UNIT 1 TRANSISTOR BIAS STABILITY

1. Why do we choose Q point at the center of the loadline?

The operating point of a transistor is kept fixed usually at the center of the active region in order that
the input signal is well amplified. If the point is fixed in the saturation region or the cut off region the
positive and negative half cycle gets clipped off respectively.
2. Name the two techniques used in the stability of the Q point .explain.
Stabilization technique: This refers to the use of resistive biasing circuit which allows I B to vary so as
to keep IC relatively constant with variations in Ico and VBE.
Compensation techniques: This refers to the use of temperature sensitive devices such as thermistors
diodes. They provide compensating voltages & currents to maintain operating point constant.
3. Give the expression for stability factor.

S
List out the different types of biasing.
Voltage divider bias Base bias
Emitter feedback bias Collector feedback bias
What do you meant by thermal runway?
Due to the self heating at the collector junction, the collector current rises. This causes damage to the
device. This phenomenon is called thermal runway.

6. Why is the transistor called a current controlled device?

The output characteristics of the transistor depend on the input current. So the transistor is called a
current controlled device.
7. Define current amplification factor?
It is defined as the ratio of change in output current to the change in input current at constant other
side voltage.
What are the requirements for biasing circuits?
The q point must be taken at the Centre of the active region of the output characteristics.
Stabilize the collector current against the temperature variations.
Make the q point independent of the transistor parameters.
When the transistor is replaced, it must be of same type.
When does a transistor act as a switch?
The transistor acts as a switch when it is operated at either cutoff region or saturation region.

10. What is biasing?

To use the transistor in any application it is necessary to provide sufficient voltage and current to
operate the transistor. This is called biasing.

M 8.2.4
11. What is operating point?
For the proper operation of the transistor a fixed level of current and voltages are required. This
values of currents and voltages defined at a point at which the transistor operate is called operating
point.
12. What is stability factor?
Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect to the rate of change
of reverse saturation current.
13. What is d.c load line?
The d.c load line is defined as a line on the output characteristics of the transistor which gives the
value of Ic & Vce corresponding to zero signal condition.
14. What are the advantages of fixed bias circuit?
This is simple circuit which uses a few components. The operating point can be fixed any where on
the Centre of the active region
15. Explain about the various regions in a transistor?
The three regions are active region saturation region cutoff region.
16. Explain about the characteristics of a transistor?
Input characteristics: it is drawn between input voltage & input current while keeping output voltage
as constant. Output characteristics: It is drawn between the output voltage &output current while
keeping input current as constant.
17. What is the necessary of the coupling capacitor?
It is used to block the c signal to the transistor amplifier. It allows a c &blocks the d c.
18. What is reverse saturation current?
The current due to the minority carriers is called the reverse saturation current.
19. Why is the operating point selected at the Centre of the active region?
The operating point is selected at the Centre of the active region to get to perfect amplification.
Moreover there is no distortion.
20. What are the basic rules of an operating point in an amplifier?
The operating point should be fixed on the load line. The upper end of the load line lies on the
saturation region &lower end lies on the cutoff region.
21. What is an amplifier?
An amplifier is a device which produces a large electrical output of similar characteristics to that of
the input parameters.
How are amplifiers classified according to the input?
Small signal amplifier 2. Large signal amplifier

How are amplifiers classified according to the transistor configuration?

Common emitter amplifier 2. Common base amplifier 3. Common collector amplifier
What is the different analysis available to analyze a transistor?
AC analysis 2. DC analysis
How can a DC equivalent circuit of an amplifier be obtained?
By open circuiting the capacitor.
26. How can a AC equivalent circuit of a amplifier be obtained?
By replacing dc supply by a ground and short- circuiting capacitors.
List the advantage of transistor?
Low operating voltage Higher frequency

Small size and ruggedness

Does not require filament power

28. According to what criteria transistor used for voltage or current amplification
According to the three type of configuration transistor used for voltage or current amplification.
29. How transistors do amplification?
Passing the input current signal from a region of low resistance to a region of high resistance. This
concept of transfer of resistance has given the name TRANSfer-resISTOR (Transistor)
30. Why CE configuration is widely used in amplifier circuit?
Voltage gain and current gain greater than unity
Ratio of output resistance to input resistance small 10 to 100. Coupling is ideal between various
transistor stages.
31.
Write down the operating regions and bias conditions of a transistor?
Si.no
Region
Emitter-Base junction
Collector-Base junction

1
Cut-off
Reverse bias
Reverse bias
2
Active
Forward bias
Reverse bias
3
Saturation
Forward bias
Forward bias

32.

Define DC biasing (or) discuss the importance of biasing? (DEC-2008)

In order to operate transistor in the desired region we have to apply external dc voltage of correct
polarity and magnitude to the two junctions of the transistor. This is nothing but the biasing of the
transistor. Because dc voltage is used to bias the transistor, biasing is known as dc biasing of the
transistor.
33. Define DC operating point or quiescent point
When we bias a transistor we establish a certain current and voltage conditions for the transistor.
These conditions are known as operating condition or dc operating point or quiescent point.
Operating point depends what are the parameter.

Ico VBE
Temperature
List the typical junction voltage of NPN transistor
Si.no
Transistor
VCE(sat)
VBE(sat)
VBE(active)
VBE(cut-in)
VBE(cut-off)
1
Si
0.2v
0.8v
0.7v
0.5v
0v
2
Ge
0.1V
0.3V
0.2V
0.1V
0.1V
PNP- transistor only polarities will change.
List the condition of saturation region

IB> IC/dc
List the condition of active region

V >V
CE

I =I
C

CE(sat)

Where we select the operating point

Near to saturation Near to cut-off

At the centre of the load line

39. Define bias stability

Designing the biasing circuit stabilize the Q-point is known as bias stability.

40. Define thermal runaway? (NOV/DEC-2003), (NOV/DEC-2006), (DEC-2008)

The increase in the collector current increases the power dissipated at the collector junction. This is
turn further increases the temperature of the junction and hence increases the collector current. The
process is cumulative. The excess heat produced at the collector base junction may even burn and
destroy the transistor. This situation is called thermal runaway.
Important factors do design bias circuit
Temperature
IC0
VBE

dc
Transistor current gain(hfe/)
Requirements of a biasing circuit?
The emitter base junction must be forward biased and collector-base junction must be reverse
biased.opearating point should be fixed at the center of the active region.
The circuit design should provide a degree of temperature stability
The operating point should bemade independent of the transistor parameters.
What are the techniques is used to maintain the Q-point in the centre of the load line?
Stabilization technique
Compensation technique.
(APRIL/MAY-2005)
44. Define stability factor? And what its ideal value?
This indicates degree of change in operating point due to variation in temperature. S=1+
45. What is the advantage of using emitter resistance in the context of biasing?
Better stability factor S we have to keep ratio R B/RE as small as possible. Emitter resistance R E is
one parameter we can use to decrease ratio RB/RE by increasing RE we can make RB/RE small. But as
we increase RE, drop IERE will also increase and since VCC is constant, drop across RC will reduce.
This shifts the operating point Q which is not desirable and hence there is limit for increasing
RE.
46.
Why thermal runaway is not there in FETs?

(NOV/DEC-2005)
FET is temperature dependent. In FET,
as temperature increases drain resistance also
increases, reducing the drain current. So thermal runaway does not occur in FET.
47.
Why is it necessary to stabilize the operating point of transistor? (APRIL/MAY-2004)
Stabilization techniques refer to the use of resistive biasing circuits which allow I B to vary so as to
keep IC relatively constant with variations in IC0 , and VBE. To maintain the operating point stable.
So that the transistor will always work in active region.
48. What is the need for biasing?
Apply external dc voltages or correct polarity and magnitude to the two junctions of the
transistors, to operate it in the desired region.
49. What is meant by compensating techniques?
(MAY/JUNE-2006)
Use of temperature-sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors, thermistors, etc., which
provide compensating voltages and currents to maintain the operating point stable.
50. Why BJT needs temperature compensation against VBE Changes?
(NOV/DEC-2005)
ICBO increases with increase in temperature, IB reduces due to reduction in VBE, maintaining IC fairly
constant.

51. Why do you fix the operating point in the middle of the dc load line?
We fix the operating point in the middle of the dc load line the output signal is sinusoidal
waveform without any distortion, thus the point is the best operating point.
52. Write short notes on zero current drift in FET (APRIL/MAY-2008)
In JFET, the drain current varies with changes in the temperature due to two factors. One
factor increases drain current and other factor decreases drain current with increase in
temperature. Therefore, it is possible to design biasing circuit which compensates these tow
factors so that there is no change of drain current with temperature. Such biasing is called
biasing for zero current drift.
53. FET is an unipolar device-justify

FET operation depends only on the flow of majority carriers holes for P-channel FETs
and electrons for N-channel FET. Therefore they are called as unipolar devices.
54. Distinguish between FET and BJT
S.No
Parameter
BJT
FET
1
Control element
Current controlled device
Voltage controlled device
2
Device type
Bipolar devices
Uni-polar device
3.
Input resistance
Less
High
4.
Sensitivity
High
Less

UNIT II MIDBAND ANALYSIS OF SMALL SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS 1. Define

small signal equivalent circuit?
The analysis of a non-linear device is complx.signal that takes up a relatively small
percentage of an amplifiers operational range. With small input singles the transistor can
be replaced with small signal linear model. This Model is also called small signal
equivalent model.
2. Define transconductance?
The change in the drain current due to change in gate to source voltage can be determined

using the transconductance factor gm.

Id=gm VGS.
3. Define emitter bypass capacitor?
An emitter bypass capacitor CE is connected in parallel with the emitter resistance, RE to
provide a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal. If it is not inserted, the amplified
ac signal passing through RE will cause a voltage drop across it. This will reduce the
output voltage, reducing the gain of the amplifier.
4. Define coupling capacitor?
The coupling capacitor Cs couples the output of the amplifier to the load or to the next
stage of the amplifier. It blocks dc and passes only ac part of the amplified signal.
5. Define input resistance
The ratio of V1 to I1 is called input resistance Ri ,of the amplifier. Ri = V1 / I1
6. Define current gain
The ratio of output current to input current is called current gain,AI, of the amplifier. AI =
I2 / I1.
7. Define voltage gain
The ratio of output voltage to input voltage is called voltage gain,AV ,of the amplifier. AV
= V2 / V1
8. Define power gain
The ratio of signal power delivered to the load to the signal power at the input of the
amplifier is the power gain,AP, of the amplifier. AP = AV AI
9. Define voltage amplifier
The amplifier, in which voltage gain is more important that the power gain, is called a
voltage amplifier.
10. Define power amplifier
Power gain is more important than voltage gain is known as power amplifier.
Define benefits of h-parameter.
Real numbers at audio frequencies Easy to measure
Can be obtained from the transistor static characteristic curves Convenient to use in
circuit analysis and design.
Most of the transistor manufacturers specify the h-parameter.
State Millers Theorem.(NOV/DEC-2006),(APRIL/MAY-2008)
Millers theorem states that, the effect of resistance Z on the input circuit is a ratio of
input voltage Vi to the current I which flows from the input to the output. Millers
theorem states that, the effect of resistance Z on the output circuit is a ratio of output
voltage Vo to the current I which flows from the output to the input.
13. What are the techniques used to improve input impedance.
Using direct coupling (Darlington connection)
Using Bootstrap techniques

14. Define Darlington connection

Cascaded connection of two emitter followers is called Darlington
connection.
15. Define complementary Darlington transistor
Darlington pair with the exception that a PNP transistor drivers an NPN transistor
16. Why the Darlington connection is not possible for more number of stages?
In Darlington connection of two transistors, emitter of the first transistor is directly
connected to the base of the second transistor. Because of direct coupling dc output
n
current of the first stage is (1+hfe)Ib1. If Darlington connection for n stage is (1+hfe)
times Ib1. Due to very large amplification factor even tow stage Darlington connection
has large output current and output stage may have to be a power stage. As power
amplifiers are not used in the amplifier circuits it is not possible to use more than two
transistors in the Darlington connection.
17. Why bootstrapping technique is called so?
When AV 1, is called bootstrapping. The name arises from the fact that, if one end of the
resistor R3 changes in voltage, the other end of R3 moves through the same potential
difference; it is as if R3 is pulling itself up by its bootstraps.
18. What is the need for bootstrapped Darlington circuit?
Resistance between base and collector of transistor is given as 1/hob, which is of the order
of 2MK.to overcome this problem, same bootstrapping technique can be used with
Darlington circuit.
list the three basic configuration of FET
common source common drain Common gate.

Define common drain circuit?

In common drain amplifier circuit input is applied between gate and source and output is
taken between source and drain.
21. Define common source circuit?
In common source amplifier circuit input is applied between gate and source and output
is taken between drain and source.
22. Define common gate circuit?
In common drain amplifier circuit input is applied between source and gate output is
taken between drain and gate.
23. Define drain resistance?
The change in the drain source voltage due to change in drain current with constant VGS
can be determined using the drain resistance rd.
VDS=rd ID.

24. Define decibels

To compare two powers on a logarithmic scale rather than on a linear scale. The unit of
this logarithmic scale is called decibel (abbreviated dB)
Methods of coupling multistage amplifiers
RC coupling
Transformer coupling Direct coupling
Define RC coupling
The output signal of first stage is coupled to input of the next stage through coupling
capacitor and resistive load at the output terminal of first stage.
27. Define Transformer coupling
The output signal of first stage is coupled to input of the next stage through an impedance
matching transformer.
28. Define Direct coupling
The output signal of first stage is directly connected to the input of the next stage.
29. Define cascode?
The cascode amplifier consists of a common emitter amplifier stage in series with a
common base amplifier stage.
30. Define differential amplifier or difference amplifier?
An amplifier which amplifies the difference between the two input signals is called
differential amplifier.
31. Define differential gain?
The Ad is the gain with which differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two
input signals. Hence it is called differential gain of the amplifier.V0=Ad (V1-V2)
32. Define common mode gain?
The gain with which it amplifies the average level of the two input signals to produce the
output is called common mode gain AC.V0=AC (VC)&VC= (V1+V2)/2
Features of differential amplifier.
High differential voltage gain Low common mode gain

High CMRR
Two input terminals High input impedance Large bandwidth
Low offset voltages and currents Low output impedance
List the configuration of differential amplifiers.
Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier Dual input, unbalanced output

differential amplifier Single input, balanced output differential amplifier

Single input, unbalanced output differential amplifier
Define bisection theorem
A particular network which has mirror symmetry with respect to an imaginary line. If the
entire network is denoted as N then it can be divided into two half

networks N/2 about the line of symmetry is called bisection theorem or Bartletts bisection
theorem.
36. what is meant by CMRR of a differential amplifier?(APRIL/MAY2004),(NOV/DEC-2005),(MAY/JUNE-2006),(MAY/JUNE-2007),(DEC-2008)
The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed by a ratio
called common mode rejection ratio denoted as CMRR. It is defined as the ratio of the
differential voltage gain Ad to common mode voltage gain Ac
CMRR== Ad / Ac 37. Methods of improving CMRR
To improve the CMRR, the common mode gain Ac must be reduced. The common mode gain Ac
approaches zero as RE tends to infinity. This is because RE introduces a negative feedback in the
common mode operation which reduces the common mode gain Ac. Thus higher the value of RE,
lesser is the value of Ac and higher is the value of CMRR. The differential gain Ad is not
dependent on RE
RE cannot select high why?
Large RE needs higher biasing voltage to set the operating Q point of the transistor.
This increase the overall chip area.
What are the other methods to improve CMRR without RE?
Constant current bias method Current mirror circuit.
Define current mirror circuit?
The circuit in which the output current is forced to equal the input current is called as current
mirror circuit. In a current mirror circuit, the output current is the mirror image of input current.
List the advantage of current mirror circuit?
Provides very high emitter resistance RE.
Requires fewer components than the constant current bias. Simple to design
Easy to fabricate.
With properly matched transistors, collector current thermal stability is achieved.
Define active load
The current mirror circuit can be used as a collector load instead of RC. Such a load is called an
active load.
List the advantage of active load
provides very high ac resistance
provides high differential mode voltage gain Ad High
CMRR High
Application of differential amplifier

Limiter
Amplitude modulator.

UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF AMPLIFIERS

1. What is the Bandwidth of an amplifier? (May/June 2007)
Band width of an amplifier is defined as the difference between f1 and f2. Here f2 is in the high
frequency region and f1 is in the low frequency region. These two frequencies are also referred to as
the half power frequencies.
Give the significance of the coupling and bypass capacitor on bandwidth of amplifiers?
(Nov/Dec 2005)
At high and medium frequencies the coupling capacitors behave as short circuits. A t low frequency
the circuit gain is reduced. As the signal frequency decreases the capacitor reactance increase and
circuit gain continues to fall, reducing the output voltage.
How the rise time and band-width are interrelated? (Nov/Dec 2005)
Here,
Bw = FH FL
~ FH BW = 0.35/ tr
List out the applications of the optocouplers(Nov/Dec 2008)

It is used in the high voltage applications where the voltages of the input and output differ by several
thousand volts.
The response of the optocoupler is so small that they can be used to transmit data in megahertz.
Capable of wideband signal transmission.
How the frequency response of an amplifier be improved?
The frequency response can be improved by connecting the compensating network externally to the
system. Such Techniques are as follows
Dominant pole Compensation

Pole zero Compensation

6. What is the Dominant pole Compensation Technique?
In this Technique the dominant pole is introduced by adding a compensating network which is
nothing but the R-C network.
7. What is the Pole Zero Compensation technique?
In this method the transfer function is modified by adding the pole and zero with the help of
compensating network. The zero is added at high frequency and the pole is added at the low
frequency.
8. Define the Rise time of an amplifier? (May/June 2007)
It is defined as the time that indicates how fast the amplifiers can response to the discontinuity in the
input voltage. It is given by,
9. Define Sag in an amplifier? (May/June 2006)
The lower 3db frequency can be determined from the output by measuring the Sag.
The lower 3db frequency in terms of sag or tilt is given by
P= (t1 / R1C1) *100
What are the two compensating techniques used in frequency compensation?
Two types of compensating techniques are used, they are,
External compensation b. internal compensation
11. What is compensated op-amp?
Op-amp, which uses a capacitor internally for compensation, is called compensated op-amp. This opamp has a high gain stability and low bandwidth.
12. What are the methods used in external compensation technique?
Dominant-pole compensation
Pole-zero compensation
13. Define slew rate?
Slew rate can be defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage of op-amp with respect to
time.
14. How can the slew rate be made faster?
The slew rate can be made faster by having a high charging current or a small capacitance value.

15. What are the methods to improve slew rate?

The slew rate can be improved with higher closed-loop gain and dc supply voltage. But the
slew rate also varies with temperature. i.e., slew rate decreases with increase in temperature.
Another method for improving slew rate is, the rate at which voltage across the capacitor increases is
gain by, dVc/dt = I / C. where, I is the maximum current furnished by the op-amp to the capacitor C.
From the equation it is clear that for a higher slew rate, op-amp should
have either a higher current or a small value of capacitor.

16. How high pass RC circuit be used as a differentiator?

In some RC circuits, capacitor C stores some of the charges on each cycle ; ie it integrate or adds the
charges on each pulse until it become charged to some definite value. RC circuits used to integrate
pulses are called RC integrator circuit or low pass filter.
17. How low pass RC circuit be used as a integrator?
In some RC circuits, the wave form of the voltage across the capacitor is substantially the same as
that of the applied voltage, whereas the voltage across the resistor has a new waveform which is
depend upon how fast the applied voltage changes. Because of their ability to differentiate between
rates of change of the applied voltage, these circuits are called differentiator.
18. Give the effect of internal transistor capacitances
At high frequencies the internal transistor capacitances known as junction capacitances reduces the
circuit gain
19. Briefly explain why dominant pole high frequency compensation method used in amplifiers
(May/June 2007)
As the noise frequency components are outside the smaller bandwidth, The noise immunity
of the system improves.
Adjusting value of fd adequate phase margin and stability of the system is assured.
20. What are the advantages of pole zero compensation techniques?
As compared to dominant pole compensation technique there is improvement in bandwidth equal to
f1-f2.

UNIT IV LARGE SIGNAL AMPLFIERS

1. What are the classifications of a power amplifier?
The various classes of power amplifiers are as follows
Class A amplifier
Class B amplifier
Class C amplifier
Class AB amplifier
The position of the Q point on the load line decides the class of operation of the power amplifier.
2. Define the class A amplifier?
The power amplifier is said to be class b if the Q point and the input signal are selected such that the
output signal is obtained for the full cycle of the input signal.
What are the active devices used in power amplifiers? (Nov/Dec 2008)
CC or the emitter follower is used because of low output impedance
CE is used for impedance matching
Why Class A amplifier must not be operated under no signal condition?

Under no signal condition, the entire DC power input P DC=VCCICQ is dissipated as the heat. Thus
power dissipation is maximum under no signal condition. This may increase the transistor junction
temperature beyond safe value, which may lead to transistor damage. To avoid this, class A amplifier
must not be operated under no signal condition.
What is the classification of Class A amplifier?
Directly coupled
Transformer coupled

What are the advantages of directly coupled power amplifier?

The circuit is simple to design and implement
The load is connected directly to the collector circuit .Hence the output transformer is not necessary.
What are the disadvantages of the directly coupled power amplifier?
Power dissipation is more
The output impedance is high
The efficiency is high due to large power dissipation
List any two advantages of the transformer coupled class A power amplifier?
(Nov/Dec 2006)
Efficiency of the operation is high compared to directly coupled amplifier.
Impedance matching required for maximum power transfer is possible.
What is heat sink? Give its advantages? (APRIL/MAY-2008)
A heat sink is a mechanical device which is connected or press fit to the case of the transistor that
provides a large surface area, to dissipate the developed heat. The heat sink carries the heat to the
surroundings.
Advantages:
The temperature of the case gets lowered
The power handling capacity of the transistors can approach the rated maximum value.
Why the efficiency of the Class A resistive loaded power amplifier is less than the transformer
coupled counterpart? (May/June 2006)
This is because power dissipation is large in the transformer coupled counterpart.
What is the conversion efficiency in power amplifiers? (May/June 2006)
The efficiency of an amplifiers represent the amount of ac power delivered or transferred to the load
from the dc source ie. Accepting dc power input.
12. Define the class C operation? (May/June 2007)
The power amplifier is said to be class b if the Q point and the input signal are selected such that the
output signal is obtained for less than half cycle for the full cycle of the input signal. For this
operation Q-point is to be shifted below x-axis.
13. Which power amplifier gives minimum distortion? Why?(Nov/Dec 2005)

Class A amplifier gives minimum distortion because output is obtained for the entire cycle of the
input signal.

14. What is crossover distortion in a power amplifier and how to eliminate it?
(MAY/JUNE-2007)(APRIL/MAY-2003)
For making transistor ON, it is necessary that VBE voltage must exceed 0.7V. Due to this, in class B
amplifier while crossing over from one half cycle to other, as long as input is below 0.7V, none of the
transistor is ON and output is Zero. Due to this, there is distortion in the output, which is called the
cross over distortion. To overcome this distortion, a small forward bias is kept applied to the
transistors so that when input is zero, this additional forward bias can make the transistor ON
immediately elimination cross over distortion.
15. Compare the efficiency of class A, B, C, AB (Nov/Dec 2007)
CLASS
A
B
C
AB
Efficiency
Poor,25%
Better,78.5%
Higher than
Higher than
to 50%
78.5% but
A but less

less than 100%

than B
16. What is class AB operation?
The power amplifier is said to be class AB if the Q point and the input signal are selected such that
the output signal is obtained for more than 180 but less than 360 for the full input signal. For this
operation Q-point is above x-axis but below the midpoint of the load line.
What are the advantages of heat sink?(Nov/Dec 2006)
Power handling capacity of the transistors can approach the rated maximum value.
It causes the temperature of the case to be lowered.
Define Push pull Class B amplifier?
In the Push pull Class B amplifier both the transistors used are of same type ie either n-p-n or p-n-p.It
requires two transformers as follows
Driver transformer or input transformer
Output transformer
Explain Complementary symmetry class B amplifier?
This amplifier circuit uses one n-p-n and the other p-n-p transistor instead of same type of transistors.

It is the transformer less circuit.

20. Mention two conditions to be satisfied by a complementary symmetry power stage? (May/June
2006)

The Common Collector configuration is used tom match the output impedance for maximum power
transfer
The voltage feedback is to be used to reduce the output impedance for matching.
What are the disadvantages in Complementary symmetry class B amplifier?
The circuit needs two separate voltage supplies.
The output is distorted by cross over distortion.
What is the configuration used in complementary symmetry power amplifier? How does it
help?
The configuration used n complementary symmetry power amplifier is common collector. This
configuration has lowest output impedance due to which impedance matching for the low impedance
loads like loudspeaker is easily possible.
Define thermal resistance in the context of power amplifier?
The temperature rise of a junction is proportional to the power dissipation. The constant of
proportionality between the two is called thermal resistance. It is defined as the temperature rise per
unit watt of heat dissipation.
T2-T1
0
= C/W Pd
Define conversion efficiency of a power amplifier. What is its value for class C power amplifier?
(MAY/JUNE-2006) (MAY/JUNE-2007)
The ratio of AC power delivered to the load to the DC power input is called conversion
efficiency of a power amplifier.
% conversion efficiency=PAC/PDCX100
For class C power amplifiers, the conversion efficiency is almost 100%
What is meant by harmonic distortion or non linear distortion? (APRIL/MAY-2004)
At the output of power amplifiers, along with the fundamental frequency (f) component,
additional frequency components are also present whose frequencies are integral multiples of
fundamental frequency such as 2f, 3f. . These are called harmonics. The output gets distorted due
to these components. This is called the harmonic distortion.
Define voltage amplifier? (NOV/DEC-2008)
The system consists of many stages connected in cascade. Hence basically it is a multistage
amplifier. The input is sound signal of a human speaker and the output is given to the loud speaker
which is an amplified input signal. The input and the intermediate stages are small signal amplifiers.
The sufficient voltage gain is obtained by all the intermediate stages. Hence these stages are called
voltage amplifiers.
List the features of large signal amplifiers
input signal level or amplitude of a power amplifier is large output of power amplifier has large
current and voltage swings h parameter not used here

low output impedance large size

large power dissipation rating
Define class C amplifier?
The power amplifier is said to be class B amplifier if the Q-point and the input signal are
selected, such that the output signal is obtained only for one half cycle for a full input cycle. The
position of the Q-point is shifted on X-axis i.e. transistor is biased to cut-off.

List the application of Class C amplifier

tuned circuit
radio frequency circuit mixer
converter
radio receivers
Wireless communication.
Define class D amplifier?
The amplifier consists of two complementary symmetry transistors driving a load RL. This
means one transistor in PNP and other is NPN.Thus entire power input is available to the load. Hence
efficiency of class D amplifier is almost 100%.
31. List the advantages and disadvantages of directly coupled class A amplifier?
Advantage:
Circuit simple
Output transformer is not necessary Circuit cheaper
Less number of components required as load is directly coupled
Disadvantage:
Load resistance is directly connected in collector and carries the quiescent collector current. This
causes considerable wastage of power.
Power dissipation is more. Hence power dissipation arrangements like heat sink are essential
The output impedance is high hence circuit cannot be used for low impedance loads, such as
loudspeakers
The efficiency is very poor, due to large power dissipation
List the advantages and disadvantages of transformer coupled class A amplifier?
Advantage:
Efficiency higher than directly coupled The Dc bias current flows through load Impedance matching
required

Disadvantage:
The circuit is complicated to design. The circuit bulkier, heavier and costlier

Frequency response of the circuit is poor.

Define frequency distortion?
The change in gain of the amplifier with respect to the frequency is called frequency distortion. The
frequency distortion is not significant in AF power amplifiers.

34. List the advantages and disadvantages of push pull class B amplifier?
Advantage:
Efficiency higher than class A
No input signal, power dissipation is zero Reduce harmonic distortion
The Dc bias current flows opposite direction.
Ripple present in supply voltage also get eliminated
Impedance matching possible Disadvantage:
Two center tap transformers are necessary The circuit bulkier, heavier and costlier Frequency
response of the circuit is poor.
List the advantages and disadvantages of complementary symmetry B amplifier?
Advantage:
Transformerless,its weight, size and cost are less Due to CC impedance matching possible
Frequency response improves

Disadvantage:
The circuit needs two separate voltage supplies The output is distorted to cross over distortion.

UNIT-V RECTIFIERS AND POWER SUPPLIES

1. Define rectifiers?
A rectifier is a device which converts a.c. voltage to pulsating d.c. voltage, using one or more p-n
junction diode.
Write down the important characteristics of a rectifier circuit?
Waveform of the load current.
Regulation of the output voltage
Rectifier efficiency
Peak value of current in the rectifier circuit.
Peak value of voltage across the rectifier element in the reverse direction (PIV)
Ripple factor
Write down the various rectifiers circuits?
half wave rectifier
full wave rectifier
bridge rectifier
Define ripple factor?
The output of the rectifier is of pulsating d.c. type. The amount of a.c.content in the output can be
mathematically expressed by a factor called ripple factor.
Mathematically it is defined as the ratio of R.M.S. value of the a.c.component in the output to the
average or d.c.component present in the output.
R.M.S value of a.c.component of output
Ripple factor =
Average or d.c. component of output
5. Define half wave rectifier?
In half wave rectifier, rectifying element conducts only during half cycle of input a.c.supply. The
negative half cycles of a.c.supply are eliminated from the output.
6. Define transformer utilization factor ( T.U.F)
The factor which indicates how much is the utilization of the transformer in the circuit is called
transformer utilization factor (T.U.F)
The T.U.F. is defined as the radio of d.c.power delivered to the load to the a.c.power rating of the
transformer. While calculating the a.c.power rating, it is necessary to consider r.m.s.value of a.c.
voltage and current.
The T.U.F. for half wave rectifier can be obtained as, A.C. power rating of transformer = E RMS IRMS

Write down the disadvantages of half wave rectifier circuit?

The ripple factor of half wave rectifier circuit which is quite high. The output contains lot of

varying components.
The maximum theoretical rectification efficiency is found to be 40%.
The circuit has low transformer utilization factor, showing that the transformer is not fully utilized.
The d.c.current is flowing through the secondary winding of the transformer which may cause dc
saturation of the core of the transformer. To minimize the saturation, transformer sizes have to be
increased accordingly. This increases the cost.
8.Define rectifier efficiency?
The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output d.c. power to input a.c.power. = Pdc / Pac
9. Explain about full wave rectifier circuit?
The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half cycles of input a.c.supply. In
order to rectify both half cycles of a.c.input, two diodes are used in this circuit.

The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center tap transformer. The a.c.voltage
applied through a suitable power transformer with proper turns ratio.
10. Comparison of full wave and half wave rectifier circuit?
S.No
Parameter
Half wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier

1.
D.C.load current
Less with compare to FWR
Twice to that in HWR

2
D.C. load voltage
Less with compare to FWR
Twice that in HWR

3
Efficiency
less
twice

4.
ripple factor

high
less

5
DC power output
Less compare to FWR
Four times larger

Write down the uses of bridge rectifier circuit?

A power rectifier circuit for converting ac power to dc power
A rectifying system in rectifier type ac meters, such as ac voltmeter, in which the ac voltage under
measurement is first converted inti dc and measured with conventional meter. In this system, the
rectifying elements are either copper oxide type or selenium type.
Write down the advantages and disadvantages of bridge rectifiers?
Advantages:
The current in both the primary and secondary of the power transformer flows for the entire cycle
and hence for a given power output, power transformer of a small size and less cost may cost may
be used.
No center tap is required.
It reduces the losses and danger of saturation.
Large powers are required.
As two diodes conduct in series in each half cycle, inverse voltage appearing across diodes gets shared.
Hence the circuit can be used for high voltage applications. Such a peak reverse voltage appearing
across diode is called peak

inverse voltage rating (PIV) of diode. Disadvantages:

Which uses four diodes as compare to two diodes in normal full wave rectifier.
This gives same voltage drop.
It reduces the output voltage.
Define filter
A capacitor in a power supply used to reduce the variation of the output voltage from a
rectifier. A type of circuit that passes or blocks certain frequencies to the exclusion of all others.
Define choke?
Ideally, inductance acts as short circuit for d.c., it cannot be placed in shunt arm across
the load, otherwise the d.c.will be shorted. Hence, in a filter circuit, the inductance is always
connected in series with the load. The inductance used in filter circuits is also called choke.
Write two types of filter circuits
Capacitor input filter
Choke input filter

Define surge current?

In a capacitor input filter the forward resistance of diodes is very small hence a large current flows
through the two forward biased diodes D1 and D2 instantaneously. This is called surge current.
If the instant of closing the switch is such that the secondary voltage is at its peak, the surge current
is also at its maximum. Such a peak surge current can destroy the diodes.
17. Give the comparison between capacitor input and LC filter
S.No
Capacitor input filter
LC filter
1.
The first element of the filter as locked
The first element of the filter as locked from
from rectifier side is capacitor.
rectifier side is inductor
2.
The surge current is possible which is
The surge current through diodes is absent.
limited by using surge limiting resistor.
3.
Possibility of large back e.m.f. is absent
Possibility of large back e.m.f. which is
hence bleeder resistance is not required.
harmful to diodes and capacitor. To avoid this,
bleeder resistance is used.
4.
The ripple voltage is a function of load
The ripple voltage is not dependent on the
current i.e. loads resistance.
load.
5.
The regulation is poor
The regulation is better
6.
Not suitable for variable loads
Suitable for variable loads
7.
The d.c. output voltage is higher as the
The d.c.output voltage is low compared to
capacitor always charges to peak value
capacitor.
8.
Normally used for single phase, high
Used is polyphase rectifier systems employing
voltage, fixed load applications.

mercury are rectifiers.

18. Define voltage multipliers
The voltage multipliers are used to step up the output voltage level to two, three or more times the
peak voltage of the input. Such circuits use clamping action. Such circuits can be used in bridge
rectifiers to increase the level of output d.c. voltage.
Write various voltage multiplier circuits
Voltage doublers
Voltage Tripler
Voltage quadrapler
Explain about half wave doubler
If load is connected to the circuit, the voltage across C2 drops during positive half cycle and is
again recharged to 2VM in the next negative half cycle. As capacitor charges in alternate half cycle,
the circuit is called half wave doubler circuit.
21. Write down the advantages, applications and limitations of half wave doublers.
Advantages:
It uses the clamping action to increase peak rectified voltage without increasing the rating of the
input transformer.
It is economical
The centre tap transformer is also not required in the multiplier circuit Applications:
It is used in the high voltage low current applications
In television receivers
In cathode ray tube (CRT) anode voltages.
Limitations:
More number of diodes and capacitor are added to a chain
Low output voltage gain.
POWER SUPPLIES:
22. Define unregulated power supply?
The d.c output voltage increases with increasing in the input voltage whereas it decreases with
increase in load current. Since the D.C. output voltage does not remain constant with variations in
the input voltage or load current, this type of power supply is called unregulated power supply.

23. Write-down the factors affecting the load voltage.

The various factors which affect the load voltage in a power supply are,
The load current ( IL)
The line voltage
The temperature
24. Define load regulation?
The load regulation is the change in the regulated output voltage when the load current is
changed from minimum (no load) to maximum (full load).
The load regulation is denoted as LR and mathematically expressed as, LR = VNL - VFL
Where VFL Load voltage with no load current VNL- Load voltage with full load current

Write down the various performance parameters of power supplies?

Load regulation (LR)
Line regulation or source regulation (SR)
Output resistance (ROUT)
Voltage stability factor ( SV)
Temperature stability factor (ST)
Ripple rejection (RR)
Total change in output voltage.
Give the linear electronic voltage regulator components.
The basic voltage regulator in its simplest form consists of,
Voltage reference, VR
Error amplifier
Feedback network
Active series or shunt control element
What are the types of voltage regulators?
There are two types of voltage regulators available namely,
Shunt voltage regulator
Series voltage regulator.
28. Define derating factor
The reduction in maximum power dissipation is according to a factor called factor. This is called
power derating of a zener.
0
The derating factor is expressed as mW / C and hence derated power dissipation can be obtained
as,
PD(Derated) = PD(MAX) ( Derating factor) t
Write down the limitations of zener diode shunt regulators.
The maximum load current that can be supplied is limited to ( IZmax IZmin)
A large amount of power is wasted.
The stability factor and output resistance are not very low, as desired for regulator
circuit.

Define linear regulators.

The regulator in a power supply is an important unit which keeps the output d.c. voltage constant
under the variable load and variable input conditions. The most of the regulators used in
conventional power supplies are series voltage regulators which are called linear regulators.
Write down the need of switched mode power supply.
The linear power supply has following limitations:
The required input step down transformer is bulky and expensive.
Due to low line frequency (50Hz) large values of filter capacitors are required.
The efficiency is very low.
Input must be greater than the output voltage.
More power is dissipation in the series pass transistor.
For higher input voltages, efficiency decreases.

The need for dual supply is not economical and feasible to achieve with the help of linear
regulators.
Write down the types of switching regulators.
There are three basic configurations of the switching regulators:
Step down or bulk switching regulator
Step up or boost switching regulator
Inverting type switching regulator
Write down the advantages and disadvantages of step down switching regulator.
Advantages:
Higher efficiency
Simple to design
Low ripple content
Small output filter
Low switch stress
Large tolerance
Low cost, size and weight.
Disadvantages:
Single output
No isolation between input and output
High input ripple current
The input voltage must be always slightly greater than output
Slow transient response compared to linear regulator.
What is a bleeder resistor?
In case of choke filter, when RL is increased, IDC decreases but I2M remains same. At a certain
stage, it is possible that IDC becomes less than I2m and for a certain period, the net current in the
circuit may become zero. When current is interrupted, it develops large back e.m.f. which may
damage diodes and capacitor. To avoid this, a resistance is connected across the load which
draws a minimum current through choke to avoid zero current condition. This resistance is called
a bleeder resistance RB. It is so selected that it draws a minimum current through choke.
Practically RB is selected as 900L.
35. Where is SMPS used?

The SMPS is used where perfect D.C. voltage is required for the power functioning of the
circuit. It is used in computers, printers, inverters, stabilizers etc.
36. What is peak inverse voltage ? What is its value for the HWR?
The peak inverse voltage is the peak voltage across the diode in the reverse direction ie when the
diode reverse biased .In HWR the diode is reverse biased and hence the maximum value of
voltage that can exist across the diode is nothing but Em.
37. Define the ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier? (May/June 2007) For half
wave:
2
Ripple factor = [(Im) / (Im / )] 1 = 1.4674
= 1.211
For full wave:
Ripple factor = Im / 2
=0.48
38. Define voltage regulation (April/May 2008)
Voltage regulation is defined as the factor which tells about the change in the d.c output voltage
as the load changes from no load to full load condition.
What are the advantages of the bridge rectifier over the center tapped rectifier? (May/June
2006)
No center tap is required for the transformer secondary. Hence wherever possible the ac voltage
can be directly applied to the bridge.
Net d.c component flowing is zero which reduces the losses and danger of saturation.
The circuit can be used for high voltage applications.
Name the types of linear voltage regulator
Transistor Series regulator
Transistor Shunt regulator
Zener regulator
What are the disadvantages of linear regulator?
Input step down transformer is bulky and expensive.
Due to low frequency large value of filter capacitor is required.
Efficiency is low
More power dissipation.
What are the components of SMPS?
voltage source
switching transistor
pulse generator
filter
What are the types of SMPS?
step down switching regulator
step up switching regulator
inverting switching regulator
44. What are series and shunt regulators?

If the control element is connected in series with the load, the circuit is said to be series regulator
If the control element is connected in shunt with the load, the circuit is said to be shunt regulator.