

IB big enough to produce IC(sat) bIB

In Saturation

Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law through the ground loop

VCC = VCE(sat) + IC(sat)RC but VCE(sat) is very small (few tenths), so IC(sat) VCC/RC

a) What is VCE when Vin = 0 V? Ans. VCE = VCC = 10 V b) What minimum value of IB is required to saturate the transistor if b = 200? Take VCE(sat) = 0 V IC(sat) VCC/RC = 10 V/1000 W = 10 mA

Then, IB = IC(sat)/b = 10 mA/200 = 0.05mA

LED

If a square wave is input for VBB, then the LED will be on when the input is high, and off when the input is low.

Assume that b is such that IC varies between 20 and 40 mA. The transistor is constantly changing curves along the load line.

Pt. A corresponds to the positive peak. Pt. B corresponds to the negative peak. This graph shows ideal operation.

The location of the point Q (size of the dc source on input) may cause an operating point to lie outside of the active range.

Driven to saturation Driven into Cutoff

It is usually not necessary to provide two sources for biasing the transistor.
The red arrows follow the base-emitter part of the circuit, which contains the resistor RB. The voltage drop across RB is VCC VBE (Kirchhoffs Voltage Law). The base current is then

VCC VBE IB RC

and

I C = bI B

Use Kirchhoffs Voltage Law on the black arrowed loop of the circuit
VCC = ICRC + VCE So, VCE = VCC ICRC VCE = VCC bIBRC

Disadvantge

b occurs in the equation for both VCE and IC But b varies thus so do VCE and IC This shifts the Q-point (b-dpendent)

@ 25 C

Let RC = 560 W RB = 100 kW VCC = +12 V

@ 25 C b = 100 @ 75 C b = 150
@ 75 C IB is the same IC = 16.95 mA VCE = 2.51 V IC increases by 50% VCE decreases by 56%

VCC VBE 12 V - 0.7 V IB 113mA RB 100,000 W

IC b I B (100)(113 mA) 11.3 mA

VCE VCC b I B R C 12 V - (100)(113 mA)(560 W ) 5.67 V

Amplification

The process of increasing the strength of a signal. The result of controlling a relatively large quantity of current (output) with a small quantity of current (input).
Device use to increase the current, voltage, or power of the input signal without appreciably altering the essential quality.

Amplifier

Entire input waveform is faithfully reproduced. Transistor spends its entire time in the active mode

Never reaches either cutoff or saturation. Drive the transistor exactly halfway between cutoff and saturation. Transistor is always on always dissipating power can be quite inefficient

No DC bias voltage

The transistor spends half its time in active mode and the other half in cutoff

Transistor Q1 "pushes" (drives the output voltage in a positive direction with respect to ground), while transistor Q2 "pulls" the output voltage (in a negative direction, toward 0 volts with respect to ground). Individually, each of these transistors is operating in class B mode, active only for one-half of the input waveform cycle. Together, however, they function as a team to produce an output waveform identical in shape to the input waveform.

Between Class A (100% operation) and Class B (50% operation).

IC flows for less than half then cycle. Usually get more gain in Class B and C, but more distortion

Notice that VBB forward biases the emitter-base junction and dc current flows through the circuit at all times The class of the amplifier is determined by VBB with respect to the input signal. Signal that adds to VBB causes transistor current to increase Signal that subtracts from VBB causes transistor current to decrease

At positive peak of input, VBB is adding to the input Resistance in the transistor is reduced Current in the circuit increases Larger current means more voltage drop across RC (VRC = IRC) Larger voltage drop across RC leaves less voltage to be dropped across the transistor We take the output VCE as input increases, VCE decreases.

As the input goes to the negative peak

Transistor resistance increases Less current flows Less voltage is dropped across RC More voltage can be dropped across C-E
Feature of the common emitter amplifier

The result is a phase reversal

The closer VBB is to VCC, the larger the transistor current.

Signal that adds to VBB causes transistor current to increase Signal that subtracts from VBB causes transistor current to decrease At positive peak of input, VBB is adding to the input Resistance in the transistor is reduced Current in the circuit increases Larger current means more voltage drop across RC (VRC = IRC) Collector current increases No phase reversal

Also called an Emitter Follower circuit output on emitter is almost a replica of the input

Input is across the C-B junction this is reversed biased and the impedance is high
Output is across the B-E junction this is forward biased and the impedance is low. Current gain is high but voltage gain is low.

IC a IE

Usually given for common base amplifier

IC b IB

Usually given for common emitter amplifier

IE IB

Usually given for common collector amplifier

Recall from Kirchhoffs Current Law

IB + IC = I E

IB

IC IE 1 IB IB 1 b
Ex. For b = 100

a And since b 1-a a 1 1-a 1-a a 1 LCD 1-a 1-a

a = b/(1+b) = 0.99
= 1 + b = 101

Type
Relation between input/output phase

Common Base 0
High Low (a) Low Low

Common Emitter 180

Medium Medium (b) High Medium

Common Collector 0
Low High () Medium High

Voltage Gain Current Gain Power Gain Input Z

Output Z

High

Medium

Low

Condition
hi Input resistance Output shorted

hr
hf ho

Voltage feedback ratio

Forward current gain Output conductance

Input open
Output shorted Input open

Second subscript indicates common base (b), common emitter (e), or common collector (c)

=b
= Slope of curve

hie = VB/IB

Ohms Law

hie =input impedance

hre = VB/VC

hfe = IC/IB Equivalent of b

hoe = IC/VC

Common Emitter (e) hi (ohms) hr (unitless) hf (unitless) ho (watts) VB/IB VB/VC IC/IB ICVC

Common Base (b) VE/IB VE/VC IC/IE ICVC

Common Collector (c) VB/IB VB/VE IE/IB IEVE

No standard look at the spec sheet or the case

When the energy (intensity) of the sound increases by a factor of 10, the loudness increases by 1 bel

Named for A. G. Bell One bel is a large unit and we use 1/10th bel, or decibels

When the energy (intensity) of the sound increases by a factor of 10, the loudness increases by 10 dB

For intensities

L = 10 log(I/Io)
L = 10 log(E/Eo) L = 20 log(A/Ao)

For energies

For amplitudes

The Io or Eo or Ao refers to the intensity, energy, or amplitude of the sound wave for the threshold of hearing

Io = 10-12 W/m2 Loudness levels always compared to threshold

Relative measure

160 Jet engine - close up 150 140

Snare drums played hard at 6 inches away Trumpet peaks at 5 inches away Rock singer screaming in microphone (lips on mic)

130 Pneumatic (jack) hammer

Planes on airport runway 120

Cymbal crash
Threshold of pain - Piccolo strongly played Fender guitar amplifier, full volume at 10 inches away

Power tools
Subway (not the sandwich shop)

110 100 Flute in players right ear - Violin in players left ear

90 Heavy truck traffic Chamber music Average factory 70 Busy street 60 Average office noise Quiet conversation Quiet office Quiet living room 50 40 30 20 10 0 Quiet recording studio Threshold of hearing for healthy youths Small orchestra Conversational speech at 1 foot away 80 Typical home stereo listening level Acoustic guitar, played with finger at 1 foot away

l1 = 10 log(I1/Io) l2 = 10 log(I2/Io)
l2 l1 = Dl = 10(log I2 log Io log I1 + log Io) = 10(log I2 log I1) l2 l1 = Dl = 10 log(I2/I1) Threshold of Hearing when I = Io l = 0 dB

Threshold of Pain when I 1012 Io l = 120 dB

A loudspeaker produces loudness rated at 90 dB (l1) at a distance of 4 ft (d1). How far can the sound travel (d2) and still give a loudness at the listeners ear of 40 dB (l2 - conversation at 3 ft.)?

Sound follows the inverse square law I1/I2 = d22/d12 Dl = 50 dB = 10 log(I2/I1)

log(I2/I1) = 5 which means I2/I1 = 105

If d1 = 4 ft, then d22 = (I1/I2) d12 = 105 (4 ft)2 d2 = 1260 ft (about mile)

0 dB -3 dB

hfe Frequency

For the -3 dB point

Dl = 3 dB = 10 log (I1/I2)
I1/I2 = 2 = P1/P2 so 3 dB below initial level mean half the power

It takes a certain time for e- to travel from emitter to collector (transit time) If frequency is too high, applied current varies too rapidly Electrons may be unable to dislodge rapidly enough to move from E to C before current surges in the other direction.

Making the base thinner reduces transit time and improves frequency response

As reverse bias increases on the C-B junction, the depletion zone increases and C decreases (C = eA/d and d increasing). As emitter current increases, C increases (d decreasing). If capacitance changes, so does capacitive reactance X 1 C 2 f C

Increasing C decreases XC

Small base current provides a path back to input

If the feedback voltage aids the input voltage, then it is positive (regenerative) feedback If the feedback is too large, the amplifier will oscillate